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Organizational behavior.

• Neal M. Ashkanasy Neal M. Ashkanasy University of Queensland
•  and  Alana D. Dorris Alana D. Dorris University of Queensland
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.23
• Published online: 29 March 2017

Organizational behavior (OB) is a discipline that includes principles from psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Its focus is on understanding how people behave in organizational work environments. Broadly speaking, OB covers three main levels of analysis: micro (individuals), meso (groups), and macro (the organization). Topics at the micro level include managing the diverse workforce; effects of individual differences in attitudes; job satisfaction and engagement, including their implications for performance and management; personality, including the effects of different cultures; perception and its effects on decision-making; employee values; emotions, including emotional intelligence, emotional labor, and the effects of positive and negative affect on decision-making and creativity (including common biases and errors in decision-making); and motivation, including the effects of rewards and goal-setting and implications for management. Topics at the meso level of analysis include group decision-making; managing work teams for optimum performance (including maximizing team performance and communication); managing team conflict (including the effects of task and relationship conflict on team effectiveness); team climate and group emotional tone; power, organizational politics, and ethical decision-making; and leadership, including leadership development and leadership effectiveness. At the organizational level, topics include organizational design and its effect on organizational performance; affective events theory and the physical environment; organizational culture and climate; and organizational change.

• organizational psychology
• organizational sociology
• organizational anthropology

Introduction

Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of how people behave in organizational work environments. More specifically, Robbins, Judge, Millett, and Boyle ( 2014 , p. 8) describe it as “[a] field of study that investigates the impact that individual groups and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purposes of applying such knowledge towards improving an organization’s effectiveness.” The OB field looks at the specific context of the work environment in terms of human attitudes, cognition, and behavior, and it embodies contributions from psychology, social psychology, sociology, and anthropology. The field is also rapidly evolving because of the demands of today’s fast-paced world, where technology has given rise to work-from-home employees, globalization, and an ageing workforce. Thus, while managers and OB researchers seek to help employees find a work-life balance, improve ethical behavior (Ardichivili, Mitchell, & Jondle, 2009 ), customer service, and people skills (see, e.g., Brady & Cronin, 2001 ), they must simultaneously deal with issues such as workforce diversity, work-life balance, and cultural differences.

The most widely accepted model of OB consists of three interrelated levels: (1) micro (the individual level), (2) meso (the group level), and (3) macro (the organizational level). The behavioral sciences that make up the OB field contribute an element to each of these levels. In particular, OB deals with the interactions that take place among the three levels and, in turn, addresses how to improve performance of the organization as a whole.

In order to study OB and apply it to the workplace, it is first necessary to understand its end goal. In particular, if the goal is organizational effectiveness, then these questions arise: What can be done to make an organization more effective? And what determines organizational effectiveness? To answer these questions, dependent variables that include attitudes and behaviors such as productivity, job satisfaction, job performance, turnover intentions, withdrawal, motivation, and workplace deviance are introduced. Moreover, each level—micro, meso, and macro—has implications for guiding managers in their efforts to create a healthier work climate to enable increased organizational performance that includes higher sales, profits, and return on investment (ROE).

The Micro (Individual) Level of Analysis

The micro or individual level of analysis has its roots in social and organizational psychology. In this article, six central topics are identified and discussed: (1) diversity; (2) attitudes and job satisfaction; (3) personality and values; (4) emotions and moods; (5) perception and individual decision-making; and (6) motivation.

An obvious but oft-forgotten element at the individual level of OB is the diverse workforce. It is easy to recognize how different each employee is in terms of personal characteristics like age, skin color, nationality, ethnicity, and gender. Other, less biological characteristics include tenure, religion, sexual orientation, and gender identity. In the Australian context, while the Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act of 1992 helped to increase participation of people with disabilities working in organizations, discrimination and exclusion still continue to inhibit equality (Feather & Boeckmann, 2007 ). In Western societies like Australia and the United States, however, antidiscrimination legislation is now addressing issues associated with an ageing workforce.

In terms of gender, there continues to be significant discrimination against female employees. Males have traditionally had much higher participation in the workforce, with only a significant increase in the female workforce beginning in the mid-1980s. Additionally, according to Ostroff and Atwater’s ( 2003 ) study of engineering managers, female managers earn a significantly lower salary than their male counterparts, especially when they are supervising mostly other females.

Job Satisfaction and Job Engagement

Job satisfaction is an attitudinal variable that comes about when an employee evaluates all the components of her or his job, which include affective, cognitive, and behavioral aspects (Weiss, 2002 ). Increased job satisfaction is associated with increased job performance, organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), and reduced turnover intentions (Wilkin, 2012 ). Moreover, traditional workers nowadays are frequently replaced by contingent workers in order to reduce costs and work in a nonsystematic manner. According to Wilkin’s ( 2012 ) findings, however, contingent workers as a group are less satisfied with their jobs than permanent employees are.

Job engagement concerns the degree of involvement that an employee experiences on the job (Kahn, 1990 ). It describes the degree to which an employee identifies with their job and considers their performance in that job important; it also determines that employee’s level of participation within their workplace. Britt, Dickinson, Greene-Shortridge, and McKibbin ( 2007 ) describe the two extremes of job satisfaction and employee engagement: a feeling of responsibility and commitment to superior job performance versus a feeling of disengagement leading to the employee wanting to withdraw or disconnect from work. The first scenario is also related to organizational commitment, the level of identification an employee has with an organization and its goals. Employees with high organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and employee engagement tend to perceive that their organization values their contribution and contributes to their wellbeing.

Personality represents a person’s enduring traits. The key here is the concept of enduring . The most widely adopted model of personality is the so-called Big Five (Costa & McCrae, 1992 ): extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness. Employees high in conscientiousness tend to have higher levels of job knowledge, probably because they invest more into learning about their role. Those higher in emotional stability tend to have higher levels of job satisfaction and lower levels of stress, most likely because of their positive and opportunistic outlooks. Agreeableness, similarly, is associated with being better liked and may lead to higher employee performance and decreased levels of deviant behavior.

Although the personality traits in the Big Five have been shown to relate to organizational behavior, organizational performance, career success (Judge, Higgins, Thoresen, & Barrick, 2006 ), and other personality traits are also relevant to the field. Examples include positive self-evaluation, self-monitoring (the degree to which an individual is aware of comparisons with others), Machiavellianism (the degree to which a person is practical, maintains emotional distance, and believes the end will justify the means), narcissism (having a grandiose sense of self-importance and entitlement), risk-taking, proactive personality, and type A personality. In particular, those who like themselves and are grounded in their belief that they are capable human beings are more likely to perform better because they have fewer self-doubts that may impede goal achievements. Individuals high in Machiavellianism may need a certain environment in order to succeed, such as a job that requires negotiation skills and offers significant rewards, although their inclination to engage in political behavior can sometimes limit their potential. Employees who are high on narcissism may wreak organizational havoc by manipulating subordinates and harming the overall business because of their over-inflated perceptions of self. Higher levels of self-monitoring often lead to better performance but they may cause lower commitment to the organization. Risk-taking can be positive or negative; it may be great for someone who thrives on rapid decision-making, but it may prove stressful for someone who likes to weigh pros and cons carefully before making decisions. Type A individuals may achieve high performance but may risk doing so in a way that causes stress and conflict. Proactive personality, on the other hand, is usually associated with positive organizational performance.

Employee Values

Personal value systems are behind each employee’s attitudes and personality. Each employee enters an organization with an already established set of beliefs about what should be and what should not be. Today, researchers realize that personality and values are linked to organizations and organizational behavior. Years ago, only personality’s relation to organizations was of concern, but now managers are more interested in an employee’s flexibility to adapt to organizational change and to remain high in organizational commitment. Holland’s ( 1973 ) theory of personality-job fit describes six personality types (realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising, and artistic) and theorizes that job satisfaction and turnover are determined by how well a person matches her or his personality to a job. In addition to person-job (P-J) fit, researchers have also argued for person-organization (P-O) fit, whereby employees desire to be a part of and are selected by an organization that matches their values. The Big Five would suggest, for example, that extraverted employees would desire to be in team environments; agreeable people would align well with supportive organizational cultures rather than more aggressive ones; and people high on openness would fit better in organizations that emphasize creativity and innovation (Anderson, Spataro, & Flynn, 2008 ).

Individual Differences, Affect, and Emotion

Personality predisposes people to have certain moods (feelings that tend to be less intense but longer lasting than emotions) and emotions (intense feelings directed at someone or something). In particular, personalities with extraversion and emotional stability partially determine an individual predisposition to experience emotion more or less intensely.

Affect is also related as describing the positive and negative feelings that people experience (Ashkanasy, 2003 ). Moreover, emotions, mood, and affect interrelate; a bad mood, for instance, can lead individuals to experience a negative emotion. Emotions are action-oriented while moods tend to be more cognitive. This is because emotions are caused by a specific event that might only last a few seconds, while moods are general and can last for hours or even days. One of the sources of emotions is personality. Dispositional or trait affects correlate, on the one hand, with personality and are what make an individual more likely to respond to a situation in a predictable way (Watson & Tellegen, 1985 ). Moreover, like personality, affective traits have proven to be stable over time and across settings (Diener, Larsen, Levine, & Emmons, 1985 ; Watson, 1988 ; Watson & Tellegen, 1985 ; Watson & Walker, 1996 ). State affect, on the other hand, is similar to mood and represents how an individual feels in the moment.

The Role of Affect in Organizational Behavior

For many years, affect and emotions were ignored in the field of OB despite being fundamental factors underlying employee behavior (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995 ). OB researchers traditionally focused on solely decreasing the effects of strong negative emotions that were seen to impede individual, group, and organizational level productivity. More recent theories of OB focus, however, on affect, which is seen to have positive, as well as negative, effects on behavior, described by Barsade, Brief, and Spataro ( 2003 , p. 3) as the “affective revolution.” In particular, scholars now understand that emotions can be measured objectively and be observed through nonverbal displays such as facial expression and gestures, verbal displays, fMRI, and hormone levels (Ashkanasy, 2003 ; Rashotte, 2002 ).

Fritz, Sonnentag, Spector, and McInroe ( 2010 ) focus on the importance of stress recovery in affective experiences. In fact, an individual employee’s affective state is critical to OB, and today more attention is being focused on discrete affective states. Emotions like fear and sadness may be related to counterproductive work behaviors (Judge et al., 2006 ). Stress recovery is another factor that is essential for more positive moods leading to positive organizational outcomes. In a study, Fritz et al. ( 2010 ) looked at levels of psychological detachment of employees on weekends away from the workplace and how it was associated with higher wellbeing and affect.

Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Labor

Ashkanasy and Daus ( 2002 ) suggest that emotional intelligence is distinct but positively related to other types of intelligence like IQ. It is defined by Mayer and Salovey ( 1997 ) as the ability to perceive, assimilate, understand, and manage emotion in the self and others. As such, it is an individual difference and develops over a lifetime, but it can be improved with training. Boyatzis and McKee ( 2005 ) describe emotional intelligence further as a form of adaptive resilience, insofar as employees high in emotional intelligence tend to engage in positive coping mechanisms and take a generally positive outlook toward challenging work situations.

Emotional labor occurs when an employee expresses her or his emotions in a way that is consistent with an organization’s display rules, and usually means that the employee engages in either surface or deep acting (Hochschild, 1983 ). This is because the emotions an employee is expressing as part of their role at work may be different from the emotions they are actually feeling (Ozcelik, 2013 ). Emotional labor has implications for an employee’s mental and physical health and wellbeing. Moreover, because of the discrepancy between felt emotions (how an employee actually feels) and displayed emotions or surface acting (what the organization requires the employee to emotionally display), surface acting has been linked to negative organizational outcomes such as heightened emotional exhaustion and reduced commitment (Erickson & Wharton, 1997 ; Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002 ; Grandey, 2003 ; Groth, Hennig-Thurau, & Walsh, 2009 ).

Affect and Organizational Decision-Making

Ashkanasy and Ashton-James ( 2008 ) make the case that the moods and emotions managers experience in response to positive or negative workplace situations affect outcomes and behavior not only at the individual level, but also in terms of strategic decision-making processes at the organizational level. These authors focus on affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996 ), which holds that organizational events trigger affective responses in organizational members, which in turn affect organizational attitudes, cognition, and behavior.

Perceptions and Behavior

Like personality, emotions, moods, and attitudes, perceptions also influence employees’ behaviors in the workplace. Perception is the way in which people organize and interpret sensory cues in order to give meaning to their surroundings. It can be influenced by time, work setting, social setting, other contextual factors such as time of day, time of year, temperature, a target’s clothing or appearance, as well as personal trait dispositions, attitudes, and value systems. In fact, a person’s behavior is based on her or his perception of reality—not necessarily the same as actual reality. Perception greatly influences individual decision-making because individuals base their behaviors on their perceptions of reality. In this regard, attribution theory (Martinko, 1995 ) outlines how individuals judge others and is our attempt to conclude whether a person’s behavior is internally or externally caused.

Decision-Making and the Role of Perception

Decision-making occurs as a reaction to a problem when the individual perceives there to be discrepancy between the current state of affairs and the state s/he desires. As such, decisions are the choices individuals make from a set of alternative courses of action. Each individual interprets information in her or his own way and decides which information is relevant to weigh pros and cons of each decision and its alternatives to come to her or his perception of the best outcome. In other words, each of our unique perceptual processes influences the final outcome (Janis & Mann, 1977 ).

Common Biases in Decision-Making

Although there is no perfect model for approaching decision-making, there are nonetheless many biases that individuals can make themselves aware of in order to maximize their outcomes. First, overconfidence bias is an inclination to overestimate the correctness of a decision. Those most likely to commit this error tend to be people with weak intellectual and interpersonal abilities. Anchoring bias occurs when individuals focus on the first information they receive, failing to adjust for information received subsequently. Marketers tend to use anchors in order to make impressions on clients quickly and project their brand names. Confirmation bias occurs when individuals only use facts that support their decisions while discounting all contrary views. Lastly, availability bias occurs when individuals base their judgments on information readily available. For example, a manager might rate an employee on a performance appraisal based on behavior in the past few days, rather than the past six months or year.

Errors in Decision-Making

Other errors in decision-making include hindsight bias and escalation of commitment . Hindsight bias is a tendency to believe, incorrectly, after an outcome of an event has already happened, that the decision-maker would have accurately predicted that same outcome. Furthermore, this bias, despite its prevalence, is especially insidious because it inhibits the ability to learn from the past and take responsibility for mistakes. Escalation of commitment is an inclination to continue with a chosen course of action instead of listening to negative feedback regarding that choice. When individuals feel responsible for their actions and those consequences, they escalate commitment probably because they have invested so much into making that particular decision. One solution to escalating commitment is to seek a source of clear, less distorted feedback (Staw, 1981 ).

The last but certainly not least important individual level topic is motivation. Like each of the topics discussed so far, a worker’s motivation is also influenced by individual differences and situational context. Motivation can be defined as the processes that explain a person’s intensity, direction, and persistence toward reaching a goal. Work motivation has often been viewed as the set of energetic forces that determine the form, direction, intensity, and duration of behavior (Latham & Pinder, 2005 ). Motivation can be further described as the persistence toward a goal. In fact many non-academics would probably describe it as the extent to which a person wants and tries to do well at a particular task (Mitchell, 1982 ).

Early theories of motivation began with Maslow’s ( 1943 ) hierarchy of needs theory, which holds that each person has five needs in hierarchical order: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. These constitute the “lower-order” needs, while social and esteem needs are “higher-order” needs. Self-esteem for instance underlies motivation from the time of childhood. Another early theory is McGregor’s ( 1960 ) X-Y theory of motivation: Theory X is the concept whereby individuals must be pushed to work; and theory Y is positive, embodying the assumption that employees naturally like work and responsibility and can exercise self-direction.

Herzberg subsequently proposed the “two-factor theory” that attitude toward work can determine whether an employee succeeds or fails. Herzberg ( 1966 ) relates intrinsic factors, like advancement in a job, recognition, praise, and responsibility to increased job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors like the organizational climate, relationship with supervisor, and salary relate to job dissatisfaction. In other words, the hygiene factors are associated with the work context while the motivators are associated with the intrinsic factors associated with job motivation.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Although traditional theories of motivation still appear in OB textbooks, there is unfortunately little empirical data to support their validity. More contemporary theories of motivation, with more acceptable research validity, include self-determination theory , which holds that people prefer to have control over their actions. If a task an individual enjoyed now feels like a chore, then this will undermine motivation. Higher self-determined motivation (or intrinsically determined motivation) is correlated with increased wellbeing, job satisfaction, commitment, and decreased burnout and turnover intent. In this regard, Fernet, Gagne, and Austin ( 2010 ) found that work motivation relates to reactions to interpersonal relationships at work and organizational burnout. Thus, by supporting work self-determination, managers can help facilitate adaptive employee organizational behaviors while decreasing turnover intention (Richer, Blanchard, & Vallerand, 2002 ).

Core self-evaluation (CSE) theory is a relatively new concept that relates to self-confidence in general, such that people with higher CSE tend to be more committed to goals (Bono & Colbert, 2005 ). These core self-evaluations also extend to interpersonal relationships, as well as employee creativity. Employees with higher CSE are more likely to trust coworkers, which may also contribute to increased motivation for goal attainment (Johnson, Kristof-Brown, van Vianen, de Pater, & Klein, 2003 ). In general, employees with positive CSE tend to be more intrinsically motivated, thus additionally playing a role in increasing employee creativity (Judge, Bono, Erez, & Locke, 2005 ). Finally, according to research by Amabile ( 1996 ), intrinsic motivation or self-determined goal attainment is critical in facilitating employee creativity.

Goal-Setting and Conservation of Resources

While self-determination theory and CSE focus on the reward system behind motivation and employee work behaviors, Locke and Latham’s ( 1990 ) goal-setting theory specifically addresses the impact that goal specificity, challenge, and feedback has on motivation and performance. These authors posit that our performance is increased when specific and difficult goals are set, rather than ambiguous and general goals. Goal-setting seems to be an important motivational tool, but it is important that the employee has had a chance to take part in the goal-setting process so they are more likely to attain their goals and perform highly.

Related to goal-setting is Hobfoll’s ( 1989 ) conservation of resources (COR) theory, which holds that people have a basic motivation to obtain, maintain, and protect what they value (i.e., their resources). Additionally there is a global application of goal-setting theory for each of the motivation theories. Not enough research has been conducted regarding the value of goal-setting in global contexts, however, and because of this, goal-setting is not recommended without consideration of cultural and work-related differences (Konopaske & Ivancevich, 2004 ).

Self-Efficacy and Motivation

Other motivational theories include self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement, equity, and expectancy theories. Self-efficacy or social cognitive or learning theory is an individual’s belief that s/he can perform a task (Bandura, 1977 ). This theory complements goal-setting theory in that self-efficacy is higher when a manager assigns a difficult task because employees attribute the manager’s behavior to him or her thinking that the employee is capable; the employee in turn feels more confident and capable.

Reinforcement theory (Skinner, 1938 ) counters goal-setting theory insofar as it is a behaviorist approach rather than cognitive and is based in the notion that reinforcement conditions behavior, or in other words focuses on external causes rather than the value an individual attributes to goals. Furthermore, this theory instead emphasizes the behavior itself rather than what precedes the behavior. Additionally, managers may use operant conditioning, a part of behaviorism, to reinforce people to act in a desired way.

Social-learning theory (Bandura, 1977 ) extends operant conditioning and also acknowledges the influence of observational learning and perception, and the fact that people can learn and retain information by paying attention, observing, and modeling the desired behavior.

Equity theory (Adams, 1963 ) looks at how employees compare themselves to others and how that affects their motivation and in turn their organizational behaviors. Employees who perceive inequity for instance, will either change how much effort they are putting in (their inputs), change or distort their perceptions (either of self or others in relation to work), change their outcomes, turnover, or choose a different referent (acknowledge performance in relation to another employee but find someone else they can be better than).

Last but not least, Vroom’s ( 1964 ) expectancy theory holds that individuals are motivated by the extent to which they can see that their effort is likely to result in valued outcomes. This theory has received strong support in empirical research (see Van Erde & Thierry, 1996 , for meta-analytic results). Like each of the preceding theories, expectancy theory has important implications that managers should consider. For instance, managers should communicate with employees to determine their preferences to know what rewards to offer subordinates to elicit motivation. Managers can also make sure to identify and communicate clearly the level of performance they desire from an employee, as well as to establish attainable goals with the employee and to be very clear and precise about how and when performance will be rewarded (Konopaske & Ivancevich, 2004 ).

The Meso (Group) Level of Analysis

The second level of OB research also emerges from social and organizational psychology and relates to groups or teams. Topics covered so far include individual differences: diversity, personality and emotions, values and attitudes, motivation, and decision-making. Thus, in this section, attention turns to how individuals come together to form groups and teams, and begins laying the foundation for understanding the dynamics of group and team behavior. Topics at this level also include communication, leadership, power and politics, and conflict.

A group consists of two or more individuals who come together to achieve a similar goal. Groups can be formal or informal. A formal group on the one hand is assigned by the organization’s management and is a component of the organization’s structure. An informal group on the other hand is not determined by the organization and often forms in response to a need for social contact. Teams are formal groups that come together to meet a specific group goal.

Although groups are thought to go through five stages of development (Tuckman, 1965 : forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning) and to transition to effectiveness at the halfway mark (Gersick, 1988 ), group effectiveness is in fact far more complex. For example, two types of conformity to group norms are possible: compliance (just going along with the group’s norms but not accepting them) and personal acceptance (when group members’ individual beliefs match group norms). Behavior in groups then falls into required behavior usually defined by the formal group and emergent behavior that grows out of interactions among group members (Champoux, 2011 ).

Group Decision-Making

Although many of the decisions made in organizations occur in groups and teams, such decisions are not necessarily optimal. Groups may have more complex knowledge and increased perspectives than individuals but may suffer from conformity pressures or domination by one or two members. Group decision-making has the potential to be affected by groupthink or group shift. In groupthink , group pressures to conform to the group norms deter the group from thinking of alternative courses of action (Janis & Mann, 1977 ). In the past, researchers attempted to explain the effects of group discussion on decision-making through the following approaches: group decision rules, interpersonal comparisons, and informational influence. Myers and Lamm ( 1976 ), however, present a conceptual schema comprised of interpersonal comparisons and informational influence approaches that focus on attitude development in a more social context. They found that their research is consistent with the group polarization hypothesis: The initial majority predicts the consensus outcome 90% of the time. The term group polarization was founded in Serge Moscovici and his colleagues’ literature (e.g., Moscovici & Zavalloni, 1969 ). Polarization refers to an increase in the extremity of the average response of the subject population.

In other words, the Myer and Lamm ( 1976 ) schema is based on the idea that four elements feed into one another: social motivation, cognitive foundation, attitude change, and action commitment. Social motivation (comparing self with others in order to be perceived favorably) feeds into cognitive foundation , which in turn feeds into attitude change and action commitment . Managers of organizations can help reduce the negative phenomena and increase the likelihood of functional groups by encouraging brainstorming or openly looking at alternatives in the process of decision-making such as the nominal group technique (which involves restricting interpersonal communication in order to encourage free thinking and proceeding to a decision in a formal and systematic fashion such as voting).

Elements of Team Performance

OB researchers typically focus on team performance and especially the factors that make teams most effective. Researchers (e.g., see De Dreu & Van Vianen, 2001 ) have organized the critical components of effective teams into three main categories: context, composition, and process. Context refers to the team’s physical and psychological environment, and in particular the factors that enable a climate of trust. Composition refers to the means whereby the abilities of each individual member can best be most effectively marshaled. Process is maximized when members have a common goal or are able to reflect and adjust the team plan (for reflexivity, see West, 1996 ).

Communication

In order to build high-performing work teams, communication is critical, especially if team conflict is to be minimized. Communication serves four main functions: control, motivation, emotional expression, and information (Scott & Mitchell, 1976 ). The communication process involves the transfer of meaning from a sender to a receiver through formal channels established by an organization and informal channels, created spontaneously and emerging out of individual choice. Communication can flow downward from managers to subordinates, upward from subordinates to managers, or between members of the same group. Meaning can be transferred from one person to another orally, through writing, or nonverbally through facial expressions and body movement. In fact, body movement and body language may complicate verbal communication and add ambiguity to the situation as does physical distance between team members.

High-performance teams tend to have some of the following characteristics: interpersonal trust, psychological and physical safety, openness to challenges and ideas, an ability to listen to other points of view, and an ability to share knowledge readily to reduce task ambiguity (Castka, Bamber, Sharp, & Belohoubek, 2001 ). Although the development of communication competence is essential for a work team to become high-performing, that communication competence is also influenced by gender, personality, ability, and emotional intelligence of the members. Ironically, it is the self-reliant team members who are often able to develop this communication competence. Although capable of working autonomously, self-reliant team members know when to ask for support from others and act interdependently.

Emotions also play a part in communicating a message or attitude to other team members. Emotional contagion, for instance, is a fascinating effect of emotions on nonverbal communication, and it is the subconscious process of sharing another person’s emotions by mimicking that team member’s nonverbal behavior (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1993 ). Importantly, positive communication, expressions, and support of team members distinguished high-performing teams from low-performing ones (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008 ).

Team Conflict

Because of member interdependence, teams are inclined to more conflict than individual workers. In particular, diversity in individual differences leads to conflict (Thomas, 1992 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ; see also Cohen & Bailey, 1997 ). Jehn ( 1997 ) identifies three types of conflict: task, relationship, and process. Process conflict concerns how task accomplishment should proceed and who is responsible for what; task conflict focuses on the actual content and goals of the work (Robbins et al., 2014 ); and relationship conflict is based on differences in interpersonal relationships. While conflict, and especially task conflict, does have some positive benefits such as greater innovation (Tjosvold, 1997 ), it can also lead to lowered team performance and decreased job satisfaction, or even turnover. De Dreu and Van Vianen ( 2001 ) found that team conflict can result in one of three responses: (1) collaborating with others to find an acceptable solution; (2) contending and pushing one member’s perspective on others; or (3) avoiding and ignoring the problem.

Team Effectiveness and Relationship Conflict

Team effectiveness can suffer in particular from relationship conflict, which may threaten team members’ personal identities and self-esteem (Pelled, 1995 ). In this regard, Murnighan and Conlon ( 1991 ) studied members of British string quartets and found that the most successful teams avoided relationship conflict while collaborating to resolve task conflicts. This may be because relationship conflict distracts team members from the task, reducing team performance and functioning. As noted earlier, positive affect is associated with collaboration, cooperation, and problem resolution, while negative affect tends to be associated with competitive behaviors, especially during conflict (Rhoades, Arnold, & Jay, 2001 ).

Team Climate and Emotionality

Emotional climate is now recognized as important to team processes (Ashkanasy & Härtel, 2014 ), and team climate in general has important implications for how individuals behave individually and collectively to effect organizational outcomes. This idea is consistent with Druskat and Wolff’s ( 2001 ) notion that team emotional-intelligence climate can help a team manage both types of conflict (task and relationship). In Jehn’s ( 1997 ) study, she found that emotion was most often negative during team conflict, and this had a negative effect on performance and satisfaction regardless of the type of conflict team members were experiencing. High emotionality, as Jehn calls it, causes team members to lose sight of the work task and focus instead on the negative affect. Jehn noted, however, that absence of group conflict might also may block innovative ideas and stifle creativity (Jehn, 1997 ).

Power and Politics

Power and organizational politics can trigger employee conflict, thus affecting employee wellbeing, job satisfaction, and performance, in turn affecting team and organizational productivity (Vigoda, 2000 ). Because power is a function of dependency, it can often lead to unethical behavior and thus become a source of conflict. Types of power include formal and personal power. Formal power embodies coercive, reward, and legitimate power. Coercive power depends on fear. Reward power is the opposite and occurs when an individual complies because s/he receives positive benefits from acting in accordance with the person in power. In formal groups and organizations, the most easily accessed form of power is legitimate because this form comes to be from one’s position in the organizational hierarchy (Raven, 1993 ). Power tactics represent the means by which those in a position of power translate their power base (formal or personal) into specific actions.

The nine influence tactics that managers use according to Yukl and Tracey ( 1992 ) are (1) rational persuasion, (2) inspirational appeal, (3) consultation, (4) ingratiation, (5) exchange, (6) personal appeal, (7) coalition, (8) legitimating, and (9) pressure. Of these tactics, inspirational appeal, consultation, and rational persuasion were among the strategies most effective in influencing task commitment. In this study, there was also a correlation found between a manager’s rational persuasion and a subordinate rating her effectively. Perhaps this is because persuasion requires some level of expertise, although more research is needed to verify which methods are most successful. Moreover, resource dependence theory dominates much theorizing about power and organizational politics. In fact, it is one of the central themes of Pfeffer and Salancik’s ( 1973 ) treatise on the external control of organizations. First, the theory emphasizes the importance of the organizational environment in understanding the context of how decisions of power are made (see also Pfeffer & Leblebici, 1973 ). Resource dependence theory is based on the premise that some organizations have more power than others, occasioned by specifics regarding their interdependence. Pfeffer and Salancik further propose that external interdependence and internal organizational processes are related and that this relationship is mediated by power.

Organizational Politics

Political skill is the ability to use power tactics to influence others to enhance an individual’s personal objectives. In addition, a politically skilled person is able to influence another person without being detected (one reason why he or she is effective). Persons exerting political skill leave a sense of trust and sincerity with the people they interact with. An individual possessing a high level of political skill must understand the organizational culture they are exerting influence within in order to make an impression on his or her target. While some researchers suggest political behavior is a critical way to understand behavior that occurs in organizations, others simply see it as a necessary evil of work life (Champoux, 2011 ). Political behavior focuses on using power to reach a result and can be viewed as unofficial and unsanctioned behavior (Mintzberg, 1985 ). Unlike other organizational processes, political behavior involves both power and influence (Mayes & Allen, 1977 ). Moreover, because political behavior involves the use of power to influence others, it can often result in conflict.

Organizational Politics, Power, and Ethics

In concluding this section on power and politics, it is also appropriate to address the dark side, where organizational members who are persuasive and powerful enough might become prone to abuse standards of equity and justice and thereby engage in unethical behavior. An employee who takes advantage of her position of power may use deception, lying, or intimidation to advance her own interests (Champoux, 2011 ). When exploring interpersonal injustice, it is important to consider the intent of the perpetrator, as well as the effect of the perpetrator’s treatment from the victim’s point of view. Umphress, Simmons, Folger, Ren, and Bobocel ( 2013 ) found in this regard that not only does injustice perceived by the self or coworkers influence attitudes and behavior within organizations, but injustice also influences observer reactions both inside and outside of the organization.

Leadership plays an integrative part in understanding group behavior, because the leader is engaged in directing individuals toward attitudes and behaviors, hopefully also in the direction of those group members’ goals. Although there is no set of universal leadership traits, extraversion from the Big Five personality framework has been shown in meta-analytic studies to be positively correlated with transformational, while neuroticism appears to be negatively correlated (Bono & Judge, 2004 ). There are also various perspectives to leadership, including the competency perspective, which addresses the personality traits of leaders; the behavioral perspective, which addresses leader behaviors, specifically task versus people-oriented leadership; and the contingency perspective, which is based on the idea that leadership involves an interaction of personal traits and situational factors. Fiedler’s ( 1967 ) contingency, for example, suggests that leader effectiveness depends on the person’s natural fit to the situation and the leader’s score on a “least preferred coworker” scale.

More recently identified styles of leadership include transformational leadership (Bass, Avolio, & Atwater, 1996 ), charismatic leadership (Conger & Kanungo, 1988 ), and authentic leadership (Luthans & Avolio, 2003 ). In a nutshell, transformational leaders inspire followers to act based on the good of the organization; charismatic leaders project a vision and convey a new set of values; and authentic leaders convey trust and genuine sentiment.

Leader-member exchange theory (LMX; see Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995 ) assumes that leadership emerges from exchange relationships between a leader and her or his followers. More recently, Tse, Troth, and Ashkanasy ( 2015 ) expanded on LMX to include social processes (e.g., emotional intelligence, emotional labor, and discrete emotions), arguing that affect plays a large part in the leader-member relationship.

Leadership Development

An emerging new topic in leadership concerns leadership development, which embodies the readiness of leadership aspirants to change (Hannah & Avolio, 2010 ). In this regard, the learning literature suggests that intrinsic motivation is necessary in order to engage in development (see Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000 ), but also that the individual needs to be goal-oriented and have developmental efficacy or self-confidence that s/he can successfully perform in leadership contexts.

Ashkanasy, Dasborough, and Ascough ( 2009 ) argue further that developing the affective side of leaders is important. In this case, because emotions are so pervasive within organizations, it is important that leaders learn how to manage them in order to improve team performance and interactions with employees that affect attitudes and behavior at almost every organizational level.

Abusive Leadership

Leaders, or those in positions of power, are particularly more likely to run into ethical issues, and only more recently have organizational behavior researchers considered the ethical implications of leadership. As Gallagher, Mazur, and Ashkanasy ( 2015 ) describe, since 2009 , organizations have been under increasing pressure to cut costs or “do more with less,” and this sometimes can lead to abusive supervision, whereby employee job demands exceed employee resources, and supervisors engage in bullying, undermining, victimization, or personal attacks on subordinates (Tepper, 2000 ).

Supervisors who are very high or low in emotional intelligence may be more likely to experience stress associated with a very demanding high-performance organizational culture. These supervisors may be more likely to try to meet the high demands and pressures through manipulative behaviors (Kilduff, Chiaburu, & Menges, 2010 ). This has serious implications for employee wellbeing and the organization as a whole. Abusive supervision detracts from the ability for those under attack to perform effectively, and targets often come to doubt their own ability to perform (Tepper, 2000 ).

The Macro (Organizational) Level of Analysis

The final level of OB derives from research traditions across three disciplines: organizational psychology, organizational sociology, and organizational anthropology. Moreover, just as teams and groups are more than the sum of their individual team members, organizations are also more than the sum of the teams or groups residing within them. As such, structure, climate, and culture play key roles in shaping and being shaped by employee attitudes and behaviors, and they ultimately determine organizational performance and productivity.

Organizational Structure

Organizational structure is a sociological phenomenon that determines the way tasks are formally divided and coordinated within an organization. In this regard, jobs are often grouped by the similarity of functions performed, the product or service produced, or the geographical location. Often, the number of forms of departmentalization will depend on the size of the organization, with larger organizations having more forms of departmentalization than others. Organizations are also organized by the chain of command or the hierarchy of authority that determines the span of control, or how many employees a manager can efficiently and effectively lead. With efforts to reduce costs since the global financial crisis of 2009 , organizations have tended to adopt a wider, flatter span of control, where more employees report to one supervisor.

Organizational structure also concerns the level of centralization or decentralization, the degree to which decision-making is focused at a single point within an organization. Formalization is also the degree to which jobs are organized in an organization. These levels are determined by the organization and also vary greatly across the world. For example, Finnish organizations tend to be more decentralized than their Australian counterparts and, as a consequence, are more innovative (Leiponen & Helfat, 2011 ).

Mintzberg ( 1979 ) was the first to set out a taxonomy of organizational structure. Within his model, the most common organizational design is the simple structure characterized by a low level of departmentalization, a wide span of control, and centralized authority. Other organizational types emerge in larger organizations, which tend to be bureaucratic and more routinized. Rules are formalized, tasks are grouped into departments, authority is centralized, and the chain of command involves narrow spans of control and decision-making. An alternative is the matrix structure, often found in hospitals, universities, and government agencies. This form of organization combines functional and product departmentalization where employees answer to two bosses: functional department managers and product managers.

New design options include the virtual organization and the boundaryless organization , an organization that has no chain of command and limitless spans of control. Structures differ based on whether the organization seeks to use an innovation strategy, imitation strategy, or cost-minimization strategy (Galunic & Eisenhardt, 1994 ). Organizational structure can have a significant effect on employee attitudes and behavior. Evidence generally shows that work specialization leads to higher employee productivity but also lower job satisfaction (Porter & Lawler, 1965 ). Gagné and Deci emphasize that autonomous work motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation and integrated extrinsic motivation) is promoted in work climates that are interesting, challenging, and allow choice. Parker, Wall, and Jackson ( 1997 ) specifically relate job enlargement to autonomous motivation. Job enlargement was first discussed by management theorists like Lawler and Hall ( 1970 ), who believed that jobs should be enlarged to improve the intrinsic motivation of workers. Today, most of the job-design literature is built around the issue of work specialization (job enlargement and enrichment). In Parker, Wall, and Jackson’s study, they observed that horizontally enlarging jobs through team-based assembly cells led to greater understanding and acceptance of the company’s vision and more engagement in new work roles. (In sum, by structuring work to allow more autonomy among employees and identification among individual work groups, employees stand to gain more internal autonomous motivation leading to improved work outcomes (van Knippenberg & van Schie, 2000 ).

The Physical Environment of Work

Ashkanasy, Ayoko, and Jehn ( 2014 ) extend the topic of organizational structure to discuss, from a psychological perspective, how the physical work environment shapes employee attitudes, behaviors, and organizational outcomes. Elsbach ( 2003 ) pointed out that the space within which employees conduct their work is critical to employees’ levels of performance and productivity. In their study, Ashkanasy and his colleagues looked at the underlying processes influencing how the physical environment determines employee attitudes and behaviors, in turn affecting productivity levels. They base their model on affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996 ), which holds that particular “affective” events in the work environment are likely to be the immediate cause of employee behavior and performance in organizations (see also Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011 ). Specifically, Ashkanasy and colleagues ( 2014 ) looked at how this theory holds in extremely crowded open-plan office designs and how employees in these offices are more likely to experience negative affect, conflict, and territoriality, negatively impacting attitudes, behaviors, and work performance.

• Organizational Climate and Culture

Although organizational structure and the physical environment are important determinants of employee attitudes and behaviors, organizational culture and climate lie at the heart of organizational interactions (Ashkanasy & Jackson, 2001 ). Organizational culture derives from an anthropological research tradition, while organizational climate is based on organizational psychology.

A central presumption of culture is that, as Smircich ( 1983 ) noted, organizational behavior is not a function of what goes on inside individual employees’ heads, but between employees, as evidenced in daily organizational communication and language. As such, organizational culture allows one organization to distinguish itself from another, while conveying a sense of identity for its members.

Organizational Climate and its Relation to Organizational Culture

Organizational culture creates organizational climate or employees’ shared perceptions about their organization and work environment. Organizational climate has been found to facilitate and/or inhibit displays of certain behaviors in one study (Smith-Crowe, Burke, & Landis, 2003 ), and overall, organizational climate is often viewed as a surface-level indicator of the functioning of the employee/organizational environment relationship (Ryan, Horvath, Ployhart, Schmitt, & Slade, 2000 ). For instance, a more restrictive climate may inhibit individual decision-making in contrast to a more supportive climate in which the organization may intervene at the individual level and in which the ability/job performance relationship is supported (James, Demaree, Mulaik, & Ladd, 1992 ). In a study focused on safety climate, Smith-Crowe and colleagues found that organizational climate is essential in determining whether training will transfer to employee performance, and this is most likely because organizational climate moderates the knowledge/performance relationship. Gibbs and Cooper ( 2010 ) also found that a supportive organizational climate is positively related to employee performance. They specifically looked at PsyCap, the higher-order construct of psychological capital first proposed by Luthans and Youssef ( 2004 ).

Organizational Change

The final topic covered in this article is organizational change. Organizational culture and climate can both be negatively impacted by organizational change and, in turn, negatively affect employee wellbeing, attitudes, and performance, reflecting onto organizational performance. Often, there is great resistance to change, and the success rate of organizational change initiatives averages at less than 30% (Al-Haddad & Kotnour, 2015 ). In order to overcome this resistance, it is important that managers plan ahead for changes and emphasize education and communication about them. As organizations becoming increasingly globalized, change has become the norm, and this will continue into the future.

Additionally, as organizations become increasingly globalized, organizational changes often involve mergers that have important organizational implications. In this regard, Kavanagh and Ashkanasy ( 2006 ) found that, for a merger to be successful, there needs to be alignment between the individual values and organizational cultures of merging partners. Managers during a merger situation need to be especially cognizant of how this organizational change affects the company’s original organizational culture.

Organizational development (OD), a collection of planned change interventions, may be the way to improve organizational performance and increase employee wellbeing. OD focuses on employees respecting one another, trust and support, equal power, confrontation of problems, and participation of everyone affected by the organizational change (Lines, 2004 ). Moreover, when an organization already has an established climate and culture that support change and innovation, an organization may have less trouble adapting to the change.

Organizational change research encompasses almost all aspects of organizational behavior. Individuals and employees are motivated to achieve success and be perceived as successful. In this regard, each of the individual differences—personality, affect, past experiences, values, and perceptions—plays into whether individuals can transcend obstacles and deal with the barriers encountered along the journey toward achievement. Teams are similarly motivated to be successful in a collective sense and to prove that they contribute to the organization as a whole. In addition to individual differences, team members deal with bringing all those individual differences together, which can wreak havoc on team communication and cause further obstacles in terms of power differences and conflicts in regard to decision-making processes. Last, at the organizational level of organizational behavior, it is important to account for all of these micro- and meso-level differences, and to address the complexity of economic pressures, increasing globalization, and global and transnational organizations to the mix. This is at the top level of sophistication because, as emphasized before, just as groups equal much more than the sum of individual members, organizations are much more than the sum of their teams. The organizational structure, the formal organization, the organizational culture, and climate and organizational rules all impact whether an organization can perform effectively. Organizational behavior, through its complex study of human behavior at its very conception, offers much-needed practical implications for managers in understanding people at work.

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Introduction to Organizational Behavior

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Organizational behavior (OB) takes a systematic approach to understand how individuals and groups behave in organizations as well as the relationship between people and organizations. This chapter examines organizational behavior from the viewpoints of professionals and researchers. First, a case is presented describing individuals’ behavior in difficult circumstances, and then a brief definition of organizational behavior follows. Next, we will analyze how organizational behavior differs from human resources. Then we will proceed to OB during the pandemic. We will also review why we study OB: from Taylor’s Principles of Scientific Management to Mayo and Roethlisberger’s Human Relations Theory (Hawthorne Effect), to understand the history of organizational behavior. The following is a synopsis of all the topics that will be discussed in the book. Last, we look at organizational behavior research. This section provides an explanation of why and how we conduct OB research, as well as breaks down various study designs and measurement issues.

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Henri Fayol developed an approach to managing businesses that have come to be known as Fayolism during his career as a mining engineer, executive, author, and director. The development of modern management is generally attributed to Henri Fayol (Fayol, 1949 ). Over the course of the twentieth century, his management theories influenced industrial management practices in a significant way. The ideas of Fayol were developed independently of other theories that were prevalent at the time, such as those of Elton Mayo and Human Relations. Fayol outlined the skills needed for effective management in his 14 Principles of Management. Fayol’s management theories are still used today. Besides the Principles, Fayol identified five basic management functions. Among the management functions are planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. Fayol emphasized that managerial skills are different from technical skills. Moreover, Fayol recognized that management is a field requiring research, teaching, and development. Fayol proposed 14 principles and five functions that form the basis of Administrative Theory. A variety of nonacademics shared their experiences and contributed to its progress. Fayol’s Five Functions of Management originated the planning-organizing-leading-controlling framework that remains an influential management framework throughout the world today.

Abbreviations

Captain Chengquan

Human Resources

Human Relations Theory

National Football Association

National Hockey League

Organizational Behavior

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Kwia, J. (2023). Introduction to Organizational Behavior. In: Hou, N., Tan, J.A., Valdez Paez, G. (eds) Organizational Behavior. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31356-1_1

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Learning Organizations are organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspirations are set free and where people are continually learning how to learn together. The aim of this study was to assess Learning organization practice and disciplines in case of Sire District Public health office. Learning organization if implemented in the health institutions it enables ignition of newly created more another's learning organization units moreover, learning organization concept if implemented in the organization it can enables organization to achieve their goal systematically besides this, it also enhance employees their job commitment whereas, the organization not implemented learning organization concept might be opposite of this or vice versa. The study employed qualitative case-study design in sire District public health office. Document review, in depth interview and Focus group discussion with flexible probing techniques were employed to collect the data from 3 key informants and 2 FGD from January 1, 2018 to January 11, 2018. A semi structured interview guide was prepared to explore key informants' idea about current situation and efforts made to enable organization to be a learning organization and also thematic analyses were used to analyze the findings of the study. The study result revealed that the organization assessed in both parameter of learning organization (five disciplines Peter Senge and Pedler et al criteria of practice of learning organization) the organization was practiced preponderance of learning organization concept was practiced within five disciplines of learning organizations there were implemented in their office. The finding of the study revealed that sire district public health office was practiced learning organization and disciplines in there organization that was exercised as good and the organization also participate entire employees and stakeholders to carry out organizational plan that were align with national strategies of the country moreover, the organization had created enabling learning opportunities to enhance a learning organization among themselves and others.

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Organizational Behavior

(18 reviews)

Copyright Year: 2017

ISBN 13: 9781946135155

Publisher: University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing

Language: English

Formats Available

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Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Jalal Maqableh, Instructor - Ph.D. Candidate, James Madison University on 11/29/21

This book is comprehensive in two ways: (1) The organizational behavior topics it covers. The most important topics that new employees (fresh graduates) would need to know are included in this book. (2) The learning methodology includes the... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This book is comprehensive in two ways: (1) The organizational behavior topics it covers. The most important topics that new employees (fresh graduates) would need to know are included in this book. (2) The learning methodology includes the topics' content, discussion questions, key takeaways, and exercises.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

This book is accurate and provides relevant content. In general, no key mistakes were identified.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The book is relatively new (2019). It talks about current practices in today's organizations. Some topics in organizational behavior are stable while others are changing very fast. Therefore, it will be important to look to the places where there will be a need for updates.

Clarity rating: 5

The book is clear and helps the reader to move through sections smoothly.

Consistency rating: 5

The structure of the chapters is very consistent. This facilitates the learning process.

Modularity rating: 5

Although the size of the book is large and not logical to be used all in one semester. The design of the book separates the learning topics into small learning packages that can be selected based on the need.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The flow of the book makes it logical to build each chapter based on the previous one. This is good for educational purposes because it helps the instructor during the transition from one topic to another.

Interface rating: 5

Easy to use and to move through different parts.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No grammar issues were found.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The book clearly highlights cultural diversity within the organizational context.

This is a very well-written book for university students. It gives the opportunity for readers to comprehend organizational behavior in an interesting way.

Reviewed by Brittni Heiden, Senior Director of Graduate Programs, Trine University on 4/16/21

The text, Organizational Behavior provides a comprehensive overview of several topics, including: motivation, communication, managing groups and teams, conflict resolution, power and politics, making decisions, etc. Within each chapter, the author... read more

The text, Organizational Behavior provides a comprehensive overview of several topics, including: motivation, communication, managing groups and teams, conflict resolution, power and politics, making decisions, etc. Within each chapter, the author provides key takeaways and exercises that allow the students to apply their knowledge of the topic.

Each topic is presented in an accurate manner, supported by current practices, and relevant examples.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

For the most part, the content with the book is supported by current practices and many relevant examples. However, some of the examples, particularly those within the case studies can be outdated. Being that the book was written in 2019, it is likely missing vital examples and case studies from 2020 and 2021.

The book flows well and is written in a manner that is easily understood by undergraduate students.

Each chapter is set up in a similar fashion, making it easy for the reader to navigate the material. Along with this, each chapter has appropriate examples and exercises that correspond with the covered material.

Modularity rating: 4

The book is extensive, but each chapter is easily navigated by students. It would be very doable for instructors to piece together important information, or prioritize chapters without disrupting the students. The textbook is very lengthy, as are many Organizational Behavior texts, so it may be difficult for each chapter to be covered during a semester. However, due to the fact that each chapter is easily and readily divisible into smaller sections, or subsections, instructors can prioritize the information they would like to cover.

The organization of the textbook is clear and logical. There are proper transitions so the students are aware regarding what they should expect next.

Navigation is very easy for students to use. There are very few, if any, distractions throughout the text.

No grammatical errors were found throughout the text.

Great examples are used throughout the text to highlight cultural diversity within the workplace.

Overall, this is a great text for undergraduate Organizational Behavior courses. It is well written, offers many opportunities for students to apply their knowledge, and also covers a diverse range of topics.

Reviewed by Amanda Hinojosa, Assistant Professor, Howard University on 4/13/21

This book covers all of the topics one might expect from an Organizational Behavior course. Where it seems to differ from other Organizational Behavior books is the level of attention devoted to topics (some might for example focus less on... read more

This book covers all of the topics one might expect from an Organizational Behavior course. Where it seems to differ from other Organizational Behavior books is the level of attention devoted to topics (some might for example focus less on negotiation, while this book has a chapter on it; other books might have a chapter devoted just to individual differences, while this one focuses on individual differences and perception within one chapter).

The book contains accurate discussion of concepts, theories, and application.

The book has several case studies (usually one at the beginning and end of each chapter). These are great, but over time they may be a bit dated, for example if they reference a CEO of a company who is no longer the CEO of that company. However, users could create their own follow-up questions that account for what has happened since the case was written. Alternatively. if any future updates were made to this content, readers could benefit from a standard set of questions to add to the end of each case that would encourage the instructor and students to find out more to see if the implications of that case still apply based on the newer information on the company/CEO/manager described. For example, they use the case of Indra Nooyi as CEO of Pepsi and talk about her as though she is currently the CEO, but her tenure as CEO ended in 2018.

The book is easy to read and all terms are appropriately explained and defined.

There is not much of an underlying framework that requires terms to be used from one chapter to the next (e.g. there are not many cases where something is defined early on and then revisited later in the book). In other words, the chapter numbers don't imply sequence so there is enough consistency across chapters to allow for users to skip around the book and still have the relevant information within that chapter without having to consult other sections to understand. There is consistency in the way each chapter is presented and the supplementary points in each. I describe more about this consistency in organization in the modularity and organization sections.

The content is very modular and can easily be referred to in larger or smaller parts. The chapters are each broken into sub-sections, which can be linked directly (e.g. https://open.lib.umn.edu/organizationalbehavior/chapter/3-2-the-interactionist-perspective-the-role-of-fit/) or the chapter as a whole could be linked https://open.lib.umn.edu/organizationalbehavior/part/chapter-3-understanding-people-at-work-individual-differences-and-perception/) Each page is dedicated to a sub-section, and the links are embedded to the sidebar table of contents which would allow users to further click through to the area that they are looking for if they know the number and/or title of the sub-section they are interested in.

The topics are presented clearly and in a logical fashion. The book does not require much sequential introduction of content, so users could easily find only chapters they want to teach in the order they wish to teach them and assign them in a way that differs from the numerical sequence in the book.

Images are displayed clearly. Content navigation is easy with the clickable sub-section links, but users might also be able to use the pdf version if they are unable to access the internet. Users of the pdf version would need information on section titles, as there are no page numbers in the web-based interface for the version. However, if they have the information for chapter and/or sub-section number and title, they would be able to sufficiently navigate the pdf to find the content needed.

I have not found any grammatical errors in my use of this book.

The book designates a chapter to demographic diversity and cultural diversity and includes one sub-section at the end of each chapter that briefly describes cultural differences in relation to the content from that chapter. It could be more comprehensive in its discussion of cultural diversity, but I have not found evidence to suggest that it is insensitive or offensive in its coverage of topics.

I have used this book in my course for three years now, and overall I really like it. The links are really easy to integrate into my LMS (BlackBoard) to guide discussions and assign specific parts of the reading. There are some places where the book makes reference to "your instructor has this information" as though there are accompanying Instructor Resources but I am unaware of how to access those if they do exist. It tends to be on active learning possibilities (e.g. the negotiation chapter references roles that the instructor would distribute). It doesn't affect the use too much, it just means that I end up choosing a different activity that doesn't reference other resources which I don't have access to.

Reviewed by Jim Hickel, Adjunct Instructor, American University on 3/15/21

The book covers all the relevant topics for organizational behavior. No index or glossary, but the search function is effective for that purpose. read more

The book covers all the relevant topics for organizational behavior. No index or glossary, but the search function is effective for that purpose.

No errors or biases were uncovered in my use of this book.

The book was current as of its 2017 publication date, which is about as high as most expectations would go for a free online textbook. Instructors will have to provide class updates, particularly in the rapidly-changing field of diversity. For example: I didn't find any reference to "inclusion" in the diversity chapter (or anywhere else in the book, if the search function was accurate), which is an important concept and should be stressed by the instructor.

The text is very clear, and written to be understood at the undergraduate level.

No inconsistences were uncovered in my use of the book.

Each chapter works effectively as a stand-alone discussion of the topic. They can readily be realigned.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The book is generally well organized. The organization could be enhanced if there were an up-front "umbrella" model for organizational behavior that tied together all the subjects covered in the textbook. The Organization-Group-Individual model introduced in Chapter 1 doesn't easily relate to the concepts discussed in each chapter. An instructor may find it useful to present a different OB model (for example, Inputs-Processes-Outputs) that to show how all the chapter topics fit together into one overall concept, so students can track where they are in the model.

The interface worked out very well for my class. I was able to set up links to each chapter in the relevant sections of the learning management system (in this case, Blackboard). Students appreciated the ability to have direct links to the relevant textbook readings for each class -- and also appreciated that it was available at no additional cost to them.

No grammatical or language errors were uncovered in my reading and use of the book.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

Generally sensitive to cultural issues. Instructors may want to point out to their class that the "Masculinity-Femininity" dimension of Hofstede's Cultural Framework (Section 2.3 of the book), which draws upon stereotypes that were used in Hofstede's time, has largely evolved into the "Aggressive-Nurturing" dimension.

Very useful book, as good as any fundamental Organizational Behavior textbook I've ever read from any publisher. However, because of its age and the rapid evolution of organizational behavior, instructors will have to be careful to provide in-class updates.

Reviewed by Laura Boehme, Chief Information/Human Resources Officer; Faculty, Central Oregon Community College on 1/12/21

This book is extremely comprehensive and covers a the broad variety of organizational behavior topics. Each chapter is clearly titled, provides an outline, key terms, and summary of learning outcomes. Additionally, it includes critical thinking... read more

This book is extremely comprehensive and covers a the broad variety of organizational behavior topics. Each chapter is clearly titled, provides an outline, key terms, and summary of learning outcomes. Additionally, it includes critical thinking cases and assessments to expand and practice learning concepts. One additional feature is a link to a collaborative group area to further engage in the topics.

The book content are accurate and rooted in current organizational practices. The topics are also relevant to existing issues in organizations such as cultural awareness, diversity, ethics, stress/well-being, and power and politics. No significant errors or bias were found in the contents. The book also includes numerous authors with a variety of expertise, further enhancing the accuracy and relevance of topics.

The book was written in 2019 and includes current and relevant topics facing organizations. Each chapter is comprised of concepts, strategies, questions, and practical applications, allowing the learner to gain an in-depth exposure to the organizational behavior content. The text is written in a way that will allow easy updates in the future and the content has staying power.

The textbook and chapters are clearly outlined with key terms, learning outcomes, and high levels of structure and consistency. The text is written in understandable terms, with appropriate introductions for the learner, relevant examples to demonstrate concepts, and opportunities to practice to further gain clarity.

The structure of the book is internally consistent for each chapter, giving the learner an opportunity to understand the layout and approach of the book and its chapters. This structure enhances the learner's ability to absorb and practice the materials, cases, and assessments.

The text is very modular and could be assigned and/or used as structured or can be utilized out of order. Chapter 1 appears to be a foundational chapter so it would be best to start there as it gives a nice overview of organizational behavior. The lower rating on this aspect of the textbook is primarily because there are so many chapters (19 total), that it might be challenging to cover all of the content in a typical term or semester. So the instructor and student would need to prioritize the most important concepts.

The organization, structure, and flow of the textbook, the chapters, and the information within the chapters is highly structured. It is consistent for both the learner and the instructor, offering predictability and ease of planning. The table of contents is well-organized with clear chapter titles, sub-sections, and additional resources. The flow of topics makes sense, but also allows for modularity and flexibility.

The interface is user-friendly, easy to find information, and intuitive. Navigation is straight-forward and there are helpful guides and prompts to ensure the reader knows how to progress through the content. The images and data within the chapters is laid out and organized in a professional manner. This is a very mature-looking OER textbook.

No obvious grammatical or spelling errors were found in the text. It appears to have been well-edited and prepared for use. There are multiple author contributors which helps ensure content validity and accuracy.

The textbook appears to be culturally aware. There are multiple chapters on diversity, inclusion, and cultural awareness. The pictures include people of color and also address diversity of approaches and perspectives in organizational behavior.

This OER textbook book is ready to go for both the instructor and student. The topic is interesting and relevant. The content is well-organized. There are additional chapter resources to enhance learning and teaching. Overall I highly recommend this textbook. The instructor would have a relatively easy time developing a syllabus and course activities that are based on the identified learning outcomes.

Reviewed by Tracey Sigler, Associate Professor, The Citadel on 11/30/20

Covers all the traditional topics read more

Covers all the traditional topics

High quality

The book is a few years old but it is easy to supplement with new concepts and current examples.

the online format makes it easy to read find and small sections of the chapters.

Well organized - make sense to the reaer

high quality

appropriate

I have used this book for a couple of years for an MBA OB class. It provides good coverage of the basic concepts and some cases and activities that have been useful. I supplement the class with my own links to videos and articles. I am thinking of using this in my undergrad class as well. The author is disguised but is well-known and respected in the field. Students appreciate being to use an open resource.

Reviewed by Ken Grunes, Assistant Professor, Framingham State University on 5/27/20

The layout of the textbook follows a logical progression which is both complete and the proper depth. read more

The layout of the textbook follows a logical progression which is both complete and the proper depth.

The authors have allowed multiple perspectives and theories are supported by empirical evidence.

The most relatable topics are covered proportional to students' interest levels.

Clarity rating: 4

Most of the material could be enhanced by a terminology glossary at the beginning of each chapter.

Terms and concepts carry the same explanation and context from one chapter to the next.

Chapters and subject matter are clearly delineated and can be appreciated as a stand alone module.

The text is presented in a logical progression from "Individual", "Groups", and finally "Organizations".

Interface rating: 4

Information is presented in a straight forward manner with few distraction.

the text appears to be free from grammatical errors.

Good sensitivity to multi-cultural class composition.

The textbook appears to be complete.

Reviewed by Leslie Bleskachek, Adjunct professor, Minnesota State College Southeast, Minnesota State University System on 3/7/20

The textbook includes some valuable topics that are often not discussed in other texts, namely the study of power and politics. The first chapter also includes an introduction of why this study is important, which is an interesting inclusion. At... read more

The textbook includes some valuable topics that are often not discussed in other texts, namely the study of power and politics. The first chapter also includes an introduction of why this study is important, which is an interesting inclusion. At the start of each section, the learning objectives are listed. The toolbox and exercises are great additions that allow students to quickly apply new learning in their environment. This is a sort of embedded workbook that assists instructors in developing activities related to the text. This work is more than a narrative or relevant facts; there are a lot of activities and case studies included to aid student understanding.

The work is accurate. There are in text citations as well as bibliographies to provide opportunities for further research.

Much of the research and information included is very recent and citations are included if readers wish to read the original work. Section 1.5 on Trends and Changes could easily be updated as needed, allowing the work to remain up to date in future iterations.

The language is clear, has little jargon, and is easy to read and interpret. The key takeaways aid student understanding and ensure the main objective is understood for each section.

There is consistency throughout the document with similar formatting in each section to aid navigation and understanding.

With the learning objectives clearly outlined, it would be easy to break this work into smaller modules or recombine sections into lessons. Also, with exercises, case studies and other tools provided, this work could easily be utilized in various ways.

It was an unusual choice to include the learning style inventory in this text and unclear why it was placed after the introduction to this specific material. It might be more appropriately placed in a preface. While the information was organized clearly within sections and was well labeled, it is not clear why the authors decided to start with specifics first rather than an overview of organizational behavior first and then following with specifics. It might be more logical to begin with the content that is in sections 14 and 15.

The exercises, key takeaways, etc. are well organized and help focus learning. The use of graphics and visual representation of data was well deployed throughout to help break up long sections of text. The inclusion of case studies in each section was a great way to aid understanding and demonstrate the concepts on real world situations. The interface worked smoothly and consistently with no difficulties noted. The organization was easy to navigate for the end user.

There were no grammatical errors identified

The work uses appropriate language and displays cultural sensitivity. Although it is also addressed in other sections, there is a section that specifically addresses various concerns related to multiculturalism and the diverse nature of organizations today.

This is a comprehensive work that includes engaging, current organizational situations to illustrate concepts. This is more than just a narrative or literature review of the subject. The textbook also includes numerous current case studies, exercises, ways to apply the learning and challenge thinking. Combined with the learning objectives outlined at the start of each section, this work provides a great deal of easy to understand content and is user friendly for both students and teachers alike.

Reviewed by Yefim Khaydatov, Lecturer, LAGCC on 12/5/18, updated 12/12/18

Textbook covers the appropriate range of topics in the course. read more

Textbook covers the appropriate range of topics in the course.

Organizational Behavior - 2017 accurately

The content is up-to-date, consists of recent research and literature. The textbook reflects the most recent information and arranged in a manner that makes necessary updates easy to implement.

The textbook is written in a clear, appropriate and accessible language.

The text is consistent in terminology and framework within and throughout the chapters.

The textbook has easily divided sections to quickly navigate through the various chapters and sections of the textbook.

The textbook follows the sequence of topics as expected in the industry when compared with other textbooks written on the same subject of organizational behavior.

No issues have been encountered and use of the online version is user friendly.

No grammatical errors were noted.

The text reflects appropriate and inclusive language.

The textbook provides a wonderful resource in each chapter for discussion through the case scenarios, short vignettes, questions, group activities and a wide range of exercises. A rich selection of video clips to complement the Ethical Dilemma exercises in the chapters would be a wonderful addition to see added in the next publication or version of the textbook. Thank you.

Reviewed by Rose Helens-Hart, Assistant Professor, Fort Hays State University on 11/28/18

Text covers the major topics one would expect to see in a 200-300 level OB course. Would have liked to see more on vocational/workplace socialization. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Text covers the major topics one would expect to see in a 200-300 level OB course. Would have liked to see more on vocational/workplace socialization.

Did not notice errors.

Uses relevant business cases, which will need to be updated in a few years.

Very readable but still sounds like a textbook. Formatting of bold words and summary/break out boxes makes the book conventional but also easy to access.

Terminology seemed to be used consistently.

Chapters are divided into short subsections making it easy to assign only portions of chapter reading.

Logical progression. I like that the chapter on managing demographic and cultural diversity is at the beginning. If you are following the order of information in the text, your class would begin with these important concepts.

Clear table of contents. Easy to navigate.

No grammatical errors noticed.

Text discusses "The Role of Ethics and National Culture" in each chapter, which is nice. More elements of diversity and intersectionality, however, could be considered in examples. "Managing" diversity is a very traditional way to look at difference.

Using sections of it for a professional business communication class. Many topics covered such as managing conflict and teams, are relevant to professional, business, and organizational communication classes.

Reviewed by Justin Greenleaf, Associate Professor, Fort Hays State University on 11/1/18

This book does an excellent job of providing an overview of the major topics associated with organizational behavior. Given the comprehensive nature of the book, it could potentially be a relevant resource in a variety of classes/topics related to... read more

This book does an excellent job of providing an overview of the major topics associated with organizational behavior. Given the comprehensive nature of the book, it could potentially be a relevant resource in a variety of classes/topics related to communication, group dynamics, organizational leadership, and others.

The content included in this book is both accurate and well supported. It does a good job of connecting important theories and concepts with helpful practical examples.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

Many of the theories and concepts in this book are up-to-date and will not be obsolete anytime soon. However, many of the examples will fail to be relevant in the near future. The book could be improved by providing permanent links to some of the external resources.

The text is easy to read and flows in a way that is engaging. The presentation of the content is free from technical jargon.

The text is consistent in the way the chapters are presented. As the reader moves from section to section, it is clear that the chapters have a unifying theme and format throughout.

The text is chunked into logical and easily readable sections. The various chapters are accompanied by tools and resources to help the reader think critically about the content in the chapter.

I was impressed with the way the book was organized. When thinking about the topic of Organizational Behavior, it can be challenging to decide where to start and how to organize the content. This book does a nice job organizing the various topics by themes and providing appropriate sub-headings to help the reader make sense of the overarching concepts of the book.

The website interface seems to be the easiest to use and navigate. When I downloaded the pdf, there were some issues with the formatting of the content. Some of the pictures were not there anymore and some of the formatting was a little off. I feel like the impact these issues had on the usefulness of the book was minimal, but they were noticeable.

I did not notice any grammatical errors, which was nice.

There was nothing in this book that I found to be culturally insensitive or offensive. If anything the book content provided insights into how to be more culturally competent.

I appreciate the time and effort that was put into creating this resource. One of the challenges of using open educational resources is finding a one that is high-quality, and I believe the content in this book to be high-quality.

Reviewed by Stephanie McWilliams, ClinicInstructor, West Virginia University on 5/21/18

This book includes many topics that others in this area do not, such as interpersonal interaction tactics and diversity considerations. Segments that are boxed that include applied ideas are especially pertinent for my internship students. read more

This book includes many topics that others in this area do not, such as interpersonal interaction tactics and diversity considerations. Segments that are boxed that include applied ideas are especially pertinent for my internship students.

The text is relatively error free that appears to be all-inclusive from my perspective.

In the area of professionalism, the dynamics are always changing, especially with the influence of technology. As a result, I imagine that this book may need updates every 5 years or so to stay relevant.

This text is easy to read and follow. Terms are used correctly, and defined if not commonly understood.

There is a definite framework to this text. Information interlaces with cases and applied examples will allow students to connect ideas to real-life scenarios.

With just 15 chapters, each is well divided in a predictable fashion. This also aligns well with a typical semester of 16 weeks.

The flow of this text makes it easy to follow and to break up into what may be presented in a lecture format and what students can work through on their own.

The flow of topics builds in a logical manner for students learning about working in a professional setting.

There do not appear to be any major distortions what would cause confusion. The clarity of some of the graphics or photos are a bit grainy, but not so much so that it is difficult to read or see.

The grammar appears correct throughout.

With a large section devoted to multicultural diversity, I would rate this text highly for cultural relevance.

It is a challenge to find a text for an internship course, but this text fits the bill nicely. I will likely supplement with a chapter or two from other text or some articles, but plan to use this book in the very near future.

Reviewed by Meredith Burnett, Professorial Lecturer, American University on 2/1/18

The text covers all areas and Ideas of organizational behavior including aspects of both demographic and cultural diversity, individual differences and perception, individual attitudes and behaviors, and theories of motivation. This text also... read more

The text covers all areas and Ideas of organizational behavior including aspects of both demographic and cultural diversity, individual differences and perception, individual attitudes and behaviors, and theories of motivation. This text also includes a table of contents.

The content includes accurate, error-free, and unbiased information. For instance, the section on diversity refers to the Age Discrimination Act of 1975, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act and other laws prohibiting discrimination.

The content is up-to-date and can be easily updated with more recent information. There is a photo of Ursula Burns, who became president of Xerox Corporation in 2007. Her photo can be replaced, for instance, by a photo of another black female who becomes president of a corporation.

In general, the text is free from jargon and US colloquialisms. However, the text defines and expatriate as as someone who is temporarily assigned to a position in a foreign country. Some readers may be sensitive to the use of the term "foreign" to describe a country.

The text is consistent is in terms of terminology and framework. The terms culture and society are used interchangeably to describe national culture and some readers may be confused by the use of both terms.

The text is easy to read and divided into sections with headings and subheadings to make it easier for readers to navigate the text.

The topics in the text are presented in a logical, clear fashion. However, organizational culture and organizational structure are near the end of the text and student might benefit from learning about those topics before being asked to understand the design of work environments and individual attitudes and behaviors.

The text is free of interface issues.

There are no obvious grammatical errors in the text.

The text includes examples of successful individuals from a variety of ethnic backgrounds including Guy Kawasaki.

The book includes exercises following each chapter. However, may of the exercises such as those in Section 2.4 are, in fact, discussion questions rather than exercises.

Reviewed by Stacey Young, Associate Professor, Northern Virginia Community College on 6/20/17

This book does a good job in covering relevant topics related to organizational behavior. The format is user friendly, along with providing discussion questions, case studies, exercises, and takeaways. There are appropriate graphics/pictures... read more

This book does a good job in covering relevant topics related to organizational behavior. The format is user friendly, along with providing discussion questions, case studies, exercises, and takeaways. There are appropriate graphics/pictures that quickly support and reinforce key concepts. Moreover, I love that there are ongoing references to the importance of ethics with an activity related to an ethical dilemma.

The book overall is accurate. There weren't any major issues identified.

The content is relevant and covers normal organizational behavior topics address in any text.

The writing in this book is rather clear. However, there are opportunities to improve the grammar and sentence structure.

This text is consistent with other text's terminology, structure, and data to support he position offered.

This text is ready to be separated into unique, standalone learning packages.

I like the book's flow. It's logically organized in a way that each chapter builds on the previous one.

No interface issues identified.

There aren't any noticeable grammar issues, but the sentence structure should be reviewed for better clarity

Cultural Relevance rating: 1

There are opportunities to select pictures that are reflective of a diverse population.

This is the first open textbook I've reviewed. Previously, I had considerations that open source material might not be that good; however, with this book, I was amazingly surprised. I will seriously consider using this text for my organizational behavior class.

Reviewed by Atul Mitra, Professor, University of Northern Iowa on 2/15/17

This OB textbook covers all major as well as supporting topics related the OB field. The last two chapters are devoted to macro topics (Chapter 14: Organizational Structure and Change and Chapter 15: Organizational Culture); thus, implying... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

This OB textbook covers all major as well as supporting topics related the OB field. The last two chapters are devoted to macro topics (Chapter 14: Organizational Structure and Change and Chapter 15: Organizational Culture); thus, implying authors’ intent to provide comprehensive coverage. The textbook, though, is dated both in terms of scholarly references and the case studies used to inform the reader about the relevance of OB topics. Also, the textbook is more reliant on applied sources to support concepts. The pdf version of the textbook does not have a list of scholarly references. The HTML version does have these references, but they are included in within the text and, thus, negatively impact the flow and readability. I could not find a subject index or “glossary of terms” at the end of the textbook. Finally, the book lacks instructor’s resource material.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The book reads well and provides good examples to clarify basic concepts. The authors provide unbiased and thoughtful insights from scholarly sources in a very relatable fashion.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 1

This is one of the significant weakness of this textbook. The scholarly sources are dated. Case studies are also old, though still useful. Some of the in-text online links do not work. In short, this textbook is due for a major revision and would require the authors to revise all aspects of the textbook considerably. This revision would be a major undertaking and a challenge for the authors.

Clarity rating: 3

Each chapter is divided into several sub-sections. Each sub-section covers a major OB topic. The authors have done an excellent job of providing a logical and clear description of topics within each chapter. However, there is no overall framework that can easily connect topics across all 15 chapters. This may explain a somewhat random sequence of topics of 15 chapters. For example, “emotions,” “communication” or “decision-making” topics are useful in the understanding of concepts of motivation and teamwork. However, these topics are not covered prior to the coverage of motivation.

Consistency rating: 3

The coverage of each topic within a chapter by the authors is consistent. The formatting and style are also highly consistent throughout the textbook. An addition of an overall framework and an integrative case study would help provide consistency of topics across chapters.

The textbook is very modular. Specifically, the HTML format of this textbook allows each sub-section to act as a module. Any instructor, interested in adopting this textbook should look into HTML format based modules (sub-sections) as a way to customize the textbook. This may be this textbook’s significant strength.

Organization/structure of this textbook is clear within a chapter. As I have stated in my review in another section, the textbook can be improved by connecting topics across chapters using a broad framework as well as by incorporating an integrated case study.

Interface rating: 2

The pdf version of the textbook is difficult to navigate. Even though I found the HTML version to be more user-friendly, this format did have some weaknesses as well. The scholarly references in the HTML version are included within the text and negatively impact readability. I could not find a subject-index or “glossary of terms” at the end of the textbook. Many online links do not work anymore. Since the textbook does not include a subject index or glossary of key terms, it would make it difficult for students to find definitions easily. Overall, the textbook can significantly benefit from a much-improved interface.

The textbook is free of any grammatical errors.

Chapter 2 of the textbook offers a comprehensive coverage about the relevance and importance of demographic and cultural diversity. In addition, each chapter contains a sub-section “The Role of Ethics and National Culture” to ensure that students understand cultural relevance of OB concepts. This issue is clearly a strength of this textbook.

Overall, this textbook is a good option for those instructors that already have a good portfolio of instructional resources. The textbook does not appear to provide PowerPoint slides or a Test Bank. However, if an instructor is looking for a good OB textbook for an introductory OB course; s/he might wish to take a look at this textbook as a possible option because it is well-written and provides a comprehensive coverage of major OB topics. It also provides students with several useful applied examples, though these examples are somewhat dated. This textbook may not work for those instructors that wish to use an OB textbook based on current examples or an OB textbook that cites current scholarly references. To conclude, with significant interface improvements and a major revision, this could become an excellent option for both students and instructors.

Reviewed by Christopher Reina, Assistant Professor, Virginia Commonwealth University on 2/8/17

The major areas of OB are covered comprehensively. The textbook goes into an appropriate amount of depth for each of the expected topics. It discusses each of the topics through both an ethics and national culture lens at the end of each chapter... read more

The major areas of OB are covered comprehensively. The textbook goes into an appropriate amount of depth for each of the expected topics. It discusses each of the topics through both an ethics and national culture lens at the end of each chapter which represents a major strength of the textbook. The PDF version did not include a table of contents, index, or glossary which would further add to the comprehensiveness of the textbook.

The content was accurate and unbiased. The information was presented in a straight-forward way and cited published work from a wide variety of sources.

The topics covered are relevant and timely-- however, many of the citations are a bit dated. The case studies still are largely relevant even though there may exist better, more recent examples to discuss. I really appreciate the extent to which the authors integrate real-life examples of companies/leaders but the downside of this is that it limits the time the textbook can remain highly relevant without being updated. Additionally, there were several broken weblinks that need to be updated.

The writing is clear, easy to understand, and flows well. The authors do a good job of making concepts and ideas accessible for students. Authors avoided use of jargon without first defining it well and establishing the context.

The structure is easy to follow, straight-forward, and consistent.

The textbook does a good job of re-introducing ideas later in the text hat may have been covered earlier in the text which adds to the modularity of the textbook. I would not hesitate to assign specific chapters and/or assign chapters out of order for this reason.

The topic order makes logical sense and the topics build well off of each other. In the first chapter, the authors discuss levels of analysis (individual, team, and organizational) and they could perhaps return to this framework more frequently in order to guide the reader.

Interface rating: 3

For the most part, the figures and tables are clear and easy to understand. There are some figures that appear a bit distorted and/or difficult to read due to color choices. Bolding concepts or words that are defined in the text and adding a definition of the word in the margin would aid students in studying and easily identifying new concepts/concepts to study. In the PDF, there were several instances in which chapters did not start on a new page (and instead started mid-page) which was distracting.

Grammar was strong throughout the text.

This text's chapter on diversity as well as the reference to diversity issues throughout the text is a major strength. Ending each chapter with a discussion of how national culture and ethics is relevant to the topic was a powerful way to discuss diversity and continually challenge students to consider the topics from diverse perspectives.

This textbook is well-written, comprehensive, and is an excellent resource for students and faculty. The material is presented in an effective, accessible way and the integration of the "OB Toolbox" is especially useful for students to understand how to practically apply the concepts they are learning. I especially appreciated the attention to detail and comprehensiveness of the diversity chapter as well as the discussion of diversity topics throughout each chapter. The questions at the end of each chapter for reflection could push students a bit further in engaging with the material, and I would like to see some updates to the textbook when it comes to topics that should be covered (such as mindfulness and presenteeism) as well as case studies and examples from the last 3-5 years. A glossary, works cited, table of contents, and index would all be useful additions to the PDF version of the textbook, and it would be helpful if concept words defined in the text were also defined in the margins of the text in order to facilitate student recognition of topics they need understand and be able to define. Overall, this textbook is solid and I would not hesitate to use it for an undergraduate class in Organizational Behavior (although I would supplement it with readings and material from other sources as I would with any other textbook).

Reviewed by Rae Casey, Associate Professor , George Fox University on 2/8/17

The text was comprehensive, covering areas that are important when teaching organizational behavior. Some of the topic areas, such as diversity and ethics, are more comprehensive than others, but all topics are covered well enough for entry-level... read more

The text was comprehensive, covering areas that are important when teaching organizational behavior. Some of the topic areas, such as diversity and ethics, are more comprehensive than others, but all topics are covered well enough for entry-level students. The text included a comprehensive table of contents, but no index or glossary.

The textbook was accurate and covered a number of important topics in an interesting manner. I thought the advertised experiential approach was evident and well done.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 2

The concepts described in the text can survive over time, but the cases quickly date the contents. Since the concepts in the cases are integrated into the text, updating could be time consuming. I tried the text in both the .pdf and online formats, and found difficulties with the links in both. I had the best luck with the online format, although many of the links were no longer valid. When I copied and pasted the links from the .pdf version, I got many errors, some indicating I needed login information to access the site.

I liked this text. The information was presented in way that made it easy to understand and apply. Jargon and terms were well explained.

This text was well written and consistent throughout.

This text is well organized. The subheadings in the chapters create appropriate modules to support teachers as they create assignments, and students as they complete them.

The text is well organized and structured. The content flow is great, but, as previously mentioned, there are a number of links, some of which no longer lead anywhere.

Navigating the text by using the online Table of Contents was straightforward, although I did want to simply scroll to the next page instead of having to use a "next section" link, but that was minor. The .pdf format of the text was convenient if one wants to print the pages, but navigation of the .pdf format online required scrolling through the text. It would have been helpful to have a "bookmark" or similar feature to easily highlight important concepts or see where I stopped reading.

I noted no errors.

I especially appreciated the way this text discussed sensitive topics associated with gender, race, ethnicity, perception, etc.

I liked this textbook. I thought the exercises were generally good, as were the "Key Takeaway" and "OB Toolbox" sections. The text was dated, which tends to be noted by students and can lead to lost credibility. I appreciate the work that went into writing this text and could use portions of it, but would need to check the links before each course, or provide others for my students. Overall, this is a great text, but I recommend checking the details before adoption.

Reviewed by Marcia Hagen, Associate Professor, Metropolitan State on 8/21/16

Has chapters on the major themes such as diversity, decision making, motivation, ethics, and leadership to name a few; goes over the major theories. It does not go particularly deeply into any one area, but provides a solid look at a wide variety... read more

Has chapters on the major themes such as diversity, decision making, motivation, ethics, and leadership to name a few; goes over the major theories. It does not go particularly deeply into any one area, but provides a solid look at a wide variety of topics, concepts, and theories.

In terms of editing and proofing, this book does quite well. Writing is unbiased and reports materials that are accurate.

This is an area in which the text needs improvement. Few if any examples are from 2009 or later. The book is a good one, but cases need updating. Updating may be difficult for instructors to implemenet, due to the imbedding of cases into so many areas of the text. In addition, nearly half of the links provided in the text no longer work.

Text is very clear. I am impressed with the writing. In particular they did a good job of describing relatively complex theories with simple and understandable language.

The books is highly consistent in terms of formatting and style--as soon as Chapter 1 is complete, students should have a clear vision of what to expect for upcoming chapters.

This text is highly modular. In particular, the use of objectives for each section of each chapter allows for picking and choosing by instructors.

This book is well-organized and clear. Because OB is generally a set of very inter-related concepts, organization/flow is not perfect, but this book is as good as others I have seen in this area.

This is an area of improvement for this text. In particular links to outside web sites are out of date and many link to dead web sites. In addition, of the few images that are included in the text, several flow over 2 pages making them difficult to read.

Good grammar used throughout the text--few issues detected.

This text includes a good deal of discussion related to diversity, ethnicity, gender, and other issues culture in this text. I found the discussion in these areas to be both relevant and thoughtful.

There are several things about this text that I like. In particular, I think this would be a great book to use within an introductory OB course; it is well-written and thorough in terms of the breadth and depth of topics covered. The "OB Toolbox" sections give students many tips on getting, keeping, and succeeding their first professional job--that is great. However, there are a few areas of concern, as well. In particular, many links do not work and the cases are somewhat out of date (which poses a particular challenge due to the major economic changes that have taken place for several companies referred to in the text and cases). Before implementing this text, I would take time to review any potential overlap with other courses. But overall, this is a solid intro OB text.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: Organizational Behavior
• Chapter 2: Managing Demographic and Cultural Diversity
• Chapter 3: Understanding People at Work: Individual Differences and Perception
• Chapter 4: Individual Attitudes and Behaviors
• Chapter 5: Theories of Motivation
• Chapter 6: Designing a Motivating Work Environment
• Chapter 7: Managing Stress and Emotions
• Chapter 8: Communication
• Chapter 9: Managing Groups and Teams
• Chapter 10: Conflict and Negotiations
• Chapter 11: Making Decisions
• Chapter 12: Leading People Within Organizations
• Chapter 13: Power and Politics
• Chapter 14: Organizational Structure and Change
• Chapter 15: Organizational Culture

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Organizational Behavior bridges the gap between theory and practice with a distinct "experiential" approach.

On average, a worker in the USA will change jobs 10 times in 20 years. In order to succeed in this type of career situation, individuals need to be armed with the tools necessary to be life-long learners. To that end, this book is not be about giving students all the answers to every situation they may encounter when they start their first job or as they continue up the career ladder. Instead, this book gives students the vocabulary, framework, and critical thinking skills necessary to diagnose situations, ask tough questions, evaluate the answers received, and to act in an effective and ethical manner regardless of situational characteristics.

Often, students taking OB either do not understand how important knowledge of OB can be to their professional careers, or they DO understand and they want to put that knowledge into practice. Organizational Behavior takes a more experiential angle to the material to meet both of those needs. The experiential approach can be incorporated in the classroom primarily through the "OB Toolbox." This feature brings life to the concepts and allows students to not only see how the OB theories unfold, but to practice them, as well.

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Critical Thinking Case

Facebook, inc..

Facebook has been in the news with criticism of its privacy policies, sharing customer information with Fusion GPS, and criticism regarding the attempts to influence the 2016 election. In March 2014, Facebook released a study entitled “Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks.” It was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) , a prestigious, peer-reviewed scientific journal. The paper explains how social media can readily transfer emotional states from person to person through Facebook’s News Feed platform. Facebook conducted an experiment on members to see how people would respond to changes in a percentage of both positive and negative posts. The results suggest that emotional contagion does occur online and that users’ positive expressions can generate positive reaction, while, in turn, negative expression can generate negative reaction.

Facebook has two separate value propositions aimed at two different markets with entirely different goals.

Originally, Facebook’s main market was its end users—people looking to connect with family and friends. At first, it was aimed only at college students at a handful of elite schools. The site is now open to anyone with an Internet connection. Users can share status updates and photographs with friends and family. And all of this comes at no cost to the users.

Facebook’s other major market is advertisers, who buy information about Facebook’s users. The company regularly gathers data about page views and browsing behavior of users in order to display targeted advertisements to users for the benefit of its advertising partners.

The value proposition of the Facebook News Feed experiment was to determine whether emotional manipulation would be possible through the use of social networks. This clearly could be of great value to one of Facebook’s target audiences—its advertisers.

The results suggest that the emotions of friends on social networks influence our own emotions, thereby demonstrating emotional contagion via social networks. Emotional contagion is the tendency to feel and express emotions similar to and influenced by those of others. Originally, it was studied by psychologists as the transference of emotions between two people.

According to Sandra Collins, a social psychologist and University of Notre Dame professor of management, it is clearly unethical to conduct psychological experiments without the informed consent of the test subjects. While tests do not always measure what the people conducting the tests claim, the subjects need to at least know that they are, indeed, part of a test. The subjects of this test on Facebook were not explicitly informed that they were participating in an emotional contagion experiment. Facebook did not obtain informed consent as it is generally defined by researchers, nor did it allow participants to opt out.

When information about the experiment was released, the media response was overwhelmingly critical. Tech blogs, newspapers, and media reports reacted quickly.

Josh Constine of TechCrunch wrote:

“ . . . there is some material danger to experiments that depress people. Some people who are at risk of depression were almost surely part of Facebook’s study group that were shown a more depressing feed, which could be considered dangerous. Facebook will endure a whole new level of backlash if any of those participants were found to have committed suicide or had other depression-related outcomes after the study.”

The New York Times quoted Brian Blau, a technology analyst with the research firm Gartner, “Facebook didn’t do anything illegal, but they didn’t do right by their customers. Doing psychological testing on people crosses the line.” Facebook should have informed its users, he said. “They keep on pushing the boundaries, and this is one of the reasons people are upset.”

While some of the researchers have since expressed some regret about the experiment, Facebook as a company was unapologetic about the experiment. The company maintained that it received consent from its users through its terms of service. A Facebook spokesperson defended the research, saying, “We do research to improve our services and make the content people see on Facebook as relevant and engaging as possible. . . . We carefully consider what research we do and have a strong internal review process.”

With the more recent events, Facebook is changing the privacy settings but still collects an enormous amount of information about its users and can use that information to manipulate what users see. Additionally, these items are not listed on Facebook’s main terms of service page. Users must click on a link inside a different set of terms to arrive at the data policy page, making these terms onerous to find. This positioning raises questions about how Facebook will employ its users’ behaviors in the future.

• How should Facebook respond to the 2014 research situation? How could an earlier response have helped the company avoid the 2018 controversies and keep the trust of its users?
• Should the company promise to never again conduct a survey of this sort? Should it go even further and explicitly ban research intended to manipulate the responses of its users?
• How can Facebook balance the concerns of its users with the necessity of generating revenue through advertising?
• What processes or structures should Facebook establish to make sure it does not encounter these issues again?
• Respond in writing to the issues presented in this case by preparing two documents: a communication strategy memo and a professional business letter to advertisers.

Sources: Kramer, Adam; Guillory, Jamie; and Hancock, Jeffrey, “Experimental evidence of massive scale emotional contagion through social networks,” PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America ). March 25, 2014 http://www.pnas.org/content/111/24/8788.full; Laja, Peep. “Useful Value Proposition Examples (and How to Create a Good One), ConversionXL , 2015 http://conversionxl.com/value-proposition-examples-how-to-create/; Yadav, Sid. “Facebook - The Complete Biography,” Mashable, Aug. 25, 2006. http://mashable.com/2006/08/25/facebook-profile/#orb9TmeYHiqK; Felix, Samantha, “This Is How Facebook Is Tracking Your Internet Activity,” Business Insider , Sept. 9, 2012 http://www.businessinsider.com/this-is-how-facebook-is-tracking-your-internet-activity-2012-9;

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This is an advanced survey course in organizational behavior designed to expose you to essential theories and concepts for analyzing, understanding, and managing human behavior in organizations. In this course we will apply concrete organizational situations from our case studies and projects to essential theories and effective management practices. In this class you will learn how to thrive at work by managing {Our relationships.

In this course, we will investigate: Individual behavior in organizations, including personality, decision-making, personal outworks, and ethics Interpersonal behavior, including teamwork, conflict, leadership, and power and influence Organizational factors affecting behavior, Including reward systems, culture, and organizational design Specific Course Objectives My goals for this course are to help you Manage individuals for high performance by developing your understanding of individual and interpersonal behavior, including your own.

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Specifically, this class is an opportunity to develop yourself and to learn how to manage your relationships with others in a work setting.

A ajar portion of your grade is a team project because it is unlikely that in this complex, team-oriented, project management work climate that you will not end up on a team in your career. Team projects are useful because they are opportunities to learn about conflict, diversity, and creativity. The class is discussion based because if you can not effectively present your good ideas, or are unwilling to do so, how will {Our future bosses ever know you have any.

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Required Reading Online at the library in Business Source Complete (L): Available online Textbook (B): Machines and Von Ogling (2012). M: Organizational Behavior. New fork, NY: McGraw Hill. Course Packet (P): Available at Speedway Handouts (H): Readings available through class Course Requirements and Weighting Class Participation and Attendance Points 10 Reflection Presentation Case Analysis Two In-Class Exams (35 points each) Team Project 200 Assessment 20 70 Grading is based strictly on mastery of course material.

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Introduction, author contributions, acknowledgement, ethical statement, data availability, developing community resilience in the face of covid-19: case study from the estrie region, canada.

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Martine Shareck, Marie Suzanne Badji, Karine Picard, Jean-François Allaire, Philippe Roy, Mélissa Généreux, Julie Lévesque, Émanuèle Lapierre-Fortin, Developing community resilience in the face of COVID-19: case study from the Estrie region, Canada, Health Promotion International , Volume 39, Issue 4, August 2024, daae094, https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daae094

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The COVID-19 pandemic undeniably impacted population health and several aspects of community organization, including service delivery and social cohesion. Intersectoral collaboration and equity, two key dimensions of community resilience, proved central to an effective and equitable response to the pandemic. Yet the factors that enabled or constrained communities’ capacity to enact intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action in such times of urgency and uncertainty remain poorly understood. This descriptive qualitative study aimed to (1) describe the processes through which intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action were deployed during the first wave of COVID-19 and (2) identify factors enabling and constraining these processes. We conducted semi-directed interviews with 35 representatives of the governmental, institutional, and public and third sectors from four municipal regional counties of the Estrie region (Québec, Canada). We coded detailed interview notes following a codebook thematic analysis approach. We identified three processes through which intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action were deployed: (1) networking; (2) adaptation, creation and innovation; and (3) human-centred action. Examples of levers which supported the deployment of these processes included capitalizing on pre-existing networks, adapting practices and services, and investing in solidarity and mutual aid. The influencing factors we describe represent concrete targets for resilience-building action. Although focused on the COVID-19 pandemic, our findings are relevant to other types of health, social, environmental or economic crises, and may guide health promotion and community development practitioners towards more effective community resilience-building responses.

Community resilience and health promotion share key areas of action, such as intersectoral collaboration and equity.

Community resilience must be fostered for effective and equitable response to future crises and emergencies such as the climate crisis.

In our study, networking, adaptation, creation and innovation, and human-centred action were central to an intersectoral and equitable response to COVID-19 in the Estrie region.

These processes and associated influencing factors apply to other similar crises and emergencies, supporting a health and equity-promoting response.

The COVID-19 pandemic and associated public health measures implemented to curb the spread of the coronavirus had major impacts on health and health inequity ( Public Health Agency of Canada, 2023 ) as well as on economic vitality, public safety, employment, food security, access to resources and social cohesion at the community level ( Public Health Agency of Canada, 2020 ; Barlow et al ., 2021 ). In Québec, Canada, government-imposed confinement was part of such public health measures. Following the declaration of a state of emergency on 13 March 2020, all non-essential activities were temporarily halted, physical distancing and work-from-home measures were implemented, and indoor and outdoor gatherings were prohibited at several timepoints during the first and subsequent waves of COVID-19 ( Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec, 2022 ).

Combined to the increased power granted to the State and the rise of public health as a leader of the health crisis, these types of restrictions forced institutions and organizations to operate in a new and changing context of high uncertainty, with consequences for human relations, management and service provision ( Badji et al ., 2023 ; Cunningham et al ., 2023 ). For example, injunctions to limit physical and social contacts upset the usual communication and collaboration mechanisms between community development actors ( Badji et al ., 2023 ). They also led to a decline in trust in public health authorities and governments ( Schluter et al ., 2023 ). By reducing the potential for mobilizing community development and other actors around collective action, these upheavals tested communities’ capacity to exert resilience ( Badji et al ., 2023 ), i.e. the ability to adapt to an environment characterized by change, uncertainty and surprise, by mobilizing collective resources ( Magis, 2010 ). On a brighter side, they also spurred the development of new ways of thinking and doing collective action to address issues which emerged during, or were exacerbated by, COVID-19 ( Badji et al ., 2023 ).

Community resilience has been conceptualized as encompassing several dimensions which, depending on the framework one draws upon, include adaptation capacity, community capital, collective action, collaboration, local leadership, development and engagement of community resources, strategic action and learning, and inclusion and equity ( Magis, 2010 ; McCrea et al ., 2014 ; O’Sullivan et al ., 2014 ; Cafer et al ., 2019 ). Each framework is distinct, putting more or less emphasis on key dimensions, but there are also overlaps ( McCrea et al ., 2014 ). Intersectoral collaboration and equity are two dimensions that are recurringly discussed in the community resilience literature. Intersectoral collaboration involves actors from different sectors (e.g. education, health, employment, housing, social services, municipal services) and different orders (public, private, third sector or civil society) pooling their resources to act collectively to address a complex situation of common interest that they cannot resolve alone ( Divay et al ., 2013 ). As per equity-focused action, in the COVID-19 context, we defined it as action targeting ‘vulnerable groups’, i.e. people or organizations who found themselves at higher risk of suffering from the crisis or its collateral effects (e.g. job losses, school closures, intimate partner violence) because of shared social characteristics (e.g. precarious employment situation, single-parent family, female gender) ( Frohlich and Potvin, 2008 ). Collective action rooted in intersectoral collaboration is thought to offer greater potential for promoting social and health equity than sectoral action ( Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec, 2021 ), since promoting equity requires action on the social determinants of health such as income, employment, housing, education and neighbourhood environments, which lie outside the direct realm of public health ( Raphael et al ., 2020 ; Amri et al ., 2022 ).

While intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action appear to be essential to identify and respond effectively to the needs of vulnerable groups in normal times, a question remains: in times of urgency and uncertainty as created by the COVID-19 pandemic, how can communities’ capacity to act intersectorally and in favour of equity be supported to promote their resilience? The present study aimed to (1) identify the processes by which intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action were deployed during the first wave of COVID-19 and (2) document the factors which facilitated or limited these processes. Understanding this is essential to strengthen communities’ capacity to become more resilient in the face of future similar emergencies ( Public Health Agency of Canada, 2023 ; United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, n.d. ). Furthermore, a focus on equity fills a gap in community resilience research and practice given that despite vulnerable groups being more at risk of suffering from crises and emergencies, they have more difficulty recovering ( Norris et al ., 2008 ) and their voices have often been excluded from community resilience thinking ( Cafer et al ., 2019 ).

The current study was embedded within a larger participatory research project initiated by the Observatoire estrien du développement des communautés (OEDC), a not-for-profit organization whose mission is to support Estrie communities in building capacity for collective action. Following concerns expressed by their members in April 2020 regarding how to respond to COVID-19 and its collateral impacts, OEDC set out to draft an intersectoral depiction of the local and regional response to COVID-19 in the Estrie region, and guide communities in developing or reinforcing their resilience. In the first phases of this larger project, intersectoral collaboration and equity stood out as being of particular interest to communities, but they struggled with implementing concrete actions. This observation spurred the present study.

Study design and case selection

This descriptive qualitative study was conducted in the Estrie region which covers an area of 12 483 km 2 in the south-eastern part of Québec, Canada, and has an estimated population of 507 208 inhabitants [ Institut de la statistique du Québec (ISQ), 2022 ]. It encompasses nine municipal regional counties (MRCs), eight of which took part in the larger project. Here, we selected four MRC territories based on three diversification criteria to allow for identifying similarities and differences: geography (rural vs urban context), population age distribution ( Institut de la statistique du Québec (ISQ), 2022 ; Statistics Canada, 2022 ), and previous experience with large-scale economic or social crises. We also took into consideration the quality and depth of interview material (e.g. some interviews were relatively succinct and superficial). Cases included vast, sparsely populated areas as well as the main urban centre, the city of Sherbrooke. Two cases had previously experienced crises and subsequently deployed collective initiatives to recover and rebuild physically, socially and economically ( Généreux et al ., 2020 ; OEDC, 2020 ). The Sherbrooke, des Sources, Granit and Haut-Saint-François MRCs were selected as cases and are described in Table 1 .

Main characteristics of the four selected cases

Data collection

We conducted semi-directed individual phone or video interviews in July and August 2020 with 8–10 individuals in each MRC. The study’s advisory board—composed of public health and social work researchers, the OEDC’s executive director, and representatives of the regional social and health services, provincial public health, and regional political sector—identified potential participants. These were representatives of the governmental, institutional or public and third sectors. They worked in the regional, municipal, health, education, economy, social and cultural fields, and had extensive knowledge of, and local involvement in, their MRC territory. Of the 35 participants we interviewed across the four selected MRCs, 8 were community development professionals, 15 were administrators or managers at the municipal level ( n  = 2), in economic development organizations ( n  = 2) and community organizations ( n  = 11), 5 were MRC and city directors, and 7 were elected officials. The interview guide covered the overall response to the first wave of COVID-19 (February 27–July 2020) in participants’ territory, key community resilience dimensions and main learnings. Lasting approximately 60 minutes, interviews were digitally recorded. The interviewer took detailed notes which were subsequently amended by two research assistants upon listening to the recordings. Participants provided informed consent prior to interviews. Ethical approval was obtained from the CIUSSS de l’Estrie-CHUS [2021-3839].

Data analysis

We performed a thematic codebook analysis of detailed interview notes as per Braun and Clarke ( Braun and Clarke, 2006 ) with NVivo 12 software. The analysis consisted in five phases leading to a final report and manuscript: (1) familiarizing oneself with the data; (2) generating initial codes; (3) searching for themes; (4) reviewing themes; and (5) defining and naming themes. The codebook drew on the research objectives, interview guide and analytical grid used in the larger project which centred around community strengths and weaknesses, pre-existing social infrastructure and how it supported (or limited) intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action, and how communities identified vulnerable groups and their needs. The codebook structure allowed for including codes emerging inductively. Two research assistants independently coded interview notes. Codes were organized into categories to define key processes deployed for intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action, and to identify facilitators and barriers to process deployment.

Criteria for quality

As part of the larger project, we held participatory workshops with study participants and additional key actors from each MRC territory to validate preliminary results (Fall 2020), facilitated two webinars on intersectoral collaboration and equity (Spring 2021), and held a final participatory workshop to share findings from this comparative case study (Winter 2023). Between 30 and 50 people attended each of these activities. While not part of the data collection per se , this contributed to the quality of our study with regard worthiness of the topic, rich rigor and credibility ( Tracy, 2010 ). Rigor was further supported by having two research assistants code and analyse the data independently before regrouping and comparing, regularly discussing coding and themes with the principal investigator and consulting co-investigators on final results interpretation. Involvement of a wide range of participants also meant information sources could be triangulated.

We identified three processes which communities deployed to support intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action in the first wave of COVID-19 in Estrie: (1) networking; (2) adaptation, creation and innovation; and (3) human-centred action. As illustrated in Figure 1 , different levers were used to activate each process, and several influencing factors facilitated or limited this activation. From ‘process’ to ‘lever’ to ‘influencing factor’, we move from the general to the specific, with influencing factors representing concrete elements upon which communities could act to develop or strengthen their resilience.

Processes deployed, levers activated and influencing factors associated with intersectoral collaboration and actions in favour of equity.

Process 1: ‘networking’

The first process, ‘networking’, proved essential for supporting intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action. Networking was enacted through three levers: activating pre-existing networks, building new social ties and developing new intersectoral collaborations. Activating pre-existing networks refers to the ability of actors involved in the COVID-19 response to strengthen relationships, intensify activities between collaborators and change the collaboration culture when necessary, for example, by welcoming new members to a concertation. The creation of a sanitary station for homeless people in Sherbrooke is a good example of this lever:

We created a [sanitary] station in the courtyard of [the non-profit] Partage Saint-François with the Sherbrooke Concertation Table on Homelessness. Everyone did what was needed according to their mandates: finding and setting up tents, recruiting workers, planning schedules… working at all levels in complementarity. [P2 – Sherbrooke]

Building new social ties refers to the ability of local institutions and formal actors to establish relationships with citizens. Although this, at times, required them to change roles and act more informally in relation to citizens, it was essential for compensating for the erosion of social interactions between citizens due to strict public health restrictions. This lever is exemplified by Granit MRC firefighters and police officers’ mobilization to show support towards hospital staff and elderly people living in long-term care homes. Developing new intersectoral collaborations refers to the creation of social infrastructures or collective initiatives enabling actors from different sectors who were not accustomed to working together to voluntarily do so with the aim of achieving a common goal. One example is the creation of crisis units such as the Community Action and Support Committee ( Comité d’entraide communautaire ) in Sherbrooke. In this case, co-coordination by a tandem of institutional and community actors and clear definitions of each partner’s mandate and role enabled the crisis unit to operate smoothly.

Influencing factors

Several factors were deemed to influence networking, either positively or negatively. We found this process to be facilitated by a pre-established culture of collaboration and concertation characterized by mature social infrastructures, openness to intersectoral collaboration, and reliance on collaborative and participatory leadership. Regarding the first factor, in some territories, social infrastructures created during previous crises, such as in the Sources and Granit MRCs, facilitated the energization of teams already experienced in crisis management who were able to get to work quickly to support the community. For example, the permanent outreach teams ( équipes de proximité ) created in the wake of the fatal 2013 derailment of an oil-carrying train in Lac Mégantic town centre were central to the COVID-19 response in the Granit MRC. In 2013, these multidisciplinary teams composed of health professionals, social workers, outreach workers and community organizers were tasked to deliver psychosocial services directly to the population, on the ground rather than in formal clinics, and were driven by principles of empowerment, inter-organizational and intersectoral collaboration, and citizen involvement and inclusion ( Généreux et al ., 2020 ). Similarly, existing ties also facilitated collaboration in the Haut-Saint-François territory where ‘A special COVID committee was created at the MRC level, whose members were already partners, they were already working together’ [P8 – Haut-Saint-François]. It was pointed out, however, that networking in this territory was nevertheless complicated by certain organizations’ strong culture of working in sectoral silos.

Openness to intersectoral collaboration is a second factor that facilitated networking. As one des Sources participant put it: ‘Social development is no longer just the business of the CDC [Community development corporation]. The MRC has a role and responsibilities’ [P3 – des Sources]. This new and heightened awareness of the importance of intersectoral collaboration helped mobilize a range of actors, such as outreach workers, rural agents, elected officials and citizen leaders, to actively participate in the COVID-19 response. For example, the synergy between actors involved in the Haut-Saint-François crisis unit and those on Sherbrooke’s Community Action and Support Committee made it easier to identify, reach and meet the needs of vulnerable groups, as did the adoption of a bottom-up approach, anchored in the field, rather than a top-down hierarchical one. On the flip side, some actors may not have been entirely open to intersectoral collaboration due to COVID-19 repercussions on themselves and their teams, such as exhaustion, demotivation and feelings of powerlessness, which limited their working across sectors.

Lastly, reliance on collective, participatory leadership is a third factor that could facilitate or hinder networking. Defined as leadership that recognizes skill complementarity, respects different partners’ values and organizational cultures, and supports the participation of all, this type of leadership generally enables a concerted response to community needs without duplication ( World Health Organization, 2016 ). In this sense, the optimal sharing of responsibilities favoured the effective and coordinated contribution of actors with different fields of competence and expertise:

We all understood that it wasn’t every person for herself that would get us there, so we quickly got together virtually, to make our strategy together... we went around the table to get everyone’s opinion, be it community organizers, cultural actors, the school or municipality. [P8 – des Sources]

The collective leadership of three of the main players in the Québec community development ecosystem—the Health and Social Services Network, MRCs and Community Development Corporations—also enabled broad participation by various actors in crisis and monitoring units, despite the cumbersome nature of the process resulting from opposing modes of governance. While this was viewed positively in all territories, several participants nevertheless pointed out that at times, the Health and Social Services Network adopted more of a top-down leadership approach, delegating responsibilities without granting additional resources to take action, which compromised intersectoral actors’ mobilization. Furthermore, exclusion of certain key actors (e.g. minority linguistic groups) from consultations, local leaders’ lack of experience in crisis management and the late realization by some municipalities of their responsibility in helping manage the health crisis may also have hindered proper concerted and intersectoral response to the health crisis.

Process 2: ‘adaptation, creation and innovation’

The second process we identified and through which intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action were deployed was adaptation, creation and innovation. The three levers associated with this process related to adapting or innovating with regards practices, services and communications ( Figure 1 ). Adapting practices involves adjusting ways of working and redeploying resources according to the evolving pandemic context (e.g. moving from meeting face-to-face to relying on virtual or hybrid modes) and needs (e.g. adjusting action plans according to emerging issues). Adapting services refers to organizations aligning their activities and services with the evolving context, for example by revising their mission or mandate to allow them to address emerging issues, as evoked by this participant:

Our mandate was not to communicate with the population, but to foster networking between organizations. But along the way, we saw the need to adjust. We set up a Facebook page to get in touch with people quickly. The information came from organizations. We also created an email address to redirect people to resources. [P1 – Sherbrooke]

In a related vein, adapting communications refers to diversifying the means deployed to promote access to reliable information at the right time as well as strategies aimed at promoting social cohesion through the maintenance of social interactions.

We identified three factors which influenced the process of adaptation, creation and innovation: key actors’ agility, social cohesion, and diversification of communication channels and access to technology. First, key actors’ agility and flexibility in changing roles was found to facilitate adaptation, creation and innovation. One illustration of this lies in municipal authorities’ openness to step outside their usual sphere of influence and engage directly with higher levels of government. Adopting a positive and proactive attitude towards the pandemic reality also enabled them to demonstrate autonomy and leadership in crisis management. On the other hand, the centralization of powers within the State and public health authorities sometimes limited municipalities’ capacity for action, despite their openness to act. For example, while municipal bodies were responsible for overseeing the application of public health directives at the local level (e.g. enforcing the ban on indoor gatherings), uncertainties, controversies and conspiracy-thinking surrounding State-imposed health measures may have undermined public confidence in local institutions. This links back to the above discussion concerning the problematic discrepancy between the increased responsibility given by the State to municipal and other local actors on one hand, and the lack of resources and support provided to enact these responsibilities, on the other hand.

Key actors’ agility is further illustrated by the design and deployment of continuity plans structured according to the evolving reality and needs. While some private and third sector actors struggled with the new reality of high staff turnover, others were able to launch new services, products and programs to address emerging needs, making it possible to remedy certain blind spots and to ‘take care of everyone’. To do so, some were forced to step outside their usual field of intervention or redirect their attention to specific groups, as stated by this Sherbrooke participant from a third-sector organization:

It’s not part of our mission to help the most vulnerable people; we support social economy enterprises that can support vulnerable people directly. We’ve been more attentive to these businesses so that they stay in operation as much as possible. [P9 – Sherbrooke]

A second factor which facilitated adaptation, creation and innovation was social cohesion within communities, which is characterized by strong human ties and a benevolent approach between citizens and organizational actors ( Manca, 2014 ). In this sense, adaptation to the pandemic context proved easier in territories where social and economic disparities were narrower and where community members shared common values and a strong sense of belonging. Adaptation to constantly changing public health orders also appeared to be less complex in rural areas, particularly those where the social, community, economic and physical environment was more conducive to interaction. This was also true in micro-territories (where everyone knew everyone else) and in sparsely populated but well-serviced areas (where citizens were more reachable). For example, the small geographical size, low population and high sense of belonging in the MRC des Sources meant that the needs of vulnerable groups could be managed on an almost case-by-case basis.

A third and final factor influencing adaptation, creation and innovation was the diversification of communication channels and access to technology. Communication indeed proved particularly challenging in the context of reduced physical and social interactions and heightened misinformation during COVID-19. According to participants, actors quickly realized they had to ‘to leave no stone unturned’ [P7 – des Sources] and communicate with citizens through more diverse channels (including in person, print, radio, TV and social media), more often than usual, and more simply to increase reach and reduce misinformation. The centralization of information and requests in the form of a specialized help desk (Granit), telephone line (des Sources) or newsletter (Sherbrooke) also enabled actors involved in the COVID-19 response to maintain a high degree of consistency in communications despite how quickly new information emerged. In the Sources and Sherbrooke MRCs, the Community Development Corporations led these initiatives, which, in addition to informing citizens of available services in a timely fashion also freed community organizations from this task. Reliance on outreach workers with established and close ties with citizens also enabled reaching more vulnerable groups. Obstacles to effective communication nevertheless remained, including frequent changes in directives coming from public health authorities and delays in processing, translating and disseminating information. Increased reliance on digital technology for working, learning and communicating with family also constrained adaptation, creation and innovation. Interestingly, this constraint was equally felt in urban and rural territories, but for different reasons. In the case of Sherbrooke, a lack of modern equipment was most problematic, and eventually solved by distributing second-hand computers to community organization employees working from home, while in rural territories, access to a high-speed internet network was most problematic. Although the turn towards virtual communication was positively referred to as ‘the greatest adaptation’ [P1 – Granit], over time, difficulties nevertheless became apparent, such as sustaining participants’ attention, motivation and commitment in virtual meetings, highlighting the limits of this adaptation in the longer term: ‘People are no longer able to do visio , they need to see each other’ [P1 – Haut-Saint-François].

Process 3: ‘human-centred action’

Human-centred action is the third and final process through which intersectoral collaboration and equity were deployed in response to the first wave of COVID-19 in Estrie. These are defined as actions in which individuals, and particularly vulnerable groups and organizations, were the focal point. The three levers which supported this process are rapid response, solidarity and mutual aid, and support for individuals and organizations ( Figure 1 ). Rapid response refers to key actors having to make prompt efforts to identify and respond to the general population and vulnerable groups’ needs, within the limits of available resources. For example, in the MRC des Sources:

Some high school students didn’t have Internet access at home. The town sent a request to the MRC and within 2 weeks, the students received USB keys to connect to the Internet..... We did it because it’s a priority for our young people, to fight against dropping out of school. [P3 – des Sources]

Solidarity and mutual aid refer to mutual assistance based on the principles of reciprocity and/or free help to the community. Examples of such actions include benevolent measures towards vulnerable groups, such as sending virtual cards and flowers to the elderly, making friendly calls to isolated people, and distributing food to families, as well as community organizations helping each other out by pooling their resources. Finally, support for individuals includes measures taken to reduce the consequences of poor living conditions on the health of vulnerable individuals and families (e.g. help with food shopping for people without social support), while support for organizations was actualized in the form of support for the functioning, operating and liquidity of organizations facing difficulties, as illustrated by a partnership with the Quebec entrepreneurial Coaching Clinic to offer targeted coaching to adapt to COVID-19 a support measure mentioned by a Granit participant.

The following factors may have influenced the deployment of human-centred actions: resource mobilization, funding agencies’ flexibility, and physical and relational proximity. Most importantly, the mobilization and commitment of human, organizational, institutional, collective, financial, material and logistical resources in a spirit of mutual aid and solidarity facilitated this process. Resource mobilization was deemed easier in areas characterized by material or social fragility and by the presence of under-represented groups (e.g. linguistic, cultural and ethnic communities) as in Sherbrooke, potentially because there already were services dedicated to these more vulnerable groups. This was also deemed easier in small areas like the MRC des Sources and in areas with a self-reported ‘well-established reflex to help’ such as the MRC Haut-Saint-François. There, the spontaneous outpouring of individual support led the intersectoral group Haut-Saint-François fou de ses enfants to support the local food bank and volunteer centre in delivering food baskets and groceries. Despite widespread job and income losses linked to the pandemic, collective awareness of its impact on community organizations’ financial resources further encouraged donor generosity and resource mobilization in all territories: in des Sources and Granit MRCs, meals were delivered to seniors’ homes to ensure food security, while in Sherbrooke, restauranteurs donated their food stocks to community organizations.

Throughout the first wave of COVID-19, funding organizations also showed flexibility by maintaining subsidies to organizations despite the cancellation of planned events, while financial institutions introduced moratoria to facilitate loans and mortgage repayment which benefited individuals, organizations and businesses. This flexibility is both an example and enabler of human-centred action. However, participants from all territories mentioned that the federal government’s underfunding of community organizations hampered the deployment of human-centred actions through intersectoral collaboration since these organizations consequently faced important challenges, such as having to limit their activities or close temporarily due to resource shortages. Funding agencies’ flexibility and generosity was thus unequal, depending on the level of government represented. Finally, we found that physical and relational proximity contributed positively to human-centred action. Physical proximity between organizations which were ‘are all under the same roof, used to coordinating and seeing each other’ [P4 – des Sources] facilitated communication between intersectoral actors as well as the sharing of resources and deployment of concerted, rather than siloed, action. In a related vein, according to participants, relational proximity, which was fostered by a sense of belonging among urban citizens to neighbourhood tables and among rural citizens to local community groups, further made it easier to reach vulnerable groups and address their needs. This last influencing factor relates back to the processes of networking (e.g. through enabling activation of pre-existing networks) and to adaptation, creation and innovation (e.g. through facilitating communication).

In this paper, we set out to identify the processes by which two interrelated dimensions of community resilience—intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action—were deployed during the first wave of COVID-19 in Estrie, Québec, and to document factors facilitating or constraining these processes. We identified three processes: (1) networking; (2) adaptation, creation and innovation; and (3) human-centred action. For each process, we documented three levers that enabled their deployment, and three influencing factors. It has previously been suggested that intersectoral collaboration is essential to the design of a just and sustainable future ( Ndumbe-Eyoh et al ., 2021 ; Corbin, 2023 ), and it has been found to be central to an equitable response to COVID-19 ( Public Health Agency of Canada, 2020 ). Our results align with the 2023 Canadian Public Health Officer’s report with regard to the importance of social infrastructure, intersectoral collaboration and a focus on more vulnerable groups for effectively and collectively responding to crises and emergencies ( Public Health Agency of Canada, 2023 ). They further contribute to a better understanding of what can facilitate or hinder community resilience, and point to recommendations as to how communities can better prepare for future crises, whether health, social, economic or environmental.

Regarding networking, our results align with existing conceptual frameworks ( Norris et al ., 2008 ; Magis, 2010 ; Berkes and Ross, 2013 ) and findings from previous empirical studies ( Nespeca et al ., 2020 ; Slingerland et al ., 2023 ). They highlight that ties established between intersectoral actors ahead of COVID-19, openness to intersectoral collaboration, and collective, participatory leadership all favoured an intersectoral and equity-focused response to COVID-19. They revealed that a well-established culture of collaboration and concertation characterized by mature social infrastructures can facilitate spontaneous collective action in a context of vulnerability, as reported by others ( Rippon et al ., 2020 ; Richard et al ., 2023 ; Slingerland et al ., 2023 ). For example, Richard et al . ( Richard et al ., 2023 ) found that networks pre-existing the pandemic were key to mobilizing actors involved in deploying government-led screening and contact tracing strategies in France. We further found that for actors otherwise accustomed to working in silos, an open-mind to intersectoral collaboration led to a growing awareness of its importance in responding to complex issues such as COVID-19. This suggests that intersectoral collaboration is possible in times of uncertainty, even in contexts where community development actors may be new to it.

Our findings regarding networking also stressed the need to ensure that observations from the field percolate up to higher levels of governance for meaningful and equity-focused action to be taken. In the context of a health crisis, this would mean creating networks that allow citizens, community organizations and institutions to work jointly, which can be facilitated by collaborative governance. In Estrie, this was embodied by the tripartite participatory leadership exercised by the Health and Social Services Network, MRCs and Community Development Corporations, which, although generally beneficial, nonetheless faced challenges related to power and resource imbalances. Similar challenges have been reported by Adger ( Adger, 2003 ) according to whom effective networking in support of vulnerable groups requires collaborators to be involved on equal footing, by Morgan et al . ( Morgan et al ., 2021 ), who highlight the challenges of translating local voices into institutional change, and by Richard et al . ( Richard et al ., 2023 ), who recognize the complexity of developing intersectoral partnerships due to misunderstandings between different professions. Despite challenges, leaning towards collective and participatory governance where community organizations are allowed a seat at the table is promising. As discussed by Morgan et al . ( Morgan et al ., 2021 ), as coordinating entities of many different sectors, community organizations are indeed well positioned to develop and strengthen the systems and processes that enable citizens and institutions to work well together.

With regard the second process we identified—adaptation, creation and innovation—we found it to be fostered by key actors’ agility, social cohesion, and diversification of communication channels and access to technology. The ability to adapt and evolve is in fact one of the key strengths of a resilient community [adaptation being a defining characteristic of the phenomenon ( Norris et al ., 2008 ; Magis, 2010 )] and others have found that it requires agility on the part of actors to change roles in times of crisis ( Nespeca et al ., 2020 ; Rippon et al ., 2020 ; Slingerland et al ., 2023 ). In our study as elsewhere ( Badji et al ., 2023 ; Slingerland et al ., 2023 ), ease of adaptation was tied to the process of networking wherein, for example, formal actors such as firefighters adopted more informal roles in support of local hospital staff and elderly groups. We also found this process to be easier in places where social cohesion and sense of belonging were stronger. This resonates with previous literature documenting how a sense of shared values, interdependency and community could greatly foster commitment to sustained collective efforts in the face of COVID-19 ( Wolf et al ., 2020 ) as well as chronic ‘ordinary’ stressors such as sustained high levels of unemployment and poverty ( Rochira et al ., 2023 ). Similar to Comes ( Comes, 2016 ), we also found that centralizing information and communicating effectively , more often than usual , and using different media was essential to reach a broad population and respond to challenges in the context of uncertainty and rapid change resulting from COVID-19. This aligns with the Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec’s recommendations ( Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec, 2020 ) stating that disseminating information to promote community resilience requires mobilizing intersectoral partners and local opinion leaders and demonstrating empathy to build public trust. Our results also revealed the essential nature—but inequitable distribution—of high-speed Internet and digital literacy. As noted by Ndumbe-Eyoh et al . ( Ndumbe-Eyoh et al ., 2021 ), limited access to the Internet may prevent certain groups (e.g. those on low incomes or the elderly) from taking part in the virtual turn. While we found this to be a barrier to reaching specific groups and to service continuity in some territories, most were nevertheless able to overcome this challenge by tapping into collective generosity through donations of mobile internet USB keys to students and second-hand computers to those in need.

The last process we documented, human-centred action, was found to be influenced by resource mobilization, funding agencies’ flexibility, and physical and relational proximity. We found mobilizing resources to be easier in communities that were already fragile and/or had a strong and established culture of mutual aid. This could be explained by such territories already having services dedicated to more vulnerable groups and being used to relying on their own local infrastructures and social networks to solve problems too often neglected by public health and emergency response systems. As pointed out by Rochira et al . ( Rochira et al ., 2023 ), communities’ potential to respond effectively to crises depends on their access to diverse resources, but also on their ability to make available resources (even when minimal) work together. Our results also suggest that collective action geared towards vulnerable groups was facilitated by the physical and relational proximity of intersectoral actors. Morgan et al . ( Morgan et al ., 2021 ) similarly reported that in Toronto, Canada, local community leaders who were close to their clientele played a key role in mitigating the psychosocial and socioeconomic impacts of the pandemic by responding quickly to their fellow citizens’ needs in terms of food provision, information and mental health support. Regarding relational proximity, Ndumbe-Eyoh et al. ( Ndumbe-Eyoh et al. , 2021 ) suggest the community sector is well positioned to provide services and support in times of urgency, but that it should not be given full responsibility for filling the gaps in the public health and emergency management system ( Morgan et al ., 2021 ; Ndumbe-Eyoh et al ., 2021 ). This may be especially true when the community sector is not provided with all the resources to do so ( den Broeder et al ., 2022 ), as we found here. Efforts should therefore be expended to ensure equity in power, responsibilities and resources across intersectoral actors involved in emergency responses.

Strengths and limitations

Our study has several strengths, the main one being the participatory approach we adopted to respond to practical concerns expressed by community development actors. An interdisciplinary and intersectoral advisory committee composed of researchers and representatives from the non-profit sector, health and social services and regional governments also developed data collection procedures and tools, and provided insights throughout the study. We led workshops with key actors from each territory at several time points which allowed us to gain feedback on preliminary and final results. Our participatory research process was highly mobilizing itself and had the potential to support reflexivity, autonomy and learning among participating communities with regard their territory’s resilience ( Ross and Berkes, 2014 ), something which was also reported by participants. Although only four of the nine Estrie territories were represented in this paper, we can confidently state that the results reflect the diversity of realities lived in the region. Moreover, our territorial approach aligns with the United Nations Sendai Framework ( United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, n.d. ), the ‘One Community at a time’ approach to resilience ( Ma et al ., 2023 ), and the recent Canadian Chief Public Health Officer’s report on resilience to future crises ( Public Health Agency of Canada, 2023 ), which all stress the importance of learning from local communities to then share lessons more widely to collectively seek to ‘build back better’, which is what we aimed for here.

Our study has limitations, one being that it focused on the first wave of COVID-19. While this testifies to our responsiveness, the pandemic eventually lasted several months, and the processes deployed to support community resilience may have evolved over time. Despite this, the lessons learned at the start of the crisis, which characterize communities’ response at the height of an emergency situation when there was a great deal of uncertainty, can guide resilience actors in better and more quickly responding to future crises. Still, it would have been interesting to explore how intersectoral collaboration and equity-focused action evolved over different waves of COVID-19 and to assess the extent to which the processes and levers documented here could be deployed on a perennial basis. Finally, although we discussed the three processes independently for ease of presentation, we should highlight that they were, to some extent, interconnected. For instance, it could be easier to be creative in deploying human-centred actions if strong networks are in place, and this should be kept in mind when interpreting our study results.

Intersectoral collaboration and equity are central to community resilience in general, and in hindsight, they also proved essential to an effective and equitable response to COVID-19. We identified three processes—networking; adaptation, creation and innovation; and human-centred action—which favoured the deployment of intersectoral actions in favour of equity and vulnerable groups during COVID-19 by Estrie communities. Although our study focused on a single region of Quebec during the first wave of the pandemic, it contributes to a better understanding of what may facilitate or hinder the development and strengthening of community resilience in times of crisis, in both urban and rural contexts. Since local communities are at the forefront of crises when they occur, they feel their effects immediately and directly and should therefore also be at the heart of response and recovery. In this vein, our findings suggest ways in which communities can improve or build upon assets and strengths developed during the pandemic to better prepare for future crises, be they health, social, economic or environmental.

We confirm that all listed authors made substantial contributions to the design, data collection and drafting of the manuscript according to the ICMJE guidelines. M.S., J.-F.A., P.R., M.G., J.L., E.L.-F. conceptualized the study; M.S., M.S.B. and K.P. performed the data analysis and synthesis; M.S. and M.S.B. wrote the first and subsequent drafts of the paper; all co-authors subsequently reviewed and edited the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

We would like to acknowledge Jessica Veillet for her support in coordinating the original study.

This work was supported by a Partnership Engage grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) [grant number 1008-2020-1137] and funding from the Fondation Lucie et André Chagnon (FLAC), Table des MRC de l’Estrie, Centraide Estrie and Institut Universitaire de Première Ligne en Santé et Services Sociaux du CIUSSS de l’Estrie-CHUS. M.S. is supported by a Tier 2 Canada Research Chair on Urban Health Equity and Young People.

Ethical approval was obtained from the CIUSSS de l’Estrie-CHUS [2021-3839].

The data underlying this article will be shared on reasonable request to the corresponding author.

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