Introduction and History of Psychology��

What is Psychology?

  • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
  • Behavior- any action an organism does that can be observed.
  • Mental processes- internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior.
  • “Psychology” has its roots in the Greek words of “psyche,” or mind, and “-ology,” or a field of study.”

Psychology’s Big Issue

  • The overarching goal is to be able to describe why people think, act, and feel the way they do.
  • How to help people solve problems, maximize potential, etc.
  • The issue we must try to understand, and that runs throughout all of psychology is Nature vs. Nurture .
  • The question of what influences us the most:
  • Nature (what we were born with)
  • Nurture (what happens to us after we are born)

*** Nurture works on what nature endows.

Scientific Method

  • The science of psychology is based on objective, verifiable evidence obtained using the scientific method.
  • What is the scientific method?

What is Real Psychology and �What is Pseudo-psychology?

  • Pseudo-psychology is the phony or unscientific psychology which pretends to be the real thing.

Negative Effects of Pseudo-psychology:

  • People believe the fake psychology and miss out on real psychological insights which are more helpful and interesting.
  • Also, pseudo-psychology can produce a lot of fraud.
  • With increased incidents of fraud in the field of psychology, there is diminished public support for legitimate psychological science.

Psychology vs. Psychiatry

  • Because psychiatrists are trained medical doctors, they can prescribe medications, and they spend much of their time with patients on medication management as a course of treatment. Psychologists focus extensively on psychotherapy and treating emotional and mental suffering in patients with behavioral intervention.

When and Where did Psychology Start?

  • Although both Asian and African cultures had ideas about psychology, it was the Greeks and later the Roman Catholic church which had the most influence on western psychology.

A Change in Perspective

  • For hundreds of years medieval Christian churches felt the human mind, like that of God, was an unsolvable mystery.
  • In the 17 th C. the French philosopher Rene Descartes argued that human sensations and behaviors were based on activity in the nervous system.

Rene Descartes 1596-1650

Psychology Becomes a Science

  • Despite Descartes ’ arguments and scientific breakthroughs at the time, psychology didn’t become a recognized science until the mid 1800s.
  • The late 19th century marked the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study began in 1879 , when German scientist Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig.

Structuralism

  • Wilhelm Wundt (Voont) was the first to declare himself a psychologist.
  • He believed in structuralism.
  • Created by his student E.B. Titchner

Wilhelm Wundt

E.B. Titchner

  • Structuralism: devoted to uncovering the basic structures that make up mind and thought - looking for the elements of conscious experience.
  • Structuralism relies on introspection, or the process of reporting one’s own conscious mental experiences.
  • What would be the strengths/weaknesses of introspection?

Critics of Wundt and Structuralism

  • Like most new theories, people began to dispute and refute structuralism.
  • (Mostly due to its reliance on introspection)
  • William James (the first U.S. psychologist) believed that psychology should look at function and not just structure.

William James 1842-1910

  • Functionalism- A theory that emphasized the functions of consciousness and the ways consciousness helps people adapt to their environment.
  • James thought that psychology should explain how people adapted - or failed to adapt - to everyday life outside the laboratory.

The parts of the functionalist view of psychology

James’ Functionalism

  • James’ criticism of Wundt’s structuralism was that it was boring and inaccurate because it was only done in the laboratory.
  • James wanted to see how people functioned in everyday life, not just in contrived situations.
  • Also he believed that mental processes were not static. He described them as a “stream of consciousness.”

Gestalt Psychology

  • Gestalt psychology was the opposite of structuralism. Instead of looking at the individual parts, it wanted to examine the whole.
  • Gestalt psychology looked at how the brain works by studying perception and perceptual thinking.
  • Ex. Recognizing a person’s face.

Behaviorism

  • John B. Watson argued that a true and objective science of psychology should only deal with observable events: stimuli from the environment and the organism’s response to that stimuli.
  • These psychologists thought of the mind as a black box which could not be opened or understood. Since we could not understand it, we should not try to guess what role it has in our actions.
  • An example of behaviorism is when teachers reward their class or certain students with a party or special treat at the end of the week for good behavior throughout the week. The same concept is used with punishments.

Psychoanalysis� (Freudian Psychology)

  • Psychoanalysis is the brainchild of Sigmund Freud and his followers.
  • Psychoanalysis said that mental disorders resulted from conflicts of the unconscious mind.
  • Freud thought that behavior came from unconscious drives, conflicts and experience that we may not even have a memory of.

Sigmund Freud 1856-1939

Psychology Today

  • Psychology today arises from 9 main perspectives:
  • Developmental
  • Psychodynamic
  • Sociocultural
  • Evolutionary/ Socio-biological

Biological View:

  • The biological view looks at how our physical make up and the operation of our brains influence our personality, preferences, behavior patterns, and abilities.
  • Behavior is determined by brain structure and chemicals, and by inborn responses to external cues for survival and reproduction.

Biological View Continued

  • Within the biological view is the theory of evolutionary psychology . This theory arises from the ideas of Charles Darwin.
  • Like Darwin, evolutionary psychologists see behavior and mental processes in terms of their genetic adaptations for survival and reproduction…natural selection (survival of the fittest).

Developmental View

  • The developmental view emphasizes changes that occur across our lifespan. People undergo predictable patterns of change throughout their lives.
  • This is the question of nature vs. nurture. What has a bigger impact on us, heredity or environment? Behavior is determined by the interaction of nature and nurture (heredity and environment).

Cognitive View

  • According to the cognitive view, our actions are a direct result of the way we process information from our environment. People are information-processing systems.
  • Behavior is the result of our mental interpretations of our experience.
  • Cognitions are thoughts, expectations, perceptions, memories and states of consciousness.

Psychodynamic View

  • The term psychodynamic comes from the thought that the mind (psyche) is a reservoir of energy (dynamics).
  • Psychodynamic theory sees behavior as arising from unconscious needs, conflicts, repressed memories, and childhood experiences.

Humanistic Psychology

  • A viewpoint which emphasizes human ability, growth, potential and free will.
  • Much like the psychoanalytic perspective, it emphasizes our mental thoughts and process as the root of our behavior.
  • It, however, emphasizes the positive side of human nature. It has received a lot of criticism because it is not the most “scientific.”

Behavioral View

  • A viewpoint which finds the source of our actions in

the environmental stimuli, rather than in inner

mental processes. In accordance with

the laws of behavioral learning, we

respond to stimulus cues and to our

history of rewards and punishments.

  • B.F. Skinn er -

one of the most influential of

American psychologists . A behaviorist,

he developed the theory of operant conditioning -- the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again.

Sociocultural View

  • This view emphasizes the importance of social interaction, social learning and a cultural perspective. People are social animals, so human behavior must be interpreted in its social context.
  • Behavior is heavily influenced by culture, by social norms and expectations, and by social learning.

Evolutionary/�Socio-biological

  • This view of psychology looks at individuals’ behaviors through the lens of natural selection.
  • Behavior is adaptive and hereditary and cultural!
  • In this theory, genetics are not used as a way to show how people are different, but rather the ways in which we have evolved.

Trait Perspective

  • Individual differences result from differences in our underlying patterns of stable characteristics (traits).
  • Behavior results from each person's unique combination of traits.

Levels of Analysis

  • The multiple viewpoints can be confusing, but it is called levels of analysis .
  • Looking at one issue from multiple perspectives.
  • Ex. Examining a Criminal
  • Does the criminal have a brain disorder?
  • Does the criminal have a genetic tendencies towards violence?
  • Have they been rewarded for violent behavior?
  • Has society’s violent tendencies influenced the criminal ?
  • Looking at an issue from one perspective is like looking at a 2D model of a 3D object. Each perspective is useful, but by itself fails to give us a complete picture.

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Experimental Psychology PSY 433 Chapter 1 – Explanation in Scientific Psychology.

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Experimental Psychology PSY 433 Chapter 1 – Explanation in Scientific Psychology

Why We Do Research Chapter 1. Ordinary Versus Systematic Biased Question: A question that leads to a specific response or excludes a certain group Nonscientific.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Science and Psychology

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Basic Methodologies Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

The Role of Business Research Theory Building

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Research Basics PE 357. What is Research? Can be diverse General definition is “finding answers to questions in an organized and logical and systematic.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

PSYCHOLOGY AS SCIENCE What is Science? What is Science?What is Science?What is Science? What Kinds of Questions Can Science Address? What Kinds of Questions.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Welcome to Survey of Research Methods and Statistics! PS 510.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Getting an Experimental Idea Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

PSYCHOLOGY AS SCIENCE What is Science? What Kinds of Questions Can Science Address?What Kinds of Questions Can Science Address? How Does Science Compare.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Introduction to Research

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Chapter Two SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN BUSINESS

experimental psychology introduction ppt

© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. Chapter 1 Explaining Behavior.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Research in Psychology. Questions What can we find out with research? Why should we believe scientists? Isn’t Psychology just common sense?

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Chapter 1 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Chapter 1 Nature and Purpose of Research.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Good Theories & Basic Methodologies Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Developing Ideas for Research and Evaluating Theories of Behavior

experimental psychology introduction ppt

The Science of Psychology Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Scientific method - 1 Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and.

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology Reading the Literature cont. Science of Psychology Theories in Science.

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Experimental Psychology - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

experimental psychology introduction ppt

Experimental Psychology

'how do i know what i believe to be true ... mt. everest is tallest mountain. your brain weighs about 3 pounds. richard nixon is dead ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

  • What is Experimental about it?
  • Psychology as a Science
  • Psychology as an Experimental Science
  • Psychology as an Observational Science
  • How do I know what I believe to be true?
  • The need to question the basis for ones beliefs and knowledge
  • Knowing by Belief or Intuition
  • Knowing by Authority
  • Knowing by Reason
  • Knowing by Common Sense
  • Knowing by Scientific Inquiry
  • Knowing that sugar causes hyperactivity
  • Believing in alien abductions
  • Sense of certainty
  • Provides understanding of the world
  • Disadvantages
  • Belief may be wrong
  • Belief may not be shared by others
  • No way to resolve differences between conflicting beliefs
  • Mt. Everest is tallest mountain
  • Your brain weighs about 3 pounds
  • Richard Nixon is dead
  • Easy to acquire
  • No responsibility for knowledge
  • Authority may be wrong
  • No way to resolve differences between conflicting authorities
  • Knowing that 2 apples remain if 3 are taken from 5
  • Knowing that bumblebees cannot fly
  • Certainty of conclusion
  • Reaching conclusion may be difficult
  • Premises may be in error, and therefore conclusion will be in error
  • Knowing that the earth is round
  • Knowing that boys will fight
  • Knowledge is shared by others
  • Knowledge is easily accessible
  • Knowledge can be tested against experience
  • Knowledge may be in error
  • Knowledge may be self-contradictory
  • Knowing that adrenalin increases heart rate
  • Knowing that women have a double standard
  • Knowledge can be shared by others
  • Basis for knowledge can be evaluated and differences in claims can be resolved
  • Knowledge is not certain
  • Knowledge can take a long time to acquire
  • The personal equation in astronomy
  • Kinnebrook Maskelynne
  • von Helmholtzs measure of nerve speed
  • The measurement of touch and muscle sense
  • Weber Fechner
  • Measurement of attention
  • Span of apprehension
  • Measurement of memory
  • Measurement of concept acquisition
  • Hovland Bruner, Goodnow Austin
  • Measurement of cognitive development
  • Piaget Conservation tasks
  • Measurement of bystander intervention
  • Darley Latane
  • Description
  • Understanding
  • Systematic empiricism
  • Publicly verifiable knowledge
  • Solvable problems
  • The falsifiability criterion
  • Utility as truth
  • What is empirical?
  • Based on observations of the world
  • Examples gorillas, And No Birds Sing, Clever Hans
  • What is systematic?
  • Sampling is specified
  • Recording is systematic
  • Results can be obtained by someone else using the same methods
  • no special talents
  • Confirmable by others
  • interobserver reliability
  • Use of external memory
  • Record does not depend on a memory
  • Problems can be approached using currently available methods
  • finding treatments for AIDS
  • localizing a brain tumor
  • Some problems cannot be solved
  • video-recording someones dream
  • preventing hurricanes
  • Logical analysis of arguments
  • Valid arguments
  • Internal Validity
  • External Validity
  • Logical Forms
  • Modus ponens
  • modus tollens
  • affirming the consequent
  • denying the antecedent
  • Karl Poppers analysis
  • Hypothesis testing
  • seeking contrary outcomes
  • the importance of negative evidence
  • when positive evidence is important
  • Truth versus truth
  • The necessary uncertainty of induction
  • The constructed reality of science
  • Thomas Kuhn and the structure of scientific revolutions
  • Science as a human enterprise
  • Complexity of causes
  • Marker variables
  • personality
  • The Phenomenon
  • Oskar Pfungsts Analysis
  • Observation of phenomena
  • Analysis of controlling conditions
  • Control of conditions
  • Laboratory verification
  • Extension of the analysis

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Download our Experimental Psychology presentation template for MS PowerPoint and Google Slides to describe the psychology branch that aims to study human behavior and cognition through controlled experiments.

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An Introduction to IBM SPSS PSY450 Experimental Psychology Dr. Dwight Hennessy

Sep 03, 2012

140 likes | 544 Views

An Introduction to IBM SPSS PSY450 Experimental Psychology Dr. Dwight Hennessy. Table of Contents Beginning an SPSS Session 3 Basic Information 4 Entering New Data 7 Example 9 Saving Data 11 Opening Existing Data 12. Beginning An SPSS Session

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  • existing data source
  • main data analysis functions
  • height weight participant
  • actual data

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Presentation Transcript

Table of Contents Beginning an SPSS Session 3 Basic Information 4 Entering New Data 7 Example 9 Saving Data 11 Opening Existing Data 12

Beginning An SPSS Session Begin by opening SPSS 10 for Windows. 1. Click on the IBMSPSS shortcut button on your desktop. OR 2. Go to START, click on PROGRAMS, and click on IBM SPSS . Below is an illustration of how the first page should appear. The three most common options at this point are: a. Run a tutorial – this will take you through a tour of how to use SPSS 10 b. Type in data – this is used to begin entering a new data set c. Open an existing data source – this is used to work with an existing data set

Basic Information Each little box is called a “cell”(1). To access a cell, simply move the mouse pointer to the cell and click the left mouse button. Once you have entered data in a cell, you can either hit ENTER, or one of the direction arrows. To modify information in a cell, you can also use the data view “window” (2). Click on the cell you want to modify and then click the mouse pointer in the data view window (the data presently in the cell should appear once you click on the window). Now you move around in the data by using the direction arrows to delete all or some of the information (by using the DELETE button) or add new information. Along the side and bottom of SPSS, you will find “scroll bars”(3) that allow you to move the view up/down or left/right (by clicking the appropriate arrows at the ends of the scroll bars). (2) (1) (3)

Basic Information Above the data cells, you will find the toolbar (1) and the menu bar (2). Each provides the functions you will need to open/save data, perform transformations, and conduct your statistical operations. Toolbar: The toolbar contains icons to facilitate easy point and click operations. Because these can be customized, they may vary slightly between systems. Below is a description of the main icons: Open files Undo last operation Save data Redo last operation Print file Insert case Find data Insert variable (1) (2)

Basic Information Menu Bar: The menu bar provides a series of “drop down” commands to perform most essential SPSS functions. By clicking on a menu command, a further series of menu options will appear. Many of these submenu commands will be discussed in further detail in this manual. File: These are the basic file management operations. e.g. opening, saving, and printing files Edit: This allows you to perform editing functions on the current data set. e.g. cut, copy, clear, undo changes and redo changes View: Allows you to change the current view of data, as well as toolbar options. e.g. grid lines, value labels Data: These functions deal with the configuration, defining, and management of data. e.g. insert variables/cases, sort data, merge files Transform: This allows you to transform the data set you’ve entered. e.g. calculating new variables, recoding, missing values Analyze: Includes the main data analysis functions. e.g. descriptive statistics, t-Tests, ANOVA, correlation, data reduction Windows: Allows you to alter the appearance, format, position of the SPSS windows.

Entering New Data To begin, click on the “Type in data” option from the opening SPSS for Windows menu. Then click “OK”. Before you can enter any data, you have to define your variables. To do this, we click on the VARIABLES VIEW tab (1) from the bottom left corner. (2) Each row represents a different variable that you will use in your analysis. At the very least you need to enter a name for each variable. It is always good to use a name you might remember. However, SPSS doesn’t let you use blanks in the name. To enter a variable name, click on the “name” cell (2) and type in the name of the variable. Repeat this for each variable you will have data for. (1)

TYPE: ·The default is numeric data. ·This will allow you to change from numeric data to other formats. ·You can change formats by clicking the cell, then clicking the three dots in the right corner of the cell. ·The most common format change is to “string” data, which will allow you to enter words rather than numbers. ·This allows you to set the maximum number of digits (or letters in a string format) you can enter in cell. ·The decimal and all decimal points count as digits in the width. WIDTH DECIMALS ·This indicates how many decimal points you can have in your cell. LABELS ·You can enter a longer description of the variable here. You can also change the options available for your data at this time (although you can come back at any time simply by clicking the VARIABLE VIEW tab. At this point the options that you might consider are as follows: ·You can tell SPSS what the values (mainly for categorical data like gender) actually represent. For example if you have a code of “-1” for men and “1” for women you would click the “values” box, then the “dots”:  .Now in the new box (see below), you enter the value (-1) and label (men) then click “Add”. You will now see the value and label in the big box. Repeat this for all values & labels & click OK. VALUES

EXAMPLE 1: Suppose we have collected a list that contains both a person’s weight and their height. Each person has a different measurement of height and weight (see Table below). Height Weight Participant 1 79 200 Participant 2 79 185 Participant 3 51 111 Participant 4 49 85 Participant 5 55 117 Participant 6 64 125 Participant 7 66 129 From this set of data, we see that we have 7 participants, 7 heights, and 7 weights. In other words, we have 3 variables – participant number, height, and weight. In the variable box, type PARTIC (remember only 8 characters maximum) then arrow down to the next variable and type HEIGHT, then arrow down again and type WEIGHT.

You are now ready to begin entering the actual data. Click on the DATA VIEW tab (next to the VARIABLE VIEW tab) at the bottom at the bottom left corner. Each column now represents a different variable, and each row represents a different participant. With the present example, begin by entering the values for participant 1 as shown above. Type in “1” for PARTIC value, then arrow to the right, type in 79 for HEIGHT, arrow to the right and type in 200 for WEIGHT. Then move on to Participant 2 and continue. The final data set should look as follows:

The final step in entering new data is to save your work. Click on FILE, then SAVE AS… Save to flash drive so choose whatever drive represents your flash (D: in this case). Finally, enter a name (sample_data) for your file and hit save .

Opening Existing Data There are two ways of accessing existing data from a saved file. From the opening screen, the first method is to click on the “Open existing data source” option. Then click “OK”. Then select the disk that contains the data, and open the data. You can also access saved data when you are already in the data screen. Click on FILE, OPEN, then DATA.

Now simply go to the drive that has your data, highlight the data file and click Open. (1) At this point, you are free to add new variables, remove old variables, change existing data, or add new cases. When you are finished, you can save your data as a new file (i.e. new name) by using Save As, or simply overwrite your existing file by using the Save function. **A word of warning regarding the Save function. If you use Save, you automatically overwrite anything you had in the file before the changes. Ask yourself first if this is what you really want. There are times when people have accidentally hit the save button on the toolbar and overwritten information they did not want to lose. Its always a safe bet to go to File and use Save As.

Moving Existing Data Cutting and Pasting: You can move a variable, a case, or a data cell. To move a variable to the end of your current data, click on the variable name (1) across the top of the data set. The column should turn dark. Now click on cut (to completely remove) or copy (to make a copy). Click on a new column at the end of your data set (it should turn dark) and click paste. The new data should appear in that column. The same applies to moving a particular case to the end of your data set. Click on the row you want to move (2) (i.e. on the case number along the left edge of the data set), click cut or copy, click on a new row, then click paste. When moving an individual cell, click on the cell, click cut or copy, click on the new cell, then click paste. Note, when you cut a cell, the data will be replaced with a “.” which indicates missing data. (1) (2)

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COMMENTS

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    Challenge • Experimental psychology has been enormously successful as an approach to understanding behavior. • That very success has seen the approach applied to a dizzying array of behaviors and organisms. • The challenge that all experimental psychologists accept is the search to identify laws of behavior: laws that are applicable ...

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    Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Behavior-any action an organism does that can be observed. Mental processes-internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior. "Psychology" has its roots in the Greek words of "psyche," or mind, and "-ology," or a field of study.". Psychology's Big Issue.

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    An Introduction to Psychology. An Introduction to Psychology. One Definition for Psychology The science of human behavior (what we do) and the mental and physical processes that underlie behavior (sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, feelings, etc.,). Key Figures and Ideas in Early Modern Psychology. 464 views • 25 slides