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Hands-on Science Activities on Blood

How to Experiment with Coffee Filters to Explain How a Kidney Works

Kids are prone to scraped knees and minor cuts as they play, rough-house and explore their world. The sight of blood may make some kids squeamish, so this is a good time for interactive science projects about blood. Teach them about blood with simple demonstrations to help them understand its many life-giving functions, how it moves in the body and what it's made of.

Why Blood Is Red

This simple science experiment teaches kids about erythrocytes, the red blood cells that give blood its color, and plasma, the watery part of blood. Teach your child that these blood cells carry oxygen to every part of the body as you conduct the experiment together. Pour some lemonade into a tall glass so that it is one-third full and explain that this is the plasma, or liquid part, of the blood. Next add small pieces of red jelly to the glass until it is full. The contents of the glass should now appear red. Use the glass to demonstrate that this is how red blood cells make blood red. Afterwards, enjoy the jelly-lemonade treat together.

How Blood Clots

Teach children how their body heals itself with an activity about blood clotting. Make a "blood" solution by mixing tomato paste with water. Ensure that it is fairly thick but has an even consistency. Pour the solution into a plastic funnel and show your child how the "blood" runs through into a clear bowl below. Next, explain how the body uses millions of tiny platelets found in blood to help slow down bleeding and make blood clot. Have your child spoon dry beans into the funnel as you pour the "blood" solution into it. Keep asking him to add more "platelets" until the funnel is plugged up and the "blood" solution cannot pass through. Talk to your child about platelets and how they stop bleeding and help keep us healthy.

Blood Model

Children and adults alike are mesmerized by snow globes. Make a "blood globe" to teach children about the many components found in blood. You will need a jar with a very tightly fitting lid. Fill the jar halfway full with water and add a few drops of red food coloring to turn the liquid a pink shade. Add about 10 small red buttons to depict the red blood cells, and five larger white buttons as the white blood cells. Make platelets out of small scrunched up pieces of foil and add them to the jar. Seal the lid and turn the jar over to show what blood looks like under a microscope. Label the outside of the jar so that older children know what each object represents.

Blood Flow Experiment

This experiment can help teach kids about the benefits of healthy eating and how blood moves through the body. Make a delicious "blood" punch using raspberry or cherry juice. Use three straws to represent blood vessels. Wrap a rubber band around the middle of one straw to completely close it. Wrap another straw so that it's partially closed, and leave the third one completely open. Explain to your child that the straws are blood vessels, but some of them have been damaged and narrowed by too much cholesterol in the body from junk food. Ask your child to take a sip of the "blood" using each straw, to show how blood moves more easily through healthy blood vessels.

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• ICanTeachMyChild.com: Hands-on Science: What Is Blood Made of?
• The Homeschool Scientist: Science Saturday – Blood
• Science Buddies: Modeling Blood Flow with Straws
• Kids' Health: Blood - We Can't Live Without It!
• University of Rochester Medical Center: What Are Red Blood Cells?
• University of Wisconsin Health: Child Life Teaching Sheets

About the Author

June Kane is a Registered Radiation Therapist (RTT) and radiotherapy instructor from Manitoba, Canada. Her writing experience includes peer-reviewed articles in the Lancet and Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Radiation Therapy, patient information booklets and website content, and student curriculums.

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Image Source/Digital Vision/Getty Images

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Physical Activity and Brain Health

Carlo maria di liegro.

1 Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche) (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; [email protected] (C.M.D.L.); [email protected] (G.S.)

Gabriella Schiera

Patrizia proia.

2 Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement (Dipartimento di Scienze Psicologiche, Pedagogiche, dell’Esercizio fisico e della Formazione), University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; [email protected]

Italia Di Liegro

3 Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (Dipartimento di Biomedicina, Neuroscienze e Diagnostica avanzata) (Bi.N.D.), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy

Physical activity (PA) has been central in the life of our species for most of its history, and thus shaped our physiology during evolution. However, only recently the health consequences of a sedentary lifestyle, and of highly energetic diets, are becoming clear. It has been also acknowledged that lifestyle and diet can induce epigenetic modifications which modify chromatin structure and gene expression, thus causing even heritable metabolic outcomes. Many studies have shown that PA can reverse at least some of the unwanted effects of sedentary lifestyle, and can also contribute in delaying brain aging and degenerative pathologies such as Alzheimer’s Disease, diabetes, and multiple sclerosis. Most importantly, PA improves cognitive processes and memory, has analgesic and antidepressant effects, and even induces a sense of wellbeing, giving strength to the ancient principle of “ mens sana in corpore sano ” (i.e., a sound mind in a sound body). In this review we will discuss the potential mechanisms underlying the effects of PA on brain health, focusing on hormones, neurotrophins, and neurotransmitters, the release of which is modulated by PA, as well as on the intra- and extra-cellular pathways that regulate the expression of some of the genes involved.

1. Introduction

The discovery of the nervous system dates back to the ancient Greek physicians-philosophers Alcmaeon, Praxagoras, Herophilus [ 1 , 2 ], and Erasistratus [ 2 ]. Herophilus (c335–c280 B.C.), in particular, by dissecting human cadavers, was able to describe the structure of the brain and nerves, and to realize that motor nerves were joined to muscles, while other nerves (the sensory ones) went to organs, and were responsible for sensation. He promoted a cerebrocentric view of mind [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ] and, interestingly, believed that exercise and a healthy diet were fundamental for maintaining a healthy body, and a healthy mind [ 3 ]. Over the centuries this idea has recurred many times. However, we have only recently begun to understand the cellular and molecular reasons why sedentary life is detrimental for human health, and to realize that physical activity (PA) can be a powerful medicine to counteract its effects. Actually, this is not surprising since the ability of our species to survive in many different environments, to escape predators, and to look around for food has depended on, and still depends on the ability to perform PA, and PA has thus shaped our physiology [ 6 ]. Starting from the consideration that modern humans have not only a very large brain but also a remarkable endurance capacity, it was suggested that PA also shaped our brains: It was reported, for example, that the appearance in evolution of skeletal properties related to endurance capacity correlated with the increase of brain size in hominins such as Homo erectus [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. As reported by Hill and Polk [ 9 ], aerobic fitness (required for successful endurance activity), and aerobic capacity (measured as maximal oxygen consumption during exercise, VO 2 max) correlate with brain size, both in humans and other animals; moreover, selective breeding in rodents for endurance running capacity affects both their general physiology and their brain, and also potentiates their cognitive abilities [ 9 , 10 ]. A further aspect of humans that might correlate with PA concerns the integumentary system: Our hairless skin indeed enhances evaporation, thus allowing dispersion of excess heat produced during endurance activity [ 9 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]; at the same time, a hairless skin facilitates production of vasodilatory factors, such as nitric oxide (NO), with different mechanisms [ 14 , 15 ].

In this context, it is important to underline that, when the importance of PA during the evolution of our species is discussed, the focus is on every movement that requires activity of our skeletal muscles, and energy expenditure. On the other hand, any planned and structured activity that is voluntarily aimed at improving and/or maintaining our physical fitness should be better defined as exercise [ 16 ]. Thus, most of the experimental work cited in this review actually concerns “exercise” since the observations reported rely on a specific series of structured, planned, and repetitive activities. Exercise is, however, only a subset of physical activity; accordingly, we will use the term “exercise” when describing the results of programmed sets of experiments, and the expression “physical activity” (PA) when discussing the effects on health of either programmed or not programmed skeletal muscle movements, in daily life.

There are clear indications that PA also has important effects on human brain health at any age and have been included, for example, in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) in 2018 [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Interestingly, in these guidelines, four classes of age, with different PA requirements, have been set: 1. Preschool-Aged Children (3–5 years)—they should be physically active throughout the day to enhance growth and development, it is also important to underline that playing develops mental capacities and social interactions in many ways; 2. Children and Adolescents (6–17 years)—they should do 60 min or more per day of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, most of which should be aerobic, with vigorous activity for at least 3 days per week, including muscle- and bone-strengthening physical activity; 3. Adults—according to the Guidelines “Adults should move more and sit less throughout the day”. They should do at least 150–300 min of moderate-intensity PA, or 75–150 min of vigorous aerobic PA per week, together with muscle-strengthening activities of moderate-high intensity, at least 2 days a week; 4. Old Adults—they should do as much aerobic and muscle-strengthening activities as they can, on the basis of their individual health conditions. In addition, the guidelines suggest physical training for women during pregnancy and post-partum period and for adults with chronic diseases and/or disabilities [ 17 ].

PA is thus recommended as a non-pharmacologic therapy for different pathological affections as well as for the maintenance of general health status. Habitual exercise improves cardiorespiratory fitness and cardiovascular health [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ], helps reducing body mass index [ 25 , 26 ], and can represent a natural, anti-inflammatory “drug” in chronic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) [ 27 , 28 ]. Moreover, given the strong association of pathologic conditions such as high blood pressure with blood–brain barrier alterations and brain dysfunctions, PA can also have beneficial effects on cerebrovascular and cognitive functions [ 23 ]. In addition, anti-depressive- [ 29 ], and analgesic-PA effects have been reported [ 30 ]. However, it has also been suggested that the anti-inflammatory effects can differ among different training programs [ 31 ], and that, while regular exercise can increase immune competence and reduce the risk of infection with respect to a sedentary lifestyle, acute and heavy bouts of activity can even have the opposite effect [ 27 ], and, in general, negative effects on health [ 32 , 33 ].

As discussed below, both endurance activity (i.e., long-lasting aerobic activity, such as running) and resistance exercise (i.e., exercise in which the predominant activity involves pushing against a force) have been shown to induce an increase of circulating growth factors (such as insulin-like growth factor 1, IGF-1), and neurotrophins (such as the brain-derived neurotrophic factor, BDNF) which have an effect on the brain both during development and in the adult. The same factors might have had an impact during hominin brain evolution [ 9 ], and can affect brain plasticity in the young as well as in the adult, under many different conditions, such as physiologic aging, neurodegenerative pathologies, and recovery after acute brain damage.

In this review we will discuss the putative cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the mentioned effects of PA on the nervous system, focusing on genes known to be involved, as well as on epigenetic effects due to DNA methylation, histone post-translational modifications and exchange, and on the possible role of non-coding RNAs.

2. Brain Plasticity, Adult Neurogenesis, and Physical Activity

The brain capacity to adapt to ever-changing conditions, known as brain plasticity, depends on the ability of neurons to modify the strength and composition of their connections in response to both external and internal stimuli. The long-term potentiation (LTP) in synaptic efficacy constitutes the physiologic base for learning and memory. An important way for regulating neuronal function is the activity-dependent synapse-to-nucleus signalling, that can arise both in the post-synaptic and in the presynaptic element [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 ]. These signals are generated through different mechanisms, such as: (i) Calcium waves due to calcium-induced calcium release (CIRC) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) [ 35 , 39 , 40 ]; (ii) retrograde transport of proteins (e.g., Jacob, CREB Regulated Transcriptional Coactivator 1, CRTC1 ); Abelson-interacting protein 1, Abi1 ; the amyloid precursor protein intracellular domain associated-1 protein, AIDA-1 ; and the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, NF-κB ); these proteins are post-translationally modified following synaptic activity, and transported to the nucleus, where they act on gene transcription, and thereafter on synaptic plasticity [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 41 , 42 ]; (iii) formation and microtubule-dependent trafficking of mRNA-protein complexes, that, after exiting the nucleus, move to neuronal periphery, where the mature transcripts localize in a repressed state, in response to local signalling, through activity-dependent activation of specific enzymes, the regulatory proteins can be then modified, for example, by phosphorylation, and the mRNAs can be translated; some of the newly synthesized proteins can accumulate at the synapse, while others can shuttle back to the nucleus to modify chromatin structure and expression [ 43 ].

By regulating synapse-to-nucleus signalling, all these events are crucial for allowing synapse activity to result in the specific gene expression programs necessary for learning and memory. In agreement with this idea, the impaired function of these signalling proteins brings about intellectual disability, psychiatric disorders, or neurodegeneration [ 37 , 38 , 42 ]. On the other hand, we can hypothesize that an increase of their function, for example as a response to PA, could also enhance brain functions and plasticity.

In the past, it was generally accepted that new neurons could not be generated in the adult to replace dying cells, and this limitation was also considered to be the main cause of neurodegeneration as well as of cognitive decline in the elderly population. However, since the 1960s, many researchers presented data suggesting that, in all the mammals analysed, new neurons could be generated in the sub-granular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, and in the sub-ventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles, in the postnatal and adult life [ 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ]. In particular, neurons born in the SGZ were shown to differentiate and integrate into the local neural network of the hippocampus. These findings are extremely important since the hippocampus is fundamental for the formation of certain types of memory, such as episodic memory and spatial memory [ 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. In addition, hippocampus-dependent learning is one of the major regulators of hippocampal neurogenesis [ 55 ]: living in environments which stimulate learning enhances, in rats, the survival of neurons, born in the adult from neural stem cells (NSCs) [ 52 ].

Now, increasing evidence suggests that PA, largely due to factors released by contracting muscles ( Section 3 ; Figure 1 ), can improve brain functions, such as memory and attention, in both children and adults [ 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 ]. A few examples of single studies (first three rows) and reviews/meta-analyses (second three rows), aimed at ascertaining any relationship between PA and learning/memory, are given in Table 1 .

Hypothetical pathway for the exercise-mediated effects on brain functions: both endurance and resistance exercise, even if with different kinetics and properties, allow muscle synthesis, and release myokines (e.g., brain-derived neurotrophic factor, BDNF), as well as of metabolites (such as lactate) into the circulation; these molecules can cross the blood­­­­–brain barrier (BBB) at the level of the brain capillaries (grey arrows) and affect the functions of both neurons and glial cells, thus modifying neurotransmission in different regions of the brain. As explained in the text, neurotransmission can then activate pathways leading to modifications of gene expression. AS: astrocytes; BC: brain capillaries; Neu: neurons; OL: oligodendrocytes.

Effects of physical activity (PA) on learning and memory in children and adolescents. In the first three rows single studies are reported, while the second three rows refer to reviews/meta-analyses. In the “Conclusions” column, the main results of the analyses, as well as a few comments on them, are given.

The data reported in Table 1 clearly indicate that PA has a positive effect on mental health and abilities, especially in adolescents; however, as reported in the “Conclusions” column (sentences in bold letters), most authors agree on the fact that the previous studies do not yet give uniform indications on the relationships between the type/intensity/frequency of exercise and the brain health outcomes; these limitations derive, on one hand, from the wide range of conditions set in the exercise programs, and on the other hand, the differences from study to study also depend on the variability of the parameters chosen to evaluate mental health. We also have to add to these considerations the poor knowledge we still have of ‘mind’ and of ‘mental health’. Thus, many laboratories are now focusing on exercise-dependent cellular and molecular modifications of brain cells activity, in the attempt to uncover the mechanisms underlying PA–mental health biochemical relationships.

At the cellular level, it was found that treadmill exercise can increase hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice [ 68 ]. Interestingly, exercise can also affect the proliferation [ 69 , 70 ], as well as size and function, of astrocytes [ 71 ]. These latter events regulate, in turn, the number and localization of neuronal synapses, and might influence LTP and episodic memory formation [ 72 ].

Many researchers suggested that all these effects are also regulated by the brain capillaries (BC, Figure 1 ) that reach the neurogenic niche, supplying angiogenetic growth factors, such as the growth and differentiation factor 11 ( GDF11 ), the vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) [ 59 ], and BDNF , that activates a cellular survival pathway involving the serine-threonine kinase AKT and CREB , thus inducing the transcription of genes responsible for almost all the aspects of neuroplasticity [ 59 , 72 ]. The neurogenic niche also receives axonal inputs from both local and distant neurons, which release a variety of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, glutamate, and GABA [ 59 ]. For example, glutamate, through interaction with NMDARs, is thought to regulate LTP in response to exercise [ 73 ]. Many epidemiologic studies, mostly in the last two decades, also revealed a link between PA, human brain health (and longevity) and epigenetic modifications of the genome, even leading, on one hand, to the concept of “epigenetic age” or “DNA methylation age” (essentially measured, however, as blood cells DNA methylation) [ 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 ], and, on the other hand, to the acknowledgment that epigenetic mechanisms induced by PA can build up an “epigenetic memory” that affects long-term brain plasticity, neurogenesis, and function [ 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 ]. Intriguingly, it has been proposed that epigenetic modifications caused by lifestyle and diet, as well as the effects of PA can be heritable (discussed in [ 83 ]).

Epigenetic processes modify eukaryotic chromatin structure, and hence gene expression, without changing the underlying DNA sequence, through at least three mechanisms: (i) DNA methylation/demethylation, and post-translational modifications (such as methylation/demethylation and acetylation/deacetylation), of histones on specific residues of their N-terminal tails; (ii) substitution of some histone isotypes with other histone variants; (iii) sliding and/or removal of the basic chromatin structural organization elements (nucleosomes), due to specific ATP-dependent chromatin remodelling complexes [ 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 ]. Specific proteins are then able to “read” and bind DNA and histone tail modifications, thus creating synergic complexes which can activate or depress transcription [ 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 ]. Importantly, in some of these remodelling events, long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) also play a role [ 93 ]. Finally, gene expression can be regulated by short noncoding RNAs, called microRNAs (miRNAs), which are able to pair with sequences mainly present in the 3′-UTR of their target mRNAs, thus inducing inhibition of their translation or even their degradation [ 94 , 95 , 96 ].

In summary, while the genome of an organism is relatively stable over the lifespan, its expression (i.e., the phenotype) is influenced by many epigenetic factors. Most important, we now know that inactivity is epigenetically deleterious: for example, it has been reported that nine days of bed rest can induce insulin resistance in otherwise healthy subjects. The analysis of the pathways affected revealed a significant downregulation of 34 pathways, mainly involving genes associated with the mitochondrial function, including the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ co-activator 1α (PPARGC1A, or PGC-1α ). An increase of PPARGC1A DNA methylation was also reported, and this epigenetic modification was not completely reversed after four weeks of retraining, thus highlighting the importance of daily physical activity [ 76 , 97 ].

2.1. Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)

BDNF is a neurotrophin involved in all the most important aspects of neuroplasticity, from neurogenesis to neuronal survival, from synaptogenesis to cognition, as well as in the regulation of energy homeostasis.

Both in humans and rodents, the BDNF gene contains nine exons, each of which has its own promoter. As a result of this gene structure, many species of mature transcripts are known, even if the final translation product is the same for all of them [ 98 , 99 ]. The existence of different promoters, however, is important in terms of temporal and spatial regulation, including the possibility that different promoters are used in different cell types and brain regions [ 99 ].

In the published literature, a generalized exercise-dependent increase of BDNF has been reported. A few examples of both single studies (first six rows) and reviews/meta-analyses (last two rows) aimed at ascertaining PA effects on BDNF levels are reported in Table 2 .

Effects of PA on circulating BDNF levels. In the first six rows, single studies have been reported, while the last two rows refer to reviews/meta-analyses. In the “Conclusion” column the main results of the analyses, as well as a few comments on them, are given.

The BDNF increase seems to correlate with the exercise volume (given by “intensity + duration + frequency” of activity) [ 100 ]. However, it was also reported that the greatest responses are given by well-trained individuals, while mainly sedentary subjects show lower or even no response [ 100 , 101 ]. Interestingly, open-skill exercise (e.g., badminton) increases BDNF levels more than closed-skill exercise (e.g., running), probably because open-skill activities require additional attention to face ever-changing situations [ 102 ], and possibly also because they are more enjoyable.

As a whole, data reported in Table 2 indicate an exercise-dependent BDNF increase. Again, as evident in the “Conclusions” column (sentences in bold letters), however, a great variability emerges from the different studies.

In general, BDNF increase seems to correlate with increased catabolic requirements, and with a higher production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as a consequence of the increased mitochondrial activity. Then, in the brain, BDNF stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis, and acts as a metabotrophin to mediate the effects of exercise on cognition [ 109 , 110 ].

Actually, BDNF gene transcription does not depend on a single regulatory pathway: it is synergistically stimulated by a complex array of factors, some of which, as discussed above, reach the nucleus only when neurons are active. In addition, the already mentioned transcription factor coactivator PGC-1α increases sharply under energy-requiring conditions, both in muscles (see Section 3 ) and neurons, and contributes to raising BDNF levels [ 100 ].

Notably, the expression of the BDNF gene is also controlled at the epigenetic level. In 2006, Tsankova et al. [ 111 ] analysed the effects of a chronic social defeat stress on the BDNF gene chromatin organization in the mouse hippocampus, and found that stress induced a lasting downregulation of BDNF transcripts III and IV, as well as an increase in both histone and promoter methylation. The stressing protocol was followed by treatment with an antidepressant that reversed these effects, also inducing histone acetylation and downregulation of histone deacetylase (HDAC) 5 [ 111 ]. Starting from these results, in 2011, Gomez-Pinilla et al. [ 112 ] studied the epigenetic effects of exercise on BDNF chromatin regulation, and they found that, like an antidepressant, exercise induced, in the rat hippocampus, DNA demethylation of the BDNF promoter IV, as well as an increase in the levels of phosphorylated MeCP2 (that, in this form, is released from the BDNF gene promoter), thus stimulating BDNF mRNA and protein synthesis [ 112 ]. By chromatin immunoprecipitation assay, they also found an increase in the levels of histone H3 (but not H4) acetylation, and a decrease of histone deacetylase 5. In parallel, the levels of CaMKII and CREB increased. Similarly, Ieraci et al. [ 113 ] showed that BDNF mRNA (transcripts 1–4, 6, and 7) levels decreased immediately after an acute stress in the hippocampus of mice, then returning to the basal level within 24 h. On the other hand, PA caused an increase in BDNF mRNA and was also able to counteract the stress effect, by inducing an increase in histone H3 acetylation at the level of specific BDNF promoters [ 113 ]. Since then, a growing body of studies has shown that PA stimulates an activity-dependent cascade of events, involving phosphorylation and other post-translational modifications of signalling proteins, which arrives at the nucleus, where structural organization and function of the chromatin (which includes, among others, the BDNF gene) will be targeted [ 114 ].

In conclusion, although all these findings clearly demonstrate a role of PA in regulating the levels of circulating BDNF, the analysis in Table 2 shows that there is no precise exercise protocol that can be favoured in order to obtain a maximal effect on BDNF production and, possibly, on mental health. The authors of these studies/meta-analyses all agree on the need for further research in order to better understand how to use exercise to obtain cognitive improvements.

It is also important to highlight that BDNF circulates in the blood as at least two different pools: BDNF in platelets and platelet-free, plasmatic BDNF. This latter form is probably the only one able to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB). Thus, the method used to measure the circulating neurotrophin can introduce bias from one study to another. Serum preparations that allow clotting and BDNF release from platelets retrieve a much higher amount of BDNF, in comparison with measurements of BDNF from blood samples containing anti-coagulants [ 115 ].

These findings suggest that further experiments based on standardized methods are necessary to understand the real relationship between exercise, BDNF production, and brain health.

2.2. microRNAs and Exercise

Recently Zhao et al. [ 116 ] obtained, by deep sequencing, a genome-wide identification of miRNAs, the concentration of which is modified in the rat brain, in response to high-intensity intermittent swimming training (HIST), as compared with normal controls (NC). The authors identified a large collection of miRNAs, among which 34 were expressed at significantly different levels in the two conditions; 16 out of these latter species were upregulated, and 18 downregulated in HIST rats [ 116 ]. Among the miRNAs that underwent a significant expression modification, some had already been reported by other researchers to be important for brain functions: in particular, the miR-200 family had been described to regulate postnatal forebrain neurogenesis [ 117 ], differentiation and proliferation of neurons [ 118 ], plasticity during neural development [ 119 ], and olfactory neurogenesis [ 120 ]. Moreover, miR-200b and miR200c seem to have a neuroprotective effect [ 121 ]. Actually, most of the predicted targets of PA-controlled miRNAs are genes related to brain/nerve function and already mentioned above, such as BDNF , Igf-1 , ngf , and c-fos . Some of these genes are also targeted by miR-483 , another miRNA downregulated in HIST rats [ 116 ]. Interestingly, exercise seems to mitigate the effects on cognition of traumatic brain injury and aging by modulating the expression in the hippocampus of miR-21 [ 122 ] and miR-34a [ 123 ].

In summary, many differentially expressed miRNAs have been evidenced, when comparing the brain of exercising and non-exercising rodents, in a variety of brain areas, including the brain cortex and hippocampus. We have to remember, however, that each miRNA can target a multiplicity of mRNAs, and each mRNA can be targeted by many different miRNAs, thus it is not yet immediately evident how exercise-induced modifications in the miRNA population fit into the general regulation of brain functions by PA.

2.3. Genes Involved in Mitochondrial and Lysosomal Biogenesis

Since the 1950s, the decline of mitochondrial oxidative functions has been considered one of the main causes of cell aging [ 124 ]. The respiratory complexes (and in particular, the Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NADH, dehydrogenase and the cytochrome C oxidase complexes) decrease with aging in many tissues, including the brain—relying mostly on the oxidative metabolism— that is particularly sensitive to this decline [ 125 , 126 ]. Moreover, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) accumulates mutations with age, and this is a further reason for an aberrant functioning of mitochondria [ 127 ]. Fission arrest [ 128 ] and abnormal donut-shaped mitochondria [ 129 ] have been noticed in the prefrontal cortex of aged animals. Mitochondrial alterations of different kinds have been also noticed in a variety of brain pathologies [ 130 , 131 , 132 ].

On the other hand, PA has been reported to have anti-aging effects and can have a positive effect on mitochondrial biogenesis due to the increase of BDNF levels [ 133 ]. Recently, it has been reported that, in old mice, exercise can improve brain cortex mitochondrial function by selectively increasing the activity of complex I, and the levels of the mitochondrial dynamin-related protein 1 ( DRP1 ), a large GTPase that controls the final part of mitochondrial fission. This finding suggests that, in the brain of old mice, exercise improves mitochondrial function by inducing a shift in the mitochondrial fission–fusion balance toward fission, even in the absence of modifications in the levels of proteins that regulate metabolism or transport, such as BDNF, HSP60, or phosphorylated mTOR [ 134 ].

Autophagy is a physiological process which requires functional lysosomes, and that is involved in recycling proteins as well as in eliminating potentially toxic protein aggregates and dysfunctional organelles [ 135 ]. It has been suggested that autophagy is essential in skeletal muscle plasticity and that it is regulated by exercise [ 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 ]. Recently, it has been reported that, in the brain cortex, exercise promotes nuclear translocation of the transcription factor EB ( TFEB ), a master factor in lysosomal biogenesis and autophagy [ 139 ]. The authors found that activation of TFEB depends on the NAD-dependent deacetylase sirtuin-1 ( SIRT-1 ), that deacetylates it at K116, allowing its nuclear translocation. In turn, SIRT-1 is activated by the pathway induced by activation of the AMP-dependent kinase ( AMPK ) [ 135 ]. Interestingly, mitophagy (autophagy of mitochondria) declines with age, thus leading to a progressive accumulation of damaged mitochondria [ 140 ]. Thus, the autophagy increase, induced by exercise, not only contributes to the elimination of toxic protein aggregates accumulating in the brain, but also produces a specific increase of mitophagy [ 141 ].

3. Muscle Contraction and Production of Myokines

Skeletal muscle is the most abundant tissue in the body and plays a fundamental role in the maintenance of the correct posture and movement. In addition, it has a central metabolic function, since, in response to post-prandial insulin, picks up glucose from the blood and accumulates it as glycogen. As a consequence, age-related loss of skeletal muscle (known as sarcopenia) not only affects body stability and movement, but might also be a cause of hyperglycaemia. On the other hand, exercise improves glucose uptake in skeletal muscles of patients with type 2 diabetes by activating GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane, partially independent of insulin [ 142 , 143 ].

Different kinds of fibres exist in skeletal muscle, which differs for both metabolic and contractile properties: slow-twitch oxidative (SO) fibres have a high content of mitochondria, and myoglobin, and are more vascularized, fast-twitch glycolytic (FG) fibres have a glycolysis-based metabolism, and finally fast-twitch oxidative glycolytic (FOG) fibres have intermediate properties [ 144 ]. Skeletal muscle fibres are also classified according to the myosin heavy chain (MHC) isotypes that they produce: type-I fibres, type-IIA fibres, and type-IIX/IIB fibres, roughly corresponding to SO-, FOG-, and FG-fibres, respectively. Other types of MHC are expressed during embryogenesis or during muscle regeneration [ 144 ]. Notably, it seems that also the type of input received from the motor nerve is different for different fibres: type I seems to receive a high amount of inputs at low frequency, while type II seems to receive short inputs at high frequency [ 145 ]. Moreover, the contractility properties of muscle fibres do not depend only on the isoforms of contractile proteins expressed, but also on the isotypes of many other proteins, such as those involved in calcium trafficking, and basal metabolism. These differences also depend on epigenetic differences that also influence the transcription rate of the active genes. For example, it has been reported that the mobility of the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) during transcription of the gene encoding PGC-1α differ between fast- and slow-twitch skeletal muscles, thus affecting the gene expression efficiency [ 146 ].

Similar to neurons, skeletal muscle cells are post-mitotic, but dynamic, and have the ability to change their structure and physiology in response to long-lasting stimuli, a property called “muscle plasticity” [ 145 ]. Thus, for example, fast, fatigable muscles could change to slower, fatigue-resistant ones following chronic electrical stimulation. This remodelling involves an overall change of the structure and metabolism of the fibres, due to modifications of myofibrillar proteins, proteins regulating Ca 2+ homeostasis, and enzymes involved in glycolysis and in mitochondrial metabolism. All these modifications are time- and intensity-dependent, and imply both transcriptional and post-transcriptional changes of gene expression [ 145 , 147 ]. Adult skeletal muscle can also undergo modifications in response to a more natural way of causing electrical stimulation in the muscles: exercise [ 148 ]. One of the factors controlling fibre phenotypes is myoblast determination protein ( MyoD ), a basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor with a critical function in muscle development, that is more highly expressed in fast fibres—in Myod1 -null mice, indeed, fast fibres shift to a slower phenotype, whereas MyoD overexpression induces the opposite shift [ 149 , 150 ]. A reduction of slow fibres is also observed in calcineurin knock-out mice [ 151 ] and in mice overexpressing the calcineurin inhibitor regulator of calcineurin 1 ( RCAN1 ) [ 152 ]. On the other hand, it has been shown that the nuclear factor of activated T cells ( NFAT ) functions as a repressor of fast properties in slow muscles [ 153 ], and is involved in the fast-to-slow phenotype switch induced by aerobic exercise. This effect is due to the NFATs ability to inhibit MyoD action, by binding to its N-terminal transcription activating domain and blocking the recruitment of the histone acetyltransferase p300 [ 154 ]. Interestingly, NFAT is one of the targets of calcineurin-mediated dephosphorylation. It is also worth noting that calcineurin is activated by calcium, and hence by conditions that also trigger muscle contraction.

3.1. Muscle Contraction and Gene Regulation

A large body of evidence suggests that muscle contraction per se regulates gene expression and muscle plasticity. Fluctuation in the intracellular [Ca 2+ ] is certainly the most important signal during muscle contraction; thus, it is highly probable that the mentioned fibre phenotype modifications and, in general, muscle adaptation to PA are initiated by Ca 2+ . Actually, the molecular basis for contractility depends on the mechanism known as excitation-contraction coupling (ECC), and on the complex interplay between voltage-gated and ligand-gated channels, contractile proteins (such as myosin), calcium-binding buffer proteins (such as calreticulin, parvalbumin, and calsequestrin), calcium-sensor proteins (such as calmodulin and calcineurin), and calcium-dependent ATPases [ 155 ].

Ca 2+ ions are also able to regulate glycolysis by making glucose available through glycogen degradation—in muscle cells, glycogen phosphorylase kinase (PhK), the enzyme that phosphorylates and activates the glycogen breaking enzyme phosphorylase (GP), is activated by the calcium/calmodulin (CaM) complex, that constitutes its δ subunit [ 156 , 157 ]. Moreover, CaM can also interact with the muscle-specific isoform of phosphofructokinase (PFK-M), the pacemaker of glycolysis [ 158 ]. Ca 2+ influx into mitochondria also induces an increase in the energy conversion potential, and ATP production [ 155 ].

It is also important to highlight that, during muscle contraction, AMP concentration increases, thus activating AMPK .

Another important signal due to PA is hypoxia ; in resting muscle cells, prolyl hydroxylases ( PHDs ) use molecular oxygen to hydroxylate the hypoxia-inducible factor 1α ( HIF-1α ), thus allowing its pVHL (von-Hippel-Lindau) E3 ligase-dependent ubiquitination, and proteasomal degradation [ 159 ]. HIF-1α activity is also modulated by the hydroxylation of an asparagine residue (Asn803) by another oxygen-dependent hydroxylase, the factor inhibiting HIF-1 ( FIH-1 ); under normoxic conditions, asparagine is hydroxylated, and this modification prevents interaction of HIF-1α with CBP/p300 [ 160 ].

In the hypoxic conditions initially induced by exercise, PHDs undergo a decrease of activity, due to shortage of the oxygen substrate, thus hydroxylation of HIF-1α, and hence its ubiquitination and degradation are limited. The stabilized factor translocates to the nucleus, heterodimerizes with aryl hydrocarbon nuclear receptor translocator (ARNT)/HIF-1β, binds to DNA and induces target gene transcription [ 159 ]. Genes important for the adaptation of cells to hypoxic conditions and targets of HIFs are, for example, those encoding glucose transporters, glycolytic enzymes, and angiogenic growth factors [ 161 , 162 ].

A further interesting aspect of muscle activity on muscle function depends on mechanosensing mechanisms , that depend on forces transmitted to the cells by the extracellular matrix (ECM) or by neighbouring cells during muscle contraction; these forces are simultaneously translated into changes of cytoskeletal dynamics, contributing at the same time to elicit signal transduction pathways [ 163 ]. Increasing evidence suggests that a key role in mechanotransduction is played by yes-associated protein ( YAP ), a transcriptional coactivator that can be regulated by ECM stiffness and rigidity, and by cell stretching [ 163 , 164 ]. This protein interacts with different signal transduction pathways, such as the one involving Wnt/β-catenin [ 165 ], and the one involving Hippo [ 163 ]. Recently, it has been reported that mechanical stress also activates the c-Jun N-terminal kinase ( JNK ), that then triggers phosphorylation of the transcription factor SMAD in a specific linker region. SMAD phosphorylation inhibits its nuclear translocation, thus resulting in a negative regulation of the growth suppressor myostatin , and induction of muscle growth [ 166 ]. This pathway is activated only by resistance exercise [ 166 ]. Interestingly, by using one-legged activity protocols, it was also found that JNK activity increased only in the exercising leg [ 167 ]. It is worth noting that global transcriptome analysis, done on muscle biopsies of young men undertaking resistance exercise, revealed that, in the initial exercises, the stress imposed by muscle contraction induced the expression of heat shock proteins ( HSPs ), as well as of muscle damage-, protein turnover-, and inflammation-markers [ 168 ]; trained muscles show instead an increase of proteins related to a more oxidative metabolism, and to anti-oxidant functions, as well as of proteins involved in cytoskeletal and ECM structures, and in muscle contraction and growth [ 168 ]. Acute resistance exercise also affects the expression of genes encoding components of the ECM, such as matrix metalloproteases, enzymes involved in ECM remodelling [ 169 ].

As in the brain, PA-dependent modification of gene expression in muscle mainly depends on epigenetic events. For example, after 60 min of cycling, HDAC4 and HDAC5 are exported from the nucleus, thus removing their repressive function [ 170 ], and, in general, regular aerobic exercise induces decreased DNA methylation of a number of genes [ 171 , 172 , 173 ]. Two of the most important epigenetically regulated genes are the above-mentioned AMPK and CaMK [ 142 , 143 ].

Moreover, exercise induces rapid and transient changes in the muscle miRNAs (also called myomiRNAs ) [ 174 , 175 ]—for example, after an acute activity bout (cycle ergometer, 60 min, 70% VO 2 peak), has-miR-1, has-miR-133a, has-miR-133-b, and has-miR-181a increase, while has-miR-9, has-miR-23a, has-miR-23b, and has-miR-31 decrease in the skeletal muscle [ 175 ]. Intriguingly, has-miR-1, has-miR-133a, and has-miR-133-b have been instead shown to decrease following an endurance training (cycle ergometer, 60–120 min/section, for 12 weeks, 5 times/week) [ 176 ]. As in the case of BDNF, further research is necessary in order to understand the real relationship between PA and miRNA production. Again, the analytic methods used might cause the observed differences, thus, in addition to further studies, it will be necessary to standardize miRNA purification from muscle and blood.

Finally, muscle contraction results in a transient increase of both oxygen and nitrogen reactive species (ROS and NOS, respectively) that, by interacting with redox state-sensing pathways (such as, among others, P-38/MAPK, NFkB, and AMPK), induce cyto-protective, antioxidant responses. Activation of these pathways relies in part on post-translational oxidation of cysteines on critical enzymes/regulatory proteins by glutathionylation, that is by reversibly adding glutathione to their thiol groups; in addition to stimulating protective cell responses, this modification probably prevents further irreversible oxidation of cysteines [ 177 , 178 ].

3.2. Release of Myokines and Metabolites by Contracting Muscles

As a whole, the data reported indicate that PA has several effects on the nervous system—it acts as an antidepressant and an anxiolytic, and can improve mood, self-esteem, and cognition. The benefits induced by PA on the brain (as well as in other organs, such as the heart) are in part mediated by peptides (myokines) and metabolites released into the blood by the endocrine activity of contracting muscles ( Figure 1 ) [ 25 , 179 , 180 , 181 , 182 ].

3.2.1. BDNF and Cathepsin-B (CTSB)

Contracting muscles release BDNF, that seems to be involved in autocrine signalling to the muscle itself [ 182 , 183 , 184 ]. In addition, BDNF probably serves as a retrograde signal to the motor neurons of the spinal cord.

It is also possible that muscle-derived BDNF has an effect on the brain, as intact BDNF was reported to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB) in both directions by a high-capacity, saturable transport system [ 185 ].

In response to exercise, muscles also release into the plasma high levels of cathepsin-B (CTSB), an abundant, calcium-dependent cysteine protease of the calpain family, produced in all human tissues. Enzymatically active CTSB is secreted through exocytosis and can degrade components of the ECM in both physiological and pathological conditions [ 186 , 187 ]. Although the mechanism of action of CTSB in the brain is still a matter of debate, it was acknowledged that, after exercise-dependent release from muscles, it can cross the BBB and promote BDNF expression in the hippocampus, neurogenesis, and promote the improvement of spatial memory abilities [ 188 ]. It has been reported, for example, that in CTSB knockout mice, running did not have any effect on hippocampal neurogenesis and spatial memory [ 188 ]. Similarly, in humans, changes in CTSB levels correlate with hippocampus-dependent memory functions [ 188 ].

Intriguingly, it was recently reported that resting serum levels of both BDNF and CTSB were significantly lower in long-term trained middle-aged men in comparison with sedentary controls, even if trained men showed a significant improvement in memory, based on the Free and Cued Immediate Recall tests [ 107 ]. Thus, it seems that both BDNF and CTSB molecules increase immediately after exercise, but then decrease to levels lower than in untrained individuals, showing an inverse correlation to the intensity/duration of exercise ([ 107 ]; Table 2 ). It is tempting to speculate that, as proposed years ago by Ji et al. [ 189 ], and as discussed by De La Rosa et al. [ 107 ] for BDNF and CTSB, most of the regulatory molecules produced in response to PA behave in a hormetic manner: in other words, their concentration should increase at the beginning of the activities, when they play an immediate role in repair processes, at the sites of the traumatic injuries, where oxidative stress is initially induced by exercise. Then, in well-trained individuals, given the better adaptation to stress, the levels of these molecules could/should decrease. Thus, their concentrations over time, if put in a graph, should give rise to a curve with the shape of an upside-down “U”. Such behaviour might also represent one of the variability sources in results found in different studies—analyses performed at different time intervals during and after the exercise might give rise to very different evaluations and interpretations.

3.2.2. FGF21 and Irisin/FNDC5

FGF21 is primarily produced by the liver, but also by skeletal muscles [ 179 , 190 ]—it is a critical regulator of nutrient homeostasis [ 191 ]—in response to PA, it improves thermogenesis in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, and even induces differentiation of brown adipocytes [ 192 ]. FGF21 also crosses the BBB [ 193 ] and, in association with the co-receptor βKlotho [ 194 ], binds to its receptors in the hypothalamus, where it modulates sympathetic input to brown adipose tissue, circadian rhythms, and neuroprotection [ 182 ]. Recently, it has been shown that, although all exercise types induce an increase of FGF21, the increase is greater after resistance training than after high-intensity interval (HIIT) sessions [ 195 ].

Irisin, the proteolytic cleaved extracellular part of fibronectin type III domain-containing protein 5 (FNDC5), is a myokine the expression of which depends on PGC-1α [ 196 ], and that is positively regulated by muscle contraction [ 197 ]. Like FGF21, upon its release into the systemic circulation, irisin may contribute to the browning of white adipose tissue [ 196 ]. FNDC5 has been detected in different areas of the brain, where it seems to associate with neural differentiation; moreover, irisin can cross the BBB [ 198 ], and increased levels of circulating irisin correlate with increased levels of BDNF in the mouse hippocampus [ 197 ].

3.2.3. Cytokines Released by Muscles

Contracting muscles also release cytokines, such as IL-6 , IL-8 , and IL-15 . As interleukin passage across the BBB has been reported [ 199 ], these molecules are putatively able to act on the brain too. Their effects on the brain are, however, still debated. For example, both neurodegenerative and neuroprotective properties have been attributed to IL-6 [ 200 ]; interestingly, it seems that these different effects depend on the receptors engaged, and the specific signalling pathway triggered: (1) The anti-inflammatory pathway (the classical one) involves the membrane-bound IL-6 receptor (IL-6R), expressed for example on microglia, and (2) the pro-inflammatory one (also called the trans-signalling pathway), mediates neurodegeneration in mice, and depends on a soluble form of IL-6R, able to stimulate a response on distal cells [ 200 ]. Similarly, IL-8 seems to have both neurogenic and neurotoxic effects [ 201 ]. IL-15 receptors are expressed by both glial cells and neurons, with developmental and regional differences. A neuroprotective role of IL-15 is suggested by the increased motor neuron death in knockout mice lacking the IL-15 receptor α (IL15Rα), and by the ability of IL-15 treatment to ameliorate the symptoms of the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). On the other hand, increased blood levels of IL-15 have been observed in inflammation of several origins [ 202 ]. In summary, as in the case of BDNF and CTSB, the levels of the muscle-derived interleukins probably have a hormetic behaviour, and their changes depend on the general adaptation to stress.

3.2.4. Lactate

It is now widely acknowledged that lactate , produced in large amounts during anaerobic exercise, shuttles among cells and, inside the cells, among organelles, through specific monocarboxylate carriers (MCTs); interestingly, lactate behaves as a fuel for many cells, including neurons, in conditions of oxygen shortage [ 203 ]. Moreover, the hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 1 (HCAR1), a G protein-coupled lactate receptor, is highly enriched in the endothelial- as well as in the pericyte-like-cells of the intracerebral microvessels. Activation of HCAR1 enhances production of the cerebral vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) and cerebral angiogenesis [ 204 , 205 ]. More recently, it was also found that, by signalling through HCAR1, lactate can activate responses that involve both α and βγ subunits of HCAR1 and is synergic with the activity of other receptors, such as adenosine A1, GABAB, and α2-adrenergic receptors. As a consequence, not only neurons can use lactate as a substrate during exercise but, in addition, neuronal activity might be finely tuned by this molecule [ 203 , 206 ]. These findings highlight the important role that lactate can play in the PA-dependent muscle–brain crosstalk.

3.2.5. Extracellular Vesicles (EVs)

In the last two decades, many laboratories have demonstrated that cells can communicate at long distances by releasing EVs (mainly exosomes and/or small membrane vesicles/ectosomes) that contain many species of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and metabolites. Since they are membrane-bound, EVs can also fuse with the plasma membranes of other cells, thus delivering their content into them and inducing epigenetic modification of the recipient cell functions [ 207 , 208 ]. Central protagonists of EV-mediated trafficking are different species of RNA, and especially miRNAs. Although many obstacles are still encountered in the identification and purification of EV-carried circulating miRNAs [ 209 ], many laboratories have reported that PA induces a significant modification of many miRNAs. Among these latter species, some (for example, miR-21 and miR-132) have a role in brain functions as critical as regulation of synaptic plasticity, memory formation, and neuronal survival [ 82 ].

It is thus possible that one of the ways through which PA and muscle activity influence brain function is by delivering into the blood different species of regulatory molecules that are protected during the trip to other tissues (and to the brain, in particular) because they are packaged into EVs, and these membrane-bound vehicles might finally deliver their cargoes to the brain across the brain capillary endothelial cells. Interestingly, indeed, exercise stimulates the release of exosomes and small vesicles into circulation [ 210 ].

4. A Few Examples of Exercise Effects on Neurodegeneration: Studies on Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, Huntington’s Disease, and Multiple Sclerosis

The evidence that regular exercise can help to prevent and even treat neurological disorders has become stronger in recent years. At the same time, a lot of research is focusing on the mechanisms underlying the ability of PA to improve the symptomatology of neurodegenerative diseases, in the attempt to find out the best protocols to be applied to the patients.

4.1. Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

PA improves cognition in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), stimulating neurogenesis and the simultaneous increase of both BDNF and FNDC5 [ 211 ]. For example, intracerebroventricular- or tail vein-injection of FNDC5 allowed the recovery of memory impairments and synaptic plasticity in a mouse model of AD [ 212 ]. Since PA, as already discussed in Section 3 , stimulates irisin release from muscle, it is possible that the beneficial role of PA is, at least in part, due to this myokine [ 213 ]. Interestingly, the effects of irisin could be also attributed to a lower release of inflammatory cytokines by astrocytes—it was shown, that irisin has protective effects on cultures of hippocampal neurons treated with Aβ peptide, only when co-administered with astrocyte-conditioned medium [ 214 ].

In the hippocampus, PA effects include: (i) enhancement of c-Fos- and Wnt3- and inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3β ( GSK-3β )-gene expression; (ii) an increase of glial fibrillary acidic protein ( GFAP ) and a decrease of the S100B protein levels, in astrocytes; (iii) an increase of the blood–brain barrier integrity; (iv) an increase of BDNF and tropomyosin receptor kinase B; (v) enhancement of glycogen levels; and (vi) normalization of MCT2 expression [ 215 ].

Another AD progression-slowing factor, known to be produced during physical activity and able to cross BBB is the insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) [ 216 ]. This factor acts by activating the expression of BDNF. If antibodies against its receptor are used, the PA-induced increase of BDNF mRNA, protein, and precursor does not occur anymore [ 217 ].

Moreover, as already discussed ( Section 3 ), both lactate and BDNF produced during physical exercise seems to have stimulating effects on learning and memory processes [ 205 ]. As mentioned, CTSB also crosses BBB, and should be able to stimulate hippocampal neurogenesis, and to improve learning and memory, however, AD patients have high levels of this enzyme in the blood, thus, the real role of CTSB in AD remains controversial [ 205 ].

Some miRNAs, such as miR-124 and miR-134, have been also suggested to be involved in memory formation and maintenance [ 218 , 219 ]. The relationship between the role of these molecules and BDNF in AD is, however, still debated [ 220 ]. Interestingly, in a mouse model of AD, miR-34a is upregulated [ 221 ]; it has been hypothesized that swimming training, by inhibiting miR-34a expression, might attenuate age-related autophagy dysfunction and abnormal mitochondrial dynamics, thus delaying both physiological brain aging and AD [ 123 ].

An altered metabolic process in AD is that involving demolition of the L-tryptophan, which leads to the formation of kynurenine ( KYN ); catabolism of this latter molecule generates, in turn, neurotoxic metabolites related to AD pathogenesis. KYN is able to cross freely the BBB and, in AD patients, it is found in excess both in the plasma and in the brain. PA might be protective for neurons because it stimulates the formation of an aminotransferase ( KAT ) in the muscle, KAT then catalyses the peripheral transformation of KYN into kynurenic acid ( KYNA ), and is less harmful because it is unable to cross the BBB [ 182 , 205 ].

Recently, it has been also reported that 4 weeks of exercise can revert the induction of gene encoding proteins involved in inflammation and apoptosis in the hypothalamus in a mouse model of AD. After 6 weeks, an improvement in glucose metabolism was also observed, and after 8 weeks there was an evident reduction of apoptosis in some populations of hypothalamic neurons [ 222 ]. Finally, it has been suggested that the benefits noticed in early AD patients following aerobic exercise are due to the exercise-dependent enhancement of the cardiorespiratory fitness, which is in turn associated with improved memory performance and reduced hippocampal atrophy [ 223 ].

4.2. Parkinson’s Disease (PD)

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder and involves a massive degeneration of the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, in the midbrain [ 224 ]. Although the priming cause is still unknown, both genetic and environmental cues could play a role. Some of the familial cases show mutations in the gene encoding α-synuclein, a protein mainly found in the presynaptic terminals; the mutated protein is prone to aggregation and tends to form the so-called Lewi bodies, which contribute to the degeneration of neurons [ 225 , 226 ].

At present, pharmacological therapies able to remarkably modify or delay the disease progression, are still lacking. Thus, alternative approaches not entirely based on pharmacotherapy, and able to slow down the dopaminergic neuron degeneration, are needed. Also, in the case of PD, it has been reported that association of the pharmacological therapy with exercise can help in managing the physical and cognitive decline typically associated with PD [ 227 ]. Several studies investigated the effects of various types of exercise on both motor- and non-motor-features of PD and reported positive results: 19 systematic reviews and meta-analyses, from 2005 to 2017, were published from which an increased interest in non-pharmacologic therapies is evident [ 228 , 229 ].

In PD animal models, exercise induces neuroprotective effects through the expression of some brain neurotrophic factors, including BDNF and glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) [ 230 , 231 ]. In particular, it was demonstrated that the promoter IV of BDNF gene shows a reduced CpG methylation in rat, after regular enrolment in physical exercise [ 112 ]. Moreover, free-wheel running (from 1.6 to 7 km/day) could improve histone H3 phospho/acetylation and c-Fos induction in dentate granule neurons [ 232 ]. These observations suggest that the positive effects of PA depend on epigenetic regulation of genes encoding neurotrophins.

Other exercise effects in PD animal models include enhanced cell proliferation and migration of neural progenitors, and an overthrow of age-related deterioration in substantia nigra vascularization, that seems to be mediated by VEGF expression [ 233 ]. Moreover, a study on PD mice models highlighted that, after a 6-weeks treadmill training exercise, a nigrostriatal Nrf2-ARE (antioxidant response element)-dependent signalling pathway was activated, which was protective against the development of parkinsonism [ 234 ].

Treadmill running also enhanced coordination and motor balance by preventing loss of Purkinje cells in the rat cerebellum. Moreover, repression of PD-induced GFAP-positive reactive astrocytes and Iba-1-positive microglia was found, showing that PA can help in suppressing astrogliosis and microglia activation. These cellular effects were accompanied by a decreased expression of the pro-apoptotic protein Bax, and enhanced expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 [ 235 ].

In humans, the effects of PA have been studied on the basis of correlations found among acute effects of exercise on specific clinical variables (as emerging, for example, from the PD Questionnaire-39 on quality of life) and the amplitude of low frequency fluctuations (ALFF) that may reflect the functions of the brain before and after a single bout of exercise. The results of these analyses showed, for example, an increase of ALFF signals within the right ventromedial prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the left ventrolateral PFC, as well as a bilateral increase in the substantia nigra [ 236 ].

Another study demonstrated that 4 weeks of aerobic exercise elicited a long-lasting improvement on both motor and non-motor functions of PD patients. The principal result of this study was an increase of BDNF signalling through its TrkB receptor in the patient’s lymphocytes [ 237 ]. Similar results had been also reported by Wang et al. [ 238 ], who found that repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation enhanced BDNF-TrkB signalling in both brain and lymphocytes [ 238 ]. It is thus possible that BDNF-TrkB signalling in lymphocytes can be indicative of what happens in the cortical TrkB signalling.

On the basis of these studies, we can conclude that PA can give PD-specific clinical benefits, but only if repeated habitually over time (i.e., exercise training) [ 239 ].

4.3. Huntington’s Disease (HD)

HD is a fatal genetic disorder, due to an autosomal dominant mutation that determines the expansion of poly-glutamine repeats in the huntingtin (HTT) coding region [ 240 ]. Clinical features of HD include significant motor defects together with non-motor changes, like cognitive, psychological, and behavioural disabilities, that may progressively get worse before diagnosis, and that results in limitations of daily activities [ 241 ]. Physical therapy and exercise interventions were integrated into the treatment decades ago, in order to maintain patient’s independence in daily life activities, while attenuating the damages in the motor function. It is indeed known that a passive lifestyle might lead to an earlier HD onset; while, as in other neurodegenerative diseases, exercise exerts a positive effect [ 242 , 243 ]. Recent studies have focused on both resistance and endurance exercise training modalities, based on the suggestion that both could be of help in HD patients. All the results showed a significant increase in grey matter volume and significant improvements in verbal learning and memory, after long-training exercise [ 243 , 244 , 245 , 246 , 247 , 248 ].

Interestingly, it was highlighted that voluntary exercise in a rat model of HD induces DNA hypomethylation at specific CpG sites, located within an Sp1/Sp3 transcription factor recognition element of the vegfA gene promoter. In parallel, a significant reduction of the mRNA encoding DNA methyltransferase 3b (DNMT3B) in the hippocampus of exercised rats was also found [ 249 ].

4.4. Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) who perform regular physical activity have a better quality of life with less fatigue and less depression than those who are sedentary [ 250 ].

A pilot study with relapsing-remitting MS patients demonstrated that exercise may also attenuate inflammation and neurodegeneration by an increase of erythropoietin [ 251 ].

Mulero et al. [ 252 ] analysed gene expression in MS patients who improved their fatigue status after an aerobic exercise program and compared them with healthy controls (HC). It revealed that in patients before exercise, genes that respond to interferon were more active than in the HC. On the other hand, after training, a decrease in the expression of a group of interferon-related genes was evidenced at the transcriptomic level [ 252 ]. These results are encouraging because the expression of genes activated in response to interferon also correlates with the increase in fatigue [ 252 ]. Exercise also induced a reduction of the levels of the IL-6 receptor, that went back to normal values [ 252 ]. Moreover, in the hippocampus of an animal model of MS, both high- and low-intensity training programs induced an increase of the mRNAs encoding three important neurotrophins: BDNF, the glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), and the nerve growth factor (NGF) [ 253 ].

In addition to the PA-dependent increase of BDNF, VEGF, and IGF-1, in the context of MS, a specific increase in the expression of tight junction proteins, critical for the reestablishment of the BBB function, was also evidenced [ 254 ]. Moreover, using a mouse model of MS with overexpressed ATP-binding cassette transporter 1 ( ABCA1 ), Houdebine and colleagues [ 255 ] demonstrated a PA-dependent normalization of ABCA1 mRNA levels both in the brain and the cerebellum, with an improvement of myelin status.

Actually, it has been also found that different training protocols act differently on gene expression; for example, while IGF1-R expression level decreases in the brain of MS mice subjected to forced-swimming protocol, IGF1-R mRNA level increases in the cerebellum of MS mice of a running group. In parallel, a different pattern of myelin gene stimulation was also observed—in the mice that had performed running exercise, a smaller decrease of myelin was found in the brain, whereas swimming induced greater benefits in the cerebellum [ 255 ].

In summary, these few examples of PA benefits in different neurodegenerative diseases reinforce the idea of a neuroprotective effect of exercise. Exercise increases expression of genes involved in enzymatic antioxidant responses, improves cognitive functions and memory, and can counteract the progression of diseases, or at least help patients to better perform daily life activities.

There are probably multiple cellular and molecular pathways involved and act in synergy. Moreover, specific differences in the responses of individual patients can be expected depending on genetic and epigenetic variability as well as even slight differences in the grade of the pathology.

Finally, the protocols used in different studies are highly heterogeneous and to set ideal exercises for the different neurodegenerative pathologies is at the moment impossible. Further research is still necessary, and, as already noticed above, standardized methods for analysing the results and the biomarkers are compelling.

In spite of the mentioned uncertainties and variability, the current results are of real interest and encouraging. Moreover, the understanding that many biochemical pathways are involved has been stimulating a lot of new studies, aimed at finding out the best combinations of exercise and drugs to slow down the pathology while improving the life quality of the patients.

5. Exercise-Dependent Production of Dopamine, Endocannabinoids, and Opioids: Effects on Mood, Analgesia, and Happiness

In addition to an improvement of body fitness and learning and memory skills, it is well documented that PA can induce changes in the mental status, reducing anxiety and producing a general sense of wellbeing. Moreover, it can induce analgesia. The precise mechanisms involved are not yet completely understood but a few molecules, probably acting in synergy, have been identified and are currently studied as possible mediators of these further effects of PA.

5.1. Dopamine

Dopamine (DA) producing neurons are present in distinct areas of the cerebral cortex, but are mostly concentrated in the ventral midbrain, where they are arranged in different nuclei. The two main groups constitute the pars compacta of the substantia nigra (SNc), and the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The latter neurons send projections to the nucleus accumbens of the ventromedial striatum, but also to the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex, being mostly involved in the regulation of emotional, reward-related, and cognitive functions. Dopaminergic neurons of the SNc, which regulate mainly motor function, form the nigrostriatal pathway, innervating neurons located in the caudate nucleus and in the dorsolateral striatum [ 256 , 257 ].

This subdivision is probably an oversimplification because different subgroups of DA neurons have recently been described in human and murine midbrain, which show distinct gene expression profiles [ 258 , 259 ]. Even though it is not yet known whether these DA neurons have specific roles, in some instances it was demonstrated that they have unique projection patterns, connecting them to distinctive areas such as the nucleus accumbens and amygdala [ 260 ]. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, and PITX3 protein and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) as markers for DA neurons, Tiklovà et al. [ 261 ] identified seven different populations of neurons in the mouse developing midbrain, that could be distinguished thanks to the differential expression of other genes [ 261 ].

DA neurons appear to form a brain network regulating the motivational behaviour of animals, allowing them to learn the difference between useful and harmful things, and consequently to choose proper actions [ 262 ]. DA also seems to be necessary for performing motivated actions to achieve goals, as demonstrated by the unsuitable behaviour of dopamine deficient mice [ 263 ]. In the mammalian central nervous system, DA controls many processes [ 262 , 264 ], such as feeding and locomotion [ 265 ]; it is also involved in the mechanisms of cognition and ‘adaptive’ memory formation, influencing the hippocampal long term potentiation (LTP) [ 266 ], and upregulates BDNF in the prefrontal cortex [ 267 ]. DA most probably interacts with other neurotransmitters and neuromodulators and, for example, it has been recently demonstrated that midbrain mice DA neurons also release IGF-1 that modulates DA release and concentration as well as neuronal firing [ 268 ].

As mentioned, a lot of different evidence demonstrates that the mammalian brain is capable of changing its functional and structural characteristics to adapt to the ever-changing surrounding world. This is achieved by learning and acquiring skills, thus improving cognitive functions. Neuroplasticity is orchestrated by several neurotransmitters and neurotrophins, and many cues indicate that exercise has an important role in its regulation [ 269 ]. In particular, DA regulates emotion and reward-related brain functions, and many authors have postulated that the positive properties of PA may be due to its ability to increase DA concentration [ 270 , 271 , 272 ]. Interestingly, PA increases the concentration of the same neurotransmitters, including DA, also activated by some drugs and alcohol [ 273 ], and this could be the reason why it improves mood in humans [ 274 , 275 ].

Moreover, PA, and specifically voluntary exercise, creates a sharp increase in DA concentration, especially in the nigrostriatal pathway, and has a strong positive effect in overcoming aversion. Being a molecule involved in the regulation of movement, emotions, and learning, DA could be a key component in the mechanism. Nevertheless, even though many proofs about DA’s involvement in the beneficial effects of exercise have been accumulating, to date a clear explanation of the underlying mechanism is still missing [ 276 ].

One interesting aspect of DA function is that it appears as one of the factors that distinguish physically active organisms from inactive ones, influencing the locomotory activity and even the tendency of the individuals to engage in PA [ 277 ]. Voluntary exercise is genetically controlled and depends on different neuromodulators, including DA itself. Given the enhancing effects of PA on DA production and release in the brain, it can be hypothesized that an auto-sustaining circuit exists by which DA and PA positively interact—the more DA an individual animal produces, the more it is prone to live actively, and the more DA will be consequently released in this feed-forward system [ 278 ].

Even though the mechanisms by which exercise, through dopamine, creates positive effects on brain functions are yet to be elucidated, a few hypotheses have been proposed. For example, it has been demonstrated that voluntary wheel running (VWR) activates latero-dorsal tegmental (LDT) and lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) murine neurons and these, in turn, could be responsible for the activation of the DA neurons of the lateral ventral tegmental area (lVTA) [ 279 ].

DA increase in the brain can derive from a higher activity of the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) enzyme, most probably due to a rise in calcium concentration. Enhancement of the enzyme activity depends indeed on its phosphorylation by CaMKII, the activity of which is regulated by calcium [ 280 , 281 ]. Actually, wheel running in rodents causes a doubling of the TH mRNA level in the VTA [ 282 ], and an increase also in the substantia nigra [ 283 ], and in the locus coeruleus [ 284 ]. A chronic exercise-dependent high level of DA, but not of other neurotransmitters (such as noradrenalin, serotonin, or glutamate), in the rat medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), was found by Chen et al. [ 285 ], and the effect could be reduced by a glucocorticoid receptor inhibitor—the authors suggest that the local DA increase is due to the high level of cortisol, induced by PA in mPFC [ 285 ].

In summary, PA may cause an increase in serum calcium levels, and calcium can stimulate dopamine synthesis in the brain by stimulating the activity of the CaMKII, and the consequent activation of the TH enzyme by phosphorylation. In particular, it has been shown that mice forced to physical activity have a DA level sharply higher in the neostriatum and nucleus accumbens, and that a similar effect, i.e., a specific increase of DA level in these brain regions, can be obtained by intracerebroventricular injection of calcium chloride. Moreover, following physical activity, a significant amount of TH and CaM was found in mouse neostriatum and nucleus accumbens, and in human, was found in the caudate nucleus and putamen. A possible mechanism leading to calcium increase in the brain could be the release of lactate following exercise. This may induce, in turn, an increase of blood acidity that could activate parathyroid hormone, or directly increase calcium concentration by favouring bone resorption [ 286 ].

On the other hand, PA-dependent DA increase might also be a consequence of a decrease in the activity of catabolic enzymes, such as the mitochondrial monoamine oxidase (MAO) and the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) [ 287 ]. In a study aimed at associating genetic background to happiness, Chen et al. [ 288 ] found that women bearing the low expression MAO-A alleles are statistically happier than those bearing the high expressed variant. Surprisingly, no difference in happiness was found when comparing men bearing the two different type of alleles [ 288 ]. Similar results have been reported regarding the COMT gene—women bearing a particular allele, containing the COMT Val158Met polymorphism, and presenting as a consequence a higher DA concentration show an emotionally healthier behaviour [ 289 ].

5.2. Opioids, Endocannabinoids, Analgesia, and the “Runner’s High”

The endogenous opioid system includes different peptides (i.e., endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphins) that derive from larger precursors and bind to G protein-coupled receptors. Three main receptors (μ, κ, and δ) mediate analgesic effects of these molecules [ 30 ]. Several studies have demonstrated PA-dependent increase of circulating opioids, and in particular of β-endorphin, in relationship with the intensity of exercise, and this β-endorphin increase correlates with analgesic effects both in humans and in rodents. Many studies, however, suggest that opioids are not the only molecules involved in analgesia induced by exercise [ 30 ]. For example, activation by exercise of the mesolimbic system in rodents has been also related to analgesic effects [ 290 ].

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) includes two G protein-coupled cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2), widely expressed all over the body, and their endogenous ligands, the most well-studied of which are two derivatives of the arachidonic acid: N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA, also known as anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). ECS also includes the enzymes necessary for synthesizing and degrading the ligands [ 291 ]. In addition to CB1 and CB2 receptors, 2-AG and AEA can bind to the vanilloid receptor (TRPV1); moreover, AEA also functions as an agonist of some subtypes of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) family of nuclear receptors [ 292 ]. ECS is critically involved in the modulation of several aspects of metabolism, and, in the hypothalamus, endocannabinoids signalling seems to function in maintaining appetite, in contrast with leptin. In particular, CB1 is probably involved in reward circuits related to food (i.e., it is responsible for the hedonic aspect of eating) [ 292 ]. An expected consequence of these ECS functions is increased production of endocannabinoids in response to exercise that induces higher energy utilization. A variety of studies have indeed shown PA-dependent increase of circulating endocannabinoids, even if the results significantly differ from one study to another. It seems, for example, that the relationship between the increase of AEA and the exercise intensity, as in the case of other already mentioned molecules, is described by an “upside-down U”-shaped curve [ 292 , 293 ]. On the other hand, 2-AG was found significantly elevated in response to short and intense bursts of activity. It is thus possible that different endocannabinoids (or different mixes of them) are secreted in response to different types, intensities, and durations of exercise. Moreover, “preferred” exercises significantly activate ECS, and this response may also contribute to the effects on the mood [ 294 ].

Interestingly, it was also reported that hypoxia potentiates ECS activation, and it was suggested that the muscles can be the main source of the exercise-induced increase of circulating endocannabinoids, that then can cross the BBB [ 292 ]. Overall, the levels of circulating endocannabinoids are inversely related to anxiety and depression, and positively related to BDNF concentration and, thus, to the beneficial effects on mood and to a sense of vigour and wellbeing. However, 2-AG and/or AEA levels can be higher in patients with schizophrenia or other cognitive disorders, such as borderline personality disorder [ 292 ]. Moreover, these observations are consistent with the evidence that the use of cannabinoid drugs increases the risk of developing psychotic disorders, probably also in relation to alteration of the dopamine signalling [ 295 ]. In summary, it is highly probable that these molecules can also have hormetic behaviour (see Section 3.2.2 ).

Since the 1960s, it was known that long-running could cause what was called the “runner’s high”, a sudden sense of euphoria and wellbeing, accompanied by analgesia. For a long time, exercise-dependent production of endorphins was considered responsible for at least the analgesic component of the runner’s high. More recently, as mentioned, the involvement of both opioids and endocannabinoids in this aspect of the response to PA has been consistently reported [ 30 ], and, in addition, it was found that cannabinoid-agonists can enhance the release of endogenous opioids in the brain [ 295 ]. We can thus infer that the two systems act in synergy in the anti-nociceptive effects of exercise. It has been also reported that, at the molecular level, a mediator of endocannabinoid action in response to exercise is AMPK [ 296 ].

On the other hand, most other aspects of the runner’s high seem to depend more directly on the endocannabinoid receptors, in mice [ 297 ], even if it is not so easy to evaluate euphoria in mice.

It was also suggested that mood improvement could relate to PA-dependent increase of the levels of neurosteroids, and in particular of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) [ 298 ], a molecule with a variety of effects on different neurotransmitter receptors, such as the GABA A receptor, and the NMDA as well as the AMPA receptors for glutamate. DHEA can also bind to nuclear receptors, can contribute to regulating the mitochondrial function in response to stress, and, through activation of G-protein coupled receptors of the plasma membrane, can increase transcription of miR-21, at least in a cell line of hepatocytes [ 299 ].

6. Conclusions and Perspectives

In conclusion, habitual exercise has a variety of positive effects on the human body, from regulating cardiorespiratory and cardiovascular fitness, to improving glycaemia and insulin response. In addition, as discussed, it is a way of maintaining not only a healthy body, but also a healthy mind, at any age. In particular, it can represent a non-pharmacological (and sometimes enjoyable) strategy to delay the effects of both physiological ageing and pathological neurodegeneration on brain health. However, although exercise prescriptions (including frequency, intensity, type, and time) were given, for example, for individuals with hypertension ([ 20 ], Table 1 in [ 23 ]), we cannot yet refer to specific exercise prescriptions for maximizing the positive effects of PA on cognition [ 23 ]; the protocols used in the experiments reported in this review, as well as the subjects and the markers studied ( Table 1 and Table 2 ) are indeed quite different, many informative studies relied on rodents, and not yet on humans. Further studies are thus necessary to evaluate more precisely how the factors which influence brain functioning change in response to the type, intensity, and timing of exercise. Further studies are also required to understand the interplay among the many molecules the levels of which change during/after exercise, even in opposite directions. PA induces, indeed, a variety of cellular and molecular effects, both in the periphery and in the brain. As we have seen, every molecule/group of molecules probably affects different aspects of brain function, but their synergic effects contribute to brain health as a whole. Among all these factors a key role seems to be played by BDNF—as a PA effect, this latter molecule is produced in the periphery and can also cross the BBB. In addition, some BDNF is directly produced in the brain due to the effect of other molecules, some of which are similarly released in the periphery, in a PA-dependent manner, and then cross the BBB, where they affect the function of resident proteins either at the transcriptional or the post-transcriptional level.

Notably, all these effects also depend on the physical pre-exercise conditions of each person.

In this context, an additional issue arises from the actual difficulties of old people and patients with neurodegeneration to perform voluntary exercise. Interestingly, a recent paper reported that neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) can increase BDNF and lactate serum concentration even more than voluntary exercise, and might thus represent a solution for individuals who cannot engage in high-intensity exercise or are even unable to perform any exercise at all [ 300 ].

It should also be considered that a significant percentage of people with a sedentary, computer-dependent lifestyle consider physical activity not only hard but also boring, and thus lacks motivation to exercise. From this point of view, a challenging proposal was made in a recent paper, in which the authors reported that a virtual reality-based exercise can be of help for people who cannot and/or do not like to move [ 301 ]. Namely, they refer to a particular type of dual-task video-games (exergames) that require, on behalf of the player, also a certain degree of movement, with variable physical components. The authors suggest that exergames can be also useful for children with impaired motor functions, for people who undergo rehabilitation, and for the elders [ 301 ]. Perhaps, the possibility to perform PA in the context of a virtual game can help also in the case of children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID); it has been reported that children with moderate to severe ID also suffer from low physical fitness [ 302 ].

Notably, we are now aware that pharmacological therapies should be ideally shaped on individual patients because of genetic and epigenetic differences affecting responses to the drugs. When talking of physical activity, tailoring prescriptions to individuals is even more difficult since the ability to perform exercise as well as the exercise outcomes likely depend on a wider set of genes (and their epigenetic setting). For example, single nucleotide polymorphisms have been observed in a number of genes that encode proteins involved in PA/fitness relationship, such as, for example, the genes encoding BDNF and the e4 allele of apolipoprotein apoE [ 56 ], or the genes encoding muscle proteins, such as actinin [ 303 ]. These considerations become much more stringent when we focus on the nervous system—every brain is unique because of genetic and epigenetic peculiarities that accumulate throughout our lives, as an effect of learning and experiences that sculpt our mind [ 304 ].

Now, although these concepts are clear at the theoretical level, practical applications are still in their infancy, even if rapidly progressing. In the future, animal models will certainly be helpful to study correlations among specific genes and exercise outcomes. On the other hand, further studies on humans will be helpful, provided that more homogeneous interventions and standardized measurement methods are used to evaluate exercise-dependent modifications of key parameters.

Finally, as life expectancy is increasing all over the world, it is of the utmost importance for all of us to maintain independence in the daily life activities and a sense of wellbeing as long as possible. Since PA can clearly contribute in ameliorating physical fitness as well as the mental status, it should be a social and political task to promote the conditions that allow the realization of physical exercise programs for the entire population, and especially for the elders and for children. In particular, we suggest that both healthy people and patients are encouraged by physicians to perform physical activity, underlining the higher impact and efficacy of moderate and regular exercise, in comparison with acute and heavy bouts of activity.

Acknowledgments

The authors are supported by the Università degli Studi di Palermo (University of Palermo), Palermo, Italy.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and artwork, I.D.L.; writing and editing, all the authors.

The authors did not receive any external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Are you looking to enhance your or your team’s problem-solving abilities? Engaging in activities specifically designed to stimulate your and your team’s critical thinking skills can be an excellent way to sharpen your problem-solving prowess. Whether you enjoy puzzles, brain teasers, or interactive challenges, these activities provide an opportunity to overcome obstacles and think creatively.

By immersing yourself in problem-solving activities, you can develop valuable strategies, improve your decision-making abilities, and boost your overall problem-solving IQ.

One key aspect of successful problem-solving is ensuring clear and effective communication, such as when teams use critical tools available online. For example, testing emails for deliverability and using an email spam checker to avoid spam filters can improve team efficiency. Try Maileroo’s free mail tester to validate your email campaigns effectively. Get ready to unlock your full potential and tackle any challenge that comes your way with these exciting activities for problem-solving.

In this article, we will explore activities for problem-solving that can help enhance your team’s problem-solving skills, allowing you to approach challenges with confidence and creativity.

What Are Problem Solving Activities?

Problem-solving activities or problem-solving exercises are interactive games requiring critical thinking to solve puzzles. They enhance teamwork & critical thinking. Examples include building towers, navigating simulated challenges, and fostering creativity and communication.

For instance, imagine a team working together to construct the tallest tower using limited materials. They strategize, communicate ideas, and problem-solve to create the best structure, promoting collaboration and inventive thinking among team members.

Some widely practiced problem-solving activities include:

• A Shrinking Vessel: Teams must fit into a shrinking space, testing their cooperation and adaptability.
• Marshmallow Spaghetti Tower: Participants build a tower using marshmallows and spaghetti, promoting creative engineering.
• Egg Drop: Protecting an egg from a fall challenges problem-solving skills.
• Desert Island Survival: Teams simulate survival scenarios, encouraging creative solutions.
• Rolling Dice: A simple yet effective game involving chance and decision-making.
• Build a Tower: Constructing a stable tower with limited resources fosters teamwork and innovation, etc.

13 Easy Activities For Problem-Solving Ideas to Enhance Team Collaboration

Team building activities offer a great opportunity to test problem-solving abilities and promote effective collaboration within a group to problem solving group activities. By engaging in these activities, teams can break the monotony of the workplace and create a more inclusive and welcoming environment.

Here are nine easy-to-implement activities that can bring substantial change to your team culture and overall workplace dynamics.

#1. Crossword Puzzles

Objective: To enhance problem-solving skills, vocabulary, and cognitive abilities through engaging crossword puzzles. 

Estimated Time: 15-20 Minutes 

Materials Needed:

• Crossword puzzle sheets
• Pens or pencils
• Distribute crossword puzzle sheets and pens/pencils to each participant.
• Explain the rules of crossword puzzles and the goal of completing as many clues as possible within the given time.
• Participants individually or in pairs work on solving the crossword puzzle by filling in the correct words.
• Encourage critical thinking, word association, and collaborative discussions for solving challenging clues.
• At the end of the time limit, review the answers and discuss any interesting or challenging clues as a group.
• Enhanced Problem-Solving: Participants engage in critical thinking while deciphering clues, promoting effective problem-solving skills.
• Vocabulary Expansion: Exposure to new words and phrases within the crossword improves vocabulary and comprehension.
• Cognitive Stimulation: The mental exercise of solving the puzzle stimulates the brain, enhancing cognitive abilities.
• Team Collaboration: If done in pairs, participants practice collaboration and communication to solve clues together.
• Achievement and Motivation: Successfully completing the crossword brings a sense of accomplishment and motivates individuals to explore more puzzles.

Tips for Facilitators:

• Provide varying levels of crossword puzzles to accommodate different skill levels.
• Encourage participants to share strategies for solving challenging clues.
• Emphasize the fun and educational aspects of the activity to keep participants engaged.

#2. A Shrinking Vessel

Estimated Time: 10-15 Minutes

• Materials Needed: A rope and a ball of yarn
• Prepare the Setting: Lay a rope on the floor in a shape that allows all team members to stand comfortably inside it. For larger teams, multiple ropes can be used, dividing them into smaller groups.
• Enter the Circle: Have all team members stand inside the rope, ensuring that nobody steps outside its boundaries.
• Shrinking the Circle: Begin gradually shrinking the rope’s size, reducing the available space inside the circle.
• Adapt and Maintain Balance: As the circle shrinks, team members must make subtle adjustments to maintain their positions and balance within the shrinking area.
• The Challenge: The objective for the team is to collectively brainstorm and find innovative ways to keep every team member inside the circle without anyone stepping outside.
• Collaboration and Communication: The activity promotes teamwork and open communication as participants strategize to stay within the shrinking circle.
• Adaptability: Team members learn to adapt swiftly to changing circumstances, fostering agility and flexibility.
• Creative Problem-Solving: The challenge encourages inventive thinking and brainstorming to find unique solutions.
• Trust Building: By relying on each other’s actions, participants build trust and cohesion among team members.
• Time-Efficient: The short duration makes it an ideal icebreaker or energizer during meetings or workshops.
• Observe and Facilitate: Monitor the team’s dynamics and offer guidance to encourage equal participation and effective problem-solving.
• Encourage Verbalization: Prompt participants to voice their ideas and collaborate vocally, aiding in real-time adjustments.
• Debrief Thoughtfully: Engage the team in a discussion afterward, reflecting on strategies employed and lessons learned.
• Emphasize Adaptability: Highlight the transferable skill of adaptability and its significance in both professional and personal contexts.

#3. Human Knots

• Objective: Improving Collaboration & enhancing Communication Skills

Estimated Time: 15-20 minutes

• Materials: None required

Procedure: 

• Organize your team into a compact circle. For more sizable teams, subdivide them into smaller clusters, with each cluster forming its own circle. 
• Direct each individual to grasp the hands of two other people in the circle, with the exception of those positioned directly adjacent to them. This action will result in the formation of a complex “human knot” within the circle. 
• Present the challenge to the group: to unravel themselves from this entanglement while maintaining their hold on each other’s hands. If preferred, you can establish a specific time limit. 
• Observe the team members collaborating to unravel the knot, witnessing their collective effort to devise solutions and free themselves from the intricate puzzle.
• Team Cohesion: The activity encourages team members to interact closely, promoting bonding and understanding among participants.
• Effective Communication: Participants practice clear and concise communication as they coordinate movements to untangle the knot.
• Problem-Solving: The challenge stimulates creative thinking and problem-solving skills as individuals work collectively to find the optimal path for untangling.
• Adaptability: Participants learn to adapt their actions based on the evolving dynamics of the human knot, fostering adaptability.
• Trust Building: As individuals rely on each other to navigate the intricate knot, trust and cooperation naturally develop.
• Set a Positive Tone: Create an inclusive and supportive atmosphere, emphasizing that the focus is on collaboration rather than competition.
• Encourage Verbalization: Urge participants to articulate their intentions and listen to others’ suggestions, promoting effective teamwork.
• Observe Group Dynamics: Monitor interactions and step in if needed to ensure everyone is actively engaged and included.
• Reflect and Share: Conclude the activity with a debriefing session, allowing participants to share their experiences, strategies, and key takeaways.
• Vary Grouping: Change group compositions for subsequent rounds to enhance interactions among different team members.

#4. Egg Drop

Helps With: Decision Making, Collaboration

• A carton of eggs
• Construction materials (balloons, rubber bands, straws, tape, plastic wrap, etc.)
• A suitable location for the activity
• Assign each team a single egg and random construction materials.
• Teams must create a carrier to protect the egg from breaking.
• Drop the carriers one by one and increase the height if necessary to determine the most durable carrier.
• The winning team is the one with the carrier that survives the highest drop.
• Decision Making: Participants engage in critical decision-making processes as they select construction materials and determine carrier designs.
• Collaboration: The activity necessitates collaboration and coordination among team members to construct an effective carrier.
• Problem-Solving: Teams apply creative problem-solving skills to devise innovative methods for safeguarding the egg.
• Risk Management: Participants learn to assess potential risks and consequences while making design choices to prevent egg breakage.
• Celebrating Success: The victorious team experiences a sense of accomplishment, boosting morale and promoting a positive team spirit.
• Provide Diverse Materials: Offer a wide range of construction materials to stimulate creativity and allow teams to explore various design options.
• Set Safety Guidelines: Prioritize safety by specifying a safe drop height and ensuring participants follow safety protocols during construction.
• Encourage Brainstorming: Prompt teams to brainstorm multiple carrier ideas before finalizing their designs, fostering diverse perspectives.
• Facilitate Reflection: After the activity, lead a discussion where teams share their design strategies, challenges faced, and lessons learned.
• Highlight Collaboration: Emphasize the significance of teamwork in achieving success, acknowledging effective communication and cooperation.

As a teamwork activity, Egg Drop can help team members solve problems through collaboration and communication.

Each team can design and customize their own balloons and can display their team logo, slogan, or elements related to team culture through custom balloons . Awards can also be set up, such as the most creative balloon design, the strongest frangipani structure, etc., to increase the motivation for competition and participation. 

After the activity, team sharing and feedback can be conducted to allow everyone to share their learning experience and feelings about teamwork.

This combination allows team members to experience the importance of teamwork in creativity and practice, and strengthen team cohesion by completing challenges and sharing experiences.

#5. Marshmallow Spaghetti Tower

Helps With: Collaboration

Estimated Time: 20-30 Minutes

Materials Needed (per team):

• Raw spaghetti: 20 sticks
• Marshmallow: 1
• String: 1 yard
• Masking tape: 1 roll
• Tower Construction: Instruct teams to collaborate and utilize the provided materials to construct the tallest tower possible within a designated time frame.
• Marshmallow Support: Emphasize that the tower must be capable of standing independently and supporting a marshmallow at its highest point.
• Prototype and Iterate: Encourage teams to engage in prototyping and iteration, testing different design approaches and refining their tower structures.
• T eamwork and Communication: Promote effective teamwork and communication as team members coordinate their efforts to build a stable and tall tower.
• Evaluation Criteria: Evaluate each tower based on its height, stability, and the successful placement of the marshmallow at the top.
• Collaboration: Participants collaborate closely, sharing ideas and working together to design and construct the tower.
• Innovative Thinking: The activity encourages innovative thinking as teams experiment with different strategies to build a stable tower.
• Time Management: Teams practice time management skills as they work within a specified time limit to complete the task.
• Problem-Solving: Participants engage in creative problem-solving to address challenges such as balancing the marshmallow and constructing a sturdy tower.
• Adaptability: Teams adapt their approaches based on trial and error, learning from each iteration to improve their tower designs.
• Set Clear Guidelines: Clearly explain the materials, objectives, and evaluation criteria to ensure teams understand the task.
• Foster Creativity: Encourage teams to think outside the box and explore unconventional methods for constructing their towers.
• Emphasize Collaboration: Highlight the importance of effective communication and teamwork to accomplish the task successfully.
• Time Management: Remind teams of the time limit and encourage them to allocate their time wisely between planning and construction.
• Reflect and Share: Facilitate a discussion after the activity, allowing teams to share their design choices, challenges faced, and lessons learned.

Objective: To engage participants in the strategic and analytical world of Sudoku, enhancing logical thinking and problem-solving abilities. 

Estimated Time: 20-25 Minutes 

• Sudoku puzzle sheets
• Pencils with erasers
• Distribute Sudoku puzzle sheets and pencils to each participant.
• Familiarize participants with the rules and mechanics of Sudoku puzzles.
• Explain the goal: to fill in the empty cells with numbers from 1 to 9 while adhering to the rules of no repetition in rows, columns, or subgrids.
• Encourage participants to analyze the puzzle’s layout, identify potential numbers, and strategically fill in cells.
• Emphasize the importance of logical deduction and step-by-step approach in solving the puzzle.
• Provide hints or guidance if needed, ensuring participants remain engaged and challenged.
• Logical Thinking: Sudoku challenges participants’ logical and deductive reasoning, fostering analytical skills.
• Problem-Solving: The intricate interplay of numbers and constraints hones problem-solving abilities.
• Focus and Patience: Participants practice patience and attention to detail while gradually unveiling the solution.
• Pattern Recognition: Identifying number patterns and possibilities contributes to enhanced pattern recognition skills.
• Personal Achievement: Successfully completing a Sudoku puzzle provides a sense of accomplishment and boosts confidence.
• Offer varying levels of Sudoku puzzles to cater to different skill levels.
• Encourage participants to share strategies and techniques for solving specific challenges.
• Highlight the mental workout Sudoku provides and its transferable skills to real-life problem-solving.

Helps With: Communication, Problem-solving, & Management

• A lockable room
• 5-10 puzzles or clues
• Hide the key and a set of clues around the room.
• Lock the room and provide team members with a specific time limit to find the key and escape.
• Instruct the team to work together, solving the puzzles and deciphering the clues to locate the key.
• Encourage efficient communication and effective problem-solving under time pressure.
• Communication Skills: Participants enhance their communication abilities by sharing observations, ideas, and findings to collectively solve puzzles.
• Problem-solving Proficiency: The activity challenges teams to think critically, apply logical reasoning, and collaboratively tackle intricate challenges.
• Team Management: The experience promotes effective team management as members assign tasks, prioritize efforts, and coordinate actions.
• Time Management: The imposed time limit sharpens time management skills as teams strategize and allocate time wisely.
• Adaptability: Teams learn to adapt and adjust strategies based on progress, evolving clues, and time constraints.
• Clear Introduction: Provide a concise overview of the activity, emphasizing the importance of communication, problem-solving, and time management.
• Diverse Challenges: Offer a mix of puzzles and clues to engage various problem-solving skills, catering to different team strengths.
• Supportive Role: Act as a facilitator, offering subtle guidance if needed while allowing teams to independently explore and solve challenges.
• Debriefing Session: Organize a debriefing session afterward to discuss the experience, highlight successful strategies, and identify areas for improvement.
• Encourage Reflection: Encourage participants to reflect on their teamwork, communication effectiveness, and problem-solving approach.

#8. Frostbite for Group Problem Solving Activities

Helps With: Decision Making, Trust, Leadership

• An electric fan
• Construction materials (toothpicks, cardstock, rubber bands, sticky notes, etc.)
• Divide the team into groups of 4-5 people, each with a designated leader.
• Blindfold team members and prohibit leaders from using their hands.
• Provide teams with construction materials and challenge them to build a tent within 30 minutes.
• Test the tents using the fan to see which can withstand high winds.
• Decision-Making Proficiency: Participants are exposed to critical decision-making situations under constraints, allowing them to practice effective and efficient decision-making.
• Trust Development: Blindfolding team members and relying on the designated leaders fosters trust and collaboration among team members.
• Leadership Skills: Designated leaders navigate the challenge without hands-on involvement, enhancing their leadership and communication skills.
• Creative Problem Solving: Teams employ creative thinking and resourcefulness to construct stable tents with limited sensory input.
• Team Cohesion: The shared task and unique constraints promote team cohesion and mutual understanding.
• Role of the Facilitator: Act as an observer, allowing teams to navigate the challenge with minimal intervention. Offer assistance only when necessary.
• Clarity in Instructions: Provide clear instructions regarding blindfolding, leader restrictions, and time limits to ensure a consistent experience.
• Debriefing Session: After the activity, conduct a debriefing session to discuss team dynamics, leadership approaches, and decision-making strategies.
• Encourage Communication: Emphasize the importance of effective communication within teams to ensure smooth coordination and successful tent construction.
• Acknowledge Creativity: Celebrate creative solutions and innovative approaches exhibited by teams during the tent-building process.

#9. Dumbest Idea First

Helps With: Critical Thinking & Creative Problem Solving Activity

Estimated Time: 15-20 Minutes

Materials Needed: A piece of paper, pen, and pencil

• Problem Presentation: Introduce a specific problem to the team, either a real-world challenge or a hypothetical scenario that requires a solution.
• Brainstorming Dumb Ideas: Instruct team members to quickly generate and jot down the most unconventional and seemingly “dumb” ideas they can think of to address the problem.
• Idea Sharing: Encourage each participant to share their generated ideas with the group, fostering a relaxed and open atmosphere for creative expression.
• Viability Assessment: As a team, review and evaluate each idea, considering potential benefits and drawbacks. Emphasize the goal of identifying unconventional approaches.
• Selecting Promising Solutions: Identify which seemingly “dumb” ideas could hold hidden potential or innovative insights. Discuss how these ideas could be adapted into workable solutions.
• Divergent Thinking: Participants engage in divergent thinking, pushing beyond conventional boundaries to explore unconventional solutions.
• Creative Exploration: The activity sparks creative exploration by encouraging participants to let go of inhibitions and embrace imaginative thinking.
• Critical Analysis: Through evaluating each idea, participants practice critical analysis and learn to identify unique angles and aspects of potential solutions.
• Open Communication: The lighthearted approach of sharing “dumb” ideas fosters open communication, reducing fear of judgment and promoting active participation.
• Solution Adaptation: Identifying elements of seemingly “dumb” ideas that have merit encourages participants to adapt and refine their approaches creatively.
• Safe Environment: Foster a safe and non-judgmental environment where participants feel comfortable sharing unconventional ideas.
• Time Management: Set clear time limits for idea generation and sharing to maintain the activity’s energetic pace.
• Encourage Wild Ideas: Emphasize that the goal is to explore the unconventional, urging participants to push the boundaries of creativity.
• Facilitator Participation: Participate in idea generation to demonstrate an open-minded approach and encourage involvement.
• Debriefing Discussion: After the activity, facilitate a discussion on how seemingly “dumb” ideas can inspire innovative solutions and stimulate fresh thinking.

This activity encourages out-of-the-box thinking and creative problem-solving. It allows teams to explore unconventional ideas that may lead to unexpected, yet effective, solutions.

#10: Legoman

Helps With: Foster teamwork, communication, and creativity through a collaborative Lego-building activity.

Estimated Time: 20-30 minutes

• Lego bricks
• Lego instruction manuals

Procedure :

• Divide participants into small teams of 3-5 members.
• Provide each team with an equal set of Lego bricks and a Lego instruction manual.
• Explain that the goal is for teams to work together to construct the Lego model shown in the manual.
• Set a time limit for the building activity based on model complexity.
• Allow teams to self-organize, build, and collaborate to complete the model within the time limit.
• Evaluate each team’s final model compared to the manual’s original design.
• Enhanced Communication: Participants must communicate clearly and listen actively to collaborate effectively.
• Strengthened Teamwork: Combining efforts toward a shared goal promotes camaraderie and team cohesion.
• Creative Problem-Solving: Teams must creatively problem-solve if pieces are missing or instructions unclear.
• Planning and Resource Allocation: Following instructions fosters planning skills and efficient use of resources.
• Sense of Achievement: Completing a challenging build provides a sense of collective accomplishment.
• Encourage Participation: Urge quieter members to contribute ideas and take an active role.
• Highlight Teamwork: Emphasize how cooperation and task coordination are key to success.
• Ensure Equal Engagement: Monitor group dynamics to ensure all members are engaged.
• Allow Creativity: Permit modifications if teams lack exact pieces or wish to get creative.
• Focus on Enjoyment: Create a lively atmosphere so the activity remains energizing and fun.

#11: Minefield

Helps With: Trust, Communication, Patience

Materials Needed: Open space, blindfolds

• Mark a “minefield” on the ground using ropes, cones, or tape. Add toy mines or paper cups.
• Pair up participants and blindfold one partner.
• Position blindfolded partners at the start of the minefield. Direct seeing partners to verbally guide them through to the other side without hitting “mines.”
• Partners switch roles once finished and repeat.
• Time partnerships and provide prizes for the fastest safe crossing.
• Trust Building: Blindfolded partners must trust their partner’s instructions.
• Effective Communication: Giving clear, specific directions is essential for navigating the minefield.
• Active Listening: Partners must listen closely and follow directions precisely.
• Patience & Support: The exercise requires patience and encouraging guidance between partners.
• Team Coordination: Partners must work in sync, coordinating movements and communication.
• Test Boundaries: Ensure the minefield’s size accommodates safe movement and communication.
• Monitor Interactions: Watch for dominant guidance and ensure both partners participate fully.
• Time Strategically: Adjust time limits based on the minefield size and difficulty.
• Add Obstacles: Introduce additional non-mine objects to increase challenge and communication needs.
• Foster Discussion: Debrief afterward to discuss communication approaches and trust-building takeaways.

#12: Reverse Pyramid

Helps With: Teamwork, Communication, Creativity

Materials Needed: 36 cups per group, tables

• Form small groups of 5-7 participants.
• Provide each group with a stack of 36 cups and a designated building area.
• Explain the objective: Build the tallest pyramid starting with just one cup on top.
• Place the first cup on the table, and anyone in the group can add two cups beneath it to form the second row.
• From this point, only the bottom row can be lifted to add the next row underneath.
• Cups in the pyramid can only be touched or supported by index fingers.
• If the structure falls, start over from one cup.
• Offer more cups if a group uses all provided.
• Allow 15 minutes for building.

Teamwork: Collaborate to construct the pyramid.

Communication: Discuss and execute the building strategy.

Creativity: Find innovative ways to build a tall, stable pyramid.

Clarify Expectations: Emphasize the definition of a pyramid with each row having one less cup.

Encourage Perseverance: Motivate groups to continue despite challenges.

Promote Consensus: Encourage groups to work together and help each other.

Reflect on Failure: Use collapses as a metaphor for overcoming obstacles and improving.

Consider Competitions: Modify the activity for competitive teams and scoring.

#13: Stranded

Helps With: Decision-making, Prioritization, Teamwork

Materials Needed: List of salvaged items, paper, pens

• Present a scenario where teams are stranded and must prioritize items salvaged from a plane crash.
• Provide teams with the same list of ~15 salvaged items.
• Instruct teams to agree on an item ranking with #1 being the most important for survival.
• Teams share and compare their prioritized lists. Identify differences in approach.
• Discuss what factors influenced decisions and how teams worked together to agree on priorities.
• Critical Thinking: Weighing item importance requires analytical thinking and discussion.
• Team Decision-Making: Coming to a consensus fosters team decision-making capabilities.
• Prioritization Skills: Ranking items strengthen prioritization and justification abilities.
• Perspective-Taking: Understanding different prioritizations builds perspective-taking skills.
• Team Cohesion: Collaborating toward a shared goal brings teams closer together.
• Encourage Discussion: Urge teams to discuss all ideas rather than allow single members to dominate.
• Be Engaged: Circulate to listen in on team discussions and pose thought-provoking questions.
• Add Complexity: Introduce scenarios with additional constraints to expand critical thinking.
• Highlight Disagreements: When priorities differ, facilitate constructive discussions on influencing factors.
• Recognize Collaboration: Acknowledge teams that demonstrate exceptional teamwork and communication.

Now let’s look at some common types of problem-solving activities.

Types of Problem-Solving Activities

The most common types of problem-solving activities/exercises are:

• Creative problem-solving activities
• Group problem-solving activities
• Individual problem-solving activities
• Fun problem-solving activities, etc.

In the next segments, we’ll be discussing these types of problem-solving activities in detail. So, keep reading!

Creative Problem-Solving Activities

Creative problem solving (CPS) means using creativity to find new solutions. It involves thinking creatively at first and then evaluating ideas later. For example, think of it like brainstorming fun game ideas, discussing them, and then picking the best one to play.

Some of the most common creative problem-solving activities include:

• Legoman: Building creative structures with LEGO.
• Escape: Solving puzzles to escape a room.
• Frostbite: Finding solutions in challenging situations.
• Minefield: Navigating a field of obstacles.

Group Problem-Solving Activities

Group problem-solving activities are challenges that make teams work together to solve puzzles or overcome obstacles. They enhance teamwork and critical thinking.

For instance, think of a puzzle-solving game where a group must find hidden clues to escape a locked room.

Here are the most common group problem-solving activities you can try in groups:

• A Shrinking Vessel
• Marshmallow Spaghetti Tower
• Cardboard Boat Building Challenge
• Clue Murder Mystery
• Escape Room: Jewel Heist
• Escape Room: Virtual Team Building
• Scavenger Hunt
• Dumbest Idea First

Individual Problem-Solving Activities

As the name suggests, individual problem-solving activities are the tasks that you need to play alone to boost your critical thinking ability. They help you solve problems and stay calm while facing challenges in real life. Like puzzles, they make your brain sharper. Imagine it’s like training your brain muscles to handle tricky situations.

Here are some of the most common individual problem-solving activities:

• Puzzles (jigsaw, crossword, sudoku, etc.)
• Brain teasers
• Logic problems
• Optical illusions
• “Escape room” style games

Fun Problem-Solving Activities

Fun problem-solving activities are enjoyable games that sharpen your critical thinking skills while having a blast. Think of activities like the Legoman challenge, escape rooms, or rolling dice games – they make problem-solving exciting and engaging!

And to be frank, all of the mentioned problem-solving activities are fun if you know how to play and enjoy them as all of them are game-like activities.

Team Problems You Can Address Through Problem Solving Activities

Fun problem-solving activities serve as dynamic tools to address a range of challenges that teams often encounter. These engaging activities foster an environment of collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking, enabling teams to tackle various problems head-on. Here are some common team problems that can be effectively addressed through these activities:

• Communication Breakdowns:  

Activities like “Escape,” “A Shrinking Vessel,” and “Human Knots” emphasize the importance of clear and effective communication. They require teams to work together, exchange ideas, and devise strategies to accomplish a shared goal. By engaging in these activities, team members learn to communicate more efficiently, enhancing overall team communication in real-world situations.

• Lack of Trust and Cohesion:  

Problem-solving activities promote trust and cohesiveness within teams. For instance, “Frostbite” and “Marshmallow Spaghetti Tower” require teams to collaborate closely, trust each other’s ideas, and rely on each member’s strengths. These activities build a sense of unity and trust, which can translate into improved teamwork and collaboration.

• Innovative Thinking:  

“Dumbest Idea First” and “Egg Drop” encourage teams to think outside the box and explore unconventional solutions. These activities challenge teams to be creative and innovative in their problem-solving approaches, fostering a culture of thinking beyond traditional boundaries when faced with complex issues.

• Decision-Making Challenges:  

Activities like “Onethread” facilitate group decision-making by providing a platform for open discussions and collaborative choices. Problem-solving activities require teams to make decisions collectively, teaching them to weigh options, consider different viewpoints, and arrive at informed conclusions—a skill that is transferable to real-world decision-making scenarios.

• Leadership and Role Clarification:  

Activities such as “Frostbite” and “Egg Drop” designate team leaders and roles within groups. This provides an opportunity for team members to practice leadership, delegation, and role-specific tasks. By experiencing leadership dynamics in a controlled setting, teams can improve their leadership skills and better understand their roles in actual projects.

• Problem-Solving Strategies:  

All of the problem-solving activities involve the application of different strategies. Teams learn to analyze problems, break them down into manageable components, and develop systematic approaches for resolution. These strategies can be adapted to real-world challenges, enabling teams to approach complex issues with confidence.

• Team Morale and Engagement:  

Participating in engaging and enjoyable activities boosts team morale and engagement. These activities provide a break from routine tasks, energize team members, and create a positive and fun atmosphere. Elevated team morale can lead to increased motivation and productivity.

The incentives of event prizes can further stimulate the enthusiasm and participation of team members. The choice of prizes is crucial, as it can directly affect the attractiveness and participation of the event. Among them, Medals are essential prizes.

Medals are symbols of honor awarded to winners and represent the value and achievement of an event.

Medals also have a motivational effect, they encourage team members to pursue higher achievements and progress.

Medals are artistic and aesthetic. They are usually designed by designers according to different occasions and themes and have high collection value.

By incorporating these fun problem-solving activities, teams can address a variety of challenges, foster skill development, and build a more cohesive and effective working environment. As teams learn to collaborate, communicate, innovate, and make decisions collectively, they are better equipped to overcome obstacles and achieve shared goals.

The Benefits of Problem Solving Activities for Your Team

#1 Better Thinking

Problem-solving activities bring out the best in team members by encouraging them to contribute their unique ideas. This stimulates better thinking as team managers evaluate different solutions and choose the most suitable ones.

For example, a remote team struggling with communication benefited from quick thinking and the sharing of ideas, leading to the adoption of various communication modes for improved collaboration.

#2 Better Risk Handling

Team building problem solving activities condition individuals to handle risks more effectively. By engaging in challenging situations and finding solutions, team members develop the ability to respond better to stressful circumstances.

#3 Better Communication

Regular communication among team members is crucial for efficient problem-solving. Engaging in problem-solving activities fosters cooperation and communication within the team, resulting in better understanding and collaboration. Using tools like OneThread can further enhance team communication and accountability.

#4 Improved Productivity Output

When teams work cohesively, overall productivity improves, leading to enhanced profit margins for the company or organization. Involving managers and team members in problem-solving activities can positively impact the company’s growth and profitability.

How Onethread Enhances the Effect of Problem Solving Activities

Problem-solving activities within teams thrive on collaborative efforts and shared perspectives. Onethread emerges as a potent facilitator, enabling teams to collectively tackle challenges and harness diverse viewpoints with precision. Here’s a comprehensive view of how Onethread amplifies team collaboration in problem-solving initiatives:

Open Channels for Discussion:

Onethread’s real-time messaging feature serves as a dedicated hub for open and seamless discussions. Teams can engage in brainstorming sessions, share insightful observations, and propose innovative solutions within a flexible environment. Asynchronous communication empowers members to contribute their insights at their convenience, fostering comprehensive problem analysis with ample deliberation.

Centralized Sharing of Resources:

Effective problem-solving often hinges on access to pertinent resources. Onethread’s document sharing functionality ensures that critical information, references, and research findings are centralized and readily accessible. This eradicates the need for cumbersome email attachments and enables team members to collaborate with precise and up-to-date data.

Efficient Task Allocation and Monitoring:

Problem-solving journeys comprise a series of tasks and actions. Onethread’s task management capability streamlines the delegation of specific responsibilities to team members. Assign tasks related to research, data analysis, or solution implementation and monitor progress in real time. This cultivates a sense of accountability and guarantees comprehensive coverage of every facet of the problem-solving process.

Facilitated Collaborative Decision-Making: Navigating intricate problems often demands collective decision-making. Onethread’s collaborative ecosystem empowers teams to deliberate over potential solutions, assess pros and cons, and make well-informed choices. Transparent discussions ensure that decisions are comprehensively comprehended and supported by the entire team.

Seamless Documentation and Insights Sharing:

As the problem-solving journey unfolds, the accumulation of insights and conclusions becomes pivotal. Onethread’s collaborative document editing feature empowers teams to document their discoveries, chronicle the steps undertaken, and showcase successful solutions. This shared repository of documentation serves as a valuable resource for future reference and continuous learning.

With Onethread orchestrating the backdrop, team collaboration during problem-solving activities transforms into a harmonious fusion of insights, ideas, and actionable steps.

What are the 5 problem-solving skills?

The top 5 problem-solving skills in 2023 are critical thinking, creativity, emotional intelligence, adaptability, and data literacy. Most employers seek these skills in their workforce.

What are the steps of problem-solving?

Problem-solving steps are as follows: 1. Define the problem clearly. 2. Analyze the issue in detail. 3. Generate potential solutions. 4. Evaluate these options. 5. Choose the best solution. 6. Put the chosen solution into action. 7. Measure the outcomes to assess effectiveness and improvements made. These sequential steps assist in efficient and effective problem resolution.

How do you teach problem-solving skills?

Teaching problem-solving involves modelling effective methods within a context, helping students grasp the problem, dedicating ample time, asking guiding questions, and giving suggestions. Connect errors to misconceptions to enhance understanding, fostering a straightforward approach to building problem-solving skills.

So here is all about “activities for problem solving”.No matter which activity you choose, engaging in problem-solving activities not only provides entertainment but also helps enhance cognitive abilities such as critical thinking, decision making, and creativity. So why not make problem solving a regular part of your routine?

Take some time each day or week to engage in these activities and watch as your problem-solving skills grow stronger. Plus, it’s an enjoyable way to pass the time and challenge yourself mentally.

So go ahead, grab a puzzle or gather some friends for a game night – get ready to have fun while sharpening your problem-solving skills!

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13 Best Problem Solving Games, Activities & Exercises for the Workplace

8 mins read

by Pete Ford

Updated On Jun 21, 2024

In today's rapidly evolving business world, the ability to solve problems effectively and efficiently is paramount. While it is crucial to understand the problem thoroughly, it is equally important not to overanalyze it to the point of inaction. Instead, the focus should be on identifying actionable solutions quickly and implementing them efficiently. Effective problem solving capabilities enable teams to identify root causes, develop innovative solutions, and implement changes that drive business success. Tackling significant challenges head-on, even when the odds are not favorable, is essential for transformative results.

Moreover, cultivating a culture of problem solving fosters a sense of autonomy and empowerment among employees. As games improve problem solving skills, teams become more independent, reducing the need for constant supervision. In addition, when individuals from diverse backgrounds and perspectives come together to tackle challenges, the synergy created can lead to groundbreaking solutions and significant advancements for the organizations. 

Workplace Problem Solving Games and Activities:

Just as you can't learn to write a novel solely by reading about it, or to swim merely by observing others, true mastery of problem solving skills requires more than just theory. It demands immersion and action. That's why, when fostering problem solving abilities in your employees, it's essential to engage them in practical exercises that simulate real-world challenges. Through engaging in challenging fun problem solving games for adults, teams develop the skills and confidence to effectively navigate real-world challenges. 

According to a report by the World Economic Forum (WEF) , problem solving skills are listed among the top skills required in the workplace by 2025. The large group problem solving activities for employees mentioned below are designed to enhance the critical thinking skills , creativity, and collaborative capabilities of your teams. These activities are not just problem solving exercises for teams, they are strategic investments in building a workforce that can navigate complexities, innovate solutions, and drive the organization towards its goals. 

By engaging in structured problem solving group activities, teams learn to tackle challenges methodically and develop a proactive mindset essential for overcoming obstacles in today’s dynamic business environment.

We have carefully divided workplace problem solving activities into 3 distinct categories that cater to different aspects of problem solving skills:

• Team-Based Problem Solving Activities
• Creative Problem-Solving Activities
• Quick and Easy Problem-Solving Activities

Team-Based Problem Solving Activities:

Team-Based Problem Solving Activities form the foundation for effective problem solving within a team, emphasizing crucial elements like communication, trust, and collaboration. As Vusi Thembekwayo once remarked, “To achieve anything in business, you need relationships based on trust.” This quote underscores the significance of fostering a trusting environment where team members feel comfortable working together, leveraging each other's strengths to tackle challenges with greater efficiency and creativity.

Via Edstellar

1. A Shrinking Vessel Training Activity:

“A Shrinking Vessel” is one of the dynamic and simple problem solving exercises for team building that challenges participants to adapt quickly to changing conditions.

This is one of the team-problem solving activities that involves employees standing within a defined space that gradually shrinks, requiring them to strategize and cooperate to stay within the boundaries.

How to Conduct the “A Shrinking Vessel” Activity:

• This is one of the hands-on problem solving activities (adults can engage in) that requires a large, open area that can be marked with boundaries.
• Use tape or rope to create a large initial boundary that all employees can comfortably stand within.
• Gather all workers within the boundary.
• Explain that the boundary will gradually shrink, and that workers must remain within the shrinking area.
• Begin this problem solving activity by gradually reducing the size of the boundary every 2-3 minutes.
• Use a predetermined signal (like a whistle) to indicate when the boundary is shrinking.
• Continue to reduce the boundary until it becomes challenging for employees to stay within the area.
• End the activity when it becomes impossible for them to stay within the boundary.

Key Takeaways

Employees learn to adapt quickly to changing constraints, enhancing their ability to communicate and collaborate effectively under pressure. These problem solving, team building games fosters creativity by requiring teams to develop strategies to navigate the shrinking space, encouraging flexibility and teamwork in dynamic environments.

Video:- Shrinking Vessel

2. Marshmallow Spaghetti Tower Training Activity:

“Marshmallow Spaghetti Tower” is one of the creative, engaging  and complex problem solving activities for adults where teams use spaghetti, tape, and string to build the tallest possible structure that can support a marshmallow on top.

How to Conduct the “Marshmallow Spaghetti Tower” Activity:

• To play one of these teamwork problem solving activities, you have to gather the employees and divide them into teams.
• Provide each team with 20 sticks of spaghetti, one yard of tape, one yard of string, and one marshmallow.
• Ensure each team has a flat surface to work on.
• Explain that teams have 18 minutes to build the tallest free-standing structure using the materials provided, with a marshmallow on top.
• Start the timer and let teams begin constructing their towers.
• Encourage teams to experiment with different designs and structural concepts.
• Once the time is up, measure the height of each structure from the base to the top of the marshmallow.
• Announce the winning team with the tallest structure.
• Discuss the different strategies used by each of the teams and what they learned from engaging in these kinds of business problem solving exercises for adults.

Key Takeaways:

Through these creative problem solving exercises, employees enhance their skills by brainstorming and constructing innovative designs with limited resources. These problem solving exercises for groups emphasize the importance of planning, adaptability, and teamwork, as the workforce must work together to build the tallest possible tower. Through trial and error, they learn to manage constraints and effectively communicate their ideas, fostering a collaborative approach to achieving shared goals.

3. Egg Drop Challenge Training Activity:

The “Egg Drop Challenge” is an exciting problem solving activity where teams design and build a structure to protect an egg from breaking when dropped from a height.

How to Conduct the “Egg Drop Challenge” Activity:

• Divide the employees into teams and provide each team with materials such as straws, tape, newspaper, rubber bands, and plastic bags.
• Ensure each team has an egg and a designated drop zone.
• Explain that the teams have 30 minutes to design and construct a protective device for their egg using the provided materials.
• Start the timer and let the teams begin constructing their protective devices.
• Encourage teams to think creatively and test their designs.
• Drop each egg from a predetermined height (e.g., 10 feet) onto a hard surface.
• Check if the egg survives the drop without breaking.
• Discuss which designs were successful and why, focusing on the problem solving processes used.

Employees develop innovative thinking and problem solving skills by designing and building a structure to protect an egg from breaking when dropped. This activity highlights the importance of resource management, creative engineering, and teamwork as they must brainstorm, test, and iterate their designs. By analyzing the effectiveness of their structures and learning from failures, employees enhance their ability to tackle complex challenges and improve their collaborative problem solving capabilities.

4. Stranded Training Activity:

“Stranded”, similar to “Lost at Sea” problem solving activity, is a strategic survival simulation where teams must plan and prioritize essential actions and resources to ensure their survival on a deserted island.

How to Conduct the “Stranded” Activity:

• Divide the Employees into teams and provide each team with a list of hypothetical resources available on the island (e.g., rope, tarp, matches, water).
• Explain a scenario that the teams are stranded on a deserted island and must decide how to use the available resources to survive.
• Give teams 30 minutes to discuss and prioritize their actions and resource use.
• Encourage them to consider factors like shelter, water, food, and signaling for rescue.
• Have each team present their survival plan to all the teams participating in the activity.
• Encourage the teams to ask questions and discuss each plan.
• Discuss the strategies used by each team and what the teams learned about problem solving and resource management.

By indulging in critical thinking, problem solving exercises, employees enhance their strategic problem solving skills by planning survival strategies in a simulated deserted island scenario. This activity emphasizes the importance of prioritization, resource management, and adaptability in high-pressure situations. By collaborating on survival plans, employees learn to analyze available resources, make quick decisions, and work as a cohesive team to overcome complex challenges.

Creative Problem-Solving Activities:

Creative problem solving activities for adults encourage employees to think outside the box and explore innovative solutions to challenges. These team building, problem solving exercises for employees would help them to break free from conventional thinking patterns and develop a more flexible, imaginative approach to problem solving.

By fostering creativity, these team building, problem solving activities can lead to more effective and unique solutions.

5. Legoman Training Activity:

“Legoman” is a communication-focused activity where one participant describes a pre-built Lego structure, and the rest of the team attempts to recreate it based on the verbal instructions alone. This is one the creative problem solving games that emphasizes the importance of clear and effective communication.

How to Conduct the “Legoman” Activity:

• Pre-build a Lego structure and keep it hidden from the employees.
• Divide the workers into teams and provide each team with the same set of Lego pieces.
• Select one team member from each team to view the pre-built structure and describe it to their team without using their hands or showing the structure.
• Start the timer and have the describer begin giving instructions to their team.
• The rest of the teams should build the structure based solely on the verbal instructions given by their team members.
• Once the time is up, compare each team’s structure with the original.
• Discuss any discrepancies and the communication challenges faced by each team.
• Discuss what worked well and what could be improved in the communication process.

From the “Legoman” activity, employees develop their communication and collaborative problem solving skills by reconstructing a hidden Lego structure based solely on verbal descriptions. This exercise highlights the importance of precise communication, active listening, and teamwork. It also demonstrates how effective problem solving relies on clear instructions and the ability to interpret and act on those instructions accurately. By engaging in this activity, teams learn to coordinate their efforts and improve their ability to tackle complex tasks collectively.

6. Escape Room Training Activity:

“Escape Room” is an immersive team adventure that requires participants to solve a series of puzzles and find clues within a set time to "escape" from a themed room.

How to Conduct the “Escape Room” Activity:

• Create puzzles and hide clues within a designated room.
• Set up a theme and backstory to make the activity engaging.
• Divide employees into small teams.
• Explain the objective that the teams should solve all the puzzles and escape the room within a set time (e.g., 60 minutes).
• Start the timer and let teams begin solving the puzzles.
• Monitor the teams, offering hints if they get stuck.
• End the activity when a team escapes the room or when the time runs out.
• Discuss the strategies used by the teams and the importance of teamwork and critical thinking.

The “Escape Room” is one of the critical thinking and problem solving exercises that emphasizes teamwork and creative problem solving as the workforce work together to solve puzzles and find clues within a set time limit. This activity demonstrates the importance of collaboration, strategic thinking, and effective communication in overcoming challenges. Employees learn to leverage each other's strengths, think under pressure, and develop a unified approach to problem solving, making it a powerful tool for enhancing the teams’ dynamics and problem solving capabilities in the workplace.

7. Frostbite Training Activity:

“Frostbite” is a survival-themed activity where teams are tasked with building a shelter in extreme conditions, simulating a scenario where one member is incapacitated. This exercise tests the team's ability to strategize and cooperate under pressure.

How to Conduct the “Frostbite” Activity:

• Provide materials such as cardboard, tape, and blankets.
• Divide the employees into teams and assign one team member of each team the role of having "frostbite," meaning they cannot use their hands.
• Explain the scenario that teams must build a shelter that can hold all team members within a time limit.
• Start the timer and let teams begin constructing their shelters.
• Encourage teams to strategize and work around the constraint of the incapacitated member.
• Evaluate the shelters based on stability and effectiveness.
• Discuss the problem solving techniques used under pressure and the importance of teamwork.

In the “Frostbite” activity, employees have to strategize and communicate effectively to build a shelter while managing the handicap of "frostbite," a condition that limits their hands' use. These exercises to improve problem solving skills teaches employees about adaptability, resourcefulness, and teamwork under constraints.

In addition, it also teaches the value of resilience, creative problem solving, and the ability to function efficiently despite physical or situational limitations. The experience underscores how overcoming obstacles through innovative thinking and teamwork can lead to successful outcomes in challenging environments.

8. Blind Formation Training Activity:

“Blind Formation” is a team-building exercise where participants are blindfolded and must form specific shapes or patterns based on verbal instructions from their teammates. This activity focuses on enhancing communication, trust, and coordination among team members.

How to Conduct the “Blind Formation” Activity:

• Choose a large, open space where the workforce can move freely.
• Prepare blindfolds for each employee.
• Divide the employees into teams and explain to them that the objective is to form a specific shape or pattern while being blindfolded.
• Assign one or more team members from each team as guides who will provide verbal instructions to their blindfolded teams.
• Blindfold all the team members except the designated guides.
• Ensure that the blindfolds are secure and that employees cannot see.
• Start the activity by instructing the guides to direct their teammates to form the desired shape (e.g., a square, a triangle, or a circle).
• Allow 10-15 minutes for the formation process.
• Once the time is up or the shape is formed, remove the blindfolds and evaluate the accuracy of the formation.
• Discuss the challenges that the teams faced during the activity and the effectiveness of the communication strategies used.

The “Blind Formation” activity emphasizes the importance of non-verbal communication, trust, and team coordination as the employees must rely on their senses and the guidance of their teammates to form shapes or patterns while blindfolded. This exercise teaches the value of clear instructions, active listening, and the ability to adapt quickly to feedback. It highlights how effective teamwork and trust can overcome communication barriers and achieve complex tasks, fostering a collaborative and supportive team environment.

Quick and Easy Problem-Solving Activities:

Quick and easy problem solving games offer teams an efficient way to enhance their problem solving skills without requiring a significant time investment. These team-problem solving games and activities are designed to be brief yet effective, promoting quick thinking, collaboration, and efficient problem resolution.

Engaging in quick group problem solving exercises for adults would help employees to cultivate the ability to think on their feet and make swift decisions. This rapid decision-making capability is essential for driving innovation and growth, as it enables teams to iterate quickly and adapt to changing circumstances.

9. Line Up Blind Training Activity:

“Line Up Blind” is one of the simple, yet challenging and fun problem solving activities where blindfolded participants must line up in a specific order (e.g., by height, age, or alphabetical order) without verbal communication. This is one of the best problem solving games that emphasizes non-verbal communication and cooperation.

How to Conduct the “Line Up Blind” Activity:

• These cooperative problem solving activities require a large, open space.
• Explain the objective that the workers must line up in a specific order while blindfolded.
• Clarify that height is the order criteria to be followed for the activity.
• Blindfold all workers and ensure they cannot see.
• Start the activity and allow employees to communicate non-verbally to find their position in the line.
• Once the time is up, have the employees remove their blindfolds and check the accuracy of the line-up.
• Discuss the strategies used by the workers for non-verbal communication and the challenges they faced during these easy problem solving activities.

The “Line Up Blind” activity focuses on enhancing non-verbal communication, trust, and problem solving under constraints as employees must rely on alternative forms of communication and collaboration to line up by height while blindfolded. This exercise highlights the importance of clear, non-verbal cues and teamwork in solving problems when traditional communication methods are unavailable. It also emphasizes the value of trust among team members and the ability to adapt to unexpected challenges, fostering a supportive and innovative work environment.

10. Reverse Pyramid Training Activity:

“Reverse Pyramid” is a strategic activity where teams must invert a pyramid of cups following specific rules. This is one of the activities for problem solving that encourages strategic planning, teamwork, and attention to detail.

How to Conduct the “Reverse Pyramid” Activity:

• Divide the employees in teams and provide each team with a stack of cups arranged in a pyramid (base of four cups, then three, two, and one on top).
• Explain to the teams that the objective is to invert the pyramid by following specific rules (e.g., only moving one cup at a time).
• Start the timer and allow teams to begin inverting the pyramid.
• Monitor the teams to ensure they follow the rules.
• The activity ends when the pyramid is successfully inverted or the time runs out.
• Discuss the strategies used by the teams and the challenges they faced.

The “Reverse Pyramid” activity focuses on strategic thinking, collaboration, and innovative problem solving as employees work together to invert a pyramid of cups by following specific rules, requiring careful planning and coordination. This exercise demonstrates the importance of strategic planning, effective communication, and teamwork in achieving complex goals. By overcoming the challenges of the activity, workers learn to approach problems methodically, think creatively, and collaborate effectively, reinforcing the skills necessary for addressing real-world organizational challenges.

11. Move It! Training Activity:

“Move It!” is an engaging activity where teams must move an object from point A to point B using limited resources. This exercise promotes resourcefulness, teamwork, and creative problem solving.

How to Conduct the “Move It!” Activity:

• Select an object and designate a starting point (A) and an endpoint (B).
• Divide employees into teams and provide teams with limited resources (e.g., ropes, planks, cardboard).
• Explain the objective is to move the object from point A to point B using only the provided resources.
• Give teams 10 minutes to plan their strategy.
• Start the timer and allow teams to begin moving the object.
• Monitor the teams to ensure they use only the provided resources.
• The activity ends when the object reaches point B or the time runs out.
• Discuss the strategies used by each team and the problem solving processes that they followed.

As employees move an object from point A to point B using limited resources, the "Move It!" activity emphasizes the importance of resourcefulness, creativity, and collaborative problem solving. This activity promotes innovative thinking and efficient resource management by encouraging employees to think creatively. This activity helps teams develop the ability to adapt quickly, think outside the box, and effectively coordinate their efforts to overcome challenges. By engaging in this exercise, employees enhance their problem solving skills and learn to optimize the use of available resources to achieve common goals.

12. Human Knot Training Activity:

“Human Knot” is a classic team-building activity where participants form a human knot by holding hands with two different people across the circle.

How to Conduct the “Human Knot” Activity:

• Have employees stand in a circle and extend their right hand to someone across the circle.
• Repeat with the left hand, ensuring they hold hands with different people.
• Explain the objective is to untangle the human knot without letting go of hands.
• Start the timer and allow workers to begin untangling the knot.
• Monitor the workers and provide encouragement.
• The activity ends when the knot is untangled, or employees return to a single circle.
• Discuss the communication and problem solving strategies used by the employees.

The "Human Knot" activity fosters team collaboration and problem solving skills by encouraging employees to communicate effectively and work together to untangle themselves. It highlights the importance of patience, strategic thinking, and collective effort in achieving a common goal. This exercise also builds trust and strengthens interpersonal relationships within the team, essential for seamless teamwork in a professional setting.

13. Dumbest Idea Ever Training Activity:

“Dumbest Idea First” is a brainstorming activity where employees initially suggest the worst possible ideas for problem solving. Activities such as this emphasize on unconventional thinking or “out-of-the-box” thinking, that would help employees to solve complex problems in an efficient manner.

How to Conduct the “Dumbest Idea First” Activity:

• Choose a problem or challenge for the brainstorming session.
• Provide each worker with a pen and paper.
• Explain the objective is to come up with the worst possible ideas to solve the problem.
• Start the timer and allow employees to write down their dumbest ideas.
• Encourage creativity and humor.
• After 10 minutes, have the employee share their ideas with the rest of the group participating in the activity.
• Discuss why the ideas are impractical and how they can be improved.
• Encourage employees to refine the worst ideas into workable solutions.
• Discuss the creative process and the benefits of starting with the worst ideas.

The "Dumbest Idea First" activity encourages creative thinking and open-mindedness by allowing employees to voice unconventional ideas without fear of judgment. It demonstrates the value of a safe and inclusive environment where all suggestions are welcomed, fostering innovation and out-of-the-box solutions. This exercise highlights the importance of embracing diverse perspectives to drive collective problem solving and enhance team creativity.

How Problem Solving Skills Apply to Various Job Functions

1. problem solving skills for marketing teams: .

Marketing teams rely extensively on problem solving skills to navigate critical challenges. One of their primary challenges would be to enhance lead conversions, where strategic analysis of funnel metrics and identification of bottlenecks are of utmost importance. Problem-solving skills enables them to devise tailored campaigns and initiatives that address specific barriers to conversion, thereby optimizing marketing efforts for measurable business impact.

Budget limitations often restrict marketing initiatives and resource allocation. Marketing teams need to creatively optimize spending, prioritize high-impact activities, and find cost-effective solutions to achieve desired outcomes. Problem-solving abilities enable them to analyze budget constraints, explore alternative strategies, negotiate effectively with vendors, and maximize ROI on marketing investments without compromising quality or effectiveness. Edstellar’s Marketing Excellence program is meticulously designed to help organizations maximize reach, drive engagement and nurture long-lasting consumer relationships.

2. Problem Solving Skills for Sales Teams: 

Problem-solving skills enable sales professionals to navigate diverse customer needs effectively. Sales professionals often encounter conflicts or disagreements during negotiations or interactions with clients. Advanced problem solving skills enable them to navigate these situations diplomatically, resolve conflicts amicably, and maintain positive relationships with stakeholders. 

Problem-solving skills empower sales professionals to analyze market trends, identify emerging opportunities, and pivot strategies swiftly. Sales teams can utilize their skills to optimize resources effectively. Whether it's time management, budget allocation, or leveraging internal expertise, they can streamline operations and maximize efficiency in achieving sales objectives. Edstellar’s Sales Excellence program offers custom-crafted framework for organizations to amplify sales, expand profits, and enhance customer satisfaction. 

3. Problem Solving Skills for Customer Service Teams: 

Customer service teams encounter a wide range of customer issues and complaints on a daily basis. Problem-solving skills enable them to quickly analyze the root causes of these issues, identify appropriate solutions, and implement corrective actions. 

By resolving issues promptly and effectively, customer service teams enhance customer satisfaction and loyalty. Not every customer issue can be resolved with a standard response. Problem-solving skills enable customer service teams to assess each situation individually, evaluate options, and tailor solutions to meet the specific needs and preferences of customers.

Satisfied customers are more likely to recommend the company to others, write positive reviews, and become loyal brand advocates. Problem-solving skills thus contribute to enhancing brand reputation and attracting new customers through word-of-mouth referrals. Edstellar’s Customer Service Excellence program is specially designed to improve customer satisfaction for an organization’s products or services.

4. Problem Solving Skills for Human Resources Teams: 

HR professionals frequently encounter conflicts among employees or between employees and management. Problem-solving skills equip HR teams to identify the root causes of conflicts, facilitate constructive dialogue, and negotiate mutually beneficial resolutions. Problem-solving skills enable HR professionals to address recruitment challenges, such as skill shortages or competitive hiring markets, by devising innovative sourcing strategies and refining candidate selection processes. 

Managing employee performance requires HR teams to address underperformance issues, set clear performance expectations, and provide constructive feedback. Problem-solving skills help HR professionals to assess performance gaps, identify underlying issues, and implement targeted improvement plans. 

Problem-solving skills empower HR professionals to address workplace issues affecting morale, such as workload imbalances or communication breakdowns. Edstellar’s Human Resource Excellence program is designed to support organizations to improve employee retention, foster a highly engaged and productive workforce and boost organizational culture.  

5. Problem Solving Skills for Operations Teams:

Operations teams are responsible for managing risks associated with supply chain disruptions, regulatory changes, or technological failures. Problem-solving skills enable them to anticipate potential risks, develop contingency plans, and swiftly address unforeseen challenges. This proactive risk management minimizes disruptions and ensures business continuity. 

Problem solving skills activities facilitate effective collaboration across these functions by fostering clear communication, mutual understanding of objectives, and alignment on strategic priorities. Problem solving skills enable them to assess resource needs, allocate budgets effectively, and optimize the use of manpower and materials. By making informed decisions based on data-driven analysis, operations teams enhance resource utilization and achieve cost savings. Edstellar’s Operations Excellence program empowers organizations to optimize workflows, reduce operational costs, enhance productivity, and ensure swift and efficient decision-making. 

6. Problem Solving Skills for Information Technology (IT) Teams:

Problem-solving skills enable IT teams to swiftly diagnose and resolve complex technical issues, minimizing downtime and ensuring seamless operations across the organization. From implementing cutting-edge technologies to enhancing cybersecurity measures, IT teams leverage their problem solving capabilities to drive innovation and stay ahead in the technological space. 

By understanding business needs, anticipating future trends, and prioritizing projects, IT teams ensure that their solutions contribute directly to achieving business objectives. These skills would be beneficial for cohesive teamwork, accelerating project delivery, and ensuring that IT solutions meet the diverse needs of the organization. Edstellar’s IT Excellence program is crafted to help organizations with key areas such as cyber security, cloud computing, and data analytics. 

As teams journey through problem solving training activities, they will discover the transformative power of practical learning experiences. It is important for employees to immerse themselves in problem solving in games to enhance their critical thinking abilities and collaboration skills. Utilizing best games to improve problem solving skills, during corporate training sessions can significantly enhance participants' ability to think strategically and work collaboratively under pressure.

Organizations can create their own business problem solving activities (corporate problem solving activities conducted for employees) by referring to this blog as examples of problem solving activities and the necessary steps to be taken during and after the events. At Edstellar, we understand the significance of honing problem solving skills in fostering organizational success.

Our courses are meticulously designed to bridge the skill gap and empower individuals to tackle challenges head-on. With a team of experienced trainers conducting problem solving training , team building exercises and guiding them, employees can gain valuable insights and practical strategies to address real-world problems effectively.

By Pete Ford

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FREE K-12 standards-aligned STEM

curriculum for educators everywhere!

Find more at TeachEngineering.org .

• TeachEngineering
• Clearing a Path to the Heart

Hands-on Activity Clearing a Path to the Heart

Grade Level: 7 (6-8)

Time Required: 45 minutes

Expendable Cost/Group: US $3.00

Group Size: 3

Activity Dependency: None

Subject Areas: Biology, Life Science, Problem Solving, Science and Technology

NGSS Performance Expectations:

Curriculum in this Unit Units serve as guides to a particular content or subject area. Nested under units are lessons (in purple) and hands-on activities (in blue). Note that not all lessons and activities will exist under a unit, and instead may exist as "standalone" curriculum.

• Prosthetic Party: Build and Test Replacement Legs
• Sticks and Stones Will Break That Bone!
• The Artificial Bicep
• Measuring Our Muscles
• Polluted Air = Polluted Lungs
• Protect That Pill
• Sounds All Around
• Protect Those Eyes
• You're the Expert
• DNA Profiling & CODIS: Who Robbed the Bank?
• Repairing Broken Bones
• Living with Your Liver

TE Newsletter

Engineering connection, learning objectives, materials list, worksheets and attachments, more curriculum like this, pre-req knowledge, introduction/motivation, vocabulary/definitions, troubleshooting tips, activity extensions, activity scaling, additional multimedia support, user comments & tips.

Engineers of all types—biomedical, mechanical, chemical, electrical, materials, computer—work together with medical professionals to apply basic biological and medical science to solving real-world problems. Devices such as catheters, balloon catheters and stents help people avoid or live beyond life-threatening heart attacks and strokes.

After this activity, students should be able to:

• Describe what happens when a blood vessel is blocked.
• Describe how bioengineering techniques can be used to "open up" a blocked blood vessel.
• Apply the engineering design process to create solutions to a problem.

Educational Standards Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) , a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g. , by state; within source by type; e.g. , science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc .

Ngss: next generation science standards - science.

Common Core State Standards - Math

View aligned curriculum

Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback!

International Technology and Engineering Educators Association - Technology

State standards, colorado - math, colorado - science.

Each group needs:

• 2 model "blocked arteries" made from about 4 inches (10 cm) of flexible tubing (~1.5-in [3.8-cm] diameter) clogged with play dough (or peanut butter); alternatively, use PVC pipe instead of tubing
• 2 clown balloons (long and thin)
• air pump, for clown balloons
• 2 paper clips
• 1 pipe cleaner
• 4 rubber bands
• 1 square of aluminum foil, about 3 x 3 inches [7.6 x 7.6 cm]
• (optional) strip of metal mesh screen, about 4 x 1 inch [10 x 2.54cm]
• Clearing Blocked Arteries Measurements Worksheet , one per student

For the entire class to share:

• water source
• 2 liter container (from which to pour the same amount of water)
• large jug, bin or container, to catch poured water
• timer (such as the classroom clock with second hand or a person's watch or phone)
• Three Treatment Methods Images , an overhead projector transparency or printouts to show students

A basic knowledge of the human circulatory system, blood flow and artery clearing, as provided by the associated lesson, Body Circulation .

In 2003, a 14 year old boy in China experienced severe chest pain during exercise. At the hospital, doctors found that he had a clogged artery, and if they were not able to clear it, he would go into cardiac arrest and experience heart failure. Luckily, the doctors were able to use an engineered stent to open his artery and prevent heart failure.

Do you know anyone who has had a heart attack? (Ask students to raise their hands.) Do you think that heart attacks are common? Why or why not? What causes them?

In a properly working human circulatory system, blood vessels are clean and smooth (like clean pipes). However, during the course of a lifetime, sometimes material coats the interior walls of blood vessels. This plaque, whether it hardens and stays in place, or hardens and gets dislodged, can have significant health consequences. Having material blocking the normal blood flow restricts the movement of blood, thus preventing sufficient nutrients and oxygen from reaching all parts of the body. Having plaque material moving though the blood vessels may also result in that material eventually encountering a smaller blood vessel and blocking any blood from going through, which prevents nutrients and oxygen from reaching everywhere they are needed. The problems this can cause are significant, problems such as heart attacks and strokes.

The best way to avoid these medical conditions is prevention via things like healthy eating and exercise. However, at the point when blockage is found, it must be treated to avoid health problems. Engineers and doctors have designed various ways to unclog or unblock plaque-coated blood vessels. That's what we're going to look at today—heart attack and stroke treatment and prevention. How exactly is blood flow restored to the heart when plaque, or a blood clot, is blocking blood flow? Every day biomedical, mechanical, chemical and electrical engineers (and others types, too) work with medical doctors to devise more effective treatments for heart attacks and strokes. Today, we are going to see if we can do the same.

What ideas do you have about how we might unclog a blocked artery? (Listen to and encourage student brainstorming and ideas.) Currently, three primary treatments for clogged arteries are in common use (optional; show students Three Methods to Treat Blocked Arteries as either an overhead transparency or printouts, depending on whether or not you want to show them these ideas or wait until activity end). The first two are types of angioplasty, or recreating of the canal in the blood vessel. The first method is a balloon catheter in which a small balloon is passed through the artery to the clogged area where it is inflated, compressing the plaque and opening the artery to greater flow. The second method is similar to the balloon catheter with the addition of a stent surrounding the balloon, so when the balloon inflates, the stent remains behind to keep the plaque pinned against the walls. The third method is a bypass surgery in which the blocked section of the artery is removed and the artery is reconnected, free of the blockage.

Before the Activity

• Gather materials and make copies of the Clearing Blocked Arteries Measurements Worksheet , one per student.
• Make either an overhead projector transparency or printouts of the Three Treatment Methods Images .
• Make enough model blocked arteries to provide two per team. The representative artery/artery walls, made from either flexible rubber tubing or PVC pipe, are larger than the diameter of real human arteries, but serve as models for this open-ended design project. To simulate plaque buildup inside the model blocked arteries, use play dough or other material (such as peanut butter) that can be wedged inside but is still soft enough to be moved about when students test their device designs (see Figure 1).

With the Students: Design and Prototype

• Divide the class into groups of three students each. Hand out the worksheets.
• Demonstrate that blocked arteries have different flow than clear arteries by having the class time how long it takes for two liters of water to flow through a clear piece of piping at a 45° angle versus through a blocked piece of piping at the same angle (see Figure 2). Have students record these measurements on their worksheets.

• Explain the design project to the student teams: Your challenge today is to create a device that could remove or flatten the built-up plaque material inside artery walls. How are you going to go about doing this? What are the steps a design team of engineers would take? (After students have suggested ideas, write on the board the steps all engineers go through in designing and solving problems. These steps are referred to as the engineering design process . Understand the need, brainstorm ideas, design and plan, create and test a prototype, and review and improve.) Well, first engineers must have a problem or a need. Then, they brainstorm creative ideas and solutions to that problem or need. Next, they select the most promising idea and create a design that they can draw or communicate to others. They make a prototype of that design and test it to evaluate whether or not the design is successful.

• Continue with the project instructions: Today, you and your team are engineers working together to create a device that could remove or flatten the built-up plaque material inside artery walls. Your team has two identical blocked arteries and a set of materials. Use the materials to develop a device to improve the flow in the artery. Remember, you do not have to use all of the materials. The last step of the design process is to review and improve on your design. You have two model arteries to built, test and then redesign with improvements. Keep in mind that you do not want to just knock the plaque off the wall and leave it in the blood stream, and you do not want to hurt the fragile inside wall of the arteries.
• Ask students: What ideas do you have for how to unblock your model arteries? (As necessary, share the ideas that were mentioned during the Introduction/Motivation section of the activity, such as: dissolve the clot or blockage, use a balloon to push the artery open.)
• Direct students to brainstorm, design (create a drawing with labeled materials), create a prototype and test their designs. Expect the second design to be an improvement of the first.
• Circulate among the groups as they work, observing and asking questions, as provided in the Assessment section. As students are working, challenge them to think about what happens to the plaque they dislodge, move or scrape away. Remind them that we do not want the treatment to hurt the patient!

With the Students: Communication and Testing

• Have each team present a description of its two designs and design process to the class.
• Measure success by timing how fast 2 liters of water flow through a team's cleared arteries after the treatment method. Hold the arteries at 45° angle while the water flows. Have students record these measurements on their worksheets. Compare data. If desired, award prizes for the best team design.
• Have students complete the questions on their worksheets.

With the Students: Conclusion and Reflection

• Lead a class discussion:
• Our model blocked arteries are, of course, not real arteries. What challenges might an engineering team face when creating a similar technology for real arteries? (Possible answers: The real blocked arteries would be in a human body, so they would be hard to get to, slippery, walls might be more elastic, and the plaque would be different.)
• While the materials may not be the same, the process that you used to develop your prototype devices is the same used by engineers. And while their devices may be different, they share similarities to your solutions. (Show students the three images of current treatment methods.)
• Look carefully at the mechanics of the balloon catheter (angioplasty), coronary bypass surgery, and catheter with stent (angioplasty). What similarities and differences do you see?

balloon catheter: A catheter with an inflatable tip that can be expanded by the passage of gas or liquid; used especially to expand a partly closed or obstructed bodily passage or tube (such as an artery). Also called balloon-tipped catheter.

bioengineering: The use of artificial tissues, organs or organ components to replace damaged or absent body parts, such as artificial limbs and heart pacemakers. Source: The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English, http://encyclopedia.com/doc/1O999-bioengineering.html

biomedical engineer: A person who blends traditional engineering techniques with the biological sciences and medicine to improve the quality of human health and life. Biomedical engineers design artificial body parts, medical devices, diagnostic tools and medical treatment methods.

brainstorming: A method of shared problem solving in which all members of a group contribute many ideas.

catheter: A hollow, flexible tube for insertion into a body cavity, duct or vessel to allow the passage of fluids or expand a passageway.

coronary artery bypass surgery: A surgery that uses a piece of a vein from the leg, or artery from the chest or wrist. The surgeon attaches this to the coronary artery above and below the narrowed area or blockage so blood can bypass the blockage. Some people need more than one bypass. Source: Medline Plus, US National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/coronaryarterybypasssurgery.html

engineer: A person who applies an understanding of science and math to creating things for the benefit of humanity and our world.

engineering design process: A decision-making process used by engineers to make something that meets a need or solves a problem. Steps include: brainstorm, design, plan, create, test, improve.

heart attack: Damage to heart muscle that is deprived of oxygen via blood flow, usually due to blockage of a coronary artery. Typically accompanied by chest pain. Often life threatening. Also called myocardial infarction.

model: (noun) A representation of something, sometimes on a different scale. (verb) To simulate, make or construct something to help visualize or learn about something else (such as a living human body, process or system) that cannot be directly observed or experimented upon.

plaque: A deposit of fatty material on the inner lining of an arterial wall.

prototype: A first attempt or early model of a new product, device or creation. Typically revised many times.

stent: A small, expandable tube used for inserting in a blocked vessel.

stroke: When a blockage of a blood vessel to the brain causes inadequate oxygen supply, leading to weakness, paralysis, speech difficulties, loss of consciousness and/or death.

Pre-Activity Assessment

Brainstorming : Have students brainstorm different possible ways a clogged artery might be cleared without harming the patient. Do this before explaining current practices. Remind students that brainstorming is the time to be very creative. During brainstorming, no idea or suggestion is "wrong" or "ridiculous." Respectfully listen to all ideas and build on them.

Activity Embedded Assessment

Design Process : Visit each group and ask the following questions, depending on the team's stage in the design process:

• Why did your group decide on this design?
• How does this device work?
• What happens to the plaque after you use the device?
• Which specific blood vessel in the body might this represent?
• What would happen if you were able to unblock part, but not all, of the artery?
• How would having partially blocked blood vessels affect a person's body?

Worksheet : Have students complete the activity worksheet; review their answers to gauge their understanding of the subject.

Post-Activity Assessment

Communicating the Results : Have student teams present their designs to the class. Have them share why they chose that design, what worked, what did not work, and ways in which the design might be improved.

Make sure students create feasible solutions, for example, make sure their devices fit into the tubes and have a way of removing or flattening the plaque.

Make sure teams incorporate "lessons learned" from their first design/test as they create revised and improved second designs.

So that the model designs are more lifelike, have students create catheter devices that could be used while water is flowing through the system.

Have teams create engineering presentations that they would give to manufacturing companies, hospitals or medical personnel highlighting the benefits of their particular medical devices.

• For upper grades, do not show them current treatment methods until after they have completed the activity.

See a good drawing of coronary balloon angioplasty at this National Institutes of Health website: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Angioplasty/Angioplasty_howdone.html

Students are introduced to the circulatory system with an emphasis on the blood clotting process, including coagulation and the formation and degradation of polymers through their underlying atomic properties. They learn about the medical emergency of strokes—the loss of brain function commonly due ...

Students make a proportional model of blood out of red gelatin, a plastic bag, and rice. They learn about the different components that make up blood and investigate what happens when the arteries and veins experience buildup from cholesterol. They will then work in pairs to brainstorm ways to clean...

Students study how heart valves work and investigate how valves that become faulty over time can be replaced with advancements in engineering and technology. Learning about the flow of blood through the heart, students are able to fully understand how and why the heart is such a powerful organ in ou...

Students learn all about the body's essential mighty organ, the heart, as well as the powerful blood vascular system. This includes information on the many different sizes and pervasiveness of capillaries, veins and arteries, and how they affect blood flow through the system. Then students focus on ...

Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery. Last updated November 26, 2008. Medline Plus, US National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health. Accessed December 8, 2008. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/coronaryarterybypasssurgery.html

Dictionary.com. Lexico Publishing Group, LLC. Accessed December 10, 2008. (Source of some vocabulary definitions, with some adaptation) http://www.dictionary.com

Myocardial Infarction. Last modified December 8, 2008. Wikipedia Free Online Encyclopedia. Accessed December 10, 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_attack

What Is Coronary Angioplasty? Last updated July 2007. Diseases and Conditions Index, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Accessed December 10, 2008. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Angioplasty/Angioplasty_WhatIs.html

Your Heart, Kids' Health Topics. Last updated March 7, 2006. Children, Youth and Women's Health Service. Accessed December 10, 2008. http://www.cyh.sa.gov.au/HealthTopics/HealthTopicDetailsKids.aspx?p=335&np=152&id=1446

Contributors

Supporting program, acknowledgements.

This digital library content was developed by the Integrated Teaching and Learning Program under National Science Foundation GK-12 grant no. 0338326. However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the National Science Foundation, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

Last modified: October 20, 2020

Arterial Blood Gas Interpretation for NCLEX Quiz (40 Questions)

Let us help you review the concepts behind arterial blood gas interpretation for the NCLEX with these acid-base balance practice questions .

Arterial Blood Gas Interpretation Practice Quiz

In this section are the practice problems and questions for arterial blood gas interpretation. This nursing test bank set includes 40 questions divided into two parts. Includes topics are arterial blood gas interpretation, acid-base balance and imbalances, respiratory acidosis and alkalosis, and metabolic acidosis and alkalosis.

Quiz Guidelines

Before you start, here are some examination guidelines and reminders you must read:

• Practice Exams : Engage with our Practice Exams to hone your skills in a supportive, low-pressure environment. These exams provide immediate feedback and explanations, helping you grasp core concepts, identify improvement areas, and build confidence in your knowledge and abilities.
• You’re given 2 minutes per item.
• For Challenge Exams, click on the “Start Quiz” button to start the quiz.
• Complete the quiz : Ensure that you answer the entire quiz. Only after you’ve answered every item will the score and rationales be shown.
• Learn from the rationales : After each quiz, click on the “View Questions” button to understand the explanation for each answer.
• Free access : Guess what? Our test banks are 100% FREE. Skip the hassle – no sign-ups or registrations here. A sincere promise from Nurseslabs: we have not and won’t ever request your credit card details or personal info for our practice questions. We’re dedicated to keeping this service accessible and cost-free, especially for our amazing students and nurses. So, take the leap and elevate your career hassle-free!
• Share your thoughts : We’d love your feedback, scores, and questions! Please share them in the comments below.

Quizzes included in this ABG nursing test bank are:

Arterial Blood Gas Reviewer

For your reviewer on the concepts behind arterial blood gas ( ABGs ) and interpretation, please visit:

• Arterial Blood Gas Analysis Made Easy with Tic-Tac-Toe Method

Recommended Resources

Recommended books and resources for your NCLEX success:

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43 thoughts on “Arterial Blood Gas Interpretation for NCLEX Quiz (40 Questions)”

Thank you for work done so far. god bless you. I’ll like you to review this question No:20 under ABGs NCLEX Quiz 2. The correct answer you gave contradicts with the rationale -” For these ABG values, pH is NORMAL but slightly acidic and lines up with PACO2 which is METABOLIC. Therefore, this group of ABG values is considered METABOLIC ALKALOSIS.” Thank you.. pls see below.

20. Question Match the acid-base status of the following blood samples to the disorders in the given choices. (PaCO2 values are in mm Hg and bicarbonate values in mmol/l).

pH 7.39, PaCO2 59, HCO3- 35

A. Respiratory Acidosis, Uncompensated B. Metabolic Alkalosis, Uncompensated C. Respiratory Acidosis, Fully Compensated D. Metabolic Alkalosis, Partially Compensated Correct Correct Answer: C. Respiratory Acidosis, Fully Compensated

Based on the given ABG values, pH is 7.39. For pH, the normal range is 7.35 to 7.45. So it is NORMAL. PaCO2 is 59. The normal range for PaCO2 is from 35 to 45. If PaCO2 is above 45, it is acidosis. Based on the given ABG values, PaCO2 is above 45, so it is considered ACIDOSIS. HCO3- is 35. The normal range for HCO3 is from 22 to 26. If HCO3 is above 26, it is alkalosis. Based on the given ABG values, HCO3 is above 26, so it is considered ALKALOSIS. For these ABG values, pH is NORMAL but slightly acidic and lines up with PACO2 which is METABOLIC. Therefore, this group of ABG values is considered METABOLIC ALKALOSIS. Lastly, it is FULLY COMPENSATED because pH is normal. It is considered fully compensated if pH is normal.

Agreed, the symptoms also line up with patient being alkalosis as well: irritability and diarrhea. Assuming SaO2 levels are normal, increased respirations would point to alkalosis as well.

I beg to disagree with your analysis. The answer is correct Respiratory Acidosis with Fully compensated. The pH is within normal limits, the PCO2 is high meaning respiratory aspect is getting acidotic and because the respiratory is getting acidotic the kidney which the HCO3 is compensating well by increasing.

The answer is Respiratory acidosis; fully compensated.

Hi Thompson,

I respectfully disagree with your analysis of the question as well. Since the pH is within normal limits, it is fully compensated, you are correct. The absolute normal for pH is 7.4, so since 7.39 is below the absolute it is still considered acidic. From there, The PaCO2 is elevated above normal range of 35-45, along with HCO3- elevated from the normal range of 22-26. HCO3- is elevated due to renal compensation. We know with respiratory disorders of ABGs, respiratory values go in opposite directions of one another and metabolic values go in the same directions (ROME method). Therefore, this situation is respiratory acidosis.

This is fully compesated Respiratory acidosis because PCO2 is corrected by respiratory system and not metabolism as it does the Kidney to HCO3

No, the answer should be Respiratory Acidosis. PaCO2 is respiratory fully compensated.

Very good explanation — simple and understanding

You are correct Thompson, that there is compensation. This is because the bicarb has increased, providing a normal ph. A client with a PaCO2 of 59 is still having respiratory issues despite the body compensating. In response to Aliyah, Increased respirations are an attempt to get rid of more CO2.

i love this material i never understand before

A 73year man has been admitted to the unit with a diagnosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease .he states that he has difficulty breathing when walking short distance .he also states that his heart feels like it is racing at the same time .he states that he is tired all the time and while talking to you he is continually wringing his hands and looking out the windows.1.Identify the 4 health problem of the patient.2.formulate the nursing diagnosis

Thompson, The PaCo2 is high and the pH is normal but slightly acidic because it is on the lower end. Using the ROME method, this would make it respiratory acidosis, fully compensated. I recommend using the ROME method (respiratory opposite metabolic equal).

B. Metabolic Acidosis, Partially Compensated

REASON: NORMAL pH (ACID 0 10 ALK) CO2 (ACID 100 0 ALK.) HCO3 (ACID 0 50 ALK)

Thanks for this topic of ABGs here on NCLEX I have understood this topic than I did ever in my academic career

Thanks for the lesson I can answer the question correctly

In the Arterial Blood Gas Interpretation Practice Quiz (Part 1: 20 Items), I think the correct answer to Q3. should have been : Respiratory Alkalosis, Partially Compensated. Please revisit and let me know. Thanks for the resources.

The answer is quite in order. Pls disregard comment. Thanks

This ABG’s study with the practice quiz was great and help me understand the difference in acidosis and alkalosis, respiratory versus metabolic and also compensated as well as uncompensated to fully compensated. Thanks for the resources.

The blood Ph is more towards Acidic. the PaCo2 is elevated, which is always an indicator for respiratory acidosis. the HCO3 is also elevated, but an elevated HCO3 is is also always an indicator for Metabolic Alkalosis. Since the Ph of the blood is is towards acidity, and the PaCO2 is elevated, the patient is in respiratory acidosis, the HCO3 is also elevated because homeostasis have set in an the body needs to form more alkaines to compensate for the increased acidity. since the Ph of the blood, though towards acidity but still within normal, that means the RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS IS FULLY COMPENSATED.

This is such a helpful one> thank you so much for sharing this.

Very helpful and informative

This helpful thank you so much for sharing.

The answer is Respiratory Acidosis, Fully compensated. This is because the ph is within normal range and based on the principle of ROME which is Respiratory Opposite Metabolic Equal, the PCO2 of 59 is Acidotic. Therefore, the PCO2 is Opposite to the ph (7.39) meaning that the result is Respiratory Acidosis, Fully compensated.

Really helpful. Thanks

Thanks for the lecture and this quiz. Now I understand ABG better and it will be quite helpful in my practice!

This was very helpful. I truly understand ABG and compensation now. Love that the questions were NCLEA style questions

For #9 shouldn’t the answer be Metabolic Alkalosis, Fully Compensated?

why metabolic? it’s Asmathic baby! with Pco2 is 72, so it’s resp acidosis, the body inorder to compensate raises the bicarbonate to 38, so it’s fully compensated

Everything was well explained and understood,thank you

Hello Thompson and other colleges,

I disagree as well. Please read the case history before reading the ABG chart. The PH was leaning towards acidic hence being compensated. It’s not metabolic alkalosis.

Known about blood gases in 1974 as a Navy Corpsman and now an RN, this tic tac toe made it as simple as ever, and it is free. Awesome lesson! A+! While reading, I thought that the Allen test, which is needed to show blood flow to the hand, would be intact if the radial artery was damaged while drawing arterial blood, thus dependent on the ulnar artery. Seen myriads of ABGs but do not recall an Allen test ever being done. This lesson was EXCELLENT, systematic, step by step.

Shouldn’t number 1 have been uncompensated respiratory acidosis? Partially compensated is when all 3 variables are abnormal, and the HCO3 was normal in this case.

The answer for this question should be Respiratory Acidosis, partially compensated. HCO3 is in normal range.

No, because partially compensated is NOTHING IS NORMAL

Wonderful practice questions.

Great practice questions. I had 19 right answers and the one I did not get still don’t make sense to me. Because I though the highest is the altitude, the less oxygen is present in the air and it is most likely for the person’s PaCO2 to goes up. But it was the opposite

Hi Acquah, Glad to hear it was helpful! If there’s anything else you’re looking to understand better or need more info on, just let me know. Here to help!

The answer should be fully compensated respiratory acidosis since the PCO2 is elevated and is being compensated by the kidney due to increase of HCO3

Please help me with this question I’m quite confused. Match the acid-base status of the following blood samples to the disorders in the given choices. (PaCO2 values are in mm Hg and bicarbonate values in mmol/l). pH 7.64, PaCO2 25, HCO3- 19

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