best college critical thinking

7.4 Critical Thinking

Estimated completion time: 18 minutes.

Questions to Consider:

How can determining the situation help you think critically?
How do you present informed, unbiased thinking?
What is the difference between factual arguments and opinions?

Critical thinking has become a buzz phrase in education and corporate environments in recent years. The definitions vary slightly, but most agree that thinking critically includes some form of judgement that thinkers generate after careful analysis of the perspectives, opinions, or experimental results present for a particular problem or situation. Before you wonder if you’re even capable of critical thinking, consider that you think critically every day. When you grab an unwashed T-shirt off the top of the pile on the floor of your bedroom to wear into class but then suddenly remember that you may see the person of your dreams on that route, you may change into something a bit less disheveled. That’s thinking critically—you used data (the memory that your potential soul mate walks the same route you use on that day on campus) to change a sartorial decision (dirty shirt for clean shirt), and you will validate your thinking if and when you do have a successful encounter with said soul mate.

Likewise, when you decide to make your lunch rather than just grabbing a bag of chips, you’re thinking critically. You have to plan ahead, buy the food, possibly prepare it, arrange to and carry the lunch with you, and you may have various reasons for doing that—making healthier eating choices, saving money for an upcoming trip, or wanting more quiet time to unwind instead of waiting in a crowded lunch line. You are constantly weighing options, consulting data, gathering opinions, making choices, and then evaluating those decisions, which is a general definition of critical thinking.

Consider the following situations and how each one demands your thinking attention. Which do you find most demanding of critical thinking? Why?

Participating in competitive athletic events
Watching competitive athletic events
Reading a novel for pleasure
Reading a textbook passage in science

Critical thinking forces you to determine the actual situation under question and to determine your thoughts and actions around that situation.

Determining the Problem

One component to keep in mind to guide your critical thinking is to determine the situation. What problem are you solving? When problems become complex and multifaceted, it is easy to be distracted by the simple parts that may not need as much thinking to resolve but also may not contribute as much to the ultimate problem resolution. What aspect of the situation truly needs your attention and your critical thinking?

Imagine you’re planning a fantasy vacation as a group assignment in a class you’re taking where each person is allowed only $200. The group doles out specific preliminary tasks to each member to decide where to go, what sort of trip to take, and how to keep costs low, all in the name of a fun fantasy vacation. In this scenario, whose plan demonstrates the most effective critical thinking?

DeRhonda creates an elaborate invitation for a dinner party she’ll coordinate at an exclusive mountain cabin.
Patrick researches cruises, cabin rentals, and staycation options, considering costs for various trip lengths.
Rodrigio puts down a deposit for a private dining room for 25 at an expensive local restaurant for a date six weeks from the end of the semester.

Write out what each person’s thinking reflects about their expectations for this trip and why their actions may or may not help the group at this stage of the planning.

Critical thinking differs according to the subject you’re thinking about, and as such it can be difficult to pin down any sort of formula to make sure you are doing a good job of thinking critically in all situations. While you may need to adapt this list of critical thinking components, you can get started if you do the following:

Question everything
Conduct legitimate research
Limit your assumptions
Recognize your own biases
Gather and weigh all options

Additionally, you must recognize that changes will occur and may alter your conclusions now and in the future. You may eventually have to revisit an issue you effectively resolved previously and adapt to changing conditions. Knowing when to do that is another example of critical thinking. Informed flexibility, or knowing that parts of the plan may need to change and how those changes can work into the overall goal, is also a recognized element of thinking critically.

For example, early in the 20th century, many people considered cigarette smoking a relaxing social pastime that didn’t have many negative consequences. Some people may still consider smoking a way to relax; however, years of medical research have proven with mounting evidence that smoking causes cancer and exacerbates numerous other medical conditions. Researchers asked questions about the impact of smoking on people’s overall health, conducted regulated experiments, tracked smokers’ reactions, and concluded that smoking did impact health. Over time, attitudes, evidence, and opinions change, and as a critical thinker, you must continue to research, synthesize newly discovered evidence, and adapt to that new information.

Defending against Bias

Once you have all your information gathered and you have checked your sources for currency and validity, you need to direct your attention to how you’re going to present your now well-informed analysis. Be careful on this step to recognize your own possible biases. Facts are verifiable; opinions are beliefs without supporting evidence. Stating an opinion is just that. You could say “Blue is the best color,” and that’s your opinion. If you were to conduct research and find evidence to support this claim, you could say, “Researchers at Oxford University recognize that the use of blue paint in mental hospitals reduces heart rates by 25% and contributes to fewer angry outbursts from patients.” This would be an informed analysis with credible evidence to support the claim.

Not everyone will accept your analysis, which can be frustrating. Most people resist change and have firm beliefs on both important issues and less significant preferences. With all the competing information surfacing online, on the news, and in general conversation, you can understand how confusing it can be to make any decisions. Look at all the reliable, valid sources that claim different approaches to be the best diet for healthy living: ketogenic, low-carb, vegan, vegetarian, high fat, raw foods, paleo, Mediterranean, etc. All you can do in this sort of situation is conduct your own serious research, check your sources, and write clearly and concisely to provide your analysis of the information for consideration. You cannot force others to accept your stance, but you can show your evidence in support of your thinking, being as persuasive as possible without lapsing into your own personal biases. Then the rest is up to the person reading or viewing your analysis.

Factual Arguments vs. Opinions

Thinking and constructing analyses based on your thinking will bring you in contact with a great deal of information. Some of that information will be factual, and some will not be. You need to be able to distinguish between facts and opinions so you know how to support your arguments. Begin with basic definitions:

Fact: a statement that is true and backed up with evidence; facts can be verified through observation or research
Opinion: a statement someone holds to be true without supporting evidence; opinions express beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, or judgements

Of course, the tricky part is that most people do not label statements as fact and opinion, so you need to be aware and recognize the difference as you go about honing your critical thinking skills.

You probably have heard the old saying “Everyone is entitled to their own opinions,” which may be true, but conversely, not everyone is entitled to their own facts. Facts are true for everyone, not just those who want to believe in them. For example, mice are animals is a fact; mice make the best pets is an opinion.

Determine if the following statements are facts or opinions based on just the information provided here, referring to the basic definitions above. Some people consider scientific findings to be opinions even when they are convincingly backed by reputable evidence and experimentation. However, remember the definition of fact —verifiable by research or observation. Think about what other research you may have to conduct to make an informed decision.

Oregon is a state in the United States. (How would this be proven?)
Beef is made from cattle. (See current legislation concerning vegetarian “burgers.”)
Increased street lighting decreases criminal behavior. (What information would you need to validate this claim?)
In 1952, Elizabeth became Queen of England. (What documents could validate this?)
Oatmeal tastes plain. (What factors might play into this claim?)
Acne is an embarrassing skin condition. (Who might verify this claim?)
Kindergarten decreases student dropout rates. (Think of different interest groups that may take sides on this issue.)
Carbohydrates promote weight gain. (Can you determine if this is a valid statement?)
Cell phones cause brain tumors. (What research considers this claim?)
Immigration is good for the US economy. (What research would help you make an informed decision on this topic?)

Many people become very attached to their opinions, even stating them as facts despite the lack of verifiable evidence. Think about political campaigns, sporting rivalries, musical preferences, and religious or philosophical beliefs. When you are reading, writing, and thinking critically, you must be on the lookout for sophisticated opinions others may present as factual information. While it’s possible to be polite when questioning another person's opinions when engaging in intellectual debate, thinking critically requires that you do conduct this questioning.

For instance, someone may say or write that a particular political party should move its offices to different cities every year—that’s an opinion regardless of whether you side with one party or the other. If, on the other hand, the same person said that one political party is headquartered in a specific city, that is a fact you can verify. You could find sources that can validate or discredit the statement. Even if the city the person lists as the party headquarters is incorrect, the statement itself is still a fact—just an erroneous one. If you use biased and opinionated information or even incorrect facts as your evidence to support your factual arguments, then you have not validated your sources or checked your facts well enough. At this point, you would need to keep researching.

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Critical thinking for college, career, and citizenship

Subscribe to the center for universal education bulletin, diane f. halpern dfh diane f. halpern diane f. halpern is the dean of social sciences, emerita at the minerva schools at kgi and a past president of the american psychological association and the society for teaching of psychology. diane has published hundreds of articles and many books including, thought and knowledge: an introduction to critical thinking (5th ed., 2014); sex differences in cognitive abilities (4th ed.), and women at the top: powerful leaders tell us how to combine work and family (co-authored with fanny cheung). her other recent books include psychological science (5th ed. with michael gazzaniga and todd heatherton) and the edited book, undergraduate education in psychology: a blueprint for the future of the discipline..

May 26, 2016

Editor’s note: In the “ Becoming Brilliant ” blog series, experts explore the six competencies that reflect how children learn and grow as laid out by Kathy Hirsh-Pasek and Roberta Golinkoff in their new book “ Becoming Brilliant .”

Education is about the future—students learn in schools and other places based on two underlying assumptions: (a) What they learn today will be recalled sometime in the future when the knowledge is needed, and (b) today’s learning will transfer across time, place, and space. Teachers are preparing students for higher levels of education, careers that may not even exist today, and the increasingly complex world of citizenship—voting intelligently, recognizing, and supporting good options for societal problems. With the amount of information increasing exponentially and new information often replacing what we formerly believed to be true, the twin abilities of learning well and thinking critically are essential skills for students at every level.

But what does it mean to think critically?

Critical thinking is using the skills or strategies that that are most likely to lead to a desired outcome. It is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed. It is the sort of thinking we should be engaging in when deciding what and whom to believe, which of two job offers to accept, or whether vaccinations really do cause autism. It is different from, but often relies upon, simple recall (e.g., what does five plus seven equal?), unsupported opinions (e.g., I like vanilla ice cream), and automated actions (e.g., stopping at a red light).

Critical thinking has two main components: understanding information at a deep, meaningful level, and overcoming fallacies and biases. For example, suppose you are learning about a new theory. You could learn to recite the definition of the theory with little meaning (e.g., photosynthesis is a process used by plants to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water using sunlight) or you could process it at a deeper level. There are many learning activities that facilitate deep level processing. For example, you could write out the theory in your own words, explain it to someone who is not familiar with it, and provide evidence for (and possibly against) the theory. What is it explaining? What theory is it replacing (if applicable)? What is its history? How could it be applied to an everyday problem? If you could answer these questions, the theory would become easier to recall, and you could use it to generate new theories or see flaws or strengths in other theories. Argument analysis is another example of deep processing. Critical thinkers learn to identify the conclusion, the evidence, and reasoning used to support the conclusion. They also look for assumptions, counterevidence, and limiting conditions (times when the conclusion may not apply).

Some educators prefer to consider critical thinking as “debiasing” or recognizing and resisting fallacies. Suppose someone asks you if children become brilliant because of their nature or nurture. This is an example of the “either-or” fallacy, and anyone who is trained to recognize it can avoid its pitfalls. Similarly, critical thinkers recognize when correlational data are being used to make causal claims. For example, an article in the Los Angeles Times told readers that if they want their children to get good grades they should make sure that their kids’ friends get good grades. But after reading the article, it was apparent that children with good grades had friends with good grades, and children with poor grades had friends with poor grades. But nowhere did it show that kids with poor grades would improve by friending kids with good grades. The data were correlational, which any critical thinker should recognize.

If you are thinking critically, and I hope you are, you may be wondering: Can we teach students to be better thinkers? The answer is a resounding “yes.” There is a large amount of research literature (reviewed in my book, “Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking”). In one project that I conducted with a doctoral student, who is now Dr. Lisa Marin, we went into very low-performing high schools in California. There were several studies, some that involved parents and some in which classes were assigned at random with different critical thinking instruction. We found that when critical thinking skills were deliberately taught (not as an ancillary to other content), students improved in their abilities to think critically. There are many studies showing substantial gains in critical thinking in college students, the military, and other populations as well. Critical thinking can be taught at any grade, as long as it is taught in a way that is developmentally appropriate.

Finally, critical thinking has a self-reflective component. Good thinkers consider the steps of problem solving, how they are mentally approaching a problem, and the quality of their conclusion or solution.

Those who care about the future for today’s children understand that the jobs of the future will require the ability to think critically. So let’s be sure that our students are ready for college, careers, and citizenship by including deliberate instruction in critical thinking. It is probably the most difficult topic to teach and learn, but it is also the most important.

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Applying Critical and Creative Thinking Skills in College and Everyday Life

Sue Carson, former director of TH!NK and professor of plant and microbial biology, discusses the importance of critical and creative thinking skills in college and everyday life.

By Alison Krowiak, DASA Assessment

This article is part of a series on NC State’s Pack Proficiencies, which include the five skills NC State faculty think all NC State undergraduates should develop before they graduate: written communication, oral communication, quantitative literacy, critical thinking, and creative thinking.

At NC State, critical and creative thinking are a key part of how we Think and Do the Extraordinary. Critical thinking is the active, persistent and careful consideration of a belief or form of knowledge. Every time students use evidence to form judgements, analyze the ideas or conditions that support conclusions, and evaluate their own thinking, they engage their critical thinking skills.

Creative thinking is just as important and involves the generation of new ideas within or across disciplines. It can draw upon or break the rules in an effort to bring together existing ideas into a new configuration. The ability to think of creative solutions is utilized in every major program at NC State and in every field our students enter upon graduation.

Like all the Pack Proficiencies, these essential skills are taught in General Education classes and reinforced throughout each major program. Sue Carson, professor of plant and microbial biology and former director of the TH!NK program, describes the value for every NC State student in developing their critical and creative thinking competencies. Interview excerpts are edited for brevity and clarity.

How are critical and creative thinking competencies defined?

When I think about critical and creative thinking, I think of them as very intertwined. It often starts with raising a new question or formulating a new problem, gathering and assessing information, coming up with multiple alternative ideas for how to approach the question or how to approach the problem. It involves considering alternatives of the problem, reaching conclusions and effectively communicating about them. Other important aspects of critical and creative thinking include intellectual risk-taking and self-reflection along each stage of the process.

Why should NC States develop proficiencies in critical and creative thinking?

In all of our disciplines, and in all of our careers, to be a leader you need to be a creative thinker. You have to be able to identify problems and questions, and be able to figure out solutions. Even in our everyday lives, critical and creative thinking is so important. Questions like, “Who are you going to vote for in the next election? What daycare are you going to choose for your children? What phone are you going to buy?” all require those skills.

How can students develop their critical and creative thinking skills?

I think that most people understand that critical thinking is a skill that can be developed through practice and feedback. But there’s a misconception that creativity is something that’s innate, and that’s just not true. Creativity is a cognitive process that you can develop through practice and feedback. Creativity is also not confined to the arts. Fields in science, engineering, social sciences, and more need to be creative. We all need to be creative in our lives every day, and it is a skill that we can develop.

How can students develop their critical thinking skills inside and outside the classroom?

When students are selecting their classes, they can choose courses that are more geared toward project-based work. I think that is a good way for students to get feedback on their critical and creative thinking. There are a lot of opportunities outside the class as well. Engaging in undergraduate research is one way. Another way would be service learning projects that allow students to make decisions and have ownership of that project. If the student is able to have ownership and make decisions and identify the questions and problems, it can help develop critical and creative thinking. There is a whole range of opportunities that allow you to do that at NC State.

To learn more about the Pack Proficiencies and how they are assessed, visit go.ncsu.edu/PackProficiencies .

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4.5 Critical Thinking

Questions to consider:.

How can determining the situation help you think critically?
How do you present informed, unbiased thinking?
What is the difference between factual arguments and opinions?

Consider the following situations and how each one demands your thinking attention. Which do you find most demanding of critical thinking? Why?

Participating in competitive athletic events
Watching competitive athletic events
Reading a novel for pleasure
Reading a textbook passage in science

Critical thinking forces you to determine the actual situation under question and to determine your thoughts and actions around that situation.

Determining the Problem

DeRhonda creates an elaborate invitation for a dinner party she’ll coordinate at an exclusive mountain cabin.
Patrick researches cruises, cabin rentals, and staycation options, considering costs for various trip lengths.
Rodrigio puts down a deposit for a private dining room for 25 at an expensive local restaurant for a date six weeks from the end of the semester.

Write out what each person’s thinking reflects about their expectations for this trip and why their actions may or may not help the group at this stage of the planning.

Question everything
Conduct legitimate research
Limit your assumptions
Recognize your own biases
Gather and weigh all options

Defending against Bias

Factual Arguments vs. Opinions

Fact: a statement that is true and backed up with evidence; facts can be verified through observation or research
Opinion: a statement someone holds to be true without supporting evidence; opinions express beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, or judgements

Of course, the tricky part is that most people do not label statements as fact and opinion, so you need to be aware and recognize the difference as you go about honing your critical thinking skills.

Oregon is a state in the United States. (How would this be proven?)
Beef is made from cattle. (See current legislation concerning vegetarian “burgers.”)
Increased street lighting decreases criminal behavior. (What information would you need to validate this claim?)
In 1952, Elizabeth became Queen of England. (What documents could validate this?)
Oatmeal tastes plain. (What factors might play into this claim?)
Acne is an embarrassing skin condition. (Who might verify this claim?)
Kindergarten decreases student dropout rates. (Think of different interest groups that may take sides on this issue.)
Carbohydrates promote weight gain. (Can you determine if this is a valid statement?)
Cell phones cause brain tumors. (What research considers this claim?)
Immigration is good for the US economy. (What research would help you make an informed decision on this topic?)

Many people become very attached to their opinions, even stating them as facts despite the lack of verifiable evidence. Think about political campaigns, sporting rivalries, musical preferences, and religious or philosophical beliefs. When you are reading, writing, and thinking critically, you must be on the lookout for sophisticated opinions others may present as factual information. While it’s possible to be polite when questioning another person’s opinions when engaging in intellectual debate, thinking critically requires that you do conduct this questioning.

Source: OpenStax College Success is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0

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Module 5: Thinking and Analysis

Critical thinking, learning objectives.

Define critical thinking

Thinking comes naturally. You don’t have to make it happen—it just does. But you can make it happen in different ways. For example, you can think positively or negatively. You can think with your heart and you can think with rational judgment. You can also think strategically and analytically, and mathematically and scientifically. These are a few of multiple ways in which the mind can process thought.

What are some forms of thinking you use? When do you use them and why?

As a college student, you are tasked with engaging and expanding your thinking skills. One of the most important thinking skills is critical thinking. Critical thinking is important because it relates to nearly all tasks, situations, topics, careers, environments, challenges, and opportunities. It’s a “domain-general” thinking skill—not a thinking skill that’s reserved for a one subject alone or restricted to a particular subject area. Critical thinking is used in every domain, from physics to auto mechanics. It is often employed to problem solve when we are puzzled by something or to reveal that there is an error in common ways of thinking about things. Thus, critical thinking is essential for revealing biases.

For example, Galileo used a common form of reasoning called reductio ad absurdum (Latin for “reduce to absurdity) to show that the physics of his day was mistaken. People at that time believed that the heavier something was, the faster it would fall. Galileo knew this common conception was mistaken and he proved it both empirically and conceptually. Here is how he proved it conceptually. Suppose you have two objects, one heavier (call it B) than the other (call it A). Suppose the heavier object falls faster. When you put the lighter object under the heavier object (c), the lighter object should slow down the heavier object. On the other hand gluing together both objects results in a heavier object (c), which should fall even faster than (b). See diagram here . The contradiction proves by reductio ad absurdum that the assumption must be false. This is just one example, but the form of reasoning (reductio ad absurdum) is the same across every domain—from science to religion to auto mechanics. The form of reasoning is just this: assume for the sake of the argument that A is true. If we can then show that A leads to a contradiction (literally where two statements are asserted that cannot possibly be true), then we prove that A is false.

Great leaders have highly attuned critical thinking skills, and you can too. In fact, you probably have a lot of these skills already. Of all your thinking skills, critical thinking may have the greatest value.

What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is clear, reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do. It means asking probing questions like, “How do we know?” or “Is this true in every case or just in this instance?” It involves being skeptical and challenging assumptions, rather than simply memorizing facts or blindly accepting what you hear or read.

Imagine, for example, that you’re reading a history textbook. You wonder who wrote it and why because you detect certain biases in the writing. You find that the author has a limited scope of research focused only on a particular group within a population. In this case, your critical thinking reveals that there are other sides to the story.

Who are critical thinkers, and what characteristics do they have in common? Critical thinkers are usually curious and reflective people. They like to explore and probe new areas and seek knowledge, clarification, and new solutions. They ask pertinent questions, evaluate statements and arguments, and they distinguish between facts and opinion. They are also willing to examine their own beliefs, possessing a manner of humility that allows them to admit lack of knowledge or understanding when needed. They are open to changing their mind. Perhaps most of all, they actively enjoy learning and seeking new knowledge is a lifelong pursuit.

This description may well be you!

No matter where you are on the road to being a critical thinker, you can always more fully develop and finely tune your skills. Doing so will help you develop more balanced arguments, express yourself clearly, read critically, and glean important information efficiently. Critical thinking skills will help you in any profession or any circumstance of life, from science to art to business to teaching. With critical thinking, you become a clearer thinker and problem solver.

Understanding Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking IS	Critical Thinking Is NOT
Questioning	Memorizing
Examining assumptions	Blindly following what others around you think
Requiring evidence before you accept a claim	Blind acceptance of authority

The following video from Lawrence Bland presents the major concepts and benefits of critical thinking.

You can view the transcript for “Critical Thinking.wmv” here (opens in new window) .

Supporting Claims with Evidence

Fact: a statement that can be supported by objective evidence such as observation, argument, or research.
Opinion: a statement whose truth depends on someone’s desire(s) rather than objective evidence. Opinions that cannot be supported by objective evidence are at most subjectively true.

Of course, the tricky part is that most people do not label statements as fact and opinion, so you need to be aware and recognize the difference as you go about honing your critical thinking skills.

You probably have heard the old saying “Everyone is entitled to their own opinions,” which may be true, but conversely not everyone is entitled to their own facts. Facts are true for everyone, not just those who want to believe in them. For example, “mice are mammals” is a fact since it has been established by scientific research. In contrast, “mice make the best pets” is an opinion (since best means whatever one likes the best—and that is a matter of one’s subjective desires).

Facts vs. opinion

Determine if the following statements are facts or opinions based on just the information provided here, referring to the basic definitions above. Some people consider scientific findings to be opinions even when they are convincingly backed by reputable evidence and experimentation. However, remember the definition of fact—verifiable by research or observation. Think about what other research you may have to conduct to make an informed decision.

Oregon is a state in the United States. (How would this be proven?)
Beef is made from cattle. (See current legislation concerning vegetarian “burgers.”)
Increased street lighting decreases criminal behavior. (What information would you need to validate this claim?)
In 1952, Elizabeth became Queen of England. (What documents could validate this statement?)
Oatmeal tastes plain. (What factors might play into this claim?)
Acne is an embarrassing skin condition. (Who might verify this claim?)
Kindergarten decreases student dropout rates. (Think of different interest groups that may take sides on this issue.)
Carbohydrates promote weight gain. (Can you determine if this is a valid statement?)
Cell phones cause brain tumors. (What research considers this claim?)
Immigration is good for the US economy. (What research would help you make an informed decision on this topic?)

Defending against Bias

Once you have all your information gathered and you have checked your sources for currency and validity, you need to direct your attention to how you’re going to present your now well-informed analysis. Be careful on this step to recognize your own possible biases (metacognition). Facts are verifiable statements; opinions are statements without supporting evidence. Stating an opinion is just that. You could say, “Blue is the best color,” and that would be your opinion. In contrast, suppose you were to conduct research and find the use of blue paint in mental hospitals reduces patients’ heart rates by twenty-five percent and contributes to fewer angry outbursts from patients. In that case, the statement “blue paint in mental hospitals reduces patients’ heart rate by twenty-five percent” would be a fact supported by objective evidence.

Not everyone will accept your analysis, which can be frustrating. Most people resist change and have firm beliefs on both important issues and less significant preferences. With all the competing information surfacing online, on the news, and in general conversation, you can understand how confusing it can be to make any decisions. Look at all the reliable, valid sources that claim different approaches to be the best diet for healthy living: ketogenic, low-carb, vegan, vegetarian, low fat, raw foods, paleo, Mediterranean, etc. All you can do in this sort of situation is conduct your own serious research, check your sources, and write clearly and concisely to provide your analysis of the information for consideration. You cannot force others to accept your stance, but you can show your evidence in support of your thinking, being as persuasive as possible without lapsing into your own personal biases.

critical thinking: clear, reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do, often as a result of challenging assumptions

opinions: statements offered without supporting evidence

College Success. Authored by : Matthew Van Cleave. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
Critical Thinking. Provided by : Critical and Creative Thinking Program. Located at : http://cct.wikispaces.umb.edu/Critical+Thinking . License : CC BY: Attribution
Thinking Critically. Authored by : UBC Learning Commons. Provided by : The University of British Columbia, Vancouver Campus. Located at : https://learningcommons.ubc.ca/student-toolkits/thinking-critically/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
College Success. Authored by : Amy Baldwin; Modified by Lumen Learning. Provided by : OpenStax. Located at : https://openstax.org/books/college-success/pages/7-4-critical-thinking . License : CC BY: Attribution
Thought-experiment-free-falling-bodies. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thought-experiment-free-falling-bodies.svg . License : CC BY: Attribution
Critical Thinking.wmv. Authored by : Lawrence Bland. Located at : https://youtu.be/WiSklIGUblo . License : All Rights Reserved

What is critical thinking? And do universities really teach it?

Principal Fellow/Associate Professor in Higher Education, The University of Melbourne

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Martin Davies does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of Melbourne provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation AU.

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There has been a spate of articles and reports recently about the increasing importance of critical thinking skills for future employment.

A 2015 report by the Foundation for Young Australians claims demand for critical thinking skills in new graduates has risen 158% in three years. This data was drawn from an analysis of 4.2 million online job postings from 6,000 different sources in the period 2012-2015.

The report found employers can pay a premium for many enterprise skills. For example, evidence of problem solving and critical thinking skills resulted in a higher mean salary of A$7,745. This was a little more than for those with skills in financial literacy ($5,224) and creativity ($3,129). However, presentation ($8,853) and digital literacy ($8,648) skills appeared to be the most desired – or rewarded.

Being a good critical thinker is a desirable trait for getting a job in today’s economy. Why wouldn’t it be? What business or enterprise does not want a good critical thinker?

An old refrain

Actually, none of this is really new – although the pace might have quickened of late. Employers have long been insisting on the importance of critical thinking skills.

In 2006, a major report by a consortium of more than 400 US employers ranked “critical thinking” as the most desirable skill in new employees.

It was ranked higher than skills in “innovation” and “application of information technology”. Surprisingly, 92.1% regarded critical thinking as important, but 69.6% of employers regarded higher school entrants to university “deficient” in this essential skill.

Employers increasingly recognise what is needed in graduates is not so much technical knowledge, but applied skills, especially skills in critical thinking .

These skills are also said to be important within companies themselves as drivers of employee comprehension and decision making.

What is critical thinking, anyway?

But what is critical thinking? If we do not have a clear idea of what it is, we can’t teach it.

It is hard to define things like critical thinking: the concept is far too abstract.

Some have claimed that critical thinking is not a skill as much as an attitude, a “critical spirit” — whatever that might mean (of course it could be both).

Others have suggested that it comprises skills in argumentation, logic, and an awareness of psychology (cognitive biases).

But this does not help get a crisp and clear understanding.

Over the years theorists have tried to nail down a definition of critical thinking. These include:

“… reflective and reasonable thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do.” “…the ability to analyse facts , generate and organise ideas, defend opinions, make comparisons, draw inferences, evaluate arguments and solve problems.” “…an awareness of a set of interrelated critical questions , plus the ability and willingness to ask and answer them at appropriate times.” “… thinking about your thinking while you’re thinking to make your thinking better.”

Whatever definition one plumps for, the next question that arises is what are universities doing about teaching it?

A ‘graduate attribute’

Universities claim that they impart critical thinking to students as a “graduate attribute”.

Look at any carefully-prepared institutional list of hoped-for graduate attributes. “Critical thinking” — or its synonyms “analytical thinking”, “critical inquiry” etc — will be there. (Some examples: here , here and here .)

Universities like to think that students exit their institutions thinking much more critically compared to when they went in.

However, what is the evidence for this assumption? Has any university pre-tested for critical thinking skills at admission, and post-tested upon completion of degree to assess gains? Not that I know of.

There are well-validated tests of critical thinking that could be used for such a purpose, the California Critical Thinking Assessment Test being the most used. Others include the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal and the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests .

Why hasn’t this been done? I suspect because universities would be justifiably worried about what the results might indicate.

In the margin — and tangentially — some (pessimistic) academics have countered that universities promote precisely the opposite of critical thinking; a culture of uncritical left-wing orthodoxy, an orthodoxy that takes the form of cultural attitude or milieu within the sector and which largely goes unchallenged .

To counter these trends, a group of politically diverse scholars have set up a Heterodox Academy . They agitate for the importance of teaching students how – not what – to think.

How do you teach it?

There is some justification in the claim that universities do not teach critical thinking, despite their oft-cited claims that they do.

In the US media recently, there was a heightened concern about the teaching of critical thinking in universities.

This was sparked by a recent large-scale study – and later a book – using Collegiate Learning Assessment data in the US.

The book provoked widespread interest and media attention in the US, especially on the topic of universities’ failure to teach critical thinking .

It placed serious doubt on the assumption that critical thinking was being adequately taught on American college campuses. It created a storm of discussion in the popular media .

And there is no shortage of studies demonstrating that “very few college courses actually improve these skills”.

Definition unimportant?

How, then, to define critical thinking? It is certainly not an easy question to answer. But perhaps a definition of it is, in the end, unimportant. The important thing is that it does need to be taught, and we need to ensure graduates emerge from university being good at it.

One thing is certain: beyond vague pronouncements and including “critical thinking” among nebulous lists of unmet or hoped-for graduate attributes, universities should be paying more attention to critical thinking and doing a lot more to cultivate it.

Universities
Critical thinking

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Developing Critical Thinking

Posted January 10, 2018
By Iman Rastegari

In a time where deliberately false information is continually introduced into public discourse, and quickly spread through social media shares and likes, it is more important than ever for young people to develop their critical thinking. That skill, says Georgetown professor William T. Gormley, consists of three elements: a capacity to spot weakness in other arguments, a passion for good evidence, and a capacity to reflect on your own views and values with an eye to possibly change them. But are educators making the development of these skills a priority?

"Some teachers embrace critical thinking pedagogy with enthusiasm and they make it a high priority in their classrooms; other teachers do not," says Gormley, author of the recent Harvard Education Press release The Critical Advantage: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in School . "So if you are to assess the extent of critical-thinking instruction in U.S. classrooms, you’d find some very wide variations." Which is unfortunate, he says, since developing critical-thinking skills is vital not only to students' readiness for college and career, but to their civic readiness, as well.

"It's important to recognize that critical thinking is not just something that takes place in the classroom or in the workplace, it's something that takes place — and should take place — in our daily lives," says Gormley.

In this edition of the Harvard EdCast, Gormley looks at the value of teaching critical thinking, and explores how it can be an important solution to some of the problems that we face, including "fake news."

About the Harvard EdCast

The Harvard EdCast is a weekly series of podcasts, available on the Harvard University iT unes U page, that features a 15-20 minute conversation with thought leaders in the field of education from across the country and around the world. Hosted by Matt Weber and co-produced by Jill Anderson, the Harvard EdCast is a space for educational discourse and openness, focusing on the myriad issues and current events related to the field.

An education podcast that keeps the focus simple: what makes a difference for learners, educators, parents, and communities

Notes from Ferguson

The case for homework, the wisdom of data.

Schools & departments

Critical thinking

Advice and resources to help you develop your critical voice.

Developing critical thinking skills is essential to your success at University and beyond. We all need to be critical thinkers to help us navigate our way through an information-rich world.

Whatever your discipline, you will engage with a wide variety of sources of information and evidence. You will develop the skills to make judgements about this evidence to form your own views and to present your views clearly.

One of the most common types of feedback received by students is that their work is ‘too descriptive’. This usually means that they have just stated what others have said and have not reflected critically on the material. They have not evaluated the evidence and constructed an argument.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is the art of making clear, reasoned judgements based on interpreting, understanding, applying and synthesising evidence gathered from observation, reading and experimentation. Burns, T., & Sinfield, S. (2016) Essential Study Skills: The Complete Guide to Success at University (4th ed.) London: SAGE, p94.

Being critical does not just mean finding fault. It means assessing evidence from a variety of sources and making reasoned conclusions. As a result of your analysis you may decide that a particular piece of evidence is not robust, or that you disagree with the conclusion, but you should be able to state why you have come to this view and incorporate this into a bigger picture of the literature.

Being critical goes beyond describing what you have heard in lectures or what you have read. It involves synthesising, analysing and evaluating what you have learned to develop your own argument or position.

Critical thinking is important in all subjects and disciplines – in science and engineering, as well as the arts and humanities. The types of evidence used to develop arguments may be very different but the processes and techniques are similar. Critical thinking is required for both undergraduate and postgraduate levels of study.

What, where, when, who, why, how?

Purposeful reading can help with critical thinking because it encourages you to read actively rather than passively. When you read, ask yourself questions about what you are reading and make notes to record your views. Ask questions like:

What is the main point of this paper/ article/ paragraph/ report/ blog?
Who wrote it?
Why was it written?
When was it written?
Has the context changed since it was written?
Is the evidence presented robust?
How did the authors come to their conclusions?
Do you agree with the conclusions?
What does this add to our knowledge?
Why is it useful?

Our web page covering Reading at university includes a handout to help you develop your own critical reading form and a suggested reading notes record sheet. These resources will help you record your thoughts after you read, which will help you to construct your argument.

Reading at university

Developing an argument

Being a university student is about learning how to think, not what to think. Critical thinking shapes your own values and attitudes through a process of deliberating, debating and persuasion. Through developing your critical thinking you can move on from simply disagreeing to constructively assessing alternatives by building on doubts.

There are several key stages involved in developing your ideas and constructing an argument. You might like to use a form to help you think about the features of critical thinking and to break down the stages of developing your argument.

Features of critical thinking (pdf)

Features of critical thinking (Word rtf)

Our webpage on Academic writing includes a useful handout ‘Building an argument as you go’.

Academic writing

You should also consider the language you will use to introduce a range of viewpoints and to evaluate the various sources of evidence. This will help your reader to follow your argument. To get you started, the University of Manchester's Academic Phrasebank has a useful section on Being Critical.

Academic Phrasebank

Developing your critical thinking

Set yourself some tasks to help develop your critical thinking skills. Discuss material presented in lectures or from resource lists with your peers. Set up a critical reading group or use an online discussion forum. Think about a point you would like to make during discussions in tutorials and be prepared to back up your argument with evidence.

For more suggestions:

Developing your critical thinking - ideas (pdf)

Developing your critical thinking - ideas (Word rtf)

Published guides

For further advice and more detailed resources please see the Critical Thinking section of our list of published Study skills guides.

Study skills guides

This article was published on 2024-02-26

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Working with sources
What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

Published on May 30, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment .

To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources .

Critical thinking skills help you to:

Identify credible sources
Evaluate and respond to arguments
Assess alternative viewpoints
Test hypotheses against relevant criteria

Why is critical thinking important, critical thinking examples, how to think critically, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about critical thinking.

Critical thinking is important for making judgments about sources of information and forming your own arguments. It emphasizes a rational, objective, and self-aware approach that can help you to identify credible sources and strengthen your conclusions.

Critical thinking is important in all disciplines and throughout all stages of the research process . The types of evidence used in the sciences and in the humanities may differ, but critical thinking skills are relevant to both.

In academic writing , critical thinking can help you to determine whether a source:

Is free from research bias
Provides evidence to support its research findings
Considers alternative viewpoints

Outside of academia, critical thinking goes hand in hand with information literacy to help you form opinions rationally and engage independently and critically with popular media.

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Critical thinking can help you to identify reliable sources of information that you can cite in your research paper . It can also guide your own research methods and inform your own arguments.

Outside of academia, critical thinking can help you to be aware of both your own and others’ biases and assumptions.

Academic examples

However, when you compare the findings of the study with other current research, you determine that the results seem improbable. You analyze the paper again, consulting the sources it cites.

You notice that the research was funded by the pharmaceutical company that created the treatment. Because of this, you view its results skeptically and determine that more independent research is necessary to confirm or refute them. Example: Poor critical thinking in an academic context You’re researching a paper on the impact wireless technology has had on developing countries that previously did not have large-scale communications infrastructure. You read an article that seems to confirm your hypothesis: the impact is mainly positive. Rather than evaluating the research methodology, you accept the findings uncritically.

Nonacademic examples

However, you decide to compare this review article with consumer reviews on a different site. You find that these reviews are not as positive. Some customers have had problems installing the alarm, and some have noted that it activates for no apparent reason.

You revisit the original review article. You notice that the words “sponsored content” appear in small print under the article title. Based on this, you conclude that the review is advertising and is therefore not an unbiased source. Example: Poor critical thinking in a nonacademic context You support a candidate in an upcoming election. You visit an online news site affiliated with their political party and read an article that criticizes their opponent. The article claims that the opponent is inexperienced in politics. You accept this without evidence, because it fits your preconceptions about the opponent.

There is no single way to think critically. How you engage with information will depend on the type of source you’re using and the information you need.

However, you can engage with sources in a systematic and critical way by asking certain questions when you encounter information. Like the CRAAP test , these questions focus on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

When encountering information, ask:

Who is the author? Are they an expert in their field?
What do they say? Is their argument clear? Can you summarize it?
When did they say this? Is the source current?
Where is the information published? Is it an academic article? Is it peer-reviewed ?
Why did the author publish it? What is their motivation?
How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence? Does it rely on opinion, speculation, or appeals to emotion ? Do they address alternative arguments?

Critical thinking also involves being aware of your own biases, not only those of others. When you make an argument or draw your own conclusions, you can ask similar questions about your own writing:

Am I only considering evidence that supports my preconceptions?
Is my argument expressed clearly and backed up with credible sources?
Would I be convinced by this argument coming from someone else?

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

ChatGPT vs human editor
ChatGPT citations
Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
Using ChatGPT for your studies
What is ChatGPT?
Chicago style
Paraphrasing

Plagiarism

Types of plagiarism
Self-plagiarism
Avoiding plagiarism
Academic integrity
Consequences of plagiarism
Common knowledge

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Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

Critical thinking skills include the ability to:

You can assess information and arguments critically by asking certain questions about the source. You can use the CRAAP test , focusing on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

Ask questions such as:

Who is the author? Are they an expert?
How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence?

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test and follow these guidelines:

The information should be up to date and current.
The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.

Being information literate means that you:

Know how to find credible sources
Use relevant sources to inform your research
Understand what constitutes plagiarism
Know how to cite your sources correctly

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs. It refers to the ability to recollect information best when it amplifies what we already believe. Relatedly, we tend to forget information that contradicts our opinions.

Although selective recall is a component of confirmation bias, it should not be confused with recall bias.

On the other hand, recall bias refers to the differences in the ability between study participants to recall past events when self-reporting is used. This difference in accuracy or completeness of recollection is not related to beliefs or opinions. Rather, recall bias relates to other factors, such as the length of the recall period, age, and the characteristics of the disease under investigation.

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How Higher Education Fosters Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills

“Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think.” –Albert Einstein

Critical thinking and problem-solving are the most essential skills that any college student can develop. If students are unable to think through an issue critically, they will be ill-equipped to distinguish between truth and deception. Valid conclusions can only come from the pursuit of truth. In comparison, problem-solving skills give an individual the tools to do something with the information they have gained. This combined skillset is invaluable in the professional world and everyday life.

If these skills are so important, what is the best way to foster and develop them? Education is a start. Whether it’s higher education through attending a university or self-education through personal study, the only way to develop these skills is through active participation in learning. Almost all colleges and universities cite critical thinking as one of their core objectives. So, what are the best ways for higher education to help students grow and develop these skills?

From the idea that teaching critical thinking is impossible to new approaches in teaching styles, the last two decades have produced varying theories on critical thinking. One fact that is certain, however, is that problem-solving is a natural outgrowth of critical thinking. Although there is no argument over whether critical thinking is important, there are multiple perspectives on the best ways to develop this skill. Most research, however, seems to support a hands-on, interactive approach.

Andreucci-Annunziata et al. (2023) suggests that “pedagogical approaches to critical thinking have been synthesized into four types: general method; infusion; immersion and mixed method.” The general method is teaching critical thinking as its own subject, infusion is teaching critical thinking in relation to a specific subject matter, immersion is teaching a subject in a way that encourages critical thinking, and “the mixed method consists of a combination of the general method and the infusion or immersion method.” These methods are combined with instructional strategies such as writing exercises, in-class discussion, brainstorming, using online discussion forums, etc. With so many methods and strategies available what is the best approach for educators? Two strategies seem to be gaining momentum: Decision-Based Learning and Discussion-Based Learning.

Decision-Based Learning

Decision-Based Learning (DBL), a problem-solving strategy, is a new possibility. According to one study DBL teaches students how to look at the components of a problem and come to a rational decision. Evidence shows that there is a correlation between the development of problem-solving and critical thinking skills (Plummer et al. 2022). This style encourages students to look at all sides of an issue and come to a valid conclusion.

Discussion-Based Learning

On the other hand, Discussion-Based Learning also shows promise. Various universities across the U.S. and Canada cite Discussion-Based Learning, or a form of it, as one of their primary teaching methods. Examples include the University of Calgary, Brown University, and Columbia University. The fact that discussion plays a major role in developing critical thinking and problem-solving skills is indisputable. Studies of different methods continue to support Discussion-Based Learning as one of the primary ways for students to develop both skills. In-class discussion and thought-provoking questions continue to promote the development of critical thinking within the classroom.

Are Educators Doing a Good Job?

Some researchers and professionals argue that colleges are failing to teach their students the art of critical thinking. One researcher suggests that colleges and universities fail to understand that there is a difference between “teaching students what to think (highly educated) and teaching them how to think (better educated)” (Flores, Kevin L., et al.). A student can fill their mind with countless pieces of information without developing the skills needed to interpret and apply that information.

To combat this tendency, educators must challenge students to think through issues themselves. When students are given the tools needed to think critically, a new world of knowledge is opened to them. Regardless of varying strategies, education needs a firm foundation to stand on. At Maranatha, that foundation is the Bible.

What Makes Maranatha Different?

Education firmly grounded in biblical truth does not leave room for conclusions drawn from emotion. Instead, biblically grounded education creates an environment that fosters critical thinking and a pursuit of the truth. At Maranatha, professors understand the value of preparing students to be critical thinkers. In a world that seeks to reject a biblical worldview through science and philosophy, it is more important than ever for students to graduate grounded in biblical principles.

Mr. Nathan Huffstutler, Associate Professor in the Department of Humanities, explains, “A biblical worldview emphasizes truth. God is a God of truth. If you believe that God is a God of truth, that will make you more passionate in your search for truth. When we deal with current events or with history, it’s not just opinions that we’re trying to find. That doesn’t mean that some questions don’t have nuance or gray areas. There are some issues that are very complex, but a biblical worldview aids in the pursuit of truth even in difficult subjects.”

Without the ability to analyze ideas through a biblical lens, students will be tossed about by every new theory, unable to distinguish between the truth and lies disguised as truth. Only when students understand how to think will they be able to properly analyze ideas and come to their own conclusions.

Mr. Huffstutler further explains how he implements the instruction of critical thinking into the classroom, “I personally use discussion questions. I’ll give a question and then require students to back up their answers with evidence. They must demonstrate in their answers that it is not just their opinion. I strive to show my students how to back up their statements based on facts and support from the text. That’s what critical thinking is.”

Discussion is the first step in the process of developing critical thinking. In-class discussion has the power to sharpen minds as students are forced to think through their reasoning and evidence. Current and past students are reaping the benefits of an education that emphasizes the development of this invaluable skill.

Hannah Mayes (’20 Communication Arts—Theatre), a teacher at Maranatha Baptist Academy and Adjunct Professor at the University, shares her experience, “The focus Maranatha professors have on teaching students how to think is particularly evident when teachers would continuously ask us, ‘Why?’ Professors encouraged us to evaluate our answers in light of a biblical worldview, but not merely so we could provide a ‘right’ answer. Many instructors encouraged me to look further beyond the simple answer, use credible sources to support my answer, and apply what I had learned to my everyday life. These interactions seemed challenging at the time, but I find myself encouraging my own students to keep asking why and how — not just what.”

Keeping the focus on teaching students how to think is essential in the development of critical thinking. When academics are taught with a biblical worldview, students are encouraged to find the truth and evidence to back up their claims. Without these skills, students will be incapable of succeeding in a professional environment.

So, does higher education foster critical thinking and problem-solving? Yes. But only when students and professors work together to find the truth, based on facts, can critical thinking flourish.

Andreucci-Annunziata, P., Riedemann, A., Cortes, S., Mellado, A., Del Rio, M. T., & Vega-Munoz, A. (2023). Conceptualizations and instructional strategies on critical thinking in higher education: A systematic review of systematic reviews. Frontiers in Education, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1141686

Flores, K. L., Matkin, G. S., Burbach, M. E., Quinn, C., & Harding, H. E. (2012). Deficient Critical Thinking Skills among College Graduates: Implications for leadership. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44 (2), 212-230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00672.x

Plummer, K. J., Kebritchi, M., Leary, H. M., & Halverson, D.M. (2022). Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills through Decision-Based Learning. Innovative Higher Education, 47 (4), 711-734. https://doi.org/101007/s10755-022-09595-9

7 Ways to Improve Your Critical Thinking Skills

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When I was in 7th grade, my U.S. history teacher gave my class the following advice:

Your teachers in high school won’t expect you to remember every little fact about U.S. history. They can fill in the details you’ve forgotten. What they will expect, though, is for you to be able to think ; to know how to make connections between ideas and evaluate information critically.

I didn’t realize it at the time, but my teacher was giving a concise summary of critical thinking. My high school teachers gave similar speeches when describing what would be expected of us in college: it’s not about the facts you know, but rather about your ability to evaluate them.

And now that I’m in college, my professors often mention that the ability to think through and solve difficult problems matters more in the “real world” than specific content.

Despite hearing so much about critical thinking all these years, I realized that I still couldn’t give a concrete definition of it, and I certainly couldn’t explain how to do it. It seemed like something that my teachers just expected us to pick up in the course of our studies. While I venture that a lot of us did learn it, I prefer to approach learning deliberately, and so I decided to investigate critical thinking for myself.

What is it, how do we do it, why is it important, and how can we get better at it? This post is my attempt to answer those questions.

In addition to answering these questions, I’ll also offer seven ways that you can start thinking more critically today, both in and outside of class.

What Is Critical Thinking?

“Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.” – The Foundation for Critical Thinking

The above definition from the Foundation for Critical Thinking website is pretty wordy, but critical thinking, in essence, is not that complex.

Critical thinking is just deliberately and systematically processing information so that you can make better decisions and generally understand things better. The above definition includes so many words because critical thinking requires you to apply diverse intellectual tools to diverse information.

Ways to critically think about information include:

Conceptualizing
Synthesizing

That information can come from sources such as:

Observation
Communication

And all this is meant to guide:

You can also define it this way:

Critical thinking is the opposite of regular, everyday thinking.

Moment to moment, most thinking happens automatically. When you think critically, you deliberately employ any of the above intellectual tools to reach more accurate conclusions than your brain automatically would (more on this in a bit).

This is what critical thinking is. But so what?

Why Does Critical Thinking Matter?

Most of our everyday thinking is uncritical.

If you think about it, this makes sense. If we had to think deliberately about every single action (such as breathing, for instance), we wouldn’t have any cognitive energy left for the important stuff like D&D. It’s good that much of our thinking is automatic.

We can run into problems, though, when we let our automatic mental processes govern important decisions. Without critical thinking, it’s easy for people to manipulate us and for all sorts of catastrophes to result. Anywhere that some form of fundamentalism led to tragedy (the Holocaust is a textbook example), critical thinking was sorely lacking.

Even day to day, it’s easy to get caught in pointless arguments or say stupid things just because you failed to stop and think deliberately.

But you’re reading College Info Geek, so I’m sure you’re interested to know why critical thinking matters in college.

Here’s why:

According to Andrew Roberts, author of The Thinking Student’s Guide to College , c ritical thinking matters in college because students often adopt the wrong attitude to thinking about difficult questions. These attitudes include:

Ignorant Certainty

Ignorant certainty is the belief that there are definite, correct answers to all questions–all you have to do is find the right source (102). It’s understandable that a lot of students come into college thinking this way–it’s enough to get you through most of your high school coursework.

In college and in life, however, the answers to most meaningful questions are rarely straightforward. To get anywhere in college classes (especially upper-level ones), you have to think critically about the material.

Naive Relativism

Naive relativism is the belief that there is no truth and all arguments are equal (102-103). According to Roberts, this is often a view that students adopt once they learn the error of ignorant certainty.

While it’s certainly a more “critical” approach than ignorant certainty, naive relativism is still inadequate since it misses the whole point of critical thinking: arriving at a more complete, “less wrong” answer.

Part of thinking critically is evaluating the validity of arguments (yours and others’). Therefore, to think critically you must accept that some arguments are better (and that some are just plain awful).

Critical thinking also matters in college because:

It allows you to form your own opinions and engage with material beyond a superficial level. This is essential to crafting a great essay and having an intelligent discussion with your professors or classmates. Regurgitating what the textbook says won’t get you far.
It allows you to craft worthy arguments and back them up. If you plan to go on to graduate school or pursue a PhD., original, critical thought is crucial
It helps you evaluate your own work. This leads to better grades (who doesn’t want those?) and better habits of mind.

Doing college level work without critical is a lot like walking blindfolded: you’ll get somewhere , but it’s unlikely to be the place you desire.

The value of critical thinking doesn’t stop with college, however. Once you get out into the real world, critical thinking matters even more. This is because:

It allows you to continue to develop intellectually after you graduate. Progress shouldn’t stop after graduation –you should keep learning as much as you can. When you encounter new information, knowing how to think critically will help you evaluate and use it.
It helps you make hard decisions. I’ve written before about how defining your values helps you make better decisions. Equally important in the decision-making process is the ability to think critically. Critical thinking allows you compare the pros and cons of your available options, showing that you have more options than you might imagine .
People can and will manipulate you . At least, they will if you take everything at face value and allow others to think for you. Just look at ads for the latest fad diet or “miracle” drug–these rely on ignorance and false hope to get people to buy something that is at best useless and at worst harmful. When you evaluate information critically (especially information meant to sell something), you can avoid falling prey to unethical companies and people.
It makes you more employable (and better paid). The best employees not only know how to solve existing problems–they also know how to come up with solutions to problems no one ever imagined. To get a great job after graduating , you need to be one of those employees, and critical thinking is the key ingredient to solving difficult, novel problems.

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7 Ways to Think More Critically

Now we come to the part that I’m sure you’ve all been waiting for: how the heck do we get better at critical thinking? Below, you’ll find seven ways to get started.

1. Ask Basic Questions

“The world is complicated. But does every problem require a complicated solution?” – Stephen J. Dubner

Sometimes an explanation becomes so complex that the original question get lost. To avoid this, continually go back to the basic questions you asked when you set out to solve the problem.

Here are a few key basic question you can ask when approaching any problem:

What do you already know?
How do you know that?
What are you trying to prove, disprove, demonstrated, critique, etc.?
What are you overlooking?

Some of the most breathtaking solutions to problems are astounding not because of their complexity, but because of their elegant simplicity. Seek the simple solution first.

2. Question Basic Assumptions

“When you assume, you make an ass out of you and me.”

The above saying holds true when you’re thinking through a problem. it’s quite easy to make an ass of yourself simply by failing to question your basic assumptions.

Some of the greatest innovators in human history were those who simply looked up for a moment and wondered if one of everyone’s general assumptions was wrong. From Newton to Einstein to Yitang Zhang , questioning assumptions is where innovation happens.

You don’t even have to be an aspiring Einstein to benefit from questioning your assumptions. That trip you’ve wanted to take? That hobby you’ve wanted to try? That internship you’ve wanted to get? That attractive person in your World Civilizations class you’ve wanted to talk to?

All these things can be a reality if you just question your assumptions and critically evaluate your beliefs about what’s prudent, appropriate, or possible.

If you’re looking for some help with this process, then check out Oblique Strategies . It’s a tool that musician Brian Eno and artist Peter Schmidt created to aid creative problem solving . Some of the “cards” are specific to music, but most work for any time you’re stuck on a problem.

3. Be Aware of Your Mental Processes

Human thought is amazing, but the speed and automation with which it happens can be a disadvantage when we’re trying to think critically. Our brains naturally use heuristics (mental shortcuts) to explain what’s happening around us.

This was beneficial to humans when we were hunting large game and fighting off wild animals, but it can be disastrous when we’re trying to decide who to vote for.

A critical thinker is aware of their cognitive biases and personal prejudices and how they influence seemingly “objective” decisions and solutions.

All of us have biases in our thinking. Becoming aware of them is what makes critical thinking possible.

4. Try Reversing Things

A great way to get “unstuck” on a hard problem is to try reversing things. It may seem obvious that X causes Y, but what if Y caused X?

The “chicken and egg problem” a classic example of this. At first, it seems obvious that the chicken had to come first. The chicken lays the egg, after all. But then you quickly realize that the chicken had to come from somewhere, and since chickens come from eggs, the egg must have come first. Or did it?

Even if it turns out that the reverse isn’t true, considering it can set you on the path to finding a solution.

5. Evaluate the Existing Evidence

“If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” – Isaac Newton

When you’re trying to solve a problem, it’s always helpful to look at other work that has been done in the same area. There’s no reason to start solving a problem from scratch when someone has already laid the groundwork.

It’s important, however, to evaluate this information critically, or else you can easily reach the wrong conclusion. Ask the following questions of any evidence you encounter:

Who gathered this evidence?
How did they gather it?

Take, for example, a study showing the health benefits of a sugary cereal. On paper, the study sounds pretty convincing. That is, until you learn that a sugary cereal company funded it.

You can’t automatically assume that this invalidates the study’s results, but you should certainly question them when a conflict of interests is so apparent.

6. Remember to Think for Yourself

Don’t get so bogged down in research and reading that you forget to think for yourself –sometimes this can be your most powerful tool.

Writing about Einstein’s paper “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies” (the paper that contained the famous equation E=mc 2 ), C.P. Snow observed that “it was as if Einstein ‘had reached the conclusions by pure thought, unaided, without listening to the opinions of others. To a surprisingly large extent, that is precisely what he had done'”(121).

Don’t be overconfident, but recognize that thinking for yourself is essential to answering tough questions. I find this to be true when writing essays–it’s so easy to get lost in other people’s work that I forget to have my own thoughts. Don’t make this mistake.

For more on the importance of thinking for yourself, check out our article on mental laziness .

7. Understand That No One Thinks Critically 100% of the Time

“Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone is subject to episodes of undisciplined or irrational thought.” – Michael Scriven and Richard Paul

You can’t think critically all the time, and that’s okay. Critical thinking is a tool that you should deploy when you need to make important decisions or solve difficult problems, but you don’t need to think critically about everything.

And even in important matters, you will experience lapses in your reasoning. What matters is that you recognize these lapses and try to avoid them in the future.

Even Isaac Newton, genius that he was, believed that alchemy was a legitimate pursuit .

As I hope you now see, learning to think critically will benefit you both in the classroom and beyond. I hope this post has given you some ideas about how you can think more critically in your own life. Remember: learning to think critically is a lifelong journey, and there’s always more to learn.

For a look at critical thinking principles in action, check out our guide to strategic thinking .

http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766
http://calnewport.com/blog/2015/11/25/the-feynman-notebook-method/
The Thinking Student’s Guide to College by Andrew Roberts (the source of several of the seven ways to think more critically)
What the Best College Teachers Do by Ken Bain (the source of several of the seven ways to think more critically)
A Short History of Nearly Everything by Bill Bryson (the source for the C.P. Snow quote about Einstein and the information about Isaac Newton).

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Critical thinking and problem-solving, jump to: , what is critical thinking, characteristics of critical thinking, why teach critical thinking.

Teaching Strategies to Help Promote Critical Thinking Skills

References and Resources

When examining the vast literature on critical thinking, various definitions of critical thinking emerge. Here are some samples:

"Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action" (Scriven, 1996).
"Most formal definitions characterize critical thinking as the intentional application of rational, higher order thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, problem recognition and problem solving, inference, and evaluation" (Angelo, 1995, p. 6).
"Critical thinking is thinking that assesses itself" (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996b).
"Critical thinking is the ability to think about one's thinking in such a way as 1. To recognize its strengths and weaknesses and, as a result, 2. To recast the thinking in improved form" (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996c).

Perhaps the simplest definition is offered by Beyer (1995) : "Critical thinking... means making reasoned judgments" (p. 8). Basically, Beyer sees critical thinking as using criteria to judge the quality of something, from cooking to a conclusion of a research paper. In essence, critical thinking is a disciplined manner of thought that a person uses to assess the validity of something (statements, news stories, arguments, research, etc.).

Back

Wade (1995) identifies eight characteristics of critical thinking. Critical thinking involves asking questions, defining a problem, examining evidence, analyzing assumptions and biases, avoiding emotional reasoning, avoiding oversimplification, considering other interpretations, and tolerating ambiguity. Dealing with ambiguity is also seen by Strohm & Baukus (1995) as an essential part of critical thinking, "Ambiguity and doubt serve a critical-thinking function and are a necessary and even a productive part of the process" (p. 56).

Another characteristic of critical thinking identified by many sources is metacognition. Metacognition is thinking about one's own thinking. More specifically, "metacognition is being aware of one's thinking as one performs specific tasks and then using this awareness to control what one is doing" (Jones & Ratcliff, 1993, p. 10 ).

In the book, Critical Thinking, Beyer elaborately explains what he sees as essential aspects of critical thinking. These are:

Dispositions: Critical thinkers are skeptical, open-minded, value fair-mindedness, respect evidence and reasoning, respect clarity and precision, look at different points of view, and will change positions when reason leads them to do so.
Criteria: To think critically, must apply criteria. Need to have conditions that must be met for something to be judged as believable. Although the argument can be made that each subject area has different criteria, some standards apply to all subjects. "... an assertion must... be based on relevant, accurate facts; based on credible sources; precise; unbiased; free from logical fallacies; logically consistent; and strongly reasoned" (p. 12).
Argument: Is a statement or proposition with supporting evidence. Critical thinking involves identifying, evaluating, and constructing arguments.
Reasoning: The ability to infer a conclusion from one or multiple premises. To do so requires examining logical relationships among statements or data.
Point of View: The way one views the world, which shapes one's construction of meaning. In a search for understanding, critical thinkers view phenomena from many different points of view.
Procedures for Applying Criteria: Other types of thinking use a general procedure. Critical thinking makes use of many procedures. These procedures include asking questions, making judgments, and identifying assumptions.

Oliver & Utermohlen (1995) see students as too often being passive receptors of information. Through technology, the amount of information available today is massive. This information explosion is likely to continue in the future. Students need a guide to weed through the information and not just passively accept it. Students need to "develop and effectively apply critical thinking skills to their academic studies, to the complex problems that they will face, and to the critical choices they will be forced to make as a result of the information explosion and other rapid technological changes" (Oliver & Utermohlen, p. 1 ).

As mentioned in the section, Characteristics of Critical Thinking , critical thinking involves questioning. It is important to teach students how to ask good questions, to think critically, in order to continue the advancement of the very fields we are teaching. "Every field stays alive only to the extent that fresh questions are generated and taken seriously" (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996a ).

Beyer sees the teaching of critical thinking as important to the very state of our nation. He argues that to live successfully in a democracy, people must be able to think critically in order to make sound decisions about personal and civic affairs. If students learn to think critically, then they can use good thinking as the guide by which they live their lives.

Teaching Strategies to Help Promote Critical Thinking

The 1995, Volume 22, issue 1, of the journal, Teaching of Psychology , is devoted to the teaching critical thinking. Most of the strategies included in this section come from the various articles that compose this issue.

CATS (Classroom Assessment Techniques): Angelo stresses the use of ongoing classroom assessment as a way to monitor and facilitate students' critical thinking. An example of a CAT is to ask students to write a "Minute Paper" responding to questions such as "What was the most important thing you learned in today's class? What question related to this session remains uppermost in your mind?" The teacher selects some of the papers and prepares responses for the next class meeting.
Cooperative Learning Strategies: Cooper (1995) argues that putting students in group learning situations is the best way to foster critical thinking. "In properly structured cooperative learning environments, students perform more of the active, critical thinking with continuous support and feedback from other students and the teacher" (p. 8).
Case Study /Discussion Method: McDade (1995) describes this method as the teacher presenting a case (or story) to the class without a conclusion. Using prepared questions, the teacher then leads students through a discussion, allowing students to construct a conclusion for the case.
Using Questions: King (1995) identifies ways of using questions in the classroom:
Reciprocal Peer Questioning: Following lecture, the teacher displays a list of question stems (such as, "What are the strengths and weaknesses of...). Students must write questions about the lecture material. In small groups, the students ask each other the questions. Then, the whole class discusses some of the questions from each small group.
Reader's Questions: Require students to write questions on assigned reading and turn them in at the beginning of class. Select a few of the questions as the impetus for class discussion.
Conference Style Learning: The teacher does not "teach" the class in the sense of lecturing. The teacher is a facilitator of a conference. Students must thoroughly read all required material before class. Assigned readings should be in the zone of proximal development. That is, readings should be able to be understood by students, but also challenging. The class consists of the students asking questions of each other and discussing these questions. The teacher does not remain passive, but rather, helps "direct and mold discussions by posing strategic questions and helping students build on each others' ideas" (Underwood & Wald, 1995, p. 18 ).
Use Writing Assignments: Wade sees the use of writing as fundamental to developing critical thinking skills. "With written assignments, an instructor can encourage the development of dialectic reasoning by requiring students to argue both [or more] sides of an issue" (p. 24).
Written dialogues: Give students written dialogues to analyze. In small groups, students must identify the different viewpoints of each participant in the dialogue. Must look for biases, presence or exclusion of important evidence, alternative interpretations, misstatement of facts, and errors in reasoning. Each group must decide which view is the most reasonable. After coming to a conclusion, each group acts out their dialogue and explains their analysis of it.
Spontaneous Group Dialogue: One group of students are assigned roles to play in a discussion (such as leader, information giver, opinion seeker, and disagreer). Four observer groups are formed with the functions of determining what roles are being played by whom, identifying biases and errors in thinking, evaluating reasoning skills, and examining ethical implications of the content.
Ambiguity: Strohm & Baukus advocate producing much ambiguity in the classroom. Don't give students clear cut material. Give them conflicting information that they must think their way through.
Angelo, T. A. (1995). Beginning the dialogue: Thoughts on promoting critical thinking: Classroom assessment for critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 6-7.
Beyer, B. K. (1995). Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
Center for Critical Thinking (1996a). The role of questions in thinking, teaching, and learning. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk
Center for Critical Thinking (1996b). Structures for student self-assessment. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univclass/trc.nclk
Center for Critical Thinking (1996c). Three definitions of critical thinking [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk
Cooper, J. L. (1995). Cooperative learning and critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 7-8.
Jones, E. A. & Ratcliff, G. (1993). Critical thinking skills for college students. National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, University Park, PA. (Eric Document Reproduction Services No. ED 358 772)
King, A. (1995). Designing the instructional process to enhance critical thinking across the curriculum: Inquiring minds really do want to know: Using questioning to teach critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22 (1) , 13-17.
McDade, S. A. (1995). Case study pedagogy to advance critical thinking. Teaching Psychology, 22(1), 9-10.
Oliver, H. & Utermohlen, R. (1995). An innovative teaching strategy: Using critical thinking to give students a guide to the future.(Eric Document Reproduction Services No. 389 702)
Robertson, J. F. & Rane-Szostak, D. (1996). Using dialogues to develop critical thinking skills: A practical approach. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 39(7), 552-556.
Scriven, M. & Paul, R. (1996). Defining critical thinking: A draft statement for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk
Strohm, S. M., & Baukus, R. A. (1995). Strategies for fostering critical thinking skills. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 50 (1), 55-62.
Underwood, M. K., & Wald, R. L. (1995). Conference-style learning: A method for fostering critical thinking with heart. Teaching Psychology, 22(1), 17-21.
Wade, C. (1995). Using writing to develop and assess critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 24-28.

On the Internet

Carr, K. S. (1990). How can we teach critical thinking. Eric Digest. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://ericps.ed.uiuc.edu/eece/pubs/digests/1990/carr90.html
The Center for Critical Thinking (1996). Home Page. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/
Ennis, Bob (No date). Critical thinking. [On-line], April 4, 1997. Available HTTP: http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/teach/for442/ct.htm
Montclair State University (1995). Curriculum resource center. Critical thinking resources: An annotated bibliography. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.montclair.edu/Pages/CRC/Bibliographies/CriticalThinking.html
No author, No date. Critical Thinking is ... [On-line], April 4, 1997. Available HTTP: http://library.usask.ca/ustudy/critical/
Sheridan, Marcia (No date). Internet education topics hotlink page. [On-line], April 4, 1997. Available HTTP: http://sun1.iusb.edu/~msherida/topics/critical.html

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Meet the college that launched a certificate in critical thinking.

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“As more and more tasks and jobs become automated,” Berkowitz says, “being able to think critically ... [+] is becoming an increasingly valuable skill that can set you apart and put you on the path to higher levels of leadership.” Photo Credit:

A growing number of colleges and universities are recognizing the benefits of coursework devoted to critical thinking.

Case in point? Last year, the Cornell University SC Johnson College of Business launched an online certificate program that focuses exclusively on developing critical thinking skills. Working online, faculty help students learn how to analyze problems, gauge the merits of potential solutions and weigh the risks involved.

Interestingly, says Sally Berkowitz, e-Cornell’s Product Director, the very idea to develop such a program was “sparked by requests from organizations — many of whom partner with us for learning and development initiatives — looking to further develop this competency in their employees and managers.”

For the better part of the last century, a student interested in developing critical thinking strategies would likely have to do some searching to find a program or even a class. If they were lucky, the student may have found a philosophy or English class, where the basics of evidence-based reasoning were part of the curriculum.

But the economy is changing, driving demand for richer forms of reasoning and independent thought. While entire programs devoted to critical thinking like the one at Cornell University are far from the norm, there are now a number of schools, including the University of Michigan , that offer classes or programs in better decision making.

The launch of the critical thinking program at Cornell University was an easy sell. “As more and more tasks and jobs become automated,” Berkowitz says, “being able to think critically is becoming an increasingly valuable skill that can set you apart and put you on the path to higher levels of leadership. ” And, she notes, it can “reduce the risk of your work becoming automated.”

Cornell University got ahead of the curve by employing some critical thinking of its own. The University recognized that improved decision making can help forge thriving teams and organizations. Critical thinking skills are “in-demand for working professionals in every industry,” Berkowitz explains.

Cornell established its online certificate program in June 2018, and the program includes six courses, each of which runs for two weeks over a 3-month period. Course topics range from “Applying Strategic Influences” to “Problem Solving Using Evidence and Critical Thinking.”

In a course titled, “Making a Convincing Case for Your Solution,” for instance, students learn to summarize their analysis of a problem. They also learn how to create — and reject — alternative solutions to a problem. This type of perspective-taking helps people make better arguments, according to a large body of research .

Even the course guide to the certificate gives some good advice. For instance, the guide encourages people to find ‘win-win’ solutions during debates by laying out the following scenario:

When trying to persuade someone, the tendency is to begin in advocacy mode for example - here is something I want you to agree to. Most people do not react positively to the feeling of being coerced. To make a convincing case, it is more effective to engage with the decision maker as a partner in problem-solving.

After reading the above statement, students then receive this following advice: Begin by asking yourself what is the problem you and the decision maker are solving together?

Cornell University’s critical thinking course does have its downsides. The program is fully online, for instance, and that means that students will not benefit from any face-to-face interaction and mentorship. But no doubt that the certificate program will help people gain some skills that will help them navigate an increasingly complex world.

“More and more leaders are looking for people who can make sound judgments driven by context,” Berkowitz says, “soft-skills like critical thinking can help our learners ‘robot-proof’ themselves.” Berkowitz says that now is the “perfect time” to launch a program designed to help people develop a more critical mindset.

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5 Majors for Creative Thinkers and Critical Strategists

Topics: Programs & Majors

Published on: Jun 12, 2019 9:50:23 AM

5 Majors for Creative Thinkers and Critical Strategists

In today's STEM-focused society, it's easy to assume that in order to be successful, you have to pick a dry or super technical field — one that won't require you to develop or refine your creative thinking skills. But that simply isn't the case. Why? Well, as a society, we are obsessed with new ideas, innovative inventions, and novel research. And in order to develop novelties in our increasingly-connected world, it's imperative that we have creative thinkers who can double as critical strategists.

Keep reading for a list of five of undergraduate majors offered at Neumann University — e ach one designed for intelligent and logical thinkers who can also incorporate the art of creative thinking.

Explore our digital resource page – Financing Toolkit: A Resource for College-Bound Students – for advice on how to pay for college!

1. Pre-Pharmacy

In order to succeed in a major like pre-pharmacy, you must have an aptitude for attention to detail, critical thinking, and the desire to understand the scientific method. While this major is rooted in STEM education, having interpersonal skills — like empathy and compassion — are equally as important for success.

For example, when having one-on-one interactions with patients or researchers, understanding the power of the art of storytelling is often useful when trying to create an environment in which innovation can thrive and creative solutions can be put into practice.

2 . BIOLOGY/CLINICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE

Biology, especially as a laboratory science, requires a great deal of creativity . With more than 30 million species on the earth, biologists constantly find new frontiers to engage with and explore. When researching in the lab, you need to create a logical hypothesis about your experiment. While proving your hypothesis wrong or right, creativity comes into play as you investigate experiment details and figure out how to present facts in a concise and engaging way.

In other words, while biology is a fact-based field of study, it also requires a certain eye to be able to discover something new based on your research and experiments.

Watch the short video below for a closer look at NU's own Biology/CLS program. And by the way, graduates of Neumann's Biology/CLS program have a 100 percent job placement rate!

3 . Data Science and Analytics

Data science is not only one of the fastest growing fields in the United States, but also one of the highest paying jobs in the tech sector. This major requires you to develop and refine the critical thinking skills necessary to analyze voluminous and complex data sets.

However, creative thinking is incredibly important for success in this field, because being innovative requires a creative process — involving out-of the-box thinking to keep up with the ever-evolving field of data science. In other words, " the marrying of statistical knowledge with domain knowledge and a little bit of mind wandering" is essential to establishing yourself as an innovator, even in the field of tech.

4 . Pre-Engineering

According to a major engineering staffing firm : "Behind every innovative idea is an engineer. So, why then, don’t many people relate creativity and imagination to the profession of engineering?" Further, while engineers must invent new technologies and new processes rooted in data-driven thinking, e ngineers must also constantly come up with creative ways to improve existing technology and to refine the technology of the future.

5. Political Science

According to Medium : "The government, as it stands now, craves definition, straightforwardness, and identity; there’s a minimal grey area in legislation. But creativity feeds on the undefined and yet known ... creativity is often the step to gaining a more significant a sense and understanding of the world around us ." In other words, while a nalytical reasoning skills along with problem solving abilities are important in this field, having creative verbal and written communications skills are also incredibly crucial for thriving as leaders and promoting positive change.

Watch the short video below for a closer look at NU's own Political Science program. And by the way, graduates of Neumann's Political Science program have a 100 percent job placement rate!

What major will you choose?

There are all sorts of fields of study and career paths that need creative thinkers as well as critical strategists. When choosing your undergraduate major, be sure to think outside the box and consider how you can use your skills holistically.

Above are just a few of the undergraduate programs we offer at Neumann , so we hope you'll check out our website today to learn more about what other majors we offer. If you're interested in learning more about Neumann University and whether our community is the right choice for you, we encourage you to contact us today !

Explore our digital resource page — Financing Toolkit: A Resource for College-Bound Students — for advice on how to pay for college!

WRITTEN BY: Fran Reed

About The Author: Francesca Reed is the Vice President of Enrollment and Marketing at Neumann University. She brings a wealth of experience in overseeing both undergraduate and graduate admissions. Known for her skill in identifying and supporting prospective students throughout their enrollment journey, Francesca is dedicated to making higher education accessible and fulfilling.

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Defining Critical Thinking




Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated. Critical thinking is that mode of thinking - about any subject, content, or problem - in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. Foundation for Critical Thinking Press, 2008) Teacher’s College, Columbia University, 1941)

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Nonfiction Books » Philosophy Books

The best books on critical thinking, recommended by nigel warburton.

Thinking from A to Z by Nigel Warburton

Do you know your straw man arguments from your weasel words? Nigel Warburton , Five Books philosophy editor and author of Thinking from A to Z, selects some of the best books on critical thinking—and explains how they will help us make better-informed decisions and construct more valid arguments.

Interview by Cal Flyn , Deputy Editor

Calling Bullshit: The Art of Skepticism in a Data-Driven World by Carl Bergstrom & Jevin West

Thinking, Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman

Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About The World — And Why Things Are Better Than You Think by Hans Rosling

Black Box Thinking: The Surprising Truth About Success by Matthew Syed

The Art of Thinking Clearly by Rolf Dobelli

The best books on Critical Thinking - Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study by Tom Chatfield

Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study by Tom Chatfield

The best books on Critical Thinking - Calling Bullshit: The Art of Skepticism in a Data-Driven World by Carl Bergstrom & Jevin West

1 Calling Bullshit: The Art of Skepticism in a Data-Driven World by Carl Bergstrom & Jevin West

2 thinking, fast and slow by daniel kahneman, 3 factfulness: ten reasons we're wrong about the world — and why things are better than you think by hans rosling, 4 black box thinking: the surprising truth about success by matthew syed, 5 the art of thinking clearly by rolf dobelli, 6 critical thinking: your guide to effective argument, successful analysis and independent study by tom chatfield.

I t’s been just over two years since you explained to us what critical thinking is all about. Could you update us on any books that have come out since we first spoke?

Calling Bullshit by Carl Bergstrom and Jevin West started life as a course at the University of Washington. It is a book—a handbook really—written with the conviction that bullshit, particularly the kind that is circulated on the Internet, is damaging democracy , and that misinformation and disinformation can have very serious consequences. Bullshitters don’t care about truth. But truth is important, and this book shows why. It is focussed on examples from science and medicine, but ranges more widely too. It’s a lively read. It covers not just verbal bullshit, bullshit with statistics (particularly in relation to big data) and about causation, but also has a chapter on bullshit data visualisations that distract from the content they are about, or present that data in misleading ways. Like all good books on critical thinking this one includes some discussion of the psychology of being taken in by misleading contributions to public debate.

In How To Make the World Add Up , Tim Harford gives us ten rules for thinking better about numbers, together with a Golden Rule (‘Be curious’). Anyone who has listened to his long-running radio series More or Less will know how brilliant Tim is at explaining number-based claims – as I read it, I hallucinated Tim’s reassuring, sceptical, reasonable, amused, and patient voice. He draws on a rich and fascinating range of examples to teach us (gently) how not to be taken in by statistics and poorly supported claims. There is some overlap with Calling Bullshit , but they complement each other. Together they provide an excellent training in how not to be bamboozled by data-based claims.

[end of update. The original interview appears below]

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We’re here to talk about critical thinking. Before we discuss your book recommendations, I wonder if you would first explain: What exactly is critical thinking, and when should we be using it?

There’s a whole cluster of things that go under the label ‘critical thinking’. There’s what you might call formal logic , the most extreme case of abstractions. For example take the syllogism: if all men are mortal, and Socrates is a man, you can deduce from that structure of arguments that Socrates is mortal. You could put anything in the slots of ‘men,’ ‘Socrates,’ ‘mortal’, and whatever you put in, the argument structure remains valid. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. That kind of logic, which can be represented using letters and signs rather than words, has its place. Formal logic is a quasi-mathematical (some would say mathematical) subject.

But that’s just one element of critical thinking. Critical thinking is broader, though it encompasses that. In recent years, it’s been very common to include discussion of cognitive biases—the psychological mistakes we make in reasoning and the tendencies we have to think in certain patterns which don’t give us reliably good results. That’s another aspect: focussing on the cognitive biases is a part of what’s sometimes called ‘informal logic’, the sorts of reasoning errors that people make, which can be described as fallacious. They’re not, strictly speaking, logical fallacies, always. Some of them are simply psychological tendencies that give us unreliable results.

The gambler’s fallacy is a famous one: somebody throwing a die that isn’t loaded has thrown it three times without getting a six, and then imagines that, by some kind of law of averages, the fourth time they’re more likely to get a six, because they haven’t yet got one yet. That’s just a bad kind of reasoning, because each time that you roll the dice, the odds are the same: there’s a one in six chance of throwing a six. There’s no cumulative effect and a dice doesn’t have a memory. But we have this tendency, or certainly gamblers often do, to think that somehow the world will even things out and give you a win if you’ve had a series of losses. That’s a kind of informal reasoning error that many of us make, and there are lots of examples like that.

I wrote a little book called Thinking from A to Z which was meant to name and explain a whole series of moves and mistakes in thinking. I included logic, some cognitive biases, some rhetorical moves, and also (for instance) the topic of pseudo-profundity, whereby people make seemingly deep statements that are in fact shallow. The classical example is to give a seeming paradox—to say, for example ‘knowledge is just a kind of ignorance,’ or ‘virtue is only achieved through vice.’ Actually, that’s just a rhetorical trick, and once you see it, you can generate any number of such ‘profundities’. I suppose that would fall under rhetoric, the art of persuasion: persuading people that you are a deeper thinker than you are. Good reasoning isn’t necessarily the best way to persuade somebody of something, and there are many devious tricks that people use within discussion to persuade people of a particular position. The critical thinker is someone who recognises the moves, can anatomise the arguments, and call them to attention.

So, in answer to your question: critical thinking is not just pure logic . It’s a cluster of things. But its aim is to be clear about what is being argued, what follows from the given evidence and arguments, and to detect any cognitive biases or rhetorical moves that may lead us astray.

Many of the terms you define and illustrate in Thinking from A to Z— things like ‘straw man’ arguments and ‘weasel words’—have been creeping into general usage. I see them thrown around on Twitter. Do you think that our increased familiarity with debate, thanks to platforms like Twitter, has improved people’s critical thinking or made it worse?

I think that improving your critical thinking can be quite difficult. But one of the ways of doing it is to have memorable labels, which can describe the kind of move that somebody’s making, or the kind of reasoning error, or the kind of persuasive technique they’re using.

For example, you can step back from a particular case and see that somebody’s using a ‘weak analogy’. Once you’re familiar with the notion of a weak analogy, it’s a term that you can use to draw attention to a comparison between two things which aren’t actually alike in the respects that somebody is implying they are. Then the next move of a critical thinker would be to point out the respects in which this analogy doesn’t hold, and so demonstrate how poor it is at supporting the conclusion provided. Or, to use the example of weasel words—once you know that concept, it’s easier to spot them and to speak about them.

Social media, particularly Twitter, is quite combative. People are often looking for critical angles on things that people have said, and you’re limited in words. I suspect that labels are probably in use there as a form of shorthand. As long as they’re used in a precise way, this can be a good thing. But remember that responding to someone’s argument with ‘that’s a fallacy’, without actually spelling out what sort of fallacy it is supposed to be, is a form of dismissive rhetoric itself.

There are also a huge number of resources online now which allow people to discover definitions of critical thinking terms. When I first wrote Thinking from A to Z , there weren’t the same number of resources available. I wrote it in ‘A to Z’ form, partly just as a fun device that allows for lots of cross references, but partly because I wanted to draw attention to the names of things. Naming the moves is important.

“People seem to get a kick out of the idea of sharing irrelevant features—it might be a birthday or it might be a hometown—with somebody famous. But so what?”

The process of writing the book improved my critical thinking quite a lot, because I had to think more precisely about what particular terms meant and find examples of them that were unambiguous. That was the hardest thing, to find clear-cut examples of the various moves, to illustrate them. I coined some of the names myself: there’s one in there which is called the ‘Van Gogh fallacy,’ which is the pattern of thought when people say: ‘Well, Van Gogh had red hair, was a bit crazy, was left-handed, was born on the 30th of March, and, what do you know, I share all those things’—which I do happen to do—‘and therefore I must be a great genius too.’

I love that. Well, another title that deals with psychological biases is the first critical thinking book that you want to discuss, Daniel Kahneman’s Thinking Fast and Slow . Why did you choose this one?

This is an international bestseller by the Nobel Prize-winning behavioural economist—although he’s principally a psychologist—Daniel Kahneman. He developed research with Amos Tversky, who unfortunately died young. I think it would have been a co-written book otherwise. It’s a brilliant book that summarizes their psychological research on cognitive biases (or its patterns of thinking) which all of us are prone to, which aren’t reliable.

There is a huge amount of detail in the book. It summarizes a lifetime of research—two lifetimes, really. But Kahneman is very clear about the way he describes patterns of thought: as using either ‘System One’ or ‘System Two.’ System One is the fast, intuitive, emotional response to situations where we jump to a conclusion very quickly. You know: 2 + 2 is 4. You don’t think about it.

System Two is more analytical, conscious, slower, methodical, deliberative. A more logical process, which is much more energy consuming. We stop and think. How would you answer 27 × 17? You’d have to think really hard, and do a calculation using the System Two kind of thinking. The problem is that we rely on this System One—this almost instinctive response to situations—and often come out with bad answers as a result. That’s a framework within which a lot of his analysis is set.

I chose this book because it’s a good read, and it’s a book you can keep coming back to—but also because it’s written by a very important researcher in the area. So it’s got the authority of the person who did the actual psychological research. But it’s got some great descriptions of the phenomena he researches, I think. Anchoring, for instance. Do you know about anchoring?

I think so. Is that when you provide an initial example that shapes future responses? Perhaps you’d better explain it.

That’s more or less it. If you present somebody with an arbitrary number, psychologically, most people seem prone when you ask them a question to move in the direction of that number. For instance, there’s an experiment with judges. They were being asked off the cuff: What would be a good sentence for a particular crime, say shoplifting? Maybe they’d say it would be a six-month sentence for a persistent shoplifter.

But if you prime a judge by giving an anchoring number—if you ask, ‘Should the sentence for shoplifting be more than nine months?’ They’re more like to say on average that the sentence should be eight months than they would have been otherwise. And if you say, ‘Should it be punished by a sentence of longer than three months?’ they’re more likely to come down in the area of five , than they would otherwise.

So the way you phrase a question, by introducing these numbers, you give an anchoring effect. It sways people’s thinking towards that number. If you ask people if Gandhi was older than 114 years old when he died, people give a higher answer than if you just asked them: ‘How old was Gandhi when he died?’

I’ve heard this discussed in the context of charity donations. Asking if people will donate, say, £20 a month returns a higher average pledge than asking for £1 a month.

People use this anchoring technique often with selling wine on a list too. If there’s a higher-priced wine for £75, then somehow people are more drawn to one that costs £40 than they would otherwise have been. If that was the most expensive one on the menu, they wouldn’t have been drawn to the £40 bottle, but just having seen the higher price, they seem to be drawn to a higher number. This phenomenon occurs in many areas.

And there are so many things that Kahneman covers. There’s the sunk cost fallacy, this tendency that we have when we give our energy, or money, or time to a project—we’re very reluctant to stop, even when it’s irrational to carry on. You see this a lot in descriptions of withdrawal from war situations. We say: ‘We’ve given all those people’s lives, all that money, surely we’re not going to stop this campaign now.’ But it might be the rational thing to do. All that money being thrown there, doesn’t mean that throwing more in that direction will get a good result. It seems that we have a fear of future regret that outweighs everything else. This dominates our thinking.

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What Kahneman emphasizes is that System One thinking produces overconfidence based on what’s often an erroneous assessment of a situation. All of us are subject to these cognitive biases, and that they’re extremely difficult to remove. Kahneman’s a deeply pessimistic thinker in some respects; he recognizes that even after years of studying these phenomena he can’t eliminate them from his own thinking. I interviewed him for a podcast once , and said to him: ‘Surely, if you teach people critical thinking, they can get better at eliminating some of these biases.’ He was not optimistic about that. I’m much more optimistic than him. I don’t know whether he had empirical evidence to back that up, about whether studying critical thinking can increase your thinking abilities. But I was surprised how pessimistic he was.

Interesting.

Unlike some of the other authors that we’re going to discuss . . .

Staying on Kahneman for a moment, you mentioned that he’d won a Nobel Prize, not for his research in psychology per se but for his influence on the field of economics . His and Tversky’s ground-breaking work on the irrationality of human behaviour and thinking forms the spine of a new field.

Let’s look at Hans Rosling’s book next, this is Factfulness . What does it tell us about critical thinking?

Rosling was a Swedish statistician and physician, who, amongst other things, gave some very popular TED talks . His book Factfulness , which was published posthumously—his son and daughter-in-law completed the book—is very optimistic, so completely different in tone from Kahneman’s. But he focuses in a similar way on the ways that people make mistakes.

We make mistakes, classically, in being overly pessimistic about things that are changing in the world. In one of Rosling’s examples he asks what percentage of the world population is living on less than $2 a day. People almost always overestimate that number, and also the direction in which things are moving, and the speed in which they’re moving. Actually, in 1966, half of the world’s population was in extreme poverty by that measure, but by 2017 it was only 9%, so there’s been a dramatic reduction in global poverty. But most people don’t realise this because they don’t focus on the facts, and are possibly influenced by what they may have known about the situation in the 1960s.

If people are asked what percentage of children are vaccinated against common diseases, they almost always underestimate it. The correct answer is a very high proportion, something like 80%. Ask people what the life expectancy for every child born today is, the global average, and again they get it wrong. It’s over 70 now, another surprisingly high figure. What Rosling’s done as a statistician is he’s looked carefully at the way the world is.

“Pessimists tend not to notice changes for the better”

People assume that the present is like the past, so when they’ve learnt something about the state of world poverty or they’ve learnt about health, they often neglect to take a second reading and see the direction in which things are moving, and the speed with which things are changing. That’s the message of this book.

It’s an interesting book; it’s very challenging. It may be over-optimistic. But it does have this startling effect on the readers of challenging widely held assumptions, much as Steven Pinker ‘s The Better Angels of Our Nature has done. It’s a plea to look at the empirical data, and not just assume that you know how things are now. But pessimists tend not to notice changes for the better. In many ways, though clearly not in relation to global warming and climate catastrophe, the statistics are actually very good for humanity.

That’s reassuring.

So this is critical thinking of a numerical, statistical kind. It’s a bit different from the more verbally-based critical thinking that I’ve been involved with. I’m really interested to have my my assumptions challenged, and Factfulness is a very readable book. It’s lively and thought-provoking.

Coming back to what you said about formal logic earlier, statistics is another dense subject which needs specialist training. But it’s one that has a lot in common with critical thinking and a lot of people find very difficult—by which I mean, it’s often counter-intuitive.

One of the big problems for an ordinary reader looking at this kind of book is that we are not equipped to judge the reliability of his sources, and so the reliability of the conclusions that he draws. I think we have to take it on trust and authority and hope that, given the division of intellectual labour, there are other statisticians looking at his work and seeing whether he was actually justified in drawing the conclusions that he drew. He made these sorts of public pronouncements for a long time and responded to critics.

But you’re right that there is a problem here. I believe that most people can equip themselves with tools for critical thinking that work in everyday life. They can learn something about cognitive biases; they can learn about reasoning and rhetoric, and I believe that we can put ourselves as members of a democracy in a position where we think critically about the evidence and arguments that are being presented to us, politically and in the press. That should be open to all intelligent people, I think. It is not a particularly onerous task to equip yourself with a basic tools of thinking clearly.

Absolutely. Next you wanted to talk about Five Books alumnus Matthew Syed ‘s Black Box Thinking .

Yes, quite a different book. Matthew Syed is famous as a former international table tennis player, but—most people probably don’t know this—he has a first-class degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) from Oxford as well.

This book is really interesting. It’s an invitation to think differently about failure. The title, Black Box Thinking, comes from the black boxes which are standardly included in every passenger aircraft, so that if an accident occurs there’s a recording of the flight data and a recording of the audio communications as the plane goes down. When there’s a crash, rescuers always aim to recover these two black boxes. The data is then analysed, the causes of the crash, dissected and scrutinized, and the information shared across the aeronautic industry and beyond.

Obviously, everybody wants to avoid aviation disasters because they’re so costly in terms of loss of human life. They undermine trust in the whole industry. There’s almost always some kind of technical or human error that can be identified, and everybody can learn from particular crashes. This is a model of an industry where, when there is a failure, it’s treated as a very significant learning experience, with the result that airline travel has become a very safe form of transport.

This contrasts with some other areas of human endeavour, such as, sadly, much of healthcare, where the information about failures often isn’t widely shared. This can be for a number of reasons: there may be a fear of litigation—so if a surgeon does something unorthodox, or makes a mistake, and somebody as a result doesn’t survive an operation, the details of exactly what happened on the operating table will not be widely shared, typically, because there is this great fear of legal comeback.

The hierarchical aspects of the medical profession may have a part to play here, too. People higher up in the profession are able to keep a closed book, and not share their mistakes with others, because it might be damaging to their careers for people to know about their errors. There has been, historically anyway, a tendency for medical negligence and medical error, to be kept very quiet, kept hidden, hard to investigate.

“You can never fully confirm an empirical hypothesis, but you can refute one by finding a single piece of evidence against it”

What Matthew Syed is arguing is that we need to take a different attitude to failure and see it as the aviation industry does. He’s particularly interested in this being done within the healthcare field, but more broadly too. It’s an idea that’s come partly from his reading of the philosopher Karl Popper, who described how science progresses not by proving theories true, but by trying to disprove them. You can never fully confirm an empirical hypothesis, but you can refute one by finding a single piece of evidence against it. So, in a sense, the failure of the hypothesis is the way by which science progresses: conjecture followed by refutation, not hypothesis followed by confirmation.

As Syed argues, we progress in all kinds of areas is by making mistakes. He was a superb table-tennis player, and he knows that every mistake that he made was a learning experience, at least potentially, a chance to improve. I think you’d find the same attitude among musicians, or in areas where practitioners are very attentive to the mistakes that they make, and how those failures can teach them in a way that allows them to make a leap forward. The book has a whole range of examples, many from industry, about how different ways of thinking about failure can improve the process and the output of particular practices.

When we think of bringing up kids to succeed, and put emphasis on avoiding failure, we may not be helping them develop. Syed’s argument is that we should make failure a more positive experience, rather than treat it as something that’s terrifying, and always to be shied away from. If you’re trying to achieve success, and you think, ‘I have to achieve that by accumulating other successes,’ perhaps that’s the wrong mindset to achieve success at the higher levels. Perhaps you need to think, ‘Okay, I’m going to make some mistakes, how can I learn from this, how can I share these mistakes, and how can other people learn from them too?’

That’s interesting. In fact, just yesterday I was discussing a book by Atul Gawande, the surgeon and New Yorker writer, called The Checklist Manifesto . In that, Gawande also argues that we should draw from the success of aviation, in that case, the checklists that they run through before take-off and so on, and apply it to other fields like medicine. A system like this is aiming to get rid of human error, and I suppose that’s what critical thinking tries to do, too: rid us of the gremlins in machine.

Well, it’s also acknowledging that when you make an error, it can have disastrous consequence. But you don’t eliminate errors just by pretending they didn’t occur. With the Chernobyl disaster , for instance, there was an initial unwillingness to accept the evidence in front of people’s eyes that a disaster had occurred, combined with a fear of being seen to have messed up. There’s that tendency to think that everything’s going well, a kind of cognitive bias towards optimism and a fear of being responsible for error, but it’s also this unwillingness to see that in certain areas, admission of failure and sharing of the knowledge that mistakes have occurred is the best way to minimize failure in the future.

Very Beckettian . “Fail again. Fail better.”

Absolutely. Well, shall we move onto to Rolf Dobelli’s 2013 book, The Art of Thinking Clearly ?

Yes. This is quite a light book in comparison with the others. It’s really a summary of 99 moves in thinking, some of them psychological, some of them logical, some of them social. What I like about it is that he uses lots of examples. Each of the 99 entries is pretty short, and it’s the kind of book you can dip into. I would think it would be very indigestible to read it from cover to cover, but it’s a book to keep going back to.

I included it because it suggests you can you improve your critical thinking by having labels for things, recognising the moves, but also by having examples which are memorable, through which you can learn. This is an unpretentious book. Dobelli doesn’t claim to be an original thinker himself; he’s a summariser of other people’s thoughts. What he’s done is brought lots of different things together in one place.

Just to give a flavour of the book: he’s got a chapter on the paradox of choice that’s three pages long called ‘Less is More,’ and it’s the very simple idea that if you present somebody with too many choices, rather than freeing them and improving their life and making them happier, it wastes a lot of their time, even destroys the quality of their life.

“If you present somebody with too many choices, it wastes a lot of their time”

I saw an example of this the other day in the supermarket. I bumped into a friend who was standing in front of about 20 different types of coffee. The type that he usually buys wasn’t available, and he was just frozen in this inability to make a decision between all the other brands that were in front of him. If there’d only been one or two, he’d have just gone for one of those quickly.

Dobelli here is summarising the work of psychologist Barry Schwartz who concluded that generally, a broader selection leads people to make poorer decisions for themselves. We think going into the world that what we need is more choice, because that’ll allow us to do the thing we want to do, acquire just the right consumable, or whatever. But perhaps just raising that possibility, the increased number of choices will lead us to make poorer choices than if we had fewer to choose between.

Now, that’s the descriptive bit, but at the end of this short summary, he asks ‘So what can you do about this practically?’ His answer is that you should think carefully about what you want before you look at what’s on offer. Write down the things you think you want and stick to them. Don’t let yourself be swayed by further choices. And don’t get caught up in a kind of irrational perfectionism. This is not profound advice, but it’s stimulating. And that’s typical of the book.

You can flip through these entries and you can take them or leave them. It’s a kind of self-help manual.

Oh, I love that. A critical thinking self-help book .

It really is in that self-help genre, and it’s nicely done. He gets in and out in a couple of pages for each of these. I wouldn’t expect this to be on a philosophy reading list or anything like that, but it’s been an international bestseller. It’s a clever book, and I think it’s definitely worth dipping into and coming back to. The author is not claiming that it is the greatest or most original book in the world; rather, it’s just a book that’s going to help you think clearly. That’s the point.

Absolutely. Let’s move to the final title, Tom Chatfield’s Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study . We had Tom on Five Books many moons ago to discuss books about computer games . This is rather different. What makes it so good?

Well, this is a different kind of book. I was trying to think about somebody reading this interview who wants to improve their thinking. Of the books I’ve discussed, the ones that are most obviously aimed at that are Black Box Thinking , the Dobelli book, and Tom Chatfield’s Critical Thinking . The others are more descriptive or academic. But this book is quite a contrast with the Dobelli’s. The Art of Thinking Clearly is a very short and punchy book, while Tom’s is longer, and more of a textbook. It includes exercises, with summaries in the margins, it’s printed in textbook format. But that shouldn’t put a general reader off, because I think it’s the kind of thing you can work through yourself and dip into.

It’s clearly written and accessible, but it is designed to be used on courses as well. Chatfield teaches a point, then asks you to test yourself to see whether you’ve learnt the moves that he’s described. It’s very wide-ranging: it includes material on cognitive biases as well as more logical moves and arguments. His aim is not simply to help you think better, and to structure arguments better, but also to write better. It’s the kind of book that you might expect a good university to present to the whole first year intake, across a whole array of courses. But I’m including it here more as a recommendation for the autodidact. If you want to learn to think better: here is a course in the form of a book. You can work through this on your own.

It’s a contrast with the other books as well, so that’s part of my reason for putting it in there, so there’s a range of books on this list.

Definitely. I think Five Books readers, almost by definition, tend towards autodidacticism, so this is a perfect book recommendation. And, finally, to close: do you think that critical thinking is something that more people should make an effort to learn? I suppose the lack of it might help to explain the rise of post-truth politics.

It’s actually quite difficult to teach critical thinking in isolation. In the Open University’s philosophy department, when I worked there writing and designing course materials, we decided in the end to teach critical thinking as it arose in teaching other content: by stepping back from time to time to look at the critical thinking moves being made by philosophers, and the critical thinking moves a good student might make in response to them. Pedagogically, that often works much better than attempting to teach critical thinking as a separate subject in isolation.

This approach can work in scientific areas too. A friend of mine has run a successful university course for zoologists on critical thinking, looking at correlation and cause, particular types of rhetoric that are used in write ups and experiments, and so on, but all the time driven by real examples from zoology. If you’ve got some subject matter, and you’ve got examples of people reasoning, and you can step back from it, I think this approach can work very well.

But in answer to your question, I think that having some basic critical thinking skills is a prerequisite of being a good citizen in a democracy . If you are too easily swayed by rhetoric, weak at analysing arguments and the ways that people use evidence, and prone to all kinds of biases that you are unaware of, how can you engage politically? So yes, all of us can improve our critical thinking skills, and I do believe that that is an aspect of living the examined life that Socrates was so keen we all should do.

December 4, 2020

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Nigel Warburton

Nigel Warburton is a freelance philosopher, writer and host of the podcast Philosophy Bites . Featuring short interviews with the world's best philosophers on bite-size topics, the podcast has been downloaded more than 40 million times. He is also our philosophy editor here at Five Books , where he has been interviewing other philosophers about the best books on a range of philosophy topics since 2013 (you can read all the interviews he's done here: not all are about philosophy). In addition, he's recommended books for us on the best introductions to philosophy , the best critical thinking books, as well as some of the key texts to read in the Western canon . His annual recommendations of the best philosophy books of the year are among our most popular interviews on Five Books . As an author, he is best known for his introductory philosophy books, listed below:

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Best major for developing critical thinking skills?

Are critical thinking skills mostly innate (based on IQ?) or can they be developed far more than you can imagine? If the latter, what should I major in to maximize my capacity for this skill?

50 Best Colleges & Universities for 2024 Top Consensus Ranked Schools in the United States

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Created on January 18, 2024 Updated: February 27, 2024

Our Best Colleges & Universities list is a composite best colleges ranking designed to show prospective college students where their top choices rank across the board. These are truly the best of the best colleges in the United States.

College Consensus rankings combine the results of the most respected college ranking systems with the averaged ratings of thousands of real student reviews from around the web to create a unique college meta-ranking. This approach offers a comprehensive and holistic perspective missing from other college rankings. There are many best colleges rankings, but only one Consensus.

Regardless of size, location, form, or classification, these are the colleges and universities that have the best publisher and student ratings. It’s not mixing apples and oranges – it’s crunching the numbers, pure and simple, to see which colleges the experts admire, and which ones the students love.

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The College Consensus rankings methodology is unique. Our analysis begins with all of the accredited 4-year colleges and universities in America, regardless of size, location, or classification. We combine and average ratings for each school from the most respected ranking systems like Forbes, U.S. News & World Report, and the Wall Street Journal. We call this the Publisher Consensus. We also combine each school’s averaged student review scores from sites like Niche, Grad Reports, and Cappex. We call this the Student Consensus. The combined average of Publisher Consensus and Student Consensus is what we call the College Consensus.

Washington Monthly
Wall Street Journal
Grad Reports
U.S. News Reviews

Summary of the Top 10 Best Colleges and Universities for 2024

Rank	Type	Tuition & Fees	Consensus Score
1.	Private	$57,986	94.1
2.	Private	$57,410	93.4
3.	Private	$58,416	93.3
4.	Private	$57,261	93.2
5.	Private	$62,250	92.8
6.	Private	$64,100	92.3
7.	Private	$61,770	91.7
8.	Private	$66,139	90.5
9.	Private	$62,688	89.8
10.	Private	$63,200	89.6

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Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) stands out as one of the most respected universities globally due to its unparalleled commitment to cutting-edge research, innovation, and academic excellence. Renowned for its rigorous and interdisciplinary approach to education, MIT has consistently been at the forefront of technological advancements and scientific breakthroughs. The university fosters a culture of creativity and entrepreneurship, encouraging students to explore novel ideas and transform them into real-world solutions. MIT’s emphasis on collaboration across disciplines, state-of-the-art facilities, and a faculty composed of distinguished experts contribute to its reputation as a leader in science, engineering, and technology. Furthermore, MIT’s strong ties with industry, a global network of accomplished alumni, and a commitment to addressing global challenges underscore its unique position in shaping the future of science and technology on a global scale.

Princeton University Princeton, NJ

Princeton University’s distinctiveness and global esteem are rooted in its unwavering dedication to academic excellence, intellectual curiosity, and a commitment to fostering a well-rounded educational experience. Renowned for its emphasis on a liberal arts education, Princeton encourages students to explore a broad range of disciplines before specializing, promoting critical thinking and a holistic understanding of the world. The university’s distinguished faculty, comprised of leading scholars and Nobel laureates, contributes to its academic prowess and reputation for groundbreaking research. Princeton’s picturesque campus and small student-to-faculty ratio create an intimate and collaborative learning environment. The university’s commitment to financial aid and a diverse student body further enriches its academic community. Additionally, Princeton’s long-standing traditions, including the renowned residential college system, contribute to a unique and vibrant campus culture. These factors collectively position Princeton University as a beacon of intellectual achievement and a globally respected institution in higher education.

Stanford University Stanford, CA

Stanford University distinguishes itself as one of the most respected institutions globally by seamlessly blending academic excellence, innovation, and a commitment to addressing real-world challenges. Renowned for its cutting-edge research, Stanford has played a pivotal role in the development of Silicon Valley, fostering an entrepreneurial spirit that has led to the creation of numerous groundbreaking technologies and companies. The university’s interdisciplinary approach encourages collaboration across diverse fields, promoting a comprehensive understanding of complex issues. Stanford’s world-class faculty, including Nobel laureates and industry leaders, contributes to its reputation for academic rigor and impactful research. The campus’s dynamic and inclusive atmosphere, combined with a strong emphasis on social responsibility, cultivates a community of forward-thinking individuals. Stanford’s pivotal role in shaping the technological landscape, coupled with its dedication to producing leaders who can navigate the complexities of the modern world, solidifies its standing as a preeminent and respected institution in higher education.

Harvard University Cambridge, MA

Harvard University’s unparalleled reputation as one of the most respected institutions globally is grounded in its centuries-old tradition of academic excellence, intellectual rigor, and a commitment to fostering leaders across diverse disciplines. Renowned for its distinguished faculty, which includes Nobel laureates, Pulitzer Prize winners, and influential scholars, Harvard consistently produces groundbreaking research that shapes the course of knowledge and society. The university’s emphasis on a liberal arts education encourages students to explore a broad spectrum of disciplines, fostering critical thinking and a well-rounded intellectual foundation. Harvard’s extensive resources, state-of-the-art facilities, and a vast network of accomplished alumni contribute to its global influence. The historic Ivy League institution also places a strong emphasis on diversity and inclusion, creating a vibrant and dynamic community of scholars. Harvard’s enduring legacy, coupled with its continuous pursuit of excellence in education, research, and service, solidifies its unique position as a beacon of intellectual achievement and a globally respected university.

Yale University New Haven, CT

Yale University’s uniqueness and global acclaim stem from its rich history, commitment to academic excellence, and fostering a culture of intellectual exploration. Founded in 1701, Yale has cultivated a tradition of producing influential leaders and groundbreaking scholars across various fields. Renowned for its rigorous academic programs and distinguished faculty, including Nobel laureates and Pulitzer Prize winners, Yale maintains a reputation for pushing the boundaries of knowledge through innovative research. The university’s emphasis on a liberal arts education promotes interdisciplinary thinking, encouraging students to approach complex issues from diverse perspectives. Yale’s picturesque campus, with its iconic architecture, adds to the institution’s distinctive charm. Furthermore, Yale’s dedication to inclusivity, community engagement, and its renowned professional schools contribute to its standing as a respected global institution, shaping leaders and advancing scholarship in a wide array of disciplines.

Amherst College Amherst, MA

Amherst College distinguishes itself as one of the most respected liberal arts colleges globally through its unwavering commitment to academic excellence, a personalized educational approach, and a vibrant intellectual community. Renowned for its small and close-knit campus located in the charming town of Amherst, Massachusetts, the college fosters intimate student-faculty interactions and a collaborative learning environment. With a rigorous curriculum that encourages interdisciplinary exploration, Amherst emphasizes critical thinking, creativity, and a holistic understanding of various disciplines. The institution’s commitment to diversity and inclusion contributes to a rich tapestry of perspectives, creating a dynamic and engaging atmosphere for students. Amherst’s strong reputation is further solidified by its accomplished faculty, rigorous academic programs, and a history of producing graduates who excel in various fields, contributing to the college’s standing as a respected and influential institution in the world of higher education.

Williams College Williamstown, MA

Williams College stands out as one of the most respected liberal arts institutions globally, renowned for its academic excellence, tight-knit community, and picturesque setting in Williamstown, Massachusetts. The college’s commitment to a broad-based, interdisciplinary education fosters intellectual curiosity and critical thinking among its students. With a small student body and a low student-to-faculty ratio, Williams prioritizes personalized attention, encouraging meaningful interactions between students and accomplished faculty members. The college’s dedication to diversity, inclusivity, and a strong sense of community contributes to a vibrant and dynamic learning environment. Furthermore, Williams’ emphasis on experiential learning, research opportunities, and a rigorous curriculum has consistently produced graduates who go on to excel in various fields, reinforcing the college’s reputation as a respected and influential institution in the realm of higher education.

Columbia University in the City of New York New York, NY

Columbia University’s unique standing among the world’s most respected institutions is rooted in its rich history, academic excellence, and its central location in New York City. Renowned for its distinguished faculty, which includes Nobel laureates, Pulitzer Prize winners, and leading scholars, Columbia has consistently been at the forefront of groundbreaking research and intellectual innovation across a spectrum of disciplines. The university’s commitment to fostering a diverse and inclusive community, combined with its global perspective, contributes to a dynamic learning environment that prepares students to engage with complex global challenges. The integration of a rigorous curriculum with unparalleled opportunities for research, internships, and cultural engagement in one of the world’s most vibrant cities distinguishes Columbia as a hub for academic, cultural, and professional advancement. This multifaceted approach to education, along with its influential alumni network, solidifies Columbia University’s position as a trailblazer in higher education and a globally respected institution.

Duke University Durham, NC

Duke University’s unique standing among the most respected universities globally emanates from its commitment to excellence in education, research, and service. Nestled in Durham, North Carolina, Duke’s picturesque campus provides an ideal backdrop for a transformative academic experience. Renowned for its interdisciplinary approach, the university encourages students to explore diverse fields, fostering a well-rounded education. Duke’s world-class faculty, including Nobel laureates and leading experts, contribute to cutting-edge research and innovation. The university’s emphasis on experiential learning, through programs like DukeEngage and opportunities for undergraduate research, sets it apart. Duke’s strong athletic programs, vibrant campus life, and a culture of community engagement further enhance the overall student experience. The university’s global perspective and commitment to addressing real-world challenges contribute to its esteemed reputation, making Duke University a powerhouse of intellectual growth and impact on a global scale.

Cornell University Ithaca, NY

Cornell University’s distinctive reputation as one of the world’s most respected institutions arises from its commitment to academic excellence, innovation, and a diverse, collaborative community. Situated in Ithaca, New York, Cornell’s stunning campus fosters a dynamic learning environment. The university’s unique blend of rigorous programs across a broad range of disciplines encourages interdisciplinary exploration, cultivating well-rounded graduates. With a faculty comprising accomplished scholars, including Nobel laureates, Cornell is at the forefront of groundbreaking research. The university’s emphasis on experiential learning, entrepreneurial initiatives, and a global perspective equips students with the skills needed for success in an evolving world. Cornell’s strong commitment to diversity and inclusivity, coupled with a vibrant campus life, contributes to a rich and supportive community. These factors, combined with Cornell’s significant contributions to advancements in science, technology, and social sciences, solidify its place as a globally respected institution at the forefront of higher education.

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Dartmouth college hanover, nh.

Dartmouth College’s unique position among the world’s most respected universities is attributed to its rich history, commitment to a liberal arts education, and a close-knit, collaborative community. Nestled in the picturesque town of Hanover, New Hampshire, Dartmouth’s intimate setting fosters strong student-faculty relationships and a sense of camaraderie. The college’s focus on undergraduate education, combined with a rigorous curriculum and a commitment to experiential learning, instills in students a broad intellectual foundation and critical thinking skills. Dartmouth’s renowned faculty, comprised of leading scholars, contribute to cutting-edge research and academic excellence. The institution’s dedication to fostering a diverse and inclusive campus culture, as well as its emphasis on global perspectives, adds to its unique identity. With a strong alumni network and a history of producing leaders across various fields, Dartmouth College continues to be recognized globally for its unwavering commitment to academic excellence and holistic student development.

Vanderbilt University Nashville, TN

Vanderbilt University’s distinctive reputation as one of the most respected institutions globally arises from its commitment to academic excellence, innovation, and a vibrant campus community. Situated in Nashville, Tennessee, Vanderbilt offers a dynamic and collaborative learning environment. The university’s emphasis on research across various disciplines, coupled with a world-class faculty, including accomplished scholars, contributes to its standing as a hub for cutting-edge discoveries and advancements. Vanderbilt’s commitment to a personalized undergraduate experience, small class sizes, and a strong sense of community fosters close student-faculty relationships and encourages intellectual exploration. The institution’s dedication to diversity, inclusion, and community engagement further enriches the educational experience. Vanderbilt’s impactful contributions to fields such as medicine, engineering, and the humanities, combined with its emphasis on preparing students for leadership roles, solidify its status as a respected global institution at the forefront of higher education.

Swarthmore College Swarthmore, PA

Swarthmore College distinguishes itself as one of the most respected liberal arts institutions globally through its unwavering commitment to intellectual rigor, social responsibility, and a tight-knit, intellectually vibrant community. Nestled in the charming town of Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, the college’s campus provides an intimate setting for academic exploration and collaboration. Swarthmore’s distinguished faculty, dedicated to mentorship and cutting-edge research, contributes to a rigorous and personalized educational experience. The institution’s Quaker heritage underscores a commitment to values such as social justice and ethical engagement, fostering a sense of responsibility among students. Swarthmore’s emphasis on a rigorous liberal arts education, small class sizes, and a tradition of producing influential leaders in various fields solidify its unique position as a respected institution that prioritizes intellectual curiosity, ethical leadership, and societal impact.

University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA

The University of Pennsylvania’s unique standing among the world’s most respected institutions is rooted in its rich history, academic excellence, and its dynamic integration of knowledge across diverse disciplines. Situated in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Penn’s urban campus provides a vibrant setting for intellectual exploration and cultural engagement. Renowned for its rigorous programs and distinguished faculty, including Nobel laureates and experts in various fields, the university consistently produces groundbreaking research and innovation. Penn’s commitment to an interdisciplinary approach encourages collaboration among schools, fostering a comprehensive understanding of complex issues. The Wharton School, known for its business expertise, further adds to Penn’s reputation for excellence. The university’s emphasis on service, civic engagement, and a global perspective shapes graduates into leaders capable of addressing multifaceted challenges. These factors, combined with a strong emphasis on diversity and a commitment to societal impact, contribute to Penn’s esteemed status as a globally respected institution at the forefront of higher education.

Claremont McKenna College Claremont, CA

Claremont McKenna College’s distinctive reputation as one of the most respected liberal arts institutions globally is rooted in its unwavering commitment to a unique blend of intellectual rigor, leadership development, and interdisciplinary education. Located in Claremont, California, the college’s small size fosters an intimate and collaborative learning environment. CMC’s emphasis on economics, politics, and public affairs sets it apart, providing students with a focused yet broad-based education. The college’s signature leadership and ethics programs, coupled with a renowned faculty dedicated to mentorship, contribute to the cultivation of well-rounded graduates. The emphasis on practical experience, through internships and research opportunities, prepares students for impactful careers. CMC’s collaborative relationship with the other Claremont Colleges adds to its distinctive character. The college’s strong alumni network and its history of producing leaders in various fields further solidify its unique status as a respected institution with a focus on shaping principled and effective leaders for a complex world.

University of Notre Dame Notre Dame, IN

The University of Notre Dame’s uniqueness and global respect emanate from its unwavering commitment to the integration of faith and reason, academic excellence, and a strong sense of community. Nestled in South Bend, Indiana, Notre Dame’s picturesque campus fosters a vibrant environment for learning and personal growth. The university’s Catholic identity plays a central role, influencing its commitment to values-based education, service, and a sense of moral responsibility. Notre Dame’s distinguished faculty, including accomplished scholars and researchers, contribute to its reputation for rigorous academic programs and cutting-edge research. The university’s emphasis on a well-rounded education, athletic prowess, and a tradition of service to others enriches the student experience. Notre Dame’s global perspective, strong alumni network, and its commitment to developing ethical leaders contribute to its esteemed status as a respected institution shaping individuals who positively impact the world.

Pomona College Claremont, CA

Pomona College distinguishes itself as one of the top-ranked liberal arts institutions in the United States through its commitment to academic excellence, personalized education, and a collaborative community. Situated in Claremont, California, Pomona’s intimate campus provides a close-knit environment for intellectual exploration and engagement. The college’s dedication to a comprehensive liberal arts education allows students to delve into various disciplines while fostering critical thinking and interdisciplinary perspectives. Pomona’s distinguished faculty, known for their scholarly achievements, contribute to a rigorous academic environment. The college’s emphasis on undergraduate research, small class sizes, and a vibrant campus life further enhance the student experience. The unique consortium with other Claremont Colleges expands opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration. Pomona’s commitment to diversity and inclusion, coupled with a strong alumni network, solidifies its status as a respected institution that prepares graduates for success in an ever-evolving world.

California Institute of Technology Pasadena, CA

The California Institute of Technology (Caltech) stands out as one of the top-ranked universities in the United States due to its unparalleled emphasis on scientific and technological innovation, research excellence, and a culture of intellectual curiosity. Located in Pasadena, California, Caltech boasts a faculty and student body that consistently contribute to cutting-edge discoveries across various scientific disciplines. The institute’s commitment to a collaborative and interdisciplinary approach fosters a dynamic environment where groundbreaking ideas thrive. Caltech’s small size allows for close interactions between faculty and students, promoting mentorship and a personalized educational experience. The institute’s groundbreaking research in fields such as physics, astronomy, and engineering, along with a history of producing Nobel laureates, reinforces its global reputation as a leader in scientific advancement and education.

University of Michigan-Ann Arbor Ann Arbor, MI

The University of Michigan’s distinction as one of the highest-ranked universities in the United States lies in its combination of academic excellence, research prowess, and a diverse, dynamic campus community. Located in Ann Arbor, Michigan, the university offers a comprehensive range of top-tier programs across various disciplines, attracting top-notch faculty and students. Michigan’s commitment to impactful research, particularly in fields like medicine, engineering, and social sciences, contributes significantly to its standing. The university’s emphasis on fostering a vibrant student life, a strong athletic program, and a culture of inclusivity adds to its appeal. Michigan’s global perspective, robust alumni network, and a commitment to addressing societal challenges further solidify its position as a prestigious institution, known for producing leaders and innovators who positively influence the world.

Brown University Providence, RI

Brown University’s uniqueness and top-ranked status in the United States stem from its commitment to academic innovation, open curriculum, and a culture of intellectual exploration. Situated in Providence, Rhode Island, Brown offers students a distinctive approach to education, allowing them the freedom to shape their academic journey through the Open Curriculum, fostering interdisciplinary exploration and critical thinking. The university’s distinguished faculty, including leading scholars and Pulitzer Prize winners, contributes to a dynamic learning environment. Brown’s emphasis on student autonomy, a collaborative and inclusive community, and a commitment to diversity and social justice issues are integral to its identity. The university’s vibrant arts scene, engaged campus life, and a history of producing influential alumni contribute to its reputation as a top-tier institution that values intellectual curiosity, creativity, and a commitment to making a positive impact on society.

University of California-Berkeley Berkeley, CA

The University of California, Berkeley, stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities in the United States due to its exceptional academic reputation, research contributions, and a commitment to social impact. Located in the San Francisco Bay Area, UC Berkeley is renowned for its rigorous academic programs and distinguished faculty, including numerous Nobel laureates. The university’s commitment to cutting-edge research across various disciplines, from science and engineering to humanities and social sciences, contributes significantly to its top-tier status. Berkeley’s vibrant and diverse campus culture, coupled with a strong emphasis on social justice, activism, and community engagement, adds a unique dimension to its identity. The institution’s global perspective, coupled with a rich history of fostering innovation and producing influential alumni, solidifies UC Berkeley as a prestigious and influential institution in higher education.

University of Florida Gainesville, FL

The University of Florida (UF) is a unique and highly ranked institution in the United States, known for its comprehensive academic offerings, research excellence, and vibrant campus life. Located in Gainesville, UF’s strengths lie in its diverse range of top-tier programs spanning science, technology, business, and the arts. The university’s commitment to impactful research is evident through its renowned faculty and cutting-edge facilities. UF’s emphasis on fostering innovation and entrepreneurship, exemplified by its strong ties to the business community, contributes to its unique identity. The campus’s lively atmosphere, successful athletic programs, and commitment to sustainability further enrich the student experience. UF’s status as a leading public research university, coupled with its dedication to serving the state of Florida and beyond, solidifies its position as a highly ranked and influential institution in American higher education.

Northwestern University Evanston, IL

Northwestern University stands out as one of the top-ranked universities in the United States due to its exceptional combination of academic excellence, research impact, and a commitment to innovation. Located in Evanston, Illinois, Northwestern boasts a distinguished faculty comprised of accomplished scholars and Nobel laureates across diverse disciplines. The university’s emphasis on interdisciplinary collaboration fosters cutting-edge research and provides students with a holistic educational experience. Northwestern’s renowned programs in journalism, performing arts, and business contribute to its unique identity. The institution’s global perspective, commitment to diversity and inclusion, and a strong emphasis on experiential learning further enhance its standing. Northwestern’s vibrant campus life, successful athletic programs, and a tradition of producing influential alumni solidify its position as a top-ranked university known for fostering critical thinking, creativity, and societal impact.

University of California-Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA

The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), stands out as one of the top-ranked universities in the United States due to its outstanding academic reputation, diverse and accomplished faculty, and a vibrant campus community. Situated in the heart of Los Angeles, UCLA offers a comprehensive range of academic programs across disciplines, attracting top-tier students and faculty. The university’s commitment to research excellence is evident through its influential contributions in various fields. UCLA’s emphasis on innovation, entrepreneurship, and collaboration with industries in the dynamic Los Angeles area sets it apart. The campus’s cultural diversity, commitment to inclusivity, and a strong sense of community enrich the student experience. UCLA’s global impact, successful athletic programs, and a tradition of producing leaders contribute to its esteemed position as a top-tier institution in American higher education.

University of Southern California Los Angeles, CA

The University of Southern California (USC) stands out as one of the top-ranked universities in the United States due to its exceptional blend of academic excellence, cultural diversity, and its location in the heart of Los Angeles. USC’s comprehensive range of programs spans the arts, sciences, business, and technology, attracting top-tier faculty and students. The university’s commitment to cutting-edge research and innovation is evident through its influential contributions to various fields. USC’s strong ties to the entertainment industry and business community provide unique opportunities for students. The campus’s cultural vibrancy, commitment to community service, and a global perspective contribute to a dynamic learning environment. USC’s success in athletics, a robust alumni network, and a tradition of producing leaders and innovators further solidify its standing as a top-ranked institution, known for preparing students for success in a rapidly evolving world.

Georgetown University Washington, DC

Georgetown University stands out as one of the top-ranked universities due to its distinguished commitment to academic excellence, global engagement, and a strong emphasis on service and social justice. Located in the heart of Washington, D.C., Georgetown offers a unique intersection of academia and international affairs. Renowned for its exceptional programs in foreign service, law, and business, the university attracts a diverse and accomplished faculty and student body. Georgetown’s emphasis on Jesuit values, including a commitment to ethical leadership and social responsibility, sets it apart. The university’s global perspective, exemplified by its prestigious School of Foreign Service, and its influential alumni network in various fields contribute to its esteemed reputation. Georgetown’s vibrant campus culture, commitment to inclusivity, and its role in shaping leaders with a sense of ethical responsibility further solidify its standing as a top-ranked institution known for preparing students to navigate complex global challenges.

Washington University in St Louis Saint Louis, MO

Washington University in St. Louis stands out as one of the top-ranked universities due to its unwavering commitment to academic excellence, research innovation, and a collaborative and vibrant campus environment. Situated in St. Louis, Missouri, the university is renowned for its outstanding faculty, including Nobel laureates and leading scholars across various disciplines. Washington University’s emphasis on cutting-edge research, particularly in areas like biomedical sciences, engineering, and social sciences, contributes to its esteemed status. The university’s commitment to fostering a diverse and inclusive community, along with a strong emphasis on interdisciplinary collaboration, enriches the student experience. Washington University’s global perspective, successful athletic programs, and a history of producing influential alumni further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for its impactful contributions to academia and society at large.

University of Chicago Chicago, IL

The University of Chicago stands out as one of the top-ranked universities due to its intellectual rigor, commitment to interdisciplinary inquiry, and a transformative academic environment. Located in the heart of Chicago, the university is renowned for its influential faculty, including numerous Nobel laureates, who drive groundbreaking research across diverse disciplines. The University of Chicago’s distinctive “Core Curriculum” encourages students to engage with foundational texts and develop critical thinking skills. The university’s emphasis on academic freedom, innovative thinking, and a strong culture of intellectual curiosity creates an environment where students are encouraged to question, challenge, and explore. Chicago’s commitment to research impact, global perspectives, and a tradition of producing influential scholars and leaders contribute to its esteemed reputation as a top-ranked institution at the forefront of higher education.

Rice University Houston, TX

Rice University stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its exceptional blend of academic excellence, collaborative spirit, and a strong commitment to innovation. Located in Houston, Texas, Rice is renowned for its small class sizes, fostering close interactions between students and a distinguished faculty. The university’s focus on cutting-edge research, particularly in the fields of science, engineering, and business, contributes to its global influence. Rice’s unique residential college system cultivates a tight-knit and supportive community, enhancing the overall student experience. The university’s emphasis on entrepreneurship and a collaborative approach to problem-solving, coupled with a beautiful and well-maintained campus, further solidifies its reputation as a top-ranked institution known for preparing students to address complex challenges in a rapidly evolving world.

Colby College Waterville, ME

Colby College stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its distinctive commitment to academic excellence, a rigorous liberal arts curriculum, and a strong emphasis on experiential learning. Nestled in Waterville, Maine, Colby provides a picturesque and intellectually vibrant environment. The college’s commitment to interdisciplinary exploration and research, coupled with a renowned faculty, contributes to its academic prestige. Colby’s dedication to global engagement and a robust study abroad program ensures a broadened worldview for its students. The emphasis on community service, sustainability, and the Colby Plan—a unique curriculum that encourages exploration across disciplines—further differentiates the college. Colby’s tight-knit and inclusive community, along with a history of producing graduates who excel in various fields, solidifies its reputation as a top-ranked institution known for fostering well-rounded individuals ready to contribute meaningfully to the world.

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Chapel Hill, NC

The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-Chapel Hill) stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its unwavering commitment to academic excellence, research impact, and a strong sense of community. Located in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, the university offers a diverse range of top-tier programs and attracts renowned faculty across disciplines. UNC-Chapel Hill’s emphasis on groundbreaking research, particularly in fields such as medicine, public health, and journalism, contributes significantly to its global influence. The university’s commitment to public service, evidenced through initiatives like the Carolina Center for Public Service, showcases its dedication to making a positive impact. UNC-Chapel Hill’s vibrant campus life, successful athletic programs, and a tradition of producing influential alumni further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for shaping leaders, fostering innovation, and positively impacting society.

Wesleyan University Middletown, CT

Wesleyan University stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its distinctive commitment to a liberal arts education, fostering intellectual exploration, and a vibrant, inclusive community. Located in Middletown, Connecticut, Wesleyan provides an intellectually stimulating environment where students are encouraged to engage with diverse perspectives across disciplines. The university’s innovative and interdisciplinary approach to education, coupled with a distinguished faculty, contributes to its academic excellence. Wesleyan’s emphasis on creative expression and the arts, reflected in its renowned film studies program and Center for the Arts, further enhances its unique identity. The university’s commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion, coupled with a global perspective, adds to its esteemed reputation. Wesleyan’s tight-knit community, collaborative research opportunities, and a history of producing influential graduates further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution shaping well-rounded individuals prepared for success in a complex world.

Georgia Institute of Technology-Main Campus Atlanta, GA

Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its exceptional focus on technology, innovation, and impactful research. Situated in Atlanta, Georgia Tech is renowned for its top-tier engineering and computing programs, attracting a diverse and talented student body. The university’s commitment to cutting-edge research, particularly in areas like aerospace engineering, computer science, and biotechnology, contributes significantly to its global influence. Georgia Tech’s emphasis on entrepreneurship and industry partnerships fosters an environment where students can translate their academic knowledge into real-world solutions. The institution’s commitment to diversity and inclusion, coupled with a strong emphasis on experiential learning, further differentiates it. Georgia Tech’s vibrant campus life, successful athletic programs, and a tradition of producing graduates who excel in the tech industry solidify its position as a top-ranked institution, known for driving technological advancements and preparing students for leadership roles in a rapidly evolving world.

Colgate University Hamilton, NY

Colgate University stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its commitment to academic excellence, rigorous liberal arts education, and a strong sense of community. Nestled in Hamilton, New York, Colgate offers a picturesque and intellectually vibrant environment. The university’s emphasis on a comprehensive liberal arts curriculum, coupled with a distinguished faculty, contributes to its academic prestige. Colgate’s dedication to fostering critical thinking, intellectual curiosity, and global perspectives sets it apart. The university’s close-knit community, highlighted by its residential life system, adds to the unique collegiate experience. Colgate’s commitment to sustainability, community engagement, and a history of producing successful graduates further solidifies its reputation as a top-ranked institution known for preparing students for success in a diverse and interconnected world.

Hamilton College Clinton, NY

Hamilton College stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its commitment to academic excellence, personalized education, and a distinctive focus on fostering critical thinking and effective communication skills. Located in Clinton, New York, Hamilton provides a picturesque setting for a liberal arts education. The university’s emphasis on a rigorous and interdisciplinary curriculum, coupled with a dedicated faculty, contributes to its academic prestige. Hamilton’s distinctive open curriculum allows students the flexibility to tailor their educational experience to their interests. The university’s commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion, along with a strong emphasis on experiential learning, adds to its unique character. Hamilton’s vibrant campus life, a strong tradition of community engagement, and a history of producing graduates who excel in various fields further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for cultivating well-rounded individuals prepared for success in a complex global landscape.

Davidson College Davidson, NC

Davidson College stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its unwavering commitment to academic excellence, personalized education, and a strong sense of community. Nestled in Davidson, North Carolina, the college provides a picturesque setting for a liberal arts education. Davidson’s distinctive honor code fosters an environment of trust and integrity, emphasizing a culture of shared responsibility. The university’s rigorous academic programs, coupled with a distinguished faculty, contribute to its academic prestige. Davidson’s emphasis on leadership development, service-learning, and a global perspective adds to its unique character. The college’s close-knit community, highlighted by its residential college system, enhances the overall collegiate experience. Davidson’s commitment to diversity, inclusion, and producing graduates who make meaningful contributions to society further solidifies its position as a top-ranked institution known for shaping ethical leaders and engaged citizens.

Vassar College Poughkeepsie, NY

Vassar College stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its unwavering commitment to academic excellence, a strong tradition of liberal arts education, and a distinctive culture of inclusivity and social responsibility. Nestled in Poughkeepsie, New York, Vassar provides a picturesque and intellectually vibrant setting for students. The college’s emphasis on a rigorous, interdisciplinary curriculum, coupled with a renowned faculty, contributes to its academic prestige. Vassar’s commitment to diversity and inclusion is evident in its pioneering history as a women’s college and its ongoing efforts to foster a diverse and equitable community. The college’s vibrant campus life, strong emphasis on community engagement and social justice, and a history of producing graduates who excel in various fields further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for preparing students to navigate complex global challenges with empathy, critical thinking, and a commitment to positive societal impact.

Washington and Lee University Lexington, VA

Washington and Lee University stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its distinctive combination of academic excellence, a strong commitment to honor, and a close-knit community. Located in Lexington, Virginia, the university provides a picturesque setting for a liberal arts education. Washington and Lee’s rigorous academic programs, including its unique honor system, contribute to its academic prestige. The university’s strong emphasis on personalized education, small class sizes, and a distinguished faculty fosters an environment where students can engage deeply with their studies. Washington and Lee’s commitment to cultivating principled leadership, a vibrant campus life, and a history of producing graduates who excel in various fields further solidifies its position as a top-ranked institution known for shaping well-rounded individuals with a sense of honor and responsibility.

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Champaign, IL

The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its exceptional commitment to academic excellence, research impact, and innovation across various disciplines. Located in Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, the university is renowned for its top-tier programs in engineering, computer science, agriculture, and business. The institution’s emphasis on cutting-edge research, evident through its numerous research centers and collaborations, contributes significantly to its global influence. The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign’s dedication to diversity and inclusion, strong ties to industry, and a history of producing graduates who make significant contributions to academia, business, and society further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for shaping leaders and driving positive change on a global scale.

Johns Hopkins University Baltimore, MD

Johns Hopkins University stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its exceptional commitment to research excellence, innovation in healthcare and science, and a multidisciplinary approach to addressing global challenges. Located in Baltimore, Maryland, Johns Hopkins is renowned for its distinguished faculty, including numerous Nobel laureates, and its leadership in fields such as medicine, public health, and engineering. The university’s emphasis on collaborative and interdisciplinary research, exemplified by institutions like the Johns Hopkins Medicine and Applied Physics Laboratory, contributes significantly to its global impact. Johns Hopkins’ commitment to addressing societal issues, a vibrant campus life, and a history of producing influential graduates further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for pushing the boundaries of knowledge, advancing healthcare, and shaping leaders in various fields.

Haverford College Haverford, PA

Haverford College stands out as one of the highest-ranked liberal arts institutions globally due to its unwavering commitment to academic excellence, Quaker values, and fostering a tight-knit community. Situated in Haverford, Pennsylvania, the college provides an intimate setting for a rigorous liberal arts education. Haverford’s dedication to the Quaker principles of simplicity, community, and social justice shapes its distinctive Honor Code, fostering a sense of trust and responsibility among students. The college’s strong emphasis on undergraduate research, close faculty-student relationships, and a diverse and inclusive community contribute to its academic prestige. Haverford’s unique Tri-Co consortium with Bryn Mawr and Swarthmore Colleges expands academic opportunities, enhancing the student experience. The college’s commitment to ethical leadership, global engagement, and producing graduates who excel in various fields further solidifies its position as a top-ranked institution known for cultivating well-rounded individuals prepared for success in a complex world.

Wellesley College Wellesley, MA

Wellesley College stands out as one of the highest-ranked liberal arts institutions globally due to its unwavering commitment to academic excellence, a tradition of empowering women, and a vibrant intellectual community. Nestled in Wellesley, Massachusetts, the college provides a picturesque setting for a rigorous liberal arts education. Wellesley’s distinguished faculty, coupled with its strong emphasis on interdisciplinary learning, contributes to its academic prestige. The college’s historic dedication to women’s education, reflected in its notable alumnae network, fosters an environment where women are encouraged to excel and lead in various fields. Wellesley’s global perspective, commitment to diversity and inclusion, and emphasis on community engagement further distinguish it. The college’s unique cross-registration opportunities with neighboring institutions and a history of producing influential graduates further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for empowering women and fostering leaders in academia, business, and beyond.

University of Virginia-Main Campus Charlottesville, VA

The University of Virginia stands out as one of the highest-ranked universities globally due to its rich history, commitment to academic excellence, and its unique founder, Thomas Jefferson’s vision of a comprehensive education. Located in Charlottesville, Virginia, UVA is renowned for its distinguished faculty and top-tier programs across various disciplines. The university’s emphasis on the Jeffersonian ideals of leadership, civic engagement, and a well-rounded education contributes to its academic prestige. UVA’s strong sense of community, fostered by its unique residential college system, adds to the distinctive collegiate experience. The university’s commitment to public service, global perspective, and a history of producing influential leaders further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for shaping well-rounded individuals who contribute meaningfully to society.

Bowdoin College Brunswick, ME

Bowdoin College stands out as one of the highest-ranked liberal arts institutions globally due to its unwavering commitment to academic excellence, a tradition of cultivating thoughtful leaders, and a vibrant community. Nestled in Brunswick, Maine, Bowdoin provides an intimate setting for a rigorous liberal arts education. The college’s distinguished faculty, coupled with its emphasis on interdisciplinary learning, contributes to its academic prestige. Bowdoin’s dedication to diversity and inclusion, reflected in its holistic admissions process and supportive campus culture, fosters an environment where students can thrive intellectually and personally. The college’s strong emphasis on community engagement, global perspectives, and a history of producing graduates who excel in various fields further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for fostering well-rounded individuals prepared for success in a complex and interconnected world.

College of the Ozarks Point Lookout, MO

College of the Ozarks stands out as a distinctive and highly-ranked institution due to its unique commitment to providing a high-quality education through its innovative “Hard Work U” program. Located in Point Lookout, Missouri, the college requires all students to participate in a work-study program, where they contribute to the operation of the college while gaining valuable hands-on experience. This approach not only fosters a strong work ethic but also allows students to graduate debt-free. The college’s dedication to character education, patriotic values, and its mission of instilling a sense of responsibility and service adds to its distinctiveness. College of the Ozarks’ emphasis on cultivating well-rounded individuals with a strong work ethic, moral values, and practical skills further solidifies its position as a unique and highly-ranked institution.

Emory University Atlanta, GA

Emory University stands out as one of the highest-ranked institutions globally due to its commitment to academic excellence, research impact, and a vibrant community that values diversity and innovation. Located in Atlanta, Georgia, Emory is renowned for its distinguished faculty, cutting-edge research centers, and top-tier programs across various disciplines, particularly in health sciences, law, and business. The university’s emphasis on a global perspective is evident through its international programs and collaborations. Emory’s commitment to social justice, community engagement, and a strong sense of inclusivity contributes to its unique character. The university’s close-knit campus community, successful athletic programs, and a history of producing graduates who excel in various fields further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for shaping leaders and making meaningful contributions to society.

Bates College Lewiston, ME

Bates College stands out as one of the highest-ranked liberal arts institutions globally due to its unwavering commitment to academic excellence, a tradition of fostering critical thinking and social responsibility, and its distinctive approach to education. Situated in Lewiston, Maine, Bates offers a picturesque and intellectually vibrant environment. The college’s renowned faculty, coupled with its emphasis on interdisciplinary learning and research, contributes to its academic prestige. Bates’ commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion is central to its mission, fostering an environment that values different perspectives. The college’s unique educational model, exemplified by its rigorous academic programs and experiential learning opportunities, prepares students for meaningful contributions to society. The emphasis on civic engagement, global perspectives, and a history of producing graduates who excel in various fields further solidify Bates’ position as a top-ranked institution known for cultivating well-rounded individuals prepared for success in a complex and interconnected world.

University of California-Davis Davis, CA

The University of California, Davis stands out as one of the highest-ranked institutions globally due to its exceptional contributions to agriculture, environmental sustainability, and innovative research across diverse disciplines. Located in Davis, California, the university is renowned for its top-tier programs in agriculture, veterinary medicine, and environmental sciences. UC Davis’s commitment to sustainability and environmental stewardship is evident through initiatives like the UC Davis Arboretum and its leadership in sustainable practices. The university’s emphasis on cutting-edge research, particularly in fields such as biological sciences and engineering, contributes significantly to its global influence. UC Davis’s dedication to diversity, inclusion, and community engagement adds to its unique character. The campus’s vibrant culture, successful athletic programs, and a history of producing graduates who make impactful contributions further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for its academic excellence and societal impact.

Brigham Young University Provo, UT

Brigham Young University (BYU) stands out as a highly-ranked institution globally due to its unique combination of academic excellence, values-based education, and a commitment to fostering moral and ethical leadership. Located in Provo, Utah, BYU is affiliated with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and its educational philosophy is rooted in the principles of the Church. The university’s rigorous academic programs, including strong emphasis on the sciences, business, and the humanities, contribute to its academic prestige. BYU’s commitment to character development, community service, and an honor code that promotes integrity and responsibility sets it apart. The university’s supportive campus community, successful athletic programs, and a history of producing graduates known for their ethical leadership further solidify BYU’s position as a top-ranked institution with a unique approach to education and the development of well-rounded individuals.

Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh, PA

Carnegie Mellon University stands out as one of the highest-ranked institutions globally due to its exceptional focus on technology, innovation, and interdisciplinary collaboration. Located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Carnegie Mellon is renowned for its top-tier programs in computer science, engineering, business, and the arts. The university’s commitment to cutting-edge research and technology advancements, evident through its School of Computer Science and Robotics Institute, contributes significantly to its global influence. Carnegie Mellon’s emphasis on interdisciplinary collaboration, fostering creativity, and addressing societal challenges through innovation sets it apart. The university’s vibrant campus culture, successful athletic programs, and a history of producing graduates who excel in various fields further solidify its position as a top-ranked institution known for pushing the boundaries of knowledge and preparing students for leadership roles in a rapidly evolving world.

What Do the Best Colleges & Universities Have in Common?

One of the biggest complaints about US university rankings is that the same schools always end up at the top of popular rankings like U.S. News and World Report. Every year’s rankings look like the previous year’s rankings. How do you find schools if the system is rigged?

There are a lot of reasons that we continually see the usual suspects in university rankings, but it tends to correspond to how Americans measure institutional success. Tangible factors like:

Graduation rates
Job placement
Financial aid

And intangibles like:

Job market reputation
Brand recognition
Networking opportunities
Alumni support

The best-ranked universities in the United States have positive outcomes for their undergraduate education students. A student should be able to expect support from their alma mater to find a job or get started in their career. The universities with the highest ranks also look into the accomplishments of the alumni to measure success after school as an average among all of the students. If the college has a high rate of success among alumni, then the school has a high ranking.

Other factors rankings often look for are financial. Data such as financial aid, funding per student, and endowment (the cash reserves or investments of a college) tell ranking publications something about what resources a college can provide. College affordability has become crucial, according to current education statistics.

Many college rankings are based on surveys of experts, which is where they can determine things like reputation, loyalty, and trust. Unlike education statistics like graduation rates, or even financial data, these factors are subjective. If enough experts agree on a college’s reputation and trustworthiness, though, those factors essentially become “real” – which is to say, employers, colleagues, and employees will take your degree more seriously.

Why Do the Most Prestigious Colleges & Universities Stand Out?

When you look for the most prestigious colleges in the world, you want to understand the factors that make the university stand out for prospective students.

The top colleges in the world have a few key factors that stand out from other programs beyond just Department of Education statistics, like the SAT scores of their applicants or the amount of financial aid offered. The Ivy League schools, for instance, are known for their financial aid packages, which helps increase their graduation rates. They ensure students make it through – without student debt, most of the time.

Branding also plays a key role in prestige among four-year colleges and universities. Schools with a reputation for research and prominent faculty members have a higher rating than other universities. The history behind the school also plays a role in their reputation. When a four-year school has a long history of excellence and influence, as well as academic success, it impacts the school’s reputation and their place in best colleges rankings.

The most prestigious colleges in the world also stand out for their wealth – referred to as an institution’s “endowment.” Prestigious schools also have power due to connections in the government and private industry. These connections help the college or university gain access to funding that can provide more resources for research, more prominent faculty, state-of-the-art facilities, and financial aid. That, of course, continues the cycle of prestige, making the most prestigious more prestigious again.

What are the Pros and Cons of a College Degree?

The most obvious advantage of university education is the career opportunity it provides you. A college education helps you network and build your credentials for a successful career. You have more opportunities and you may find that you are able to increase your earnings potential after graduation to pay your student debt. Most students are more concerned with career success than academic success today. The best school for you might not be as prestigious as other schools, but a good fit is more important than a college’s ranking.

Will A College Degree Help Me Earn More Money?

Average salary for college grads has always been higher than non-grades, but average salary is only part of the story. It’s also about long-term success. Your SAT scores might help you find schools, but degree from a good college has a real value.

Level of Education	Average Salary
High School Diploma	$39,700
Bachelor’s Degree	$61,600
Master’s Degree or Higher	$74,600

How Much Does A College Degree Cost?

Of course, students must consider the return on investment. An undergraduate degree takes around four years to complete, and graduate education may take longer. Tuition costs have been steadily rising, even adjusted for inflation, for two decades.

Institution	% Increase (20 years)	% Increase (20 years)
Private National Universities	132% (not adjusted)	40% (adjusted)
Public National (Out of State)	127% (not adjusted)	38% (adjusted)
Public National (In-State)	158% (not adjusted)	56% (adjusted)

So has financial aid and student debt. College affordability is an issue. You want to look into the details of your career goals before you assume that you need to attend a college or university for your career. Information like average salary for graduates, average student debt, and graduation rate are important.

College Consensus originally published its first Best College ranking in 2018.

Beyond Rankings: What to Look for in a College that Fits You Best

Well-being community.

There are some 4,000 colleges and universities in the U.S., which gives you a lot of choices for finding the college that is a good fit for you.

Often, people think about college from an academic and financial perspective, but there are other, and sometimes other important considerations that don’t show up in the rankings. For example, “Is this campus the right fit for me?” or “What is the best learning environment for me?” or “What do I need on a college campus to grow and thrive?”

A good fit can mean different things to different people, but it generally means a place where you will feel comfortable and engaged—both inside and outside the classroom. A good fit and feeling a sense of belonging is important not only for your own satisfaction, but research shows that it positively impacts school engagement, your mental health, persistence, and educational outcomes. That’s why it’s important to look at the big picture when you’re choosing where to apply and—eventually—go.

How to Start

Do an informal survey.

By the end of your senior year, you will undoubtedly be a little tired of answering questions about your college search and decisions, but, at the start, it can be really exciting to find out about other people’s college experiences. Of course, you will talk with your school counselor, but also ask your parents and guardians, family members, older siblings, friends, and mentors about what they valued in their college experience.

Equally important is thinking through what matters to you now and in the future. Below are a few different ways to think about how a college may be a good fit for you.

What Matters to You?

College setting.

Where do you feel most at home? Do you like the excitement of a big group with lots of different people to meet, or do you prefer smaller gatherings in which you can get to know a few people really well? Does a big city sound invigorating or exhausting? Do you need to be near nature or have ready access to cultural events? Thinking about the kinds of settings you prefer can help you narrow your search.

Diversity of the Student Body and Community

College may be the first time you will live and learn with people who are different from you. Do you want to go to a college where most people are like you, or are you looking for a place where you will have opportunities to get to know and learn from people who are different from you? One thing to keep in mind: One survey found that students who reported interacting with a more diverse group of students were twice as likely to say their degree was worth the cost and more likely to be engaged in their jobs once they graduated.

Sharing Culture, Race, or Identity with Other Students

It can be equally—if not more—important to find a college that supports, affirms, and respects your ethnic, racial, religious or cultural background or one that actively affirms your sexual orientation and gender identity.

You can find out the demographic profile for each school you’re considering on BigFuture , and you can also look for schools with active student groups that share a similar background, identity, or interests. Most schools have comprehensive lists of clubs and organizations on their websites for students to access before they get on campus. There are also some great online resources, that can help you identify whether a college or university is a safe and affirming space for you. Campus Pride , for example, is a great resource to find LGBTQ-friendly colleges and universities.

Academic and Nonacademic Support Services

College courses and college life in general can get challenging, and you may want to ensure that your campus has academic, counseling, and career support services. Academic services might look like tutoring or writing centers, whereas career support might include résumé workshops, mock interviews, and career planning. Many colleges are additionally equipped with counseling services to support your overall well-being. It’s helpful to think about what kind of support you may need and narrow down your college choices from there.

Good Mental Health Support

This area is often overlooked, but it can be critical to your comfort and success at school. It will be really important to take care of your emotional well-being at school since everyone faces challenges and stressors at some point. It’s good to know whether there will be accessible care and mental health resources if you need them. Here are three things you can do to be prepared:

You can usually get lots of information about campus health, counseling, and other student services on your school’s website. During orientation find out where these offices are located on campus, and what their hours are.
Find out what services are available through student support offices. Are they free? Are there limits? Do you need the school insurance plan to use them (usually not)?
Put the important numbers in your phone: medical office, counseling, campus security, and advising are good numbers to have on your speed dial.

If you already are being treated for a physical or mental health condition, you should make sure your campus or local community has the resources needed to help you stay healthy. If you take medication, for instance, you need to make sure there is on-campus or near-campus access to a prescribing provider you can see. As part of your research, ask whether the campus clinics are free and how many visits students can receive.

What's Next

When you have your list of must-haves and nice-to-haves, go explore colleges on BigFuture , look at their college profile including videos from current students of what the college is like, and start saving a college list. Once you’ve found a few colleges you’re interested in, follow them on social media, subscribe to their newsletters if they have them, and find out if anyone you know is an alum. You can also connect with college admissions representatives directly through BigFuture Live —virtual events on college and career planning—to explore which colleges may be a good fit for you.

Ask All the Questions

Use this helpful guide from Indiana University, as well as the priorities you’ve identified and any of the questions below that matter to you, to create a list of questions to ask tour guides, admissions officers, faculty, current students, and alums.

Do you feel like your school is a place where people care about one another?
Do you think students feel a sense of belonging inside and outside the classroom?
Do you think students who are in the minority because of race, socioeconomic background, or identity feel at home and like they belong?
Are there good supports for students when they struggle?

It may feel hard at first, but you will soon find that most folks are happy to share information to help you find the right fit. And, as you gather info and opinions from others, remember that this choice is yours. Trust your gut. You know yourself better than anyone else.

2024 Top Trends in Academic Libraries

A Review of the Trends and Issues

T his article explores the topics and issues that have been trending in academic libraries over the past two years. It draws on research and initiatives from librarians across the profession, highlighting the constant change libraries face. The launch of ChatGPT sparked discussions about the potential impact of artificial intelligence, open access and open science initiatives continued to gain momentum, and the lingering effects of COVID-19 on library workspaces and student well-being remained significant. Rich citations to the literature provide opportunities for further exploration.

AI and AI Literacy

Artificial intelligence (AI) has been a trend in academic libraries for several years, but the release of ChatGPT and other generative AI tools has sparked renewed interest in the topic. This could have profound implications for academic libraries in the future. As Andrew M. Cox and Suvodeep Mazumdar note, “There is immense potential for it to increase access to knowledge in fundamental ways, for example through improved search and recommendation, through description of digital materials at scale, through transcription, and through automated translation.” 1 AI also raises a host of ethical and legal issues, ranging from concerns about bias, privacy, non-representative training data, and misinformation to issues around copyright, plagiarism, and exploitation. 2

Due to their ease of use, generative AI tools like ChatGPT have become extremely popular. These tools leverage large language models (LLMs) trained on massive datasets of text or images. LLMs use neural networks and natural language processing to analyze input prompts and generate responses based on the statistical patterns learned from the training data. Beyond ChatGPT, AI is also being incorporated into literature searching, summarization, and programming tools such as Elicit, Semantic Scholar, scite, and Copilot for GitHub. 3 With the growing popularity of these tools among students, faculty are increasingly turning to librarians to help cultivate AI literacy, discussing AI and its impact on literature searching and citations with their classes. 4

Duri Long and Brian Magerko define AI literacy “as a set of competencies that enables individuals to critically evaluate AI technologies; communicate and collaborate effectively with AI; and use AI as a tool online, at home, and in the workplace.” 5 Leo S. Lo outlines a framework to assist librarians and students in developing more effective prompts for generative AI, a process called prompt engineering. As he states, using his framework, “librarians can help students develop critical thinking skills, improve their comprehension of AI-generated content, and optimize AI-based research processes.” 6 It is also important to raise awareness among students of the potential problems associated with AI including accuracy, hallucinations, bias, ethical issues, and environmental impact. Some institutions have begun developing workshop series to discuss and facilitate conversations with students about these issues, 7 and the University of Florida has started an AI Across the Curriculum initiative to introduce all undergraduate students to AI and better prepare them for the future workforce. 8

Academic libraries have also been pursuing possible roles for AI within the library itself. This has included setting up AI research spaces, exploring robotics, investigating ethical issues and implicit bias in machine learning, and experimenting with using AI to classify images, refine metadata, and improve discovery. 9 Many also see a broader role for libraries within the AI landscape. Fiona Bradley calls for libraries to be involved in AI discussions at the national level and notes that “the sector is already participating in consultations and processes to ensure that the future of AI is rights-based, ethical, and transparent.” 10

Open Pedagogy and Instructional Design

Although open educational resource (OER) initiatives are not new, libraries have recently begun expanding their impact by investigating the potential to enrich student learning through open pedagogy. In their timely book, Mary Ann Cullen and Elizabeth Dill explore the foundation, approaches, and implementation of open pedagogy as a strategy for information literacy in higher education. 11 Open pedagogy requires students to be actively involved in the design, creation, and curation of OER learning materials through renewable assignments. These assignments invite students to contribute to the production and dissemination of knowledge, pushing them past more traditional library projects. Wikipedia assignments are among the most popular forms of renewable assignments, encouraging students to find, evaluate, and improve upon the information on its pages. 12 Other examples of renewable assignments include creating research toolkits, online courses, ebooks, and living websites. 13 Each of these renewable assignments allows students to see themselves as active creators of information rather than passive consumers.

According to Eric Werth and Katherine Williams, to increase student motivation, “OER-enabled pedagogy must be structured in a way that allows autonomy, competence, and relatedness.” 14 Aligning OER projects with practical and real-world knowledge can positively impact student engagement. 15 At the heart of this engagement is inclusive practice. By creating a supportive environment where all students have access to the same materials, instructors foster inclusivity in their courses. 16 Instructors can also motivate students to see the value of open pedagogy by helping them find their own interests and passion within these assignments, 17 showing students that they have control over their content, 18 and demonstrating that their work can have a global impact. 19

Concerns have been raised about the high workload and long-term sustainability of open pedagogy. Kate McNally Carter and Ariana Santiago find that “workload was often minimized or entirely overlooked as a factor in many studies in favor of highlighting student success outcomes” and advise working toward sustainability by creating adaptable renewable assignments that can fit into many contexts and subject areas. 20 Bryan McGeary, Christopher Guder, and Ashwini Ganeshan further suggest that broad groups of staff should contribute to this important work for OER-enabled pedagogy to be sustainable. 21

Open Science and Reproducibility

As early advocates for open access and research data management, libraries are now assessing their potential roles in the burgeoning open science movement, which increasingly emphasizes equity, collaboration, reproducibility, security, and privacy in supporting the whole research ecosystem. 22 Much of this recent interest in open science has been spurred by the federal government, with US agencies collaborating on the Year of Open Science campaign, and NASA launching its Transform to Open Science (TOPS) initiative and Open Science 101 virtual training. 23 At the institutional level, many universities and libraries have joined the Higher Education Leadership Initiative for Open Scholarship (HELIOS Open), which aims to collaborate on “a more transparent, inclusive, and trustworthy research ecosystem” through presidential commitment, campus engagement, and communities of practice. 24

As open scholarship gains momentum, libraries face growing calls to expand their roles beyond technical support. Authors from UNESCO emphasize the need for libraries to be “a bridge between local contexts and the global scholarly community,” 25 while LIBER (Association of European Research Libraries) identifies “advancing open science” as a core component of its strategy, aiming for libraries to “stimulate, facilitate, co-develop and manage infrastructures and practices designed to take Open Science to the next level.” 26 Reflecting these calls, a recent book from ACRL positions open science as “an emerging synthesis of the various streams of open.” 27 It recommends changes to incentive structures and urges consolidation of siloed services to create an open infrastructure aligned with open research values and available equally to all researchers. By promoting open practices and facilitating infrastructure development, libraries can solidify their place as leaders in the evolving open scholarship landscape.

As advocates for open science, libraries also contribute to one of its key outcomes: reproducibility. 28 This new area of service requires librarians to become deeply integrated in research communities, understanding researchers’ needs and tools while simultaneously leveraging their unique position as institutional hubs to connect stakeholders and research services partners. 29 Thanks to stricter National Institutes of Health demands for research rigor and reproducibility, health science librarians have emerged as key players in educating researchers on these topics. Their success stories showcase libraries’ potential to deliver valuable instruction in this crucial area, while also underlining the critical need for collaborative partnerships to further enhance research reproducibility services. 30

Open Access and Equitable Publishing

In the wake of recent calls for more open research publication practices, researchers have been exploring the impact of article processing charges, transformative agreements, open access models, and new policy development on equity and access in publishing practices.

Findings show that faculty perceptions of open access publishing have remained virtually the same over the past twenty years, citing commonplace challenges that have yet to be resolved: uncertainty around the prestige of open access journals, confusion around types of open access, and lack of clarity and acceptance of open access in the promotion and tenure process. 31 On the other hand, students increasingly rely on open access articles in their assignments. A study of community college students found that 56.8% of their citations were open access articles, with one key benefit being that they “will still have access to open access search tools after they are no longer in college.” 32

Within that context, many researchers feel that the open access movement has been co-opted by commercial publishers and are advocating for a return to scholar-led publishing communities. Discussing the global limitations of corporate publishing, several authors urge libraries and consortia to support their research communities by avoiding bundled publishing service agreements, contributing to scholar-led initiatives, and redistributing funds to support the Global South. 33 In addition, there is growing understanding that open access does not necessarily mean universal accessibility. Multiple authors have shed light on the inequities within open access publishing, including design practices and publishing cost structures that are exclusionary; researchers recommend libraries focus on integrating accessibility practices into design 34 and support bibliodiversity to emphasize “the critical diversity of authors and scholarly works representing cultures, languages, genres and all kinds of scholarly and scientific endeavours.” 35

A series of new tools and proposals have recently been released to guide libraries and scholars as they work to support a values-driven publishing ecosystem. These guidelines call for systems that enable scholars to choose when their research is made public and decenter the journal article as the sole object of importance in the research lifecycle, 36 encourage libraries to align their publishing infrastructure and practices with key values and ethical frameworks, 37 and propose helping “new and established open access journals in navigating the rapidly changing landscape of open access publishing.” 38

Disrupting and Reconceiving Collection Practices

While there had been actions and initiatives relating to diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in libraries before 2020, much of that effort consisted of broad advocacy and raising awareness. 39 Libraries are increasingly recognizing that making good on public statements will require firm resource commitments, disruption of existing systems, and sustained action in multiple arenas. 40 This work requires deep reflection and disruption: deconstructing systems for collecting and describing materials, deconstructing myths of librarian authority, and deconstructing student assumptions about information.

In recent years, libraries have begun putting more attention and action into re-evaluating library collections and collection management practices. Auditing collections through a social justice lens or to address colonialist and Euro-centric practices involves re-examining values, defining what “diversity” means in the context of collections, and setting tangible markers for progress. 41 In setting these parameters, it’s important to “embrace imperfection,” 42 which might include defining a more targeted goal or an initial starting point. 43 In each case, these efforts are leading to a re-examination of acquisition practices and systems, including approval plans and demand-driven acquisition programs, which may “amplify biases already present in the higher education and publishing industries.” 44

In addition to reallocating collection funds, libraries acting to make their collections more diverse and inclusive are reconsidering personnel commitments and involving more people in collection activities. Reversing earlier trends, some libraries are increasing staff time on collection development and cataloging, and they are partnering with underrepresented communities to select and describe materials. 45 This involves multiple points of outreach and consultation over the course of a project, and it requires libraries to embrace the complexities that their partners share about working with multiple communities. 46 Regardless of approach, libraries will need to consider how to sustain these improvements in collection building and management practices throughout changes in budgets, leadership, and staffing levels. 47

Politicization of Academic Libraries

The landscape of academic libraries continues to be significantly impacted and shaped by a highly political and polarizing climate. As academic libraries navigate this landscape, it becomes crucial for them to strike a balance between neutrality and civic engagement, acknowledging the inherent political dimensions of their collections, programs, and spaces. They must continue to maintain an active role in the enactment of democracy, despite ongoing and future threats.

Renowned scholar John Buschmann contends in several scholarly publications that libraries historically play an important role in the democratic fabric of society and navigate crises while persisting through terrorist acts, 48 politically charged environments, 49 and pandemics. 50 Even during extreme geopolitical crises like wars and international sanctions, libraries are implicated as active participants in affecting and responding to the complex sociopolitical environment they inhabit. 51 In trying to counter fake news rhetoric, libraries can unintentionally be drawn into political processes by simply providing research services and fighting misinformation and disinformation. 52 In one study, several land-grant university library websites were analyzed and found to indeed be “serving as significant providers of political information during politically turbulent times.” 53

Although censorship of library collections using “book bans” has primarily affected public libraries, academic libraries now find they too are being drawn into this heated dialogue, especially surrounding social justice, DEI, and antiracism initiatives. Zoë Abbie Teel contends that anti-DEI legislation may extend its impact to potentially influence library policies and acquisitions, including “the availability of certain materials’’ that may be seen as promoting DEI. 54 The question of whether libraries can remain “neutral” in the face of social injustice has created debate among library practitioners. 55 Steve Rosato discusses the role of academic librarians and publishers as “vanguards” of critical DEI content, 56 and Annis Lee Adams presents an array of antiracism resources to support library staff, emphasizing the active role libraries play in addressing racial issues. 57 Libraries can also amplify their antiracism resources by partnering with other campus stakeholders. 58 Two articles highlight the need for libraries to actively support inclusivity, with Qing H. Stellwagen and Steven Bingo emphasizing cultural celebrations as a means of creating a sense of community on campus 59 and Silvia Vong discussing the impact of racial capitalism on academic librarians and libraries, specifically focusing on issues of representation and equity within library staff. 60

Anti-DEI Legislation, Academic Freedom, and Unionization

In recent years, academic librarians and library staff have experienced the growing challenge of low morale and burnout. 61 Compounding this for many staff, a recent wave of anti-DEI legislation has been introduced and passed in many states. These laws impose restrictions on DEI offices, staff training, diversity statements, and “identity-based preferences for hiring and admissions,” with one state’s legislation compelling public colleges to designate “agents” to oversee “prohibitions on DEI spending.” 62 Some states have also severed ties with the American Library Association (ALA) 63 amid allegations that the association is constrained by its perspectives on gender ideology and a left-leaning bias. 64

The contentious atmosphere surrounding library associations and the uptick in book challenges, particularly against titles by or about LGBTQIA+ people and people of color or relating to DEI content, 65 have implications for academic libraries and academic freedom in particular. The Association of American University Professors emphasizes the significance of “academic freedom, tenure, and shared governance” in providing a foundation for faculty members. 66 Tenure is seen as a crucial safeguard against the censorship and book banning observed in school libraries, ensuring impartiality and protecting academic libraries. 67

Unions may also play a role in protecting academic freedom. Higher education has witnessed an increase in union activities, strikes, and labor activism recently. 68 The pandemic has played a role in sparking these efforts, with one author suggesting it “exacerbated existing issues and brought up new ones,” 69 and 2023–24 ALA President Emily Drabinski has recognized the role of unions in protecting library workers from extremist groups, censorship, and unsafe conditions. 70 Library unions provide guarantees for fair wages, 71 improved working conditions, 72 the preservation of academic freedom, 73 and protection against unilateral decision-making, such as institutional reorganization and reimagining library workers’ research and roles. 74 The recent increase in union activities reflects a growing recognition of the power of collective bargaining to address the multifaceted challenges facing academic libraries in the current sociopolitical climate.

Post-pandemic Workplace and Hybrid Work Environments

The pandemic triggered widespread soul-searching, leading librarians to re-evaluate their priorities and seek workplaces aligned with their values. Not immune from “The Great Reshuffle,” many library staff have considered leaving their positions due to pandemic stress and lack of intrinsic motivators like work-life balance and growth. In a recent survey of academic librarians, nearly half said they were thinking of leaving their job “about half the time or more.” 75 When they remain, they want to have a role in defining the future. In one study, librarians “repeatedly emphasized the need for working conditions going forward to be governed through collegiality and conversation, rather than defaulting to the pre-pandemic organizational norms.” 76 Andrea Falcone and Lyda Fontes McCartin suggest that libraries must adapt to this shift by prioritizing talent retention through improved compensation, workload management, and flexible work options. 77 At the same time, perceived inequities within libraries and universities can fuel dissatisfaction and burnout. 78 Academic librarians may also risk burnout due to the emotional labor inherent in their work: “Meeting the societal and user expectations of being a librarian requires simultaneously regulating or performing one’s own emotions and interpreting, managing, and responding to the emotions of users.” 79 Effective prevention requires emotional literacy and supportive leadership that acknowledges the emotional toll and promotes decompression strategies, especially for librarians of color who often bear the brunt of this burden. 80

In this new workplace environment, many libraries are embracing flexible work arrangements as one strategy for addressing dissatisfaction and burnout. “Many workers now perceive pre-pandemic work modalities and workplace expectations as unnecessary, unrealistic, and undesirable, and employers have taken notice of the shift in employee attitudes.” 81 In fact, recent surveys have shown that three-quarters of academic libraries now offer hybrid work environments with flexible work arrangements. These same studies note that remote work offers benefits like greater productivity and reduced stress while onsite work fosters better onboarding, engagement, and team building. As a result, even when flexible work arrangements are available, usage by staff varies widely, suggesting a diverse workforce with a range of preferences. 82 To foster trust, knowledge, empathy, and community in such a hybrid environment, institutions must acknowledge its complexities and invest in intentional efforts to rebuild a strong academic workplace culture. 83 This new hybrid environment may also require redesigning staff spaces and setting new priorities for onsite work. The physical office is predicted to transform into a space for building social connections, fostering learning, and sparking innovation, which will necessitate intentional leadership that prioritizes face-to-face interaction and facilitates collaboration within a redesigned office environment. 84

Makerspaces and Tech Spaces

Designed for innovative and creative experimentation, makerspaces are defined as “low- and high-tech communal learning environments where people can create, build, and invent with digital and fabrication tools.” 85 While makerspaces started mostly in engineering departments, libraries quickly adopted the idea to become leaders in innovation through technology. In fact, the library is now the most common place for a makerspace to live on an academic campus. 86 Makerspaces found in academic libraries tend to “focus on digital fabrication, using computerized software-driven equipment,” with 3D printers and laser cutters being “the most commonly described equipment in Makerspaces in the research literature.” 87

As libraries continue to assess their user needs, support for these spaces is increasingly important. However, maintaining a thriving makerspace does not come without challenges, which include proper staffing and financial support for costly technology. 88 Despite these challenges, librarians are collaborating more through their makerspaces to amplify student engagement in the library. While not every endeavor has been successful, initiatives like the 3D Selfie Booth 89 and Game Jam 90 showcase library staff’s creativity and highlight positive interactions with makerspace technology, leading authors to express interest in deeper collaboration.

By analyzing student learning styles against major typologies of learning, the effectiveness of the makerspace on student engagement becomes clear. Students using these spaces learn through creation and interaction—with a community, experts, and a real-world environment. In makerspaces, “students are engaging in both content and culture knowledge and skills along with communication, management, ingenuity, and self-awareness.” 91 Students who visit makerspaces on a regular basis are more inclined to continue their use over time, indicating that ongoing engagement is crucial for students to perceive the usefulness of the space. 92

Makerspaces enable students to build self-efficacy, explore their entrepreneurial spirit, 93 and learn skills that will last them long past their academic career. Evolving alongside patron needs, academic libraries are integrating makerspaces into their future vision, offering access to new technologies, collaborative opportunities, and platforms for exploring personal interests. 94

Supporting Student Well-being Post-pandemic

The changes to learning environments and increased social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic had a mental health impact on current and incoming college students including increased rates of depression and anxiety. 95 Academic libraries are adopting new strategies to address student mental health and well-being that go beyond scholarship to support for the whole student. 96 The “whole-university” approach is in use in some institutions with libraries serving as a vital part of an interconnected team of university offices working together to support student mental health. 97 These efforts align with trends focused on offering more personalized, socially centered service in libraries, 98 and they also relate to initiatives to support the evolving usage of library space. Students value the library as a social space and visit libraries as a way to overcome social isolation and find community. 99 For example, students in a recent focus group study noted using physical library spaces to socialize and de-stress 100 while librarians at Virginia Commonwealth University created a guide with audio and visual resources to help students re-create the library mood from home during the pandemic. 101 As another way to prioritize student wellness, libraries are adding leisure reading collections to support mindfulness, 102 and they are weaving mindfulness practices into information literacy instruction. 103 Academic librarians have also been looking inward, acknowledging the emotional work involved in supporting students and managing change through the pandemic. 104

The future holds many hurdles for academic librarians, such as the possible impacts of AI on higher education and the uncertainty of recurring operating and materials budgets. We are simultaneously thrilled by the new possibilities for hybrid teamwork and workspaces, the growing demand for diverse viewpoints, and the integration of innovative methods to provide access to our common resources. These challenges will require new policies and practices, but they will also enable us to innovate, adapt, and respond to complex and evolving phenomena in our common pursuit of supporting student achievement and enhancing teaching, learning, and academic research.

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Johnson and Page, “What’s in a Workload?”
Ashlea Green, “Academic Library Employees and Their Work Modality Options and Preferences,” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 49, no. 5 (September 1, 2023): 102764, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2023.102764 , p. 1.
Green, “Academic Library Employees and Their Work Modality Options and Preferences”; Daniel Pfeiffer, “New Data Reveal the Future of Remote Work in Libraries,” Choice 360 (blog), February 5, 2024, https://www.choice360.org/libtech-insight/new-data-reveal-the-future-for-remote-work-in-libraries/ .
Joshua Kim, “Hybrid Work and the University Conversations We Need to Have,” Inside Higher Ed (blog), July 21, 2023, https://www.insidehighered.com/opinion/blogs/learning-innovation/2023/07/21/hybrid-work-and-university-conversations-we-need-have .
Anne-Laure Fayard, John Weeks, and Mahwesh Khan, “Designing the Hybrid Office,” Harvard Business Review 99, no. 2 (March-April 2021): 114–23.
Marijel (Maggie) Melo, Kimberly Hirsh, and Laura March, “Makerspaces in Libraries at U.S. Public Colleges and Universities: A Census,” portal: Libraries and the Academy 23, no. 1 (January 2023): 35–43, https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2023.0007 , p.35.
Melo, Hirsh, and March, “Makerspaces in Libraries at U.S. Public Colleges and Universities.”
Emilia C. Bell, Stephanie Piper, and Carmel O’Sullivan, “Users’ Experiences in a Regional Academic Library Makerspace,” Journal of the Australian Library and Information Association 72, no. 2 (April 3, 2023): 135–49, https://doi.org/10.1080/24750158.2023.2202512 .
Lawren Wilkins and John DeLooper, “If You Build It, Will They Come? Reflections on Creating a Community College Library Makerspace,” Public Services Quarterly 17, no. 4 (October 2, 2021): 276–85, https://doi.org/10.1080/15228959.2021.1887049 .
Alex Watson, “To Thine Own 3D Selfie Be True: Outreach for an Academic Library Makerspace with a 3D Selfie Booth,” Information Technology and Libraries 42, no. 4 (December 18, 2023), https://doi.org/10.5860/ital.v42i4.15107 .
Amber Sewell, “Game Jams for Academic Libraries: Lessons Learned from a Collaboration with the Makerspace,” College & Research Libraries News 85, no. 1 (2024), https://doi.org/10.5860/crln.85.1.23 .
Megan Tomko, Melissa Alemán, Robert Nagel, Wendy Newstetter, Julie Linsey, “A Typology for Learning: Examining How Academic Makerspaces Support Learning for Students,” Journal of Mechanical Design 145, no. 9 (September 1, 2023): 091402, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4062701 , p. 9.
Bala Haruna and K. Kiran, “Intrinsic Motivation as a Determinant of Perceived Usefulness of Library Makerspace: The Influence of Learning Dimensions,” Malaysian Journal of Library and Information Science 28, no. 1 (May 11, 2023): 15–34, https://doi.org/10.22452/mjlis.vol28no1.2 .
Sewell, “Game Jams for Academic Libraries.”
Sarita S. Rajan, Mohamed Esmail, and Mohamed Musthafa K., “Repositioning Academic Libraries as a Hub of Technology Enhanced Learning Space: Innovations and Challenges,” Library Philosophy and Practice , January 10, 2022, https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/6694 .
Jad A. Elharake, Faris Akbar, Amyn A. Malik, Walter Gilliam, and Saad B. Omer, “Mental Health Impact of COVID-19 among Children and College Students: A Systematic Review,” Child Psychiatry & Human Development 54, no. 3 (June 1, 2023): 913–25, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-021-01297-1 .
Marta Bladek, “Student Well-Being Matters: Academic Library Support for the Whole Student,” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 47, no. 3 (May 1, 2021): 102349, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2021.102349 .
Liz Brewster and Andrew M. Cox, “Taking a ‘Whole-University’ Approach to Student Mental Health: The Contribution of Academic Libraries,” Higher Education Research & Development 42, no. 1 (January 2, 2023): 33–47, https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2022.2043249 .
Sheila Corrall, “The Social Mission of Academic Libraries in Higher Education,” in The Social Future of Academic Libraries: New Perspectives on Communities, Networks, and Engagement , ed. Paul Bracke, Sheila Corrall, and Tim Schlak (London: Facet, 2022), 109–48, https://doi.org/10.29085/9781783304738.007 .
Yujin Kim and Eunhwa Yang, “Academic Library Spaces and Student Activities during the COVID-19 Pandemic,” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 48, no. 4 (July 1, 2022): 102529, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2022.102529 .
Brendan Johnson, “Using the Physical Academic Library to Cope with Academic Stress,” Journal of Library Outreach and Engagement 3 (September 7, 2023): 35–49, https://doi.org/10.21900/j.jloe.v3.956 .
Megan Hodge, “Library Mood: Re-Creating the Library Experience from Home,” portal: Libraries and the Academy 22, no. 1 (January 6, 2022): 227–40, https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2022.0002 .
Pauline Dewan, “Leisure Reading as a Mindfulness Activity: The Implications for Academic Reference Librarians,” The Reference Librarian 64, no. 1 (January 2, 2023): 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1080/02763877.2022.2156968 .
Selenay Aytac and Diane Mizrachi, “The Mindfulness Framework for Implementing Mindfulness into Information Literacy Instruction,” The Reference Librarian 63, no. 1–2 (April 3, 2022): 43–61, https://doi.org/10.1080/02763877.2022.2030273 .
Susan Carter, Cecily Andersen, Michaell Turner, and Lorraine Gaunt, “‘What about Us?’ Wellbeing of Higher Education Librarians,” The Journal of Academic Librarianship 49, no. 1 (January 1, 2023): 102619, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2022.102619 ; Maryellen Nash, Barbara Lewis, Jessica Szempruch, Stephanie Jacobs, and Susan Silver, “Together, Apart: Communication Dynamics among Academic Librarians during the COVID-19 Pandemic,” College & Research Libraries 83, no. 6 (November 2022): 946–65, https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.83.6.946 .

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School Leaders

100 Last-Day-of-School Activities Your Students Will Love!

100+ Critical Thinking Questions for Students To Ask About Anything

Critical thinkers question everything.

In an age of “fake news” claims and constant argument about pretty much any issue, critical thinking skills are key. Teach your students that it’s vital to ask questions about everything, but that it’s also important to ask the right sorts of questions. Students can use these critical thinking questions with fiction or nonfiction texts. They’re also useful when discussing important issues or trying to understand others’ motivations in general.

“Who” Critical Thinking Questions

Questions like these help students ponder who’s involved in a story and how the actions affect them. They’ll also consider who’s telling the tale and how reliable that narrator might be.

Is the protagonist?
Is the antagonist?
Caused harm?
Is harmed as a result?
Was the most important character?

Is responsible?
Is most directly affected?
Should have won?
Will benefit?
Would be affected by this?

Makes the decisions?

“What” Critical Thinking Questions

Ask questions that explore issues more deeply, including those that might not be directly answered in the text.

Background information do I know or need to know?
Is the main message?
Are the defining characteristics?

Questions or concerns do I have?
Don’t I understand?
Evidence supports the author’s conclusion?
Would it be like if … ?
Could happen if … ?
Other outcomes might have happened?
Questions would you have asked?
Would you ask the author about … ?
Was the point of … ?
Should have happened instead?
Is that character’s motive?
Else could have changed the whole story?

Can you conclude?
Would your position have been in that situation?
Would happen if … ?
Makes your position stronger?
Was the turning point?
Is the point of the question?
Did it mean when … ?
Is the other side of this argument?
Was the purpose of … ?
Does ______ mean?
Is the problem you are trying to solve?
Does the evidence say?
Assumptions are you making?
Is a better alternative?
Are the strengths of the argument?

Are the weaknesses of the argument?
Is the difference between _______ and _______?

“Where” Critical Thinking Questions

Think about where the story is set and how it affects the actions. Plus, consider where and how you can learn more.

Would this issue be a major problem?
Are areas for improvement?
Did the story change?
Would you most often find this problem?

Are there similar situations?
Would you go to get answers to this problem?
Can this be improved?
Can you get more information?
Will this idea take us?

“When” Critical Thinking Questions

Think about timing and the effect it has on the characters or people involved.

Is this acceptable?
Is this unacceptable?

Does this become a problem?
Is the best time to take action?
Will we be able to tell if it worked?
Is it time to reassess?
Should we ask for help?
Is the best time to start?
Is it time to stop?
Would this benefit society?

Has this happened before?

“Why” Critical Thinking Questions

Asking “why” might be one of the most important parts of critical thinking. Exploring and understanding motivation helps develop empathy and make sense of difficult situations.

Is _________ happening?
Have we allowed this to happen?
Should people care about this issue?

Is this a problem?
Did the character say … ?
Did the character do … ?
Is this relevant?
Did the author write this?
Did the author decide to … ?
Is this important?

Did that happen?
Is it necessary?
Do you think I (he, she, they) asked that question?
Is that answer the best one?
Do we need this today?

“How” Critical Thinking Questions

Use these questions to consider how things happen and whether change is possible.

Do we know this is true?
Does the language used affect the story?
Would you solve … ?
Is this different from other situations?

Is this similar to … ?
Would you use … ?
Does the location affect the story?
Could the story have ended differently?
Does this work?
Could this be harmful?
Does this connect with what I already know?
Else could this have been handled?
Should they have responded?

Would you feel about … ?
Does this change the outcome?
Did you make that decision?
Does this benefit you/others?
Does this hurt you/others?
Could this problem be avoided?

What are your favorite critical thinking questions? Come exchange ideas on the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook .

Plus, check out 10 tips for teaching kids to be awesome critical thinkers ., you might also like.

Examples of critical thinking skills like correlation tick-tac-Toe, which teaches analysis skills and debates which teach evaluation skills.

5 Critical Thinking Skills Every Kid Needs To Learn (And How To Teach Them)

Teach them to thoughtfully question the world around them. Continue Reading

Undergraduate Programs

Create your future with an otis college of art and design bachelor of fine arts degree, an empowering, career-oriented education led by field-leading faculty..

Otis College undergraduate programs feature immersive first-year Foundation courses, an expansive Liberal Arts and Sciences curriculum, and a Creative Action Integrated Learning program that introduces social and environmental issues affecting creative disciplines. Through areas of emphasis and 13 minors, we prepare you for a thriving career that capitalizes on your unique point of view.

BFA Degree Programs

Bfa in animation.

Studio program that explores the power of effective visual communication through 2D and 3D motion design

BFA in Fine Arts

Rigorous education that can be tailored to your needs and interests, with access to a full range of labs, shops, and studios

BFA in Graphic Design

Learning that encompasses research and development, critical thinking, and fearless image making as it applies to work in the 2D, 3D, 4D fields

BFA in Environmental Design

In this program, students learn to design the spaces where we work, play, sleep, and dream.

BFA in Fashion Design

A structured curriculum led by hands-on professional mentors embracing technology and innovation in fashion design

BFA in Game and Entertainment Design

Industry-standard pipelines for creating visual representations of characters, environments, and props for games and films

BFA in Illustration

Personal style cultivation in multiple contexts for the image-making and communication needs of a variety of industries

BFA in Toy Design

One of the only comprehensive four‐year toy design degrees in the world, located at the center of a global industry

BFA in Product Design

Develop the skills that are key to creating products and experiences in both physical and digital form.

Otis College emphasizes collaboration and a multidisciplinary education that nurtures creativity, vision, and critical thinking.

Your first year in an Otis BFA program builds up your making and critical thinking skills in Foundation studio, Liberal Arts and Sciences , and Creative Action courses.

The Core Curriculum

Our majors and their areas of emphasis are rounded out with 13 minors. These specialized courses and experiences can extend your work into a specific theme or topic.

Otis College Minors

Art and Design Education

The new Art and Design Education minor prepares students to engage professionally as socially conscious artists, designers, and educators in diverse communities and contexts.

ACT Program

Otis College gives artists and designers the support to become who they are meant to be.

I implore you to give your all while we're here on earth. We're only here for so long. I encourage you to make your life one you’ll be proud to have lived—one that will continue to matter to you, the community, and to the world. Don’t shy away from failure. Resist the crippling effects of fear. You can do whatever it is that you're dreaming to do."

Otis College has supported me through great amounts of resources, such as mentorships and internship fairs. In addition, each course not only helped develop my skills but also allowed me to find my aesthetic. I often hear from interviewers how well Otis has trained me for the fashion industry.”

Otis provided me with a space that allows me to experiment, explore, and combine new and different art materials. I have my own studio with other classmates. I have the freedom to do what I want. I have a space where I can be me without a second thought. Otis has given me many job opportunities L.A. has to offer artists."

Keep Exploring

Create your future at Otis College of Art and Design in Los Angeles.

Admission Deadlines

Explore upcoming admission deadlines as well as next steps to submitting a successful application and portfolio.

Financial aid opportunities at Otis include academic scholarships, need-based grants, loans, and work study opportunities.

Careers and Outcomes

Follow your talents to a satisfying career with an education from Otis College of Art and Design.

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COMMENTS

Best Critical Thinking Courses Online with Certificates [2024]
Critical Thinking Skills for the Professional. Skills you'll gain: Leadership and Management, Problem Solving, Collaboration, Communication, Critical Thinking. 4.8. (788 reviews) Beginner · Course · 1 - 4 Weeks. C. University of Michigan.
What is critical thinking?
Critical thinking is a kind of thinking in which you question, analyse, interpret , evaluate and make a judgement about what you read, hear, say, or write. The term critical comes from the Greek word kritikos meaning "able to judge or discern". Good critical thinking is about making reliable judgements based on reliable information.
7.4 Critical Thinking
Critical thinking has become a buzz phrase in education and corporate environments in recent years. The definitions vary slightly, but most agree that thinking critically includes some form of judgement that thinkers generate after careful analysis of the perspectives, opinions, or experimental results present for a particular problem or situation.
Critical Thinking Skills
Critical thinking is a desire to seek, patience to doubt, fondness to meditate, slowness to assert, readiness to consider, carefulness to dispose and set in order; and hatred for every kind of imposture. —Francis Bacon, philosopher. Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for college students, but it should also be a lifelong pursuit.
Critical thinking for college, career, and citizenship
Critical thinking is using the skills or strategies that that are most likely to lead to a desired outcome. It is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed. It is the sort of thinking we should be ...
Does College Teach Critical Thinking? A Meta-Analysis
Even without explicit attempts to foster critical thinking, there is certainly a widespread perception that college breeds critical thinkers. Tsui (1998) reported that 92% of students in a large multi-institution study believed they had made some gains in critical thinking, and 39.3% thought their critical thinking had grown much stronger. Only 8.9% believed it had not changed or had grown weaker.
Applying Critical and Creative Thinking Skills in College and Everyday
Critical thinking is the active, persistent and careful consideration of a belief or form of knowledge. Every time students use evidence to form judgements, analyze the ideas or conditions that support conclusions, and evaluate their own thinking, they engage their critical thinking skills.
How to Develop Critical Thinking Skills Before College
Here are six ways high school students can develop critical-thinking skills before college: Build your domain-specific skillset. Conduct experiments. Question your presumptions. Read books written ...
4.5 Critical Thinking
Over time, attitudes, evidence, and opinions change, and as a critical thinker, you must continue to research, synthesize newly discovered evidence, and adapt to that new information. Information, attitudes, laws, and acceptance of smoking changed dramatically over time. More recently, vaping and related practices have rekindled debates and ...
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is important because it relates to nearly all tasks, situations, topics, careers, environments, challenges, and opportunities. It's a "domain-general" thinking skill—not a thinking skill that's reserved for a one subject alone or restricted to a particular subject area. Critical thinking is used in every domain, from ...
What Are Critical Thinking Skills and Why Are They Important?
It makes you a well-rounded individual, one who has looked at all of their options and possible solutions before making a choice. According to the University of the People in California, having critical thinking skills is important because they are [ 1 ]: Universal. Crucial for the economy. Essential for improving language and presentation skills.
What is critical thinking? And do universities really teach it?
A 'graduate attribute'. Universities claim that they impart critical thinking to students as a "graduate attribute". Look at any carefully-prepared institutional list of hoped-for graduate ...
Developing Critical Thinking
In a time where deliberately false information is continually introduced into public discourse, and quickly spread through social media shares and likes, it is more important than ever for young people to develop their critical thinking. That skill, says Georgetown professor William T. Gormley, consists of three elements: a capacity to spot ...
Critical thinking
Critical thinking is the art of making clear, reasoned judgements based on interpreting, understanding, applying and synthesising evidence gathered from observation, reading and experimentation. Essential Study Skills: The Complete Guide to Success at University (4th ed.) London: SAGE, p94. Being critical does not just mean finding fault.
What Is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment. To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources. Critical thinking skills help you to: Identify credible sources. Evaluate and respond to arguments.
How Higher Education Fosters Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills
According to one study DBL teaches students how to look at the components of a problem and come to a rational decision. Evidence shows that there is a correlation between the development of problem-solving and critical thinking skills (Plummer et al. 2022). This style encourages students to look at all sides of an issue and come to a valid ...
7 Ways to Improve Your Critical Thinking Skills
Seek the simple solution first. 2. Question Basic Assumptions. "When you assume, you make an ass out of you and me.". The above saying holds true when you're thinking through a problem. it's quite easy to make an ass of yourself simply by failing to question your basic assumptions.
Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving
Cooperative Learning Strategies: Cooper (1995) argues that putting students in group learning situations is the best way to foster critical thinking. "In properly structured cooperative learning environments, students perform more of the active, critical thinking with continuous support and feedback from other students and the teacher" (p. 8).
Critical Thinking Skills for the Professional
Module 1 • 2 hours to complete. In this module, you will be able to apply a model for solving any problem, large or small, in a creative and collaborative way. You will also be able to identify all aspects of a problem and examine role in the problem. You will be able to reframe a goal oriented question. What's included.
Meet The College That Launched A Certificate In Critical Thinking
A growing number of colleges and universities are recognizing the benefits of coursework devoted to critical thinking. Last year, the Cornell University SC Johnson College of Business launched an ...
5 Majors for Creative Thinkers and Critical Strategists
1. Pre-Pharmacy. In order to succeed in a major like pre-pharmacy, you must have an aptitude for attention to detail, critical thinking, and the desire to understand the scientific method. While this major is rooted in STEM education, having interpersonal skills — like empathy and compassion — are equally as important for success.
Defining Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.
The best books on Critical Thinking
Thinking from A to Z. by Nigel Warburton. Read. 1 Calling Bullshit: The Art of Skepticism in a Data-Driven World by Carl Bergstrom & Jevin West. 2 Thinking, Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman. 3 Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About The World — And Why Things Are Better Than You Think by Hans Rosling. 4 Black Box Thinking: The Surprising ...
Best major for developing critical thinking skills? : r/college
Higher IQ = faster thinking imo. You can definitely improve your critical thinking skills through practice. Critical thinking is just "a way of thinking" and most of college is just teaching you "how to think" for yourself and at a higher level, especially in upper division courses because a lot of it is very loose education, you're ...
50 Best Colleges & Universities for 2024
Created on January 18, 2024. Updated: February 27, 2024. Top 5. 1 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2 Princeton University. 3 Stanford University. 4 Harvard University. 5 Yale University. Our Best Colleges & Universities list is a composite best colleges ranking designed to show prospective college students where their top choices rank ...
What to Look for in a College that Fits You Best
There are some 4,000 colleges and universities in the U.S., which gives you a lot of choices for finding the college that is a good fit for you. Often, people think about college from an academic and financial perspective, but there are other, and sometimes other important considerations that don't show up in the rankings.
2024 Top Trends in Academic Libraries: A Review of the Trends and
As he states, using his framework, "librarians can help students develop critical thinking skills, improve their comprehension of AI-generated content, and optimize AI-based research processes." 6 It is also important to raise awareness among students of the potential problems associated with AI including accuracy, hallucinations, bias ...
Critical Thinking Questions: The Big List for Your Classroom
In an age of "fake news" claims and constant argument about pretty much any issue, critical thinking skills are key. Teach your students that it's vital to ask questions about everything, but that it's also important to ask the right sorts of questions. Students can use these critical thinking questions with fiction or nonfiction texts.
Cornell College staff attacked while on overseas trip
4 Iowa college instructors stabbed in overseas attack, 2 remain critical. Two of the four eastern Iowa college instructors who were attacked during a trip to a park in China remain in critical ...
Undergraduate Programs
Otis College undergraduate programs feature immersive first-year Foundation courses, an expansive Liberal Arts and Sciences curriculum, and a Creative Action Integrated Learning program that introduces social and environmental issues affecting creative disciplines. Through areas of emphasis and 13 minors, we prepare you for a thriving career ...

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7 Ways to Think More Critically

1. Ask Basic Questions

2. Question Basic Assumptions

3. Be Aware of Your Mental Processes

4. Try Reversing Things

5. Evaluate the Existing Evidence

6. Remember to Think for Yourself

7. Understand That No One Thinks Critically 100% of the Time

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References and Resources

Teaching Strategies to Help Promote Critical Thinking

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50 Best Colleges & Universities for 2024 Top Consensus Ranked Schools in the United States