case study meaning vocabulary

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/ˌkeɪ(s) ˈstʌdi/, /keɪs ˈstʌdi/.

Other forms: case studies

• noun a detailed analysis of a person or group from a social or psychological or medical point of view see more see less type of: analysis an investigation of the component parts of a whole and their relations in making up the whole
• noun a careful study of some social unit (as a corporation or division within a corporation) that attempts to determine what factors led to its success or failure see more see less type of: report , study , written report a written document describing the findings of some individual or group

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Definition of case study

Examples of case study in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'case study.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1914, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Dictionary Entries Near case study

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“Case study.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/case%20study. Accessed 24 Aug. 2024.

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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Case Study – Definition, Types & Examples

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A case study is a research method that delves deeply into a specific instance to analyze its complexities and draw broader insights applicable to similar situations. Through a structured methodology , encompassing data collection, analysis, and interpretation, case studies offer a comprehensive understanding of real-life phenomena within their natural contexts. This approach allows researchers to explore intricate details, uncover patterns, and derive valuable implications.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Case study in a nutshell
• 2 Definition: Case study
• 3 Types of case studies
• 4 When to perform a case study
• 5 Conducting a case study
• 6 Pros and cons

Case study in a nutshell

A case study is a detailed examination of a particular project, event, individual, or organization over a defined period. It focuses on the complexities and outcomes of real-life situations, providing an in-depth understanding of the factors leading to successes or failures.

Definition: Case study

A case study is a research methodology that involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a case or cases within a real-life context. It is used across various disciplines, including psychology, sociology, education, business, and law. The purpose of a case study is to explore and understand complex issues, processes, or behaviors by analyzing them from multiple angles and using multiple sources of evidence. Case studies are particularly useful for investigating phenomena that cannot be studied through experimental methods, offering insights into aspects of the subject that might be overlooked by other research methodologies.

Case studies are valuable for generating hypotheses that can be tested with other methods, developing theories, and providing practical solutions to real-world problems. They are particularly effective in capturing the nuances and complexities of situations that are too complex for more straightforward research designs . The following outlines the key characteristics of case studies.

Depth and detail

Contextual analysis, qualitative (and quantitative) data, multiple sources of evidence, specificity, flexibility.

Case studies provide a thorough understanding of the case in question, including its historical background, current situation, and the various factors influencing it.

They consider the subject’s context, recognizing that behaviors, decisions, and outcomes are often deeply influenced by environmental, social, and historical factors.

A mixed-methods case study approach relies on qualitative data like interviews , observations, and document analysis, and also includes quantitative data to support findings.

Case studies typically draw on various data sources, such as documents, archival records, interviews, direct observation, participant observation, and physical artifacts, to provide a comprehensive view of the overall case.

They focus on a specific case, event, individual, or organization, allowing for a detailed examination that might not be feasible with broader research methods.

Case study research is flexible, allowing researchers to adapt their approaches as new insights emerge during the investigation.

The goal is to gain insights and a deeper understanding of the case and its broader implications, rather than to generalize findings to all cases.

Types of case studies

Case studies vary widely in focus and purpose, adapting to the needs of different academic disciplines and professional fields. Each type of case study serves a different purpose and can be chosen based on the specific objectives of the research, the nature of the subject being studied, and the available resources. They are a powerful tool for researchers and practitioners alike, offering detailed insights and a deep understanding of complex phenomena, behaviors, and processes within their real-life contexts. Despite this diversity, they can generally be categorized into several main types based on their intent and approach.

Collective case studies

A collective case study also referred to as a multiple case study, involves the detailed examination and analysis of several cases simultaneously or sequentially to investigate a phenomenon, condition, or situation. These cases are chosen because they are expected to exhibit particular features or outcomes significant to the research question or hypothesis. By studying multiple cases, researchers aim to gain a deeper, more comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand, identifying patterns, variations, and insights that might not be evident when conducting single case study research alone.

Characteristics

• Involves multiple cases, allowing for a comparison to identify similarities between different instances of the phenomenon.
• The cases are purposefully selected based on their ability and extent to provide insight into the research question of the case.
• Aims to understand the phenomenon within its real-life context, recognizing the influence of various complex factors.
• Data are individually and in aggregate analyzed, allowing researchers to identify overarching patterns across cases.
• Variability by acknowledging and exploring the differences between cases to understand the spectrum of possible outcomes.
• Enhances generalizability: Examining multiple cases, allows researchers to test the finding of one case against others, enhancing the generalizability of the observations.
• Rich insights: Collective case studies provide rich, multifaceted, contextual insights into the studied phenomenon, ensuring the possibility to investigate the complexity of real-life situations.
• Theory development: These studies are particularly useful for developing theories, allowing researchers to refine and build upon existing ones based on the findings.

Topic: Patient experiences with telehealth services

• Objective: Exploring patient satisfaction and challenges faced when using telehealth services across various demographics.
• Cases: Patients from different age groups, health conditions, and regions who have used telehealth services for at least six months.
• Result: A comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing patient satisfaction with telehealth, including technological literacy, communication quality, and access to care, informing improvements in telehealth practices.

Comparative case studies

A comparative case study is a research approach that involves the detailed analysis and comparison of two or more cases, which can be organizations, communities, individuals, events, etc. It aims to investigate and explore similarities, contrasts, and pattern variations across cases to gain a deeper understanding of the studied topic and why certain phenomena vary under different conditions.

• Systematically examines the differences and similarities between cases to draw insights that may not emerge from one case.
• Serves as a cornerstone for developing, testing, or refining existing theories or generating new theories and concepts.
• The cases are carefully selected based on the variations in dimensions to understand the influence of different conditions.
• Does not sacrifice the depth of understanding each case individually, allowing researchers to consider the contribution of contextual factors.
• This type of case study includes qualitative and quantitative methods and approaches for collecting and analyzing data.
• Rich insights: They provide contextual and detailed insights into the dynamics of each case, which is crucial for understanding complex phenomena.
• Theory development: Comparative case studies are conducive to testing existing theories in different contexts and building new theories based on observed patterns.
• Flexibility: Methods and approaches can be adapted as the study progresses, allowing for the exploration of unexpected findings or new research questions.

Topic: Impact of socioeconomic factors on academic achievement

• Objective: Exploring how socioeconomic status (SES) influences academic achievement in primary schools.
• Case A: Primary school located in an affluent neighborhood with high-income families.
• Case B: Primary school located in an area with primarily low-income families.
• Result: Emphasis on the importance of addressing disparities in resources, support systems, and community factors to ensure equitable educational opportunities for all the students.

Critical instance case studies

A critical instance case study entails focused research that investigates one or two instances to understand one occurrence rather than generalizing the situation. It explores a unique, unusual, or particularly informative phenomenon. These cases are typically chosen because they are expected to provide insight into an area of interest or to challenge or refine existing theoretical concepts and assumptions. The goal of this method is to understand the complexity and uniqueness of critical cases and how they inform broader understandings and generalizations about a topic.

• Dives into a specific case(s) to uncover the intricacies that contribute to its unique characteristics.
• Useful for examining phenomena that are too complex or rare to be captured through broader studies.
• Cases are selected for their potential to provide insight into an issue or to challenge universal opinions.
• A detailed qualitative analysis, but quantitative methods can also complement the examination.
• Creates a balance between the uniqueness of the case and the potential for making broader inferences.
• In-depth understanding: Critical instance case studies aim to provide an in-depth and nuanced understanding of a specific case or cases, underscoring the contextual factors that influence outcomes.
• Theory development: By focusing on cases that are expected to challenge or refine theoretical assumptions, this type of study contributes to developing and refining theories.
• Flexibility: The methods used can be adapted to the specific demands of the case, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of the unique aspects of the critical instance.

Topic: Impact of innovative teaching methods on student engagement in a rural school

• Objective: Investigating how the implementation of project-based learning in a rural primary school affects student engagement and learning outcomes.
• Case: A primary school in a rural area that has recently implemented project-based learning across all grades.
• Result: Detailed analysis of the challenges and successes of implementing innovative teaching methods in a resource-constrained environment, highlighting the role of community support and teacher adaptability in fostering positive educational outcomes and results.

Cumulative case studies

A cumulative case study involves aggregating information from several sites collected at different times. The goal is to collect past studies to increase generalization without costing more time or money on new, possibly repetitive studies. It synthesizes findings from multiple cases over adequate time to understand a broader phenomenon or to identify patterns and trends. These studies are chosen because their cumulative evidence can provide a more convincing and comprehensive insight into a subject of interest, supporting or contradicting theoretical assumptions through a wider lens of observation.

• Aggregates findings from different cases and existing sources to uncover common themes.
• Specifically, valuable for integrating and comparing data from already studied situations.
• Case selection based on whether they can compare and contrast multiple instances.
• Employs both qualitative and quantitative methods, facilitating a more comprehensive analysis.
• Strike a balance between diversity and the potential for generalization.
• Comprehensive synthesis: This approach aims to synthesize data across multiple instances, offering a broader perspective on the subject matter that highlights commonalities and differences.
• Pattern identification: By examining various cases collectively, this approach seeks to identify underlying patterns, trends, and themes that might not be apparent in single case study research.
• Cost-effectiveness: Accumulating evidence from existing studies, allows for a more resource-efficient way to gain a wide-ranging understanding. Thereby, the expenses and time of conducting new, individual studies can also be avoided.

Topic: Effectiveness of remote learning across different socio-economic backgrounds

• Objective: Analyzing how remote learning during school closures impacted students’ academic performance across various socio-economic backgrounds.
• Cases: Multiple schools from diverse socio-economic areas that implemented remote learning during the same period.
• Result: A comparative analysis revealing patterns of engagement, accessibility issues, and academic outcomes, highlighting the importance of addressing equity in access to technology and learning resources.

Descriptive case studies

A descriptive case study, a process-oriented case study, is a research approach focused on providing a detailed account and analysis of a specific case (or cases) within its real-life context. Unlike other types of case studies that might seek to test hypotheses or understand causal relationships, descriptive research aims to document the unique characteristics, conditions, processes, and outcomes of the case in question. The primary goal is to describe the phenomenon in depth and detail, offering a comprehensive understanding of the context and variables involved.

• Captures the nuances, providing a rich, detailed description that covers various aspects.
• Considers the environment of the case, recognizing the context’s significant influences.
• Employs a mixed-methods case study approach using qualitative and quantitative data.
• Identifies patterns that may inform future research, like hypotheses for causal research or theories.
• Illustrates a particular phenomenon within its real-world context, providing valuable insights.
• Comprehensive documentation: It provides an exhaustive description of a case, which involves documenting contexts, processes, and results, aiming to capture complexities.
• Insightful understanding: Descriptive case studies shed light on how and why things happen under specific circumstances through detailed examination. Their detailed outcomes help to inform practice, policy, or further research.
• Pattern identification: While not primarily focusing on hypothesis testing or theory development, descriptive research often suggests areas for further research by identifying patterns.

Topic: The role of community gardens in urban food security

• Objective: Exploring the impact of community gardens on food security in urban areas extensively, seeking to understand how the gardens contribute to the availability and accessibility of fresh produce for residents.
• Cases: Three community gardens that are located in different urban neighborhoods, each with varying levels of access to supermarkets or fresh food markets.
• Result: Detailed description and comparison of each garden’s operation, community involvement, challenges faced, and the benefits realized in terms of food security, emphasizing the importance of community leadership, support from local organizations, and adaptability of garden practices to local needs.

Explanatory case studies

Similar to the descriptive type, an explanatory case study is also a process-oriented case study, that seeks to explain the underlying mechanisms or reasons behind a particular phenomenon or set of outcomes within its real-life context. Unlike descriptive case studies, which focus primarily on providing a detailed account of a specific case, explanatory case studies aim to uncover how and why certain events occur, offering insights into causal pathways and processes leading to a particular outcome.

• Process-oriented case study that explores the causal mechanisms that lead to certain outcomes.
• Allows researchers to examine complex real-life contexts in their natural setting.
• Uses multiple sources of evidence, like qualitative data and sometimes quantitative data.
• Frequently employs existing theoretical framework to guide their analysis and explain findings.
• Contributes to the development and refinement of theoretical concepts, offering practical insights.
• Uncovering causal relationships: It explores the causal mechanisms that lead to certain outcomes within a case or across cases, seeking to elucidate the processes and factors that contribute to the studied topic.
• Theory development: This type of case study can be employed to test existing theories in new contexts or to refine and develop new theoretical frameworks based on its findings.
• Informing policy and practice: Provides valuable insights that can inform policy-making, strategy, and practical interventions, emphasizing its applicability to real-world challenges.

Topic: Impact of remote work on employee productivity and well-being

• Objective: Aiming to explain the causal relationships between remote work and its effects on employee productivity and well-being, seeking to uncover the mechanisms through which remote work influences these outcomes and to identify the conditions under which the effects are most pronounced.
• Cases: Examining three companies in different industries, technology, finance, and education, that implemented long-term remote work arrangements as a response to external factors like the global pandemic.
• Result: The comparative analysis reveals that the presence of supportive digital infrastructure, degree of flexibility in work arrangements, and opportunities for informal interactions are critical factors influencing the outcome of remote work policies, suggesting that it can enhance the productivity and well-being of employees.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are qualitative research methods used to conduct preliminary projects for little-understood phenomena to develop hypotheses and establish research priorities. Unlike explanatory or descriptive case studies that aim to explain the aspects of specific cases, exploratory case studies are often conducted when a problem is not clearly defined, and there is a need for further investigation to understand the context.

• Serves as an initial step in researching a new area, gathering as much information as possible.
• Flexible research design, allowing for adjustments as new insights are gained in the process.
• Generates hypotheses or theories that can be applied and tested in further research.
• Relies on qualitative data collection methods to gain an understanding of the case in real-life context.
• Foundation for explanatory studies, experimental designs , or large-scale quantitative research.
• Comprehensive understanding : Aims to gain a clear understanding of the studied phenomenon, especially when it is new, complex, or not well defined.
• Generating hypotheses: Through detailed observation, data collection, and analysis, it is geared towards generating hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.
• Research priorities: Determines which aspects of the case merit further research by uncovering the most significant issues, challenges, or opportunities in association.

Topic: The adoption of virtual reality (VR) technologies in higher education

• Objective: Aiming to explore how and why higher education institutions are adopting VR technologies for teaching and learning purposes. The study seeks to understand the motivations, processes, challenges, and initial impacts of VR adoption on pedagogical practices and student engagement.
• Cases: Examining three universities that have recently integrated VR technologies into their curriculum, each representing a different approach such as for enhancing engineering and architecture courses, medical and healthcare training, and art and history courses.
• Result: The exploratory research uncovers various motivations, such as the desire to enhance student learning experiences, improve student engagement, and prepare students for future technological landscapes. Challenges identified across the cases include technical issues, high costs or implementation, and the need for faculty training and support.

Illustrative case studies

An illustrative case study primarily describes and demonstrates a particular phenomenon in a detailed and understandable way. It utilizes a descriptive approach, aiming to make the unfamiliar familiar by providing concrete examples that illuminate broader themes or issues. This type of case study is primarily used to provide insight into and highlight specific aspects of a research problem, helping to convey the complexities of real-life situations through the detailed examination of one or more instances.

• Provides a comprehensive description of the phenomenon that occurs within the case(s) being studied.
• Used as educational tools in various fields to help visualize complex theories and concepts.
• Simplifies particular points within a larger analysis, supporting the understanding of broader principles.
• Presents complex issues in a clear and accessible manner by focusing on specific instances.
• Primarily descriptive research, but also serves as a preliminary step towards further research.
• Clarification of complex phenomena: Aims to break down complex processes, making them more understandable by providing a detailed view.
• Introduction of issues: Introduces common and uncommon issues through detailed storytelling, shedding light on specific challenges or successes.
• Theory development: Enhances theoretical knowledge by providing concrete examples that support or exemplify theoretical concepts or frameworks.

Topic: Digital transformation in small businesses during the Covid-19 pandemic

• Objective: Aiming to illustrate the strategies and challenges small businesses faced while undergoing digital transformation due to the pandemic by highlighting how these businesses adapted to the sudden need for digital operations, the impact of these changes on their operations, and the lessons learned throughout.
• Case A: A family-owned restaurant that transitioned to online orders and delivery.
• Case B: A local bookstore that implemented an e-commerce platform for online sales and virtual book clubs.
• Case C: A small fitness studio that shifted to offering online workout classes.
• Result: The collective insights from these cases demonstrate the critical role of digital literacy, the need for flexible business models, and the importance of maintaining customer relationships during the transition. Conclusively, the study findings underscore the potential of digital transformation to not only sustain small businesses during crises but also to catalyze growth and innovation.

Instrumental case studies

An instrumental case study is an individual case study, focusing on a single subject to gain a broader understanding of a phenomenon. In contrast to other types of case studies that aim to describe or explain the case in great detail, instrumental case studies use the particular case as an instrument to understand something else. In other words, the case merely plays a supportive role in facilitating insight into larger issues or refining theoretical concepts.

• The case allows for thorough exploration and understanding of the broader phenomenon at hand.
• Instrumental case studies aim to extend findings beyond the case to address a broader issue.
• The research questions are framed to explore the broader phenomenon rather than just the specifics.
• Uses multiple sources of data and data collection methods within a real-life context.
• Develops theories by examining the representation of the broader issues in the specific case.
• Broader insights into particular issues: Uses the specific case as a vehicle to explain a broader phenomenon, contributing to refining theoretical frameworks.
• Informs policy or practice: Provides valuable insights that can guide decision-making processes that address the complexities of real-world situations.
• Identifies patterns: Explores the case in-depth to identify patterns that may apply to similar contexts by a detailed assessment of the case as a representative instance.

Topic: Integration of technology in high school education

• Objective: Aiming to explore the effect of integrating technology into high school education on student engagement and academic performance to understand how the use of technology and digital platforms can enhance the learning experience, foster engagement, and improve outcomes in high school settings.
• Cases: Examining three specific classrooms, such as science, literature, and mathematics, within the same high school that is known for integrating technology across all subject areas.
• Result: The study findings reveal that technology integration, when effectively implemented, significantly enhances student engagement and academic performance across the various subject areas. Thereby, it underscores the importance of strategic planning, professional development for teachers, and the selection of appropriate technological tools that align with educational objectives.

Intrinsic case studies

As opposed to instrumental case studies that aim to understand a broader phenomenon beyond the case, an intrinsic case study primarily focuses on the case itself. An intrinsic case study is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but because it presents a unique phenomenon that is worth exploring thoroughly on its own merits. In other words, an intrinsic case study is used when a case is revealing, distinctive, or intriguing in a way that warrants detailed examination.

• An intrinsic case study focuses on the idiosyncrasies and specifics of a case due to its uniqueness.
• Captures the essence with a profound description of the case’s contexts, processes, and outcomes.
• The insights gained from intrinsic case studies can be primarily applied to the case itself.
• Understanding the case from various perspectives, involving a flexible research process.
• Intrinsic case studies primarily use qualitative research methods to gather rich and contextual data.
• Insight into the particular case: Aims to gain a deep understanding of the case for its own sake by focusing on the uniqueness and complexities of the case.
• Explorative and interpretative: Delves into outstanding features, challenges, conditions, and opportunities of the case to uncover its distinct intricacies.
• Contribution to theories: Through the detailed study of the case, patterns may be determined that offer insights, resonating with wider concepts or theories.

Topic: Transformation of a historic library into a community hub

• Objective: Aiming to explore the transformation of a historic library in a small town into a vibrant community hub by focusing on this particular library due to its unique position in the community’s history, architectural heritage, and the innovative approach it has taken to evolve beyond traditional library services.
• Case: It revolves around the Elmwood Library, built in the early 1900s and known for its architectural significance and deep-rooted place in the town’s history. Over time, its role and relevance faced challenges due to digitalization and the change in community needs. Thus, the study examines the redefinition of becoming a community hub of the library, focusing on digital access, community engagement, and preservation of historical essence.
• Result: The study findings uncover the multifaceted impact of Elmwood Library’s transformation by highlighting the successful navigation of its historical preservation alongside modernization to meet current community needs. Key outcomes include increased community engagement, enhanced digital literacy, and the library’s role in fostering a sense of communal identity.

When to perform a case study

A case study is the right research method for examining and gaining precise, contextual insights about a real-world problem or scenario. It gives researchers a method of studying the main characteristics, definitions, and inferences about a specific individual, group, event, or organization. The decision whether to perform a case study should be driven by the nature of the research question, objectives, and the value of gaining a contextualized understanding of the issues at hand.  The following illustrates a few scenarios and research objectives that typically warrant the use of a case study.

Complex phenomenon

Rare & unique cases, testing & generating theories.

When the goal is to explore a complex phenomenon in detail, particularly within its real-life context, case studies serve as ideal methods for investigating and explaining multifaceted issues thoroughly.

Case study research is also relevant to conduct to examine rare or unique conditions that are not easily replicated or found in larger populations. Examples are studying a rare disease, unique institution, or significant event.

When you test theoretical models or hypotheses within real-life contexts, case studies allow you to observe how theoretical principles play out in practice, providing valuable insights into the applicability and limitations of these theories. Case studies also assist in generating new theories because existing theories do not adequately explain a phenomenon. They can identify patterns and relationships that lead to the formulation of new theoretical propositions through elaborate analysis.

Teaching and policy development

Prospective case studies, multifaceted approach.

Case studies are often relevant to use in educational settings to provide real-life examples for students to analyze. They are particularly valuable for policymakers and practitioners seeking an in-depth understanding of a scenario to inform decision-making processes.

Prospective case studies have the main objective of observing changes over an adequate time period within a specific context or group. Thus, prospective case studies are suitable for conducting research over extended periods to track developments, understand cause-and-effect relationships, and observe the impact of interventions.

Case studies are also relevant for research that benefits from a multi-perspective analysis, as they enable the use of multiple data sources and methods such as interviews, observations, and document analysis to provide a comprehensive view of the studied subject.

Conducting a case study

The process of conducting a case study can be divided into five crucial stages such as defining the case(s), selecting the case(s), collecting and analysis of data, interpreting data, and reporting the findings.

Defining the case(s)

Defining the case(s) for a case study involves specifying the unit of analysis or the main entity that you are investigating. This stage is crucial as it sets the boundaries of what is to be studied, guiding the focus of the research, and shaping the research questions, data collection, and analysis. A well-defined case is essential for ensuring the research is manageable, coherent, and capable of addressing the objectives effectively. It also requires a clear understanding of the purpose of the study research, context, and perspectives from which it will be explored.

In terms of the nature of the case, you must clarify whether the case is a group, organization, individual, event, or geographical unit. This in turn will affect the type of data and evidence that will be collected and further affect the interpretation of results. In addition to this, the scope of the case determines the time period and geographical boundaries.

Selecting the case

Selecting the case is a crucial stage, as it significantly influences the research questions, problem statement , depth of the research, and potential contribution to existing knowledge. Thus, it is imperative to choose a specific focus to ground your research. Key considerations in selecting the case are:

• Clearly define what you want to achieve with your case study; What are the research objectives?
• Determine the type of case study, as this will influence the type of case you select.
• Develop criteria that the case must meet to ensure it is suitable for your study.
• Identify cases that may have rich potential for contributing to your research objectives.
• Assess the potential cases against your selection criteria by considering the pros and cons.
• Offer the potential to answer your research questions, meet the aims, and ensure access to data.
• Justify how the case meets your selection criteria and how it will assist in reaching the research objectives.
• Ensure the case adheres to ethical considerations , like consent and confidentiality.
• Consider the feasibility of conducting the case such as resources, adequate time, and access to information.

Case studies usually focus on outliers rather than deliberate sampling techniques. Thus, they often do not require representative cases or random samples before research.

Collecting and analysis of data

For a case study approach, data is typically collected systematically, gathering detailed and comprehensive information that will support the analysis and conclusion of the study. This stage of the process is essential, as the relevance of the data impacts the depth and internal validity of the case study findings.

Case studies often employ multiple data sources or methods (data triangulation) that are primarily qualitative. Common methods include semi-structured interviews or structured interviews , direct observations , analyzing relevant documents, focus groups , or audiovisual materials. These types of qualitative methods can undergo thematic analysis , coding, or narrative analysis , depending on their relevance.

In some cases, quantitative methods are used to complement qualitative data to provide a broader understanding of the case study and enhance internal validity. These methods involve surveys and questionnaires or existing data sets that are relevant to the study for secondary data analysis. For these, you can employ, e.g., statistical analysis or trend analysis. Utilizing a mixed-methods case study approach offers the opportunity to provide a deeper and elaborate overview of the study.

Theoretical framework and interpreting data

Case studies overlook general theories in favor of specific details. A theoretical framework serves as the foundation that navigates every aspect of the study, ranging from data collection to data analysis and assists in interpreting findings within a broader context. Understanding its application in interpreting data is crucial for creating meaningful and impactful research.

The theoretical framework entails a variety of interrelated concepts and theories that guide your research, determining what will be measured and what statistical relationships may be looked for. It provides a general set of principles, explanations, and definitions that help organize the entire research process. A theoretical framework can be used to:

• Challenge an existing theory by investigating deviance that is not considered in the universal assumptions.
• Expand on established theories by proposing new ideas that should be included.
• Exemplify a given theory by showing the relationship between the case and the theory.
• Explain the theory for your research, grounding your study in a conceptual context.
• Guide the research question , influencing the research design, including what data to collect and interpret.
• Assist in identifying the limits to those generalizations your study can and cannot make.
• Provide a rationale for your research, indicating why it is a worthwhile contribution to knowledge.

Reporting findings

Reporting the findings of your case study poses one of the last crucial stages of finalizing your study. It involves presenting your data and analyses in a structured and compelling way and requires careful consideration of your audience, whether they are academics, industry professionals, or other stakeholders. This section is the heart of your report and should be given careful attention. Here is a short overview of the structure of reporting findings.

• Organize by theme or research question
• Support the findings with evidence from your data
• Incorporate tables, graphs, and charts to visualize data
• Present detailed narratives of events and processes clearly

For effective reporting, aim for clear and concise expression, explaining complex concepts clearly, and avoiding unnecessary jargon. Also, maintaining consistency in terms of formatting and presentation style throughout the report is vital to keeping academic integrity. Keep in mind that the goal fo your case study report is not just to present your findings, but to communicate their significance and implications effectively. Thus, tailoring your report to your audience in an engaging manner, will draw the reader into the study and thereby, enhance its impact and value.

Pros and cons

Case studies can take on the shapes of at least four research designs and can be associated with an array of types, each leading to different applications. Nonetheless, understanding their unique epistemological and ontological assumptions is important for the substantial methodological differences, they entail. The following table outlines the general benefits and limitations of using a case study for your research.

What are the four key sections of a case study?

A case study entails at least four sections:

• Introduction
• Body: background information, explaining the purpose, presenting the findings

What is the case study method in research?

The case study method is an in-depth investigation of a research subject, individual, or group. It is a focused research method that analyzes the causes and consequences of a specific phenomenon. A case study facilitates the exploration of a real-life issues within a defined context, using multiple date sources.

What are the types of case study?

Here is a list of the types of case studies:

• Comparative
• Critical instance
• Descriptive
• Explanatory
• Exploratory
• Illustrative
• Instrumental

What are examples of case studies?

Case studies are widely used in psychology and clinical contexts, analyzing rare or unique conditions. Popular ones are:

• Phineas Gage (the man who hat a railway spike through his head) – John Martin Marlow
• Little Hans and The Rat Man – Sigmund Freud

What is a case study in psychology?

In psychology, it is typically an individual case study, focusing on a single person, community, or event that relies on data in clinical contexts drawn from psychometric testing, observations, interviews, experiments, and existing case studies.

What are the limitations of a case study?

Case studies are often criticized for their subjectivity, bias, or lack of rigor, as they typically rely heavily on the researcher’s interpretations and selection of data, which is often influences by personal views, preferences, or assumptions.

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• Cambridge Dictionary +Plus

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H umanising L anguage T eaching

February 2022 - , year 24 - issue 1, issn , 1755-9715.

• 21st Century Skills

Creativity and Vocabulary Learning Strategies: A Case Study

• Zsófia Széll, Hungary

Zsófia Széll is a language teacher and PhD student at the Department of English Language Pedagogy, Eötvös Loránd University. Her primary research interest is creativity in English teaching and English teacher training. Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Vocabulary learning is an extensively researched area in applied linguistics research. Both the nature of vocabulary learning as mental process and learning strategies have been a focus of interest in the profession for some time. Creativity in English language teaching (ELT) is similar in a sense that it is gaining more and more focus; however, this is a rather new highlight in ELT research. The connection between creativity and vocabulary learning strategies has not yet been explored in the field which merits discussion. From a theoretical point of view, some more complex vocabulary learning strategies and creative tasks have certain elements in common.

Studying how this connection manifests in practice will help understanding the nature of this connection and possibly provide practical conclusions that can be used by teachers to improve the effectiveness of vocabulary learning and to foster creativity. As this area mostly entails uncharted waters in applied linguistics and ELT research, initial investigation is best done through a case study. While setting the theoretical background I attempted to define vocabulary knowledge and to discuss types of vocabulary learning strategies as well as to provide a definition of creativity in ELT. After this, I explored the potential connection between vocabulary learning and creativity through a couple of specific examples in research.

Defining vocabulary knowledge

Possessing an adequate range of vocabulary is a prerequisite to being able to use a foreign language effectively. Moreover, EFL learners’ vocabulary knowledge has been found to closely related to general language proficiency (Qian & Lin, 2020). In order to understand an unsimplified text, the reader needs to know 5-8000 word families (a word family is a group of words that stem from the same root, such as pretend, pretender, pretentious ) (Ur, 2012). However, as proficiency develops, the breadth of vocabulary known by the speaker also increases.

What vocabulary knowledge actually means requires some explanation. There are several ways to look at vocabulary knowledge, one of these is to see it as receptive (passive) or productive (active). The former simply denotes recognition of word, while the latter means the ability to actually use the word correctly. (Nation, 2001).

Breadth and depth are the traditional types of vocabulary knowledge differentiated by Anderson and Freebody (1981). Breadth is the number of vocabulary items known, depth refers to different aspects of knowledge such as collocation or multiple different meanings, which is more than simple form-meaning connection. In order to examine vocabulary knowledge, focusing on breadth alone is insufficient as this describes only one aspect of vocabulary knowledge and thus provides a limited evaluation (Webb, 2020). This traditional view is expanded can be expanded by two more factors: automaticity of use and appropriateness in use (Gu, 2020).

One way to look at how learners actually learn vocabulary is the incidental/intentional distinction. Incidental learning happens unconsciously through repeated encounters with vocabulary items while intentional learning progresses through tasks and activities designed to help learners consciously learn new vocabulary items. Ideally, these two aspects exist parallel to each other (Webb, 2020). One way to help learners focus on intentional vocabulary learning is through the use of learning strategies.

Learning strategies

Generally speaking, language learning strategies are ‘the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ to try to learn an L2’ (Ellis, 1997, pp. 76-77). A traditional division of learning strategies is the cognitive (strategies used to change manipulate information in the mind), metacognitive (strategies in connection with planning the learning process), and social/affective (strategies based on interaction with other people) division (Ellis, 1997). According to Ellis (1997), a range of research has been done on strategy training, especially vocabulary learning strategy training, which generally indicate a beneficial effect on students’ performance. Gu (2020) also notes that strategy training has been generally proven to improve effectiveness of vocabulary learning and to increase vocabulary size.

A great number of different vocabulary learning strategies are described in the literature. Oxford and Crookall (1990) differentiate between decontextualizing, semi-contextualizing, and fully contextualizing techniques. Decontextualizing techniques remove the vocabulary items from their context, such as word lists, flashcards, and dictionary use. Semi-contextualizing techniques like word grouping, word association, or the keyword technique allow only limited context. Fully contextualizing techniques use natural communicative context and are simply defined as practice in the four skills: reading, listening, speaking, and writing. Another important issue noted by the authors is that even though skill practice is often considered the “the very pinnacle of L2 vocabulary learning techniques” (Oxford & Crookall, 1990, p. 22), practice alone is not enough to achieve vocabulary development, as the learner’s interest and the use of learning techniques is also necessary.

Defining creativity

Creativity is known to be difficult to define. Many authors note that creativity is slippery and elusive in nature, something that causes serious difficulties in creating a suitable, all-encompassing definition (Pugliese, 2010; Ryhammer and Brolin, 1999). The description of different views and models of creativity will not be pursued here because of length constraints, but a detailed overview of theories of creativity can be found in Kaufman and Sternberg (2010). This study will use the two-way model of creativity developed by Széll (2021) specifically for the context of EFL teaching and which is described below.

As detailed in Széll (2021), creativity is a complex phenomenon: certain conditions enable creativity to arise in a sufficient task which leads to tangible or intangible results. These results then have a reactive effect on the conditions of creativity.

• Knwledge: Language knowledge for students, methodological knowledge for teachers
• Creativity-relevant mental skills: analgous with Amabile’s (1983) creativity relevant skills category – a way of thinking, a cognitive style that may be improved by practice and experience. This is also parallel with the views of creativity that consider it to be a kind thinking: more specifically, divergent thinking (Guilford, 1950, 1958) that can be measured using standardized creativity tests.
• Mtivation: whether intrinsic or extrinsic, motivation is necessary in order to successfully execute a task. Even though Amabile (1983) claims that extrinsic motivation and rewards can be detrimental to creativity, I partially disagree with this stand. Artists in history have displayed outstanding creativity for rewards, and students in English classrooms around the world have shown outstanding creativity in writing stories simply because they intended to pass a language exam.
• Cntext: context includes several factors such as a supportive and non-judgemental environment consisting of good group dynamics, accepting and encouraging participants (mostly students and teachers but also parents), an appreciative culture that encourages creativity both formally (educational policy) and informally (a value appreciated by society). Other contextual factors include the physical environment, conducive beliefs, and time and space for creativity in the teaching process.
• Task: if the necessary conditions are met, creativity will arise in a task that allows for it. The task needs to be a type that allows for creativity, one that allows for more than one good solution yet established adequate creative limits (Tin, 2013). Open-endedness is another common feature of creative tasks. This means that they have more than one good solution and provide opportunities to generate new ideas (Lee, 2013). Playfulness and collaboration are also listed in some of the literature as characteristics of creative tasks (Lee, 2013; Tin, 2016).
• Results: The results that arise are not to be confused with the classic discussion of the creative product – the results may be tangible, e.g. the poem written in English by students, or intangible: the learning process they undergo while trying to write a poem.
• Reactive effect: These results have a reactive effect on the conditions, for example, if students write the poem, their motivation can increase due to having enjoyed the task, group cohesion could improve which will result in a better context for creativity, and through practice they will improve both in English language knowledge and in creativity relevant mental skills.

Figure 1. The two-way model of creativity

Source: Széll (2021)

Because of the two-way nature of the model, it logically follows that in order to enhance creativity, one might intervene in any part of the model and see positive changes. The model shows the possible areas where improvements could lead to fostering creativity.

The connection between creativity and vocabulary learning

Oxford and Crookall (1990) claimed that the learners’ interest and the use of personalised vocabulary learning techniques is necessary for successful learning. Creative tasks improve creativity conditions through arousing interest by reactive effect as shown in the two-way model of creativity. The question that arises here is whether tasks aimed at vocabulary learning can be creative. It is obvious that there is not much creativity in the mechanical memorisation of word lists; however, semi-contextualizing and fully contextualizing tasks do allow for the necessary open-endedness while still setting sufficient creative limits.

Let us look at this in more detail through two examples: a semi-contextualised learning strategy called the keyword technique as described in Tölgyesi (2014) and a contextualised learning strategy, the writing of fanfiction in blog format - a kind of creative writing investigated by Sauro and Sundmark (2016). Tölgyesi (2014) describes the keyword technique as an associative process in which the learner connects the new vocabulary item to a phonetically similar item in their L1 and combines the two meanings in an image that is somehow shocking, funny, or surprising. Clearly, this task forces learners to use the mental processes outlined earlier in the two-way model. It also allows a degree of freedom in choosing the association while establishing clear limits as the new vocabulary item that needs to be learnt is fixed and given. Playfulness and emotional involvement appear as part of this technique.

Sauro and Sundmark (2016) studied creative writing in the tertiary context in their unique study which focused on the use of writing fan fiction based on Tolkien’s The Hobbit. Their participants were English teacher trainees who had to participate in a collaborative blog-based fanfiction project where they had to impersonate certain characters from The Hobbit. This task definitely exhibits all characteristics of a creative task: it provided clear limits as the character the participants had to impersonate was set for them, it allowed a degree of freedom in the way participants described the characters’ feelings and experiences, it brought a sense of playfulness in bringing such an unusual twist to an English class, and it also utilized collaboration.

The researchers intended to find out whether using fanfiction can be beneficial for improvement in both literary and general language skills. They found that students considered the task engaging, and there were improvements in both creative writing skills and general English skills. Most importantly for this investigation, they found that the task greatly enhanced participants’ vocabulary learning. The researchers found that “mimicking the language of The Hobbit required them to understand and use words that were more old-fashioned or formal than they were accustomed to using” (Sauro & Sundmark, 2016, p. 7) and that “imitating the writing style of Tolkien allowed them to expand their vocabulary particularly with respect to adjectives and adverbs, which they observed to be characteristic of Tolkien’s writing” (Sauro & Sundmark, 2016, p. 7).

As seen through these examples, creative tasks and complex vocabulary learning strategies can indeed have common features. Obviously, not all learners would be excited either by a chance to participate in the writing of fanfiction or by the option to use other vocabulary learning strategies that are more complex than memorising paired lists. However, based on the nature of these tasks, it seems logical that creative people would naturally gravitate towards tasks and opportunities that allow them to use and express their creativity; these tasks would arouse interest, foster motivation, and help them achieve greater vocabulary learning success. From the EFL teacher’s point of view, it is a priority to find ways to motivate learners, to tailor tasks and activities to individual needs and preferences. To help EFL teachers achieve this, it is necessary to understand creativity as a factor and its potential connection to vocabulary learning strategies and tasks aimed at helping intentional vocabulary learning. As a first step in the direction of exploring this connection, this research endeavour examines the case of a highly successful language learner who engages in creative writing as a learning strategy to better understand what strategies this successful learner of English uses to learn vocabulary and these strategies’ connection to creativity as well as to explore and understand the role of creativity in the participant’s language and more specifically, vocabulary learning. To achieve this, I intended to answer the following research questions:

RQ1 How can the participant’s vocabulary knowledge and creativity be described?

RQ2 What characterizes the vocabulary learning strategies used by the participant?

RQ3 What is the connection between creativity and vocabulary learning in the participant’s case?

Research design

This qualitative research endeavour is a case study focusing on the case of a highly successful Hungarian EFL learner who engages in creative writing. The participant in this study is a twenty-year old female first-year university student studying English studies at one of the universities in Hungary, who will be referred to by the pseudonym Linda, who was selected because I personally know her because of having been her teacher.

Data collection consisted of four distinct consecutive steps. First, I asked Linda to send me products of her writing and she sent me four pieces: a poem written for vocabulary learning, two reflective essays written as homework for English classes, and an essay written for a literature class at university. Next, I asked her to fill in a vocabulary breadth test (https://my.vocabularysize.com/). After that, I asked her to do a creativity test standardized on the Hungarian population (Barkóczi & Zétényi, 1981) consisting of four sub-tests: circles, picture completion, unusual uses, remote associations. Finally, she participated in a semi-structured interview that was 60 minutes long and yielded 3800 words of data.

As it was described earlier in the theoretical background, vocabulary knowledge is more complex than a simply number of words known which may be provided by a vocabulary size test and creativity is a complex phenomenon which cannot be simply described by the scores provided by a creativity test (Barkóczi & Zétényi, 1981). Nonetheless, the use of these tools is justified by the need to explore the case in as much detail as possible. Data triangulation is necessary to ensure credibility; the data sources described above were supplemented by my personal observations as someone who have thought Linda. As her teacher, I have a reasonably accurate evaluation of Linda’s language skills in general and her vocabulary knowledge as well as a general picture of her personality, creativity, and motivation and this more subjective observation was compared to the test results.

The tools used in this research endeavour were the vocabulary breadth test at VocabularySize.com (https://my.vocabularysize.com/), the creativity test consisting of four different subtasks in Barkóczi and Zétényi (1981), and an interview guide created by the researcher. The selection, implementation, and evaluation of the creativity test was done with the help of an expert psychologist.

Some ethical issues are relevant regarding this study. The participant was informed about the proposed steps of the research. Even though this person was my student, I made it absolutely clear to place no pressure on her by emphasizing that participation is completely voluntary and non-participation has no consequences at all, and consent and participation may be withdrawn any time throughout the research process. The identity of the participant will be preserved by the use of a pseudonym, Linda. All written and spoken data is stored in a safe place accessible only to the researcher.

As does all research, this study also has its limitations. Researcher bias is an aspect that cannot be neglected as I was the EFL teacher of Linda. While acknowledging that all observations and opinions I formed during this process are necessarily subjective, data triangulation helped offset this difficulty. Personal observations were supplemented by other, more objective data sources such as the creativity test, the vocabulary size test, and the tangible creative products written by the participant.

Another limitation of the study is created by certain characteristics of the aforementioned creativity test, standardized by Barkóczi & Zétényi (1981). The test was standardised 40 years ago, in the same country but in a completely different economic and cultural context. In such a long period of time, cultural changes could possibly have changed the way people think and associate and in order to provide a more relevant basis of comparison, the test should be standardised again. To offset this limitation, scores were compared to Albert (2008) who studied first-year English studies majors. As this is a relatively recent study and Linda is also a first-year English studies student, this comparison is perhaps more informative.

Results and discussion

Linda is a twenty-year old university student studying English studies. She first encountered English at the age of four in the form of colouring books and soon decided to learn the language of her own accord. She started English classes at school at the age of seven. She did not receive any formal instruction outside school, but she did use the language more and more. She started reading in English in sixth grade and has been reading in English since. She also started watching films and writing in English in different genres. For school, writing meant assignments in English classes and outside school this constituted writing film reviews, a hobby which she described as connecting films and creative writing, as “in some films nothing really happens on screen, it’s hidden, which is very hard to rationally explain, creative writing is writing narratives, emotions, intuitions, impressions for these, to display these creatively and thus reflect on these films” (Linda).

Another important aspect of her profile as a language learner is her high level of internal motivation, which I was easily able to see during the process of teaching her and which she also described during the interview. A key element of this motivation seems to be self-sufficiency, as she described herself as someone who started to read and learn a language of her own accord at the age of five, and this freedom of decision is still important to her:

When there is something at school that I have to do for a deadline, it is very important to me that I do it with my own methods, I really don’t like it if it’s given, if it’s fixed what lines I can or have to follow to do something. (Linda)

Her degree of internal motivation was also evident from the way she described the language itself. She described “the wonder, the many combinational possibilities, and the beauty” of the language that can truly be appreciated once the learner reaches a reasonable level of proficiency and is able to use most grammar freely. She emphasized this beauty through the example of vocabulary, the fact that “words can have a hundred different shade of meanings”.

Finally, after having described her language learner profile in general to provide the background for the results, answering RQ1 became possible. Linda achieved scores on the creativity test that were higher than the average of the national standard as described by Barkóczi and Zétényi (1981, p. 32). Her scores were also higher in two of the subtests than the average measured by Albert (2008, p. 104) on a population consisting of first-year English studies majors. The vocabulary breadth test result was 19600 word families which is comparable to native speaker proficiency. This is in line with my personal impressions about Linda as her teacher: I came to know her as hardworking, talented, and proficient to a degree that is unusual with her age and background. In my lessons she was often the first to answer questions, offer a range of new ideas, and the one to know all the items in a vocabulary revision activity. Overall, I had the personal impression of her being creative well above the average and possessing an outstanding breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge, which is in line with what the test scores suggest.

Self-expression and vocabulary learning through creative writing

Another data source which corroborates the results discussed in the previous section is the actual pieces of writing provided by Linda. These pieces were written during the past five years, one of them about five years ago, two pieces about three years ago, and the fourth one during the past six months. Looking at these pieces we see products remarkable at her age. The oldest one of these, a poem, was written five years ago with the explicit primary purpose of vocabulary learning. It bears no title and was inspired by Shakespeare. This work displays a general high level of proficiency and an effortless ease of vocabulary use. This short excerpt of the poem, five out of 59 lines, illustrates this well.

You can scoff at me all you want

and bristle with frenzied fury at my heedless command,

throw a tantrum if you will, submerge me in your caustic talk, 

right here at my doorstep you may as well try to wrest the power from my grasp,

but your lackluster jostle of you ungrateful people, will nonetheless end in capital collapse (Linda, Poem with no title)

Writing this poem was actually not a compulsory school task. She was instructed to write an example sentence with new vocabulary items; a task that she deemed “incredibly boring” and decided to try and fit all of them into one coherent piece.

The second piece of writing was a reflective essay written as a reaction to one of Edgar Allan Poe’s works during her secondary school studies. The title of the piece was fixed by her teacher leaving the students the freedom to actually decide on the themes to connect to the title. According to Linda, the most important thing she learnt from this piece was to better express a certain mood through writing, even if the reader has never read the original work, as demonstrated by the short excerpt below.

The stages of his struggle are clear and incisive; in the beginning hope still sparkling brightly, the light gradually becoming weaker and weaker, and in the end completely dimming out. I think the character always knew deep in his subconscious that there was no escape, for his tormentors carefully monitored every move of his, and were devising more cruel ways to end his life… (Linda, The Struggle of Man)

The third piece of writing was a reflective piece to a Sherlock Holmes story read earlier by the class. This task was also free in the respect that there were no fixed themes or aspects to explore nor even a title provided by their teacher. In this piece, Linda wanted to explore what the villain of the story might have thought and felt by placing herself in his shoes through a fictional narrative. The use of humour is very strongly present in this piece, indeed, Linda claimed that today she would not write something so “bluntly comic” but it served her purpose well at that time. What she meant by this is perhaps best illustrated by her description of a simple ambush and the knocking out of the accomplice as a dramatic event. The successful use of humour in this instance could not have been achieved without the conscious use of vocabulary items such as foreboding, ominous, or fellow-in-crime, which evidences not only breadth but depth of vocabulary knowledge.

Both I and my trusted accomplice felt a grave foreboding as we were heading into the cellar for the final time on the ominous day. I shall never forget the look on Mr. Holmes’ face when he ambushed us – how he swung that cane, and rendered my fellow-in-crime unconscious. You would undoubtedly think it had been a most theatrical scene; the clash of two geniuses… and you would be right. It had been most dramatic. (Linda, An Account of the Robbery)

The last piece of writing was written in the past six months as an assignment for a literature class at university, a three-page essay written about William Faulkner’s A Rose for Emily for which she had to choose from a number of critical essays written about this work. While the focus of this piece of writing was obviously not language proficiency development, it does however evidence improvement in proficiency compared to her older products: her writing has become more natural and occasional errors, especially in punctuation have virtually disappeared, while her evident fondness of using advanced vocabulary items to highlight and underline her message remained unchanged:

While all the aforementioned facets of phenomenology are present in Faulkner’s short story, it is another aspect which renders „A Rose for Emily” such an intrusive, disturbing experience and an aesthetic masterpiece: it is the ever-shifting, deliberately unbalanced device of illusion-making and illusion-shattering. (Linda, The Phenomenological Approach in „A Rose for Emily”: The Creating and Shattering of Illusions)

After taking all her work and how she commented on them into consideration, the bottom line is that Linda obviously feels a joy by expressing her thoughts, voice, and mood through language as strongly as possible. This started at school for her when she had to “write summaries, shorter stories about what we read […] I liked it very much that I have to rephrase and summarize the story with my own words”.  She also has a realistic view of herself as a language learner as she says that she is a “hard-working and conscientious language learner”, who is aware of the fact that her vocabulary is well above average: “I like to think that I have a wide range of vocabulary in different contexts; legal, historical, everyday, and I try to improve it every day, I think my vocabulary is good…”. When asked about how her vocabulary developed into what it is today, it turned out that apart from school, the biggest influence in this regard in Linda’s life was reading. She described improvement of both vocabulary depth and breadth in detail:

The more different texts I encountered in genre, age, and context, so not only literature but scientific texts and critiques and news… I would say the multifaceted nature of these texts and that I submerged into certain elements of them. It was both a widening and a deepening. Reading is really it for me, I discovered its different aspects by myself, and I really like doing that, when I really get into something and I try to widen and deepen what I know by teaching myself. (Linda)

Her consciousness about how vocabulary knowledge works was further highlighted when we discussed her vocabulary learning habits. As a beginner learner, she simply memorised words and their meanings; however, after the achievement of a basic level of proficiency, her teacher soon switched the class to learning based on the use of synonyms, so her vocabulary notes consisted of two-three synonyms for each new vocabulary item. She seems to have stopped conscious memorization after that, and described the mental process of learning words in the following way:

I meet them in more and more different contexts […] usually when I meet a new word I already have some kind of idea like whether the meaning is positive or negative or what context it belongs to… I might have met it already, when I see a new word and don’t know its meaning, it’s never completely black, I can always place it somewhere to an extent […] If we take a word like nefarious, I know what that means, but if I didn’t, I would still know by some association or earlier encounter that the meaning is rather negative. Hidden associations in the back of my brain emerge when I meet these words, and when I check their meaning I can remember them easily. (Linda)

When asked about the connection of creative writing to language learning and vocabulary learning more specifically, Linda claimed that the only piece of writing she ever wrote with the primary purpose of vocabulary learning was the poem discussed earlier. However, she did underline the fact that vocabulary expansion was “always there, even if not a primary aim”. She also thinks creative writing is a tool that could be used for vocabulary expansion for everyone, regardless of proficiency level. She expressed surprise at how effective writing the poem actually was for memorizing vocabulary, as the rhythm of the lines “got completely stuck” in her head.

All in all, to answer RQ2, these findings can be summarized in the following way. In the past, Linda started learning vocabulary by using simple mechanic or decontextualizing strategies (rote learning), but with time these strategies became more complex. She started using what Oxford and Crookall (1990) would call a semi-contextualising strategy, learning with synonyms. Finally, she moved on to fully contextualizing techniques which use natural context, i.e. reading, watching films, and engaging in creative writing. This progress proceeded parallel to her general improvement in language proficiency.

Creativity in general, creativity in language and vocabulary learning

In line with my expectations and what the literature suggests, Linda struggled to define creativity in general or specifically in the context of language learning. She sees creativity as having different types like social, problem-solving, or artistic and as something that typically has a product or result. These associations are not surprising and are generally in line with how different theories approach creativity.

When asked if these different types have anything in common, two thought emerged repeatedly during our discussion. One was a need for openness: “It is important to be open to accepting and evaluating new views, and to fit them into your own thinking and thought processes… I think this is a basic criterion”. The other element that we discussed in some length is that creativity is a way of thinking. She describes her own way of thinking as both analytical and creative at the same time:

My brain works in a way that it can never stop, it keeps thinking and analysing, when I’m with people or friends I keep analysing them as well […] I think this is a kind of creativity as well as my views are constantly being shaped, I let in new things, reach some kind of conclusion, than, say, question the whole thing because I get to know something completely contradictory, this is a creative thinking and reflective process. (Linda)

This creative thinking was also mentioned when we discussed who creative writing is suitable for as a way to learning vocabulary. Linda described openness and the ability to think creatively as prerequisites to successful creative writing, as opposed to closed-mindedness and a mechanic following of set formulas. She illustrated this through the example of the way her classmate wrote reflective essays in literature classes.

She had a sheet with 30-40 questions, like what does this or that symbolize? As she was writing the analysis, she kept ticking questions […] but she did not adjust what she had to say to the poem as she really only wrote a sentence about all the aspects instead of deciding, say, that imagery is really important and building the piece around it. […] She prefers this way of thinking, she has a formula which works all the time and she will get the points. So maybe this method [creative writing] would not work for her as is not flexible, she doesn’t allow deviation from her own formula. She colours inside the lines… (Linda)

To answer RQ3, these findings require some consideration. The fact that Linda considers creativity to primarily consist of openness and a way of thinking is a key element here. She is obviously attracted to tasks and activities both at school and as a hobby that allow the use of such thinking and require a degree of flexibility. Her natural disposition towards these properties make complex creative tasks such as writing film reviews or poems exceptionally good all-purpose tools in her case both for general proficiency development and more specifically for improving vocabulary knowledge.

Through the analysis of different data sources, the profile of a highly successful language learner emerged who is both talented and motivated and possess a range of vocabulary that is well beyond the average. Additionally, Linda also displays high levels of creativity whether we consider creativity as simply divergent thinking like Guilford (1950) or whether as a more complex construct like the two-way model of creativity. This affinity towards creativity obviously attracted her to outlets of creativity; tasks and opportunities where she could utilize her skills in this regard. Now, at the age of 20, these influences culminated in her intention of picking creative writing as her minor at university.

One interesting finding of this study is how exceptional creativity seemed to find its own outlet even when the task provided did not allow for it – the creation of the unnamed poem is a clear example of this. While writing example sentences with words does not necessarily seem a very creative task, the boredom proved sufficient pressure for Linda to freely reinterpret the task into something more to her taste. Indeed, I have seen something similar happen in my professional practice with another student, whose task was to record his answers to a number of given questions in the topic of the environment – not a very interesting task to many – and to my surprise I received a song with guitar accompaniment that still perfectly fulfilled the requirements of the original task. The internal pressure to do something enjoyable while still fulfilling the requirements seems to have provided sufficient creative limits (Tin, 2013) for creativity to emerge.

Another important finding is how creative writing as a task seems to have contributed to Linda’s vocabulary development and what this ultimately tells us about the characteristics of tasks in a more general sense. Linda’s development can of course be attributed to several factors. Clearly, interest and motivation are important elements here. As any basic methodology book would say, motivation is a crucial factor of success in language learning. This importance seems to hold true for creativity as well. If we accept that creativity is more than divergent thinking, as described in the two-way model of creativity discussed earlier, motivation is exceptionally important for creativity to emerge. Turning a boring task into one that allows for enjoyment and creativity will increase motivation and allow creativity and enjoyment to emerge. These results will then reactively affect the whole process, creating a positive feedback loop that will benefit the learner. It seems that turning the task into one that allows for creativity is the key part here – sometimes it will be done by the learners themselves, as seen through the example of Linda and her poem. More often, however, it will and should be done by the teacher in order to allow all learners to benefit from such opportunities.

Albert, Á. (2008). Creativity and oral narrative task performance: A study of first year English majors (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from: https://edit.elte.hu/

Amabile, T. M. (1983). The social psychology of creativity . Springer Verlag.

Anderson, R. C., & Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary knowledge. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and Teaching: Research Reviews (pp. 77-117). International Reading Association.

Barkóczi, I., Zétényi, T. (1981). A kreativitás vizsgálata , Országos Pedagógiai Intézet.

Ellis, R. (1997). Second language acquisition . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gu, P. Y. (2020). Strategies for learning vocabulary. In S. Webb (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies (pp. 271–287). Routledge.

Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist, 5 (9), 444-454. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0063487

Guilford, J. P. (1968). Intelligence, creativity and their educational implications . Knapp.

Kaufman, J. C., & Sternberg, R. J. (2010). The Cambridge handbook of creativity . Cambridge University Press.

Lee, B. C. (2013). Suggestions for language learners: Creativity development in EFL classrooms. Primary English Education , 19 (3) , 87-109.

Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language . Cambridge University Press.

Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1990). Vocabulary learning: A critical analysis of techniques . TESL Canada Journal, 7(2), 09.  https://doi.org/10.18806/tesl.v7i2.566

Pugliese, C. (2010). Being Creative: The challenge of change in the classroom . Delta Publishing.

Qian, D. D., & Lin, L. H. F. (2020). The relationship between vocabulary knowledge and language proficiency. In S. Webb (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies (pp. 66–80). Routledge.

Ryhammar, L., & Brolin, C. (1999). Creativity research: Historical considerations and main lines of development. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 43 (3), 259-273. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031383990430303

Széll, Z. (2021). The two-way model of creativity.  Central European Journal of Educational Research, 3 (2), 56–65. https://doi.org/10.37441/cejer/2021/3/2/9263

Tin, B. T. (2013). Towards creativity in ELT: The need to say something new. ELT Journal, 67 (4), 385-397. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/cct022 38

Tin, B. T. (2016). Creativity in second-language learning. In R. H. Jones (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language and creativity . Routledge.

Tölgyesi, Zs. (2014). Kádban próbáltad már? Működő memóriatechnikák nyelvtanulóknak. [Have you tried it in the bathtub? Working memory techniques for language learners]. Tudomány Nyelviskola.

Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching . Cambridge University Press. 

Webb, S. (2020). Introduction. In S. Webb (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies (pp. 1–12). Routledge.

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Master the 200+ SAT Vocabulary Words With Meaning 2024: Download PDF

Mastering SAT vocabulary words is essential for achieving a high score on the SAT exam, and having the right resources can make all the difference. Whether you’re looking for an SAT vocabulary words PDF for easy access, interactive tools like SAT vocabulary Quizlet for convenient learning, or engaging activities such as SAT vocabulary practice and SAT vocabulary quizzes to test your knowledge, this guide covers it all.

Additionally, using SAT vocabulary flashcards can help you retain words effectively, making your SAT preparation both thorough and efficient.

Master the SAT Vocabulary: High-Frequency Words and Effective Study Tips 2024

Table of Content

How is Vocabulary Tested on the SAT?

What do sat vocabulary questions look like, list of sat vocabulary words with meaning, sat vocabulary words- faqs.

The SAT has evolved over the years, reducing the emphasis on vocabulary. The current SAT includes fewer vocabulary questions compared to older versions, which featured question types like analogies that specifically tested vocabulary knowledge.

However, studying vocabulary can still be beneficial, especially if you’re aiming for a high or perfect score.

Today’s SAT words are of medium difficulty and are tested within the context of reading passages, providing you with a full paragraph or passage rather than just a sentence.

Context clues have made memorizing SAT vocabulary less crucial on the current SAT compared to the old version. Previously, you had to memorize many obscure words and tackle Sentence Completion problems, which presented isolated sentences with minimal context, making vocab questions particularly challenging.

To excel on the SAT, understanding the context of vocabulary within reading passages is essential. Focus on learning medium-difficulty words and utilizing context clues to improve your comprehension and test performance.

The new digital SAT includes a Reading and Writing section divided into four domains: Craft and Structure, Information and Ideas, Standard English Conventions, and Expression of Ideas. Among these, only the Craft and Structure domain specifically tests vocabulary skills.

Craft and Structure Domain

According to the College Board, this domain requires students to “use comprehension, vocabulary, analysis, synthesis, and reasoning skills and knowledge to understand and use high-utility words and phrases in context, evaluate texts rhetorically, and make connections between topically related texts.” This domain comprises approximately 13-15 questions, representing about 28% of the Reading and Writing section.

Vocabulary in Context

In the digital SAT, vocabulary is tested within the context of passages, not in isolation. You won’t be asked to simply define a word; instead, you’ll need to use context clues to interpret vocabulary and understand the meaning of phrases or passages. For example, you might encounter a passage where the word “directly” is used in a way that requires you to understand its less common meaning.

• Common Meaning: In a straightforward manner.
• Contextual Meaning: Immediately or without any intermediary.

Example Question:

• Passage: “She spoke directly to the manager, bypassing the usual channels.”
• A) Straightforwardly
• B) Immediately
• C) Confidently
• Common Meaning: To grasp or carry.
• Contextual Meaning: To maintain or adhere to.
• Passage: “Despite the pressure, he held his position on the matter.”
• C) Maintained
• D) Contained

How to Study SAT Vocabulary Words Effectively

When it comes to achieving a high score on the SAT, mastering vocabulary is crucial. The SAT vocabulary section, though not as prominent as it once was, still plays a significant role in your overall score. To help you excel, here are three essential tips for studying SAT words effectively:

1. Use Contextual Learning

Why It Works: Understanding vocabulary in context is more effective than rote memorization. The SAT frequently tests how well you can infer the meaning of words from the surrounding text.

How to Implement:

• Read Widely: Engage with a variety of texts, including novels, academic articles, and newspapers. Pay attention to how words are used in different contexts.
• Practice with Passages: Use SAT practice tests and sample passages to see how vocabulary words are used in context. This will help you understand how to apply your knowledge on test day.

Example: Instead of just memorizing the word “elucidate,” practice how it is used in sentences like, “The professor’s explanation helped to elucidate the complex theory.”

2. Leverage Flashcards and Spaced Repetition

Why It Works: Flashcards are a proven method for memorizing vocabulary, especially when combined with spaced repetition. This technique involves reviewing words at increasing intervals, which helps reinforce long-term retention.

• Create Digital Flashcards: Use apps like Anki or Quizlet to create digital flashcards. Include the word, its definition, and an example sentence.
• Schedule Reviews: Set reminders to review your flashcards regularly. Focus on words you find challenging and reinforce your knowledge with frequent practice.

Example: For the word “ambiguous,” your flashcard might show:

• Word: Ambiguous
• Definition: Open to more than one interpretation
• Sentence: The politician’s statement was intentionally ambiguous, leaving room for various interpretations.

3. Engage in Active Usage

Why It Works: Actively using new vocabulary helps solidify your understanding and recall. Practice using new words in your writing and speech to enhance your command of the language.

• Write Sentences: Incorporate new vocabulary into your daily writing, such as journal entries or essays. This will help you use the words correctly and naturally.
• Join Study Groups: Engage in discussions with peers or tutors where you can practice using SAT vocabulary. This interaction reinforces your learning and helps you remember words better.

Example: Write a short paragraph using the word “meticulous” to describe a process: “Her meticulous approach to organizing the event ensured that every detail was perfectly executed.”

SAT Vocabulary Quizlet

SAT Vocabulary Quizlet is an excellent tool that offers a fun and interactive way to learn and memorize SAT words. Quizlet provides a variety of learning modes, including flashcards, matching games, and practice tests. For instance, if you’re studying the word “ambiguous,” you can create a flashcard on Quizlet with the word on one side and its definition (“open to more than one interpretation”) on the other. Quizlet’s spaced repetition algorithm helps reinforce your learning by showing the words you struggle with more frequently, ensuring you retain the information long-term.

SAT Vocabulary Practice

Consistent SAT Vocabulary practice is key to building a strong vocabulary for the SAT. Practice involves not just memorizing definitions but also using the words in sentences. For example, if you’re learning the word “benevolent,” you could practice by writing a sentence like, “The benevolent teacher always provided extra help to students in need.” Engaging in daily practice sessions where you read, write, and speak new words will greatly enhance your vocabulary skills, making you more confident on test day.

SAT Vocabulary Quiz

Taking a SAT Vocabulary Quiz is a great way to test your knowledge and identify areas where you need more study. These quizzes typically present you with multiple-choice questions where you have to choose the correct definition of a word or select the word that best fits a sentence. For instance, a quiz might ask you to pick the word that means “lacking energy” from a list of options including “lethargic,” “dynamic,” “energetic,” and “vital.” Regularly taking these quizzes helps you monitor your progress and ensures that you’re retaining the vocabulary effectively.

SAT Vocabulary Flashcards

SAT Vocabulary flashcards are a tried-and-true method for memorizing SAT words. Flashcards can be physical cards or digital ones, like those available on Quizlet. Each flashcard should have the vocabulary word on one side and the definition, along with an example sentence, on the other. For example, for the word “enigma,” your flashcard might read “enigma” on the front, with “a person or thing that is mysterious or difficult to understand” and the example sentence, “The origin of the ancient artifact remained an enigma,” on the back. Reviewing these flashcards regularly will help you remember the words and their meanings, which is crucial for the SAT.

Also Read: Recent 100+ SAT Exam Math Questions 2024: Download Free Practice Test SAT Registration 2024: How to Register, Check Step-by-Step Process Average SAT Score in 2024: Know About SAT Score Range How to Get a Perfect SAT Score: Tips to Improve your SAT Score

What is the best way to memorize SAT vocabulary?

The most effective way to memorize SAT vocabulary is through a combination of contextual learning and spaced repetition. Use flashcards to review words regularly, and practice reading and writing sentences using those words to understand their meanings in context. Digital flashcard apps like Anki or Quizlet can help you schedule reviews and track your progress.

How can I improve my vocabulary understanding for the SAT?

To improve your vocabulary understanding, focus on reading widely across various genres, such as fiction, non-fiction, and academic texts. Pay attention to how words are used in context. Additionally, practice with SAT-specific vocabulary lists and sample passages to see how these words are applied in real test scenarios.

Are there specific SAT vocabulary lists I should study?

Yes, studying high-frequency SAT vocabulary lists can be beneficial. These lists often include words that frequently appear on the test. However, it’s also important to understand these words in context and practice using them in sentences. Resources like SAT prep books and vocabulary apps often provide curated lists of important words.

How often should I review SAT vocabulary words?

Consistent review is key to retaining vocabulary. Aim to review your vocabulary flashcards and practice regularly, using spaced repetition to reinforce long-term retention. It’s effective to set aside time each day or week for vocabulary study and adjust your review frequency based on your progress and comfort level with the words.

Can using vocabulary words in daily conversations help with SAT preparation?

Yes, using SAT vocabulary words in daily conversations can greatly aid your preparation. Actively using new words helps solidify your understanding and recall. Try incorporating these words into your speech and writing to practice their usage in a natural context. This practical application enhances your ability to recognize and use the words effectively on test day.

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