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Explore different ways to teach kids health in the classroom or at home, that will keep them engaged and enthusiastic. Our health lesson plans range in topics designed for preschool kids to elementary and middle school students. We’ve designed these health lessons for kids to be time-efficient yet impactful and memorable. Whether you’re a teacher, other type of educator, parent or guardian, our lessons for kids will make learning enjoyable for both you and your students.

In these lessons, kids will learn fun ways to practice mindfulness and balance, how to eat well, ways to be active, or keep clean and hygienic—and without it feeling like another chore. Choose one of our health lesson plans below for a quick and easy learning activity for your child or children.

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Physical education for healthier, happier, longer and more productive living

The time children and adults all over the world spend engaging in physical activity is decreasing with dire consequences on their health, life expectancy, and ability to perform in the classroom, in society and at work.

In a new publication, Quality Physical Education, Guidelines for Policy Makers , UNESCO urges governments and educational planners to reverse this trend, described by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a pandemic that contributes to the death of 3.2 million people every year, more than twice as many as die of AIDS.

The Guidelines will be released on the occasion of a meeting of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee for Physical Education and Sport (CIGEPS) in Lausanne, Switzerland, (28-30 January).*

UNESCO calls on governments to reverse the decline in physical education (PE) investment that has been observed in recent years in many parts of the world, including some of the wealthiest countries. According to European sources, for example, funding and time allocation for PE in schools has been declining progressively over more than half of the continent, and conditions are not better in North America.

The new publication on PE, produced in partnership with several international and intergovernmental organizations**, advocates quality physical education and training for PE teachers. It highlights the benefits of investing in PE versus the cost of not investing (cf self-explanatory infographics ).

“The stakes are high,” says UNESCO Director-General Irina Bokova. “Public investment in physical education is far outweighed by high dividends in health savings and educational objectives. Participation in quality physical education has been shown to instil a positive attitude towards physical activity, to decrease the chances of young people engaging in risky behaviour and to impact positively on academic performance, while providing a platform for wider social inclusion.”

The Guidelines seek to address seven areas of particular concern identified last year in UNESCO’s global review of the state of physical education , namely: 1. Persistent gaps between PE policy and implementation; 2. Continuing deficiencies in curriculum time allocation; 3. Relevance and quality of the PE curriculum; 4. Quality of initial teacher training programmes; 5. Inadequacies in the quality and maintenance of facilities; 6. Continued barriers to equal provision and access for all; 7. Inadequate school-community coordination.

The recommendations to policy-makers and education stake-holders are matched by case studies about programmes, often led by community-based nongovernmental organizations. Success stories in Africa, North and Latin America, Asia and Europe illustrate what can be achieved by quality physical education: young people learn how to plan and monitor progress in reaching a goal they set themselves, with a direct impact on their self-confidence, social skills and ability to perform in the classroom.

While schools alone cannot provide the full daily hour of physical activity recommended for all young people, a well-planned policy should promote PE synergies between formal education and the community. Experiences such as Magic Bus (India) which uses physical activity to help bring school drop outs back to the classroom highlight the potential of such school-leisure coordination.

The publication promotes the concept of “physical literacy,” defined by Canada’s Passport for Life organization of physical and health educators as the ability to move “with competence and confidence in a wide variety of physical activities in multiple environments that benefit the healthy development of the whole person. Competent movers tend to be more successful academically and socially. They understand how to be active for life and are able to transfer competence from one area to another. Physically literate individuals have the skills and confidence to move any way they want. They can show their skills and confidence in lots of different physical activities and environments; and use their skills and confidence to be active and healthy.”

For society to reap the benefit of quality physical education, the guidelines argue, planners must ensure that it is made available as readily to girls as it is to boys, to young people in school and to those who are not.

The Guidelines were produced at the request of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee for Physical Education and Sport (CIGEPS) and participants at the Fifth International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (Berlin 2013). UNESCO and project partners will proceed to work with a number of countries that will engage in a process of policy revision in this area, as part of UNESCO’s work to support national efforts to adapt their educational systems to today’s needs (see Quality physical education contributes to 21st century education ).

Media contact: Roni Amelan, UNESCO Press Service, r.amelan(at)unesco.org , +33 (0)1 45 68 16 50

Photos are available here: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/multimedia/photos/photo-gallery-quality-physical-education/

* More about the CIGEPS meeting

** The European Commission, the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE), the International Olympic Committee (IOC), UNDP, UNICEF, UNOSDP and WHO.

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Articles on Physical education

Displaying 1 - 20 of 36 articles.

New government guidance for PE lets teachers and pupils down

David Grecic , University of Central Lancashire ; Alan Thomson , University of Central Lancashire , and Andrew Sprake , University of Central Lancashire

Is exercise really good for the brain? Here’s what the science says

Matthieu P. Boisgontier , L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa and Boris Cheval , Université de Genève

Girls should get the chance to play football at school – but PE needs a major rehaul for all students

Shrehan Lynch , University of East London

School playgrounds are getting squeezed: here are 8 ways to keep students active in small spaces

Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University ; Jessica Amy Sears , Charles Sturt University , and Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania

Outdoor education has psychological, cognitive and physical health benefits for children

Jean-Philippe Ayotte-Beaudet , Université de Sherbrooke and Felix Berrigan , Université de Sherbrooke

London’s Olympic legacy: research reveals why £2.2 billion investment in primary school PE has failed teachers

Vicky Randall , University of Winchester and Gerald Griggs

How sport can help young people to become better citizens

Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania and Casey Peter Mainsbridge , University of Tasmania

Missing out on PE during lockdowns means students will be playing  catch-up

Jora Broerse , Victoria University ; Cameron Van der Smee , Federation University Australia , and Jaimie-Lee Maple , Victoria University

Disabled children still face exclusion in PE – here’s what needs to change

Tom Gibbons , Teesside University and Kevin Dixon , Northumbria University, Newcastle

Taking the circus to school: How kids benefit from learning trapeze, juggling and unicycle in gym class

Marion Cossin , Université de Montréal

Thinking of choosing a health or PE subject in years 11 and 12? Here’s what you need to know

Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University and Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania

Aussie kids are some of the least active in the world. We developed a cheap school program that gets results

Taren Sanders , Australian Catholic University ; Chris Lonsdale , Australian Catholic University ; David Lubans , University of Newcastle ; Michael Noetel , The University of Queensland , and Philip D Parker , Australian Catholic University

When men started to obsess over  six-packs

Conor Heffernan , The University of Texas at Austin

PE can do much more than keep children fit – but its many benefits are often overlooked

David Grecic , University of Central Lancashire ; Andrew Sprake , University of Central Lancashire , and Robin Taylor , University of Central Lancashire

Distance learning makes it harder for kids to exercise, especially in low-income communities

Katelyn Esmonde , Johns Hopkins University and Keshia Pollack Porter , Johns Hopkins University

Kids need physical education – even when they can’t get it at school

Collin A. Webster , University of South Carolina

Learning through adventure: the many skills that can be taught outside the classroom

Gary Stidder , University of Brighton

Kids aren’t getting enough exercise, even in sporty Seattle

Julie McCleery , University of Washington

Bushwalking and bowls in schools: we need to teach kids activities they’ll go on to enjoy

Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania ; Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University , and Shane Pill , Flinders University

How children who dread PE lessons at school can be given a sporting chance

Kiara Lewis , University of Huddersfield

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Effective health education provides both instruction and opportunities to engage in meaningful physical activity. This goes beyond teaching kids how to be physically active ‒ it means teaching them how to develop habits that lead to lifelong active lifestyles.

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126 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Physical education is an important aspect of education that focuses on the development of physical fitness and skills through various physical activities. It helps students understand the importance of leading a healthy and active lifestyle while also promoting teamwork, sportsmanship, and discipline. When it comes to writing essays on physical education, there are a plethora of topics that students can explore. Here are 126 physical education essay topic ideas and examples to help you get started:

• The benefits of physical education in schools
• The role of physical education in promoting mental health
• The impact of physical education on academic performance
• The importance of physical education for children with disabilities
• The history of physical education in schools
• The relationship between physical education and obesity
• The benefits of incorporating technology in physical education classes
• The role of physical education in promoting lifelong fitness
• The importance of physical education for overall well-being
• The benefits of team sports in physical education
• The impact of physical education on social skills development
• The role of physical education in preventing chronic diseases
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s cognitive development
• The importance of physical education for stress management
• The impact of physical education on self-esteem
• The benefits of including dance in physical education classes
• The role of physical education in promoting healthy lifestyle choices
• The importance of physical education for motor skills development
• The benefits of outdoor activities in physical education
• The impact of physical education on physical literacy
• The role of physical education in promoting gender equality in sports
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s emotional well-being
• The importance of physical education for developing leadership skills
• The impact of physical education on academic motivation
• The benefits of incorporating mindfulness in physical education classes
• The role of physical education in promoting cultural diversity
• The importance of physical education for teaching sportsmanship
• The benefits of including yoga in physical education classes
• The impact of physical education on body image
• The role of physical education in promoting inclusivity in sports
• The importance of physical education for teaching teamwork
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s social development
• The impact of physical education on physical fitness levels
• The role of physical education in promoting environmental awareness
• The benefits of including nutrition education in physical education classes
• The importance of physical education for teaching resilience
• The impact of physical education on time management skills
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s creativity
• The role of physical education in promoting healthy competition
• The importance of physical education for teaching conflict resolution skills
• The benefits of including mindfulness in physical education classes
• The impact of physical education on academic achievement
• The role of physical education in promoting emotional intelligence
• The importance of physical education for teaching goal setting
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s self-regulation
• The impact of physical education on self-efficacy
• The role of physical education in promoting teamwork skills
• The importance of physical education for teaching decision-making
• The impact of physical education on self-confidence
• The role of physical education in promoting creativity
• The importance of physical education for developing problem-solving skills
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s resilience
• The impact of physical education on emotional regulation
• The role of physical education in promoting positive body image
• The importance of physical education for teaching conflict resolution
• The impact of physical education on social skills
• The role of physical education in promoting empathy
• The importance of physical education for developing leadership qualities
• The benefits of physical education for children'''s teamwork skills
• The impact of physical education on communication skills
• The role of physical education in promoting problem-solving abilities
• The importance of physical education for developing resilience

In conclusion, physical education is a crucial component of a well-rounded education that promotes physical fitness, mental health, social skills, and overall well-being. By exploring these physical education essay topics and examples, students can gain a deeper understanding of the importance of physical education and its impact on various aspects of their lives. Whether you choose to focus on the benefits of physical education for cognitive development, social skills, or physical fitness, there are endless possibilities for exploring this important subject in your essays.

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health education and physical education

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Introduction

An individual’s physical and mental well-being is the concern of two similar areas of education: health education and physical education. Both deal with habits of exercise, sleep, rest, and recreation. Since physical well-being is only one aspect of a person’s overall health, physical education is often thought of as a part of health education.

Health education is an activity aimed at the improvement of health-related knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. It is used in schools to help students make intelligent decisions about health-related issues. There are many ways to teach health in schools. Usually instructors create and facilitate learning experiences that develop the student’s decision-making skills. Above all, teachers provide health information and a concern for factors that influence the quality of life.

Health behavior plays a major part in a person’s overall well-being. Since health-related behaviors are both learned and amenable to change, formal health education usually begins when a child is most flexible—in primary school. This is also when a child is more apt to accept positive health behaviors. It is in these early years that the negative effects of a lifetime of health abuse can be prevented. Many health problems are known to be linked to smoking, poor nutrition, obesity, lack of exercise, stress, and abuse of drugs and alcohol ( see alcohol ; drugs ; exercise ; habit and addiction ; stress ; weight control ).

Basic to health education is the principle of preventive care. Health educators attempt to teach people to be responsible for their own health and health care. They also discuss the benefits of medical technology and research. They often promote behavioral changes and modifications to improve health. ( See also holistic medicine .)

Health education and physical education programs exist throughout the world. In the United States, most health education and physical education programs are managed by governments (federal, state, and local), communities, schools, and organizations.

Government Programs

Many federally sponsored health and health-related programs are offered by the United States Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Resources and Services Administration, primarily through its Division of Maternal and Child Health, also has particular interests in the health of school-age children. This governmental body develops elementary school programs on human genetics and on accident and injury prevention.

The President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, based in Washington, D.C., promotes physical fitness and sports throughout the United States. The group recommends the Youth Fitness Test, developed by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD), as the most effective physical fitness battery for use in public schools.

This test consists of six items: pull-ups or flexed-arm hang, standing long jump, 50-yard dash, shuttle run, sit-ups, and a long endurance run. Based on the results of the test, children 10 to 17 years of age can earn the Presidential Physical Fitness Award.

The Youth Fitness Test received some criticism that despite its usefulness in measuring athletic performance, it was not a valid indicator of health-related fitness. As a result of this concern, AAHPERD developed the Health-Related Physical Fitness Test in 1980. It measures cardiovascular function, body composition, flexibility, and abdominal strength.

The Office on Smoking and Health, originally in the Bureau of Health Education, is now part of the Office of the Assistant for Health. It maintains an inventory of information that is used by schools and often provides them with technical assistance.

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration within the Department of Transportation provides schools with educational materials related to the use of alcohol, traffic safety, pedestrian and bicycle safety, and housing-occupancy protection. Its curriculum materials are directed to people of all ages. ( See also health agencies .)

School Programs

There has been some controversy about the differences between physical education and health education in schools in the United States. Some states and local school districts treat these two phases of education as being identical. In recent years, many schools have begun to treat health education and physical education as separate disciplines.

In order to facilitate school health and physical education programs, health education professionals combine and categorize generally accepted health education concepts into easily accessible forms. These forms include pamphlets, books, films, audio tapes, video tapes, and curriculum guides.

Primary and Elementary School

Health and physical education usually begins in primary school. Activities are carefully selected according to the child’s age, needs, sex, and physical condition. Children are encouraged to participate in running, climbing, jumping, swinging, and throwing. Such play activities help children to grow and develop.

Health education curricula are often tailored to the age, intellect, and interest of the students. They may include the following health-related concerns: mental health, body systems and the senses, nutrition, family life, alcohol, drugs and tobacco, safety and first aid, personal health, consumer health, diseases (chronic and communicable), environmental health, aging, and death. Each of these concerns is composed of dozens of topics. For example, personal health encompasses dental care, personal care, exercise, rest, physical fitness, and other topics. The general attitudes within a community may affect the elementary school curriculum. In some communities, for instance, sex education is considered a vital part of health education; in others it is felt that the subject should not be a part of the curriculum ( see sexuality ).

Secondary School and College

At the junior high school level, activities are selected in terms of individual and group needs. Other determining factors are the age and physical condition of the student. Competitive sports are introduced at this level, usually for both boys and girls. General health practices are reinforced in junior high school, and new practices, particularly those associated with group responsibility, are begun.

Physical education programs in high schools and colleges often have four parts: (1) an instructional program for all students; (2) an instructional program in which games or sports have been adapted for special needs; (3) an intramural program; and (4) an interscholastic program. Intramural, or “within the walls,” games involve competitions between teams of the same school. When different schools compete, the contests are called interscholastic (high school) or intercollegiate (college).

Complex team sports, such as football and basketball, are also introduced. The variety of sports activities is increased so that all students are given an equal opportunity for sports participation. Rather than having a program with monotonous exercises aimed at strength or discipline, modern physical education programs are designed to provide students with the opportunity to learn those natural activities that contribute to their personal development. Health and physical education curricula in many secondary schools and colleges reflect the recent concerns about problems associated with alcohol, drug, and tobacco abuse. They also include sex education. Different schools have varying means of providing information about these matters. By the time students enter high school, they have acquired some health knowledge as well as certain health attitudes and practices.

Organizational Programs

Numerous private and public health organizations and community groups have an interest in promoting health. Some may focus on particular diseases, disabilities, or an assortment of health problems. Others take on specific health projects to serve their community. Many of these organizations provide informational material and allocate funds for both health instruction and services. Nonprofit organizations also serve the community by providing health-related information to the general public ( see health agencies ).

Programs with health and physical education activities are also found in community centers, fitness clubs, churches, and many other recreational and social organizations. Youth organizations, such as the YMCA, YWCA, and scouting groups, play a particularly vital role in health education in local communities. Many promote Olympic development programs, Special Olympics programs, aerobics, and exercise ( see youth organizations ).

Many large companies provide health and fitness programs for their employees. These corporate programs have been found to reduce health-care costs and absenteeism. They also improve morale, job-satisfaction ratings, and the general health and attitude of employees. The corporate setting represents a logical link between the work site and the health and fitness of the employee. Many companies have in-house health and fitness facilities, education seminars, and workshops.

The physician has always tried to formulate rules of health based on knowledge and experience. These rules were probably the first attempt at health education. Two such regimens are attributed to the ancient physicians Hippocrates and Galen . Another was produced by the medieval medical school at Salerno, Italy. The health information provided by these programs was based on experience rather than on scientific evidence. In modern times, however, health and physical education is a more exact science and many of its teachings are based not only on scientific fact but also on the knowledge of the motivations behind human actions.

Health Education

In the United States sporadic attempts at teaching hygiene in the schools were made in the middle of the 19th century. The activities were more crisis oriented than preventive since epidemic diseases were the primary concern. By the turn of the century the need for health education was recognized, but improvements came slowly. In 1924 only four states had certification requirements for health education teachers in the secondary schools. Formal health education took the form of instruction in anatomy and physiology. Health was taught purely as a science, and emphasis was placed on cognitive information. As health education evolved, health teachers became more concerned with the attitudinal and behavioral aspects of students’ health as well.

Finally, by the 1930s, the idea of health education was thought of as a distinct, independent science. The first program of graduate training for health was established at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1921. By the 1960s many institutes had embarked on the professional preparation of teachers of health education. The crisis-oriented approach to health education was eventually replaced with the modern preventive health education. In the mid-1980s at least 43 states offered preparation programs for teachers of health education.

The beginning of health education in Great Britain is attributed to Sir Allen Daley, a medical officer of health. Daley saw the usefulness of public talks on health topics and pioneered the field of preventive medicine. He was instrumental in setting up the Central Council for Health Education in England.

Physical Education

The revival of gymnastics in the 18th and 19th centuries marked the beginning of large-scale physical instruction. In 1826 Harvard College established the first college gymnasium in the United States. In 1893 it became the first college to confer an academic degree in physical education. Many colleges issued entrance requirements and selective admission for entering students. The main emphasis was on sports participation. Remedial physical education and aquatics were also offered.

By 1925 city supervisors of physical education were employed to organize programs and assist classroom teachers in many elementary schools. The city could dictate the required number of classroom hours for physical education, usually 150 minutes per week for grades one through six.

By 1930 laws requiring physical education in the public schools had been enacted in 36 states. During World War II, physical education classes often lasted 30 minutes daily and included such activities as games, folk dance, story plays, tumbling, and health instruction. General physical education programs were developed at the college and university level for the general student, and professional programs were designed for students seeking a bachelor’s degree in physical education. Professional physical education at all levels in the educational spectrum has recently undergone major modifications.

In the 1950s there was much concern over the physical fitness of students in the United States, partly because of the results of a comparison between the physical fitness of students in the United States and those in Europe. Students from schools in the eastern United States were given a test, called the Kraus-Weber minimum muscular fitness test, in 1952. About 57 percent of the students failed one or more parts of the test. In Europe only about 8 percent of the students failed. The implications of the test led to the establishment, in 1956, of the President’s Council on Youth Fitness, shortly followed by the creation of the Youth Fitness Test Battery, designed by the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation.

James M. Eddy

Additional Reading

Anspaugh, D.J., and others. Teaching Today’s Health (Bell and Howell, 1983). Cornacchia, Harold J. and others. Health Education in Elementary Schools, 6th ed. (Mosby, 1983). Creswell, W.H. and Anderson, C.L. School Health Practice, 8th ed. (Mosby, 1984). Greene, W.H. and Simons-Morton, B.G. Introduction to Health Education (Macmillan, 1984).

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71 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best physical education topic ideas & essay examples, 🔎 interesting topics to write about physical education, 📑 good research topics about physical education.

• Role of Parents in Physical Education and Sport The involvement of parents in physical education and sports is viewed differently in regard to how it affects the child’s participation in sports even later in life.
• The Usefulness of Physical Education in Modern Education Varied criticism adds to the debate on the usefulness of PE in modern education and the need to change current approaches. This indicates the need to focus the debate on the meaning of PE to […]
• Adaptive Physical Education The value of the brochure developed for the informational purpose is attributed to the need to communicate the importance of APE and point out the value that it could bring to children with special needs.
• Physical Education and Its Benefits Schools in particular know the benefits of physical education in a student’s life and should be able to fight for the children’s rights.
• Effectiveness of Physical Education Provisions in the UK School The vital need for health promotion, especially in terms of secondary education has been highlighted by the science of epidemiology the study of factors that influence the health and illnesses of people.
• British Development of Sport and Physical Education in the Last 25 Years Sport England wishes to increase participation in sports through community sports activities, sporting completions providing and training coaches and officiators, and closely working with the Youth Sport Trust and UK Sports formed in 1996 to […]
• Physical Education within Elementary Schools One of the benefits of the physical education is the level of physical fitness that it induces to the students. The manner in which these students are introduced to physical education and the way that […]
• Race and Gender in Physical Education and Sports These factors create the diversity of cultures and nations, and inclusiveness, giving access to the best talents and disclosing the individual’s potential, abilities, and strengths.
• Physical Education: Effect of Phototherapy Therefore, it is evident that the intensity of an exercise directly influences one’s heart rate, breathing rate, skin coloration, sweating, and recovery.
• Bodies in Physical Education The purpose of this study is to investigate how students view the construction of their bodies in relation to physical education and how students’ meanings of their bodies affect their participation or resistance to physical […]
• Physical Education: Personal Physical Exercise Plan Given the necessity of taking fluids, it is good to identify and avail the same before starting a physical exercise session.
• Health Teaching and Physical Education Lesson Plan Students will be able to dribble a ball with a hand paying attention to such principles as dribbling on the side, waist-high, pushing the ball down, and eyes lookup.
• Increase of Physical Education Classes Children are the future of any nation, and their health and well-being are the essential preconditions for the successful development of the United States.
• Physical Educators Attitude to Special Needs Children Sue Combs, together with her colleagues from the University of North Carolina, investigated the attitudes of the physical education teachers towards the inclusion of children with special needs in their lessons.
• Physical Education Curriculum Physical education has significantly contributed towards the realization of the school philosophy as it helps in the development of the physical aspects of the students.
• The Nature and Values of Physical Education In the past, physical education was considered to consist of only physical and practical activities, however, the recent research has justified that physical education can be included in the curriculum on the basis of scientific […]
• Should Public Schools Be Required to Restore Physical Education Classes to the Curriculum? The occurrence of obesity prevalence in children, in the U S, can be associated with the removal of physical education courses in public school curriculum.
• Effects of Physical Education on Brain These neurons are usually created in a place called the hippocampus, which happens to be the section of the brain involved in learning and storage of memory.
• Elementary School Curriculum and Physical Education
• Should Physical Education Be a Required Class in College?
• Physical Education Class: The Perfect Place to Be Bullied
• Pros and Cons of Physical Education
• How Physical Education Should Be Taught
• Physical Education for Elementary School Students
• Weight-Related Barriers for Overweight Students in an Elementary Physical Education Classroom
• Physical Education Lesson Plan and Activity Ideas
• Motivation, Discipline, and Academic Performance in Physical Education
• Adaptive Physical Education for Students With Special Needs
• Physical Education Should Not Be Mandated
• How Technology Enhances the Physical Education Curriculum
• Physical Education: Standards, Cooperative Skills, and Learning Theories
• Physical Education’s Contribution to Public Health
• Physical Education Importance for Child Development
• Reasons to Keep Physical Education in the National Curriculum
• Ethical Relativism and Its Impact on Physical Education
• Inclusive School Physical Education and Physical Activity
• History and Benefits of Physical Education: Why I Want to Be a P.E. Teacher
• Physical Education Beyond the Middle School
• The Importance of Physical Education in Childhood Obesity
• Physical Activity Promotion and School Physical Education
• Implementing the TARGET Model in Physical Education: Effects on Perceived Psychobiosocial and Motivational States in Girls
• Teaching the Nuts and Bolts of Physical Education
• Health-Related Intensity Profiles for Physical Education Classes
• Anticipated Benefits From a Basic College Physical Education Activity Course
• Physical Education Should Be Graded on Effort, Not Ability
• Motivation and Intention to Be Physically Active in Physical Education Students
• Personal Development, Health, and Physical Education
• Why Physical Education Should Be Included in the School Curriculum
• Attitude and Teacher’s Qualification as Factors Affecting Students’ Participation in Physical Education Activities
• Burnout in Physical Education Teachers
• What Benefits Physical Activity Has on Academic Performance
• SPARK Physical Education Curriculum Program
• Changing the National Curriculum for Physical Education
• Physical Education: Official School Policy
• How Physical Education Helps to Develop Your Personality
• Early Childhood Development: Physical Education Program Effects
• Fun Physical Education Games for High School Students
• How Extracurricular Sports Should Satisfy State Physical Education Requirements
• One’s Readiness to Self-Development Through Physical Education
• Would More Physical Education Reduce Obesity in the Youths?
• Goal-Directed Physical Education for Learners With Disabilities
• Health and Physical Education: Volleyball
• Managing the Physical Education Classroom
• Strategies to Accommodate Autism Spectrum Disorder Students in General Physical Education
• Physical Education vs. School Sports: What’s the Difference?
• The Impact of School Budgetary Cuts on Physical Education
• Teaching Health and Physical Education in Australian Schools
• Positive Reinforcement Techniques in Physical Education
• Child Development Research Ideas
• Academic Performance Topics
• Football Topics
• Asthma Paper Topics
• Lifespan Development Essay Titles
• Obesity Ideas
• Soccer Research Topics
• Adolescence Questions
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Why PE matters for student academics and wellness right now

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This story about PE teachers was produced by The Hechinger Report , a nonprofit, independent news organization focused on inequality and innovation in education. Sign up for Hechinger’s newsletter .

Amanda Amtmanis, an elementary physical education instructor in Middletown, Connecticut, handed out cards with QR codes to a class of third graders, and told them to start running.

The kids sprinted off around the baseball field in a light drizzle, but by the end of the first lap, a fifth of a mile, many were winded and walking. They paused to scan the cards, which track their mileage, on their teacher’s iPad and got some encouragement from an electronic coach — “Way to run your socks off!” or “Leave it all on the track!”

A boy in a red Nike shirt surged ahead, telling Amtmanis his goal was to run 5 miles. “Whoa, look at Dominic!” another boy exclaimed.

“We don’t need to compare ourselves to others,” Amtmanis reminded him.

The third graders finished a third lap, alternating running and walking, and were about to start on a scavenger hunt when the rain picked up, forcing them inside. Amtmanis thanked her students for their willingness to adjust — a skill many of them have practiced far more often than running these past 18 months.

The full impact of the pandemic on kids’ health and fitness won’t be known for some time. But it’s already caused at least a short-term spike in childhood obesity Rates of overweight and obesity in 5- through 11-year-olds rose nearly 10 percentage points in the first few months of 2020.

Amtmanis’ “mileage club,” which tracks students’ running, both in and out of school, and rewards them with Pokémon cards when they hit certain targets, is an example of how PE teachers around the country are trying to get kids back in shape.

But inclement weather isn’t the only thing PE teachers are up against as they confront what might be called “physical learning loss.” Physical education as a discipline has long fought to be taken as seriously as its academic counterparts. Even before the pandemic, fewer than half the states set any minimum amount of time for students to participate in physical education, according to the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE), which represents PE and health instructors.

Now, as schools scramble to help kids catch up academically, there are signs that PE is taking a back seat to the core subjects yet again. In some California schools, administrators are shifting instructional minutes from PE to academic subjects — or canceling class altogether so PE teachers can sub for classroom teachers; in others, they’re growing class sizes in the gym, so they can shrink them in the classroom.

Meanwhile, innovative instructors like Amtmanis, who has worked in her district for more than 20 years, are struggling to get their ideas off the ground. Over the summer, the principal of Macdonough Elementary, one of two schools where Amtmanis teaches, approved her request to participate in another running program called The Daily Mile, in which kids walk or run 15 minutes a day during school hours.

Daily running breaks “boost attentiveness, which has positive effects on academics,” Amtmanis argued.

But two weeks into the school year, not a single teacher had bought into the idea.

“The issue is their packed schedule,” Amtmanis said.

Last year, many schools conducted gym class remotely, with students joining in from their bedrooms and living rooms.

The online format presented several challenges. Many students lacked the equipment, space, or parental support to participate fully. And many instructors grappled with how to teach and assess motor skills and teamwork online.

Though instructors found creative ways to keep students moving — substituting rolled-up socks for balls, and “disguising fitness” in scavenger hunts and beat-the-teacher challenges — they still fretted that online gym wasn’t giving students the same benefits as in-person classes.

Compounding their concern was the fact that many students were also missing out on recess and extracurricular sports.

In a March 2021 survey conducted by the Cooper Institute, maker of the popular FitnessGram assessments, close to half the PE teachers and school and district administrators responding said their students were “significantly less” physically active during their schools’ closure than before it.

Schools that reopened last year faced their own set of challenges, including bans on shared equipment that made even a simple game of catch impossible. Schools that were open for in-person learning were also much more likely to cut back on PE instructional time, or eliminate it altogether, the survey found.

The consequences of these reductions in physical activity are hard to quantify, especially since many schools suspended fitness testing during the pandemic and have yet to resume it, but some PE teachers say they’re seeing more kids with locomotor delays and weaker stamina than normal.

“The second graders are like first graders, and some are even like kindergarteners,” said Robin Richardson, an elementary PE instructor in Kentucky. They can jump and hop, she said, but they can’t leap. They’re exhausted after 20 seconds of jumping jacks.

An unusually high number of Richardson’s first graders can’t skip or do windmills. Some lack the spatial awareness that’s essential to group games.

“They don’t know how to move without running into each other,” she said.

Other instructors are seeing an increase in cognitive issues, such as difficulty paying attention or following directions, particularly among kids who remained remote for most or all of last year.

Kyle Bragg, an elementary PE instructor in Arizona, has seen kids sitting with their backs to him, staring off into space when he’s talking. “I say ‘Knees, please,’ so they spin around to face me,” he said.

And some PE teachers say their students’ social-emotional skills have suffered more than their gross motor skills. “They forgot how to share; how to be nice to each other; how to relate to each other,” said Donn Tobin, an elementary PE instructor in New York.

PE has a key role to play in boosting those skills, which affect how kids interact in other classes, said Will Potter, an elementary PE teacher in California.

“We’re uniquely situated to handle the social-emotional needs that came out of the pandemic, in a way classroom teachers are not,” Potter said.

Amtmanis, for her part, worries about her students’ mental health. She sees the little signs of strain daily — the kid who got upset because he couldn’t pick his group, for example, and the one who was distressed that his Mileage Club card had gotten mixed up in the front office.

“Their emotional reserves are low,” she said.

Yet not all instructors are reporting drops in their students’ fitness and skill development. Teachers in some middle- and upper-income districts said they haven’t noticed much of a change at all. In some communities, families seemed to spend more time outdoors.

“We saw the skyrocketing sale of bicycles, we saw families going for walks,” said Dianne Wilson-Graham, executive director of the California Physical Education and Health Project.

But in Title I schools like Macdonough, where more than half the students are low-income, some kids didn’t even have access to a safe place to exercise or play during school closures.

“Not only are they not in soccer leagues, but sometimes they don’t even have a park,” Amtmanis said.

Amtmanis came up with the idea of doing the Daily Mile after spring fitness tests revealed drops in her students’ strength, flexibility and endurance.

But many schools still aren’t sure how much physical learning loss their students have experienced as a result of the pandemic. Most schools pressed pause on fitness testing last year, and some elementary-school instructors are reluctant to restart it. They say the tests aren’t valid with young children, even in ordinary times, and argue the time they take could be better spent on Covid catch-up.

Andjelka Pavlovic, director of research and education for the Cooper Institute, said its tests are scientifically proven to be valid for students who are 10 and up, or roughly starting in fourth grade.

Fitness testing requirements vary by state, county or even district. Some states specify how often students must be tested; others leave it largely to the teacher.

Bragg, the Arizona teacher, said he has put testing “on the backburner” because “right now it’s not at the forefront of what’s important.”

Richardson said she is avoiding testing because she doesn’t want to use up precious instructional time or demoralize her students. “I want my kids to enjoy movement,” she said. If they perform poorly on the tests, “they may not feel as strong.”

In Connecticut, where schools are required to test fourth graders’ fitness annually, Amtmanis approached testing cautiously last year. She didn’t want to embarrass her students, so she made it into a series of games.

Instead of Sit-and-Reach, they had a “flexibility contest,” in which kids broke into teams for tag then had to perform stretches if they were tagged. She measured the distances stretched with curling ribbon, tied the ribbons together, and attached a balloon to the end. The team whose balloon soared the highest won fidget putty.

Pushups became a Bingo game, with the center space representing pushups.

“My goal was to get through it without ever using the words ‘fitness” or ‘testing,’” she said.

As the pandemic drags on, some instructors are taking a similar approach to fitness remediation and acceleration.

Bragg likes a warmup called “ Touch Spots ,” in which first graders listen as the instructor reads off the name of a color, then run and touch a corresponding dot on the floor. It works on reaction time, cardiovascular endurance, spatial awareness and sequencing — but the kids don’t know that.

“Students are having so much fun that they don’t realize how much fitness they are doing,” Bragg said.

Differentiation — tailoring instruction to meet individual students’ needs — has become even more essential, with former remote learners often lagging behind their in-person peers, Bragg said.

When playing catch, for example, he offers his students different sized balls — the smaller ones are more challenging.

Potter, the California teacher, spent the first two weeks of school teaching his students how to connect with their partners, stressing the importance of eye contact and body language.

“When you’re on Zoom, you look at the camera to make eye contact,” he said. “It’s a very different environment.”

Bragg reminds his students how to include kids who are standing on the sidelines, modeling excited body language and tone of voice. Lately, he’s noticed that kids who were remote last year are being excluded from groups.

“Social interaction needs to be practiced, just like how to throw a ball,” he said.

Richardson, the Kentucky PE teacher, is trying to build up her students’ stamina gradually, through progressively longer intervals of exercise.

But she works in a school with pods, so she sees each group of kids for five consecutive days, every third week. The two weeks in between, she has to hope that teachers will provide recess and “movement breaks.” She’s trying to get them to give kids breaks “when they get glassy-eyed and frustrated.”

Recently, Richardson was at a staff training session at which depleted teachers were “popping candy in the back.” When she raised her hand and requested a break in the training, her colleagues cheered. She told them to remember how they felt when their students return to the building.

“I always say, ‘If your bum is numb, your brain is the same,’” she said.

Convincing classroom teachers to set aside more time for movement can be challenging, though. As students return from months of online learning, teachers are under enormous pressure to get them caught up academically.

Kate Cox, an elementary and middle-school PE teacher in California, wishes schools would “realize what they’re missing when they cut PE because of learning loss in other areas.” Physical education is “readying their minds and bodies to be more successful in other areas,” Cox said.

Terri Drain, the president of SHAPE, argued that schools fail students when they treat physical learning loss as less serious than its academic counterpart.

“In the primary grades, children develop fundamental motor skills, such as throwing, catching, running, kicking and jumping,” she said. Unless schools commit to helping kids catch up, “the impacts of this ‘missed learning’ will be lifelong.”

In Connecticut, Amtmanis hasn’t given up on convincing teachers to carve out time for the Daily Mile. She recently sent them a list of suggestions on how to fit 15 minutes of running into the day, including by incorporating it as an active transition between academic blocks.

“While it may seem like there aren’t minutes to spare,” she wrote, “the energizing effect of the active transition should result in more on-task behavior and more efficient working.”

In the meantime, Amtmanis plans to keep using the mileage club to motivate her students to run and to monitor their progress.

“I don’t want to call attention to the fact that not everyone is fit,” she said. “This is an unobtrusive way to keep the data.”

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

4 Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance

Key messages.

• Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.
• Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.
• Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.
• Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.
• Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.
• Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.

Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.

Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.

Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.

• PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).

Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).

When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).

Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.

The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).

Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).

Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance

Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).

Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).

Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.

Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.

State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).

Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).

In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).

Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance

In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.

In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.

The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.

In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.

A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.

Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).

Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.

Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).

Single Bouts of Physical Activity

Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .

Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.

For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.

Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).

Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)

It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.

Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors

Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).

After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.

A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).

Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.

In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.

It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).

To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.

From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.

• THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH

The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.

The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults

Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).

Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.

Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.

Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).

With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.

Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.

In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.

In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.

Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).

Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function

Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.

In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function

Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.

Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).

Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.

Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.

Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health

A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.

Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.

Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.

• LIMITATIONS

Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.

Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.

Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.

From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.

Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.

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• Cite this Page Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 4, Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance.
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Physical Education Research Paper Topics

In this guide on physical education research paper topics , we explore a wide range of subjects that delve into the field of physical education. Whether you’re a student studying education or a researcher in the field, this comprehensive list of topics is designed to inspire and guide you in your research endeavors. From examining the impact of physical activity on academic performance to analyzing the effectiveness of different teaching methods in physical education, these research paper topics offer a diverse range of areas to explore.

100 Physical Education Research Paper Topics

Exploring the diverse facets of physical education through research papers offers a unique opportunity to delve deeper into the field and contribute to the growing body of knowledge. To assist you in this endeavor, we have compiled a comprehensive list of physical education research paper topics. These topics span various areas of interest, from the impact of physical education on mental health to the integration of technology in physical education curricula. Each category contains 10 stimulating and thought-provoking physical education research paper topics, providing you with a wide range of options to explore and develop your research.

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Physical Education Curriculum and Instruction

• The integration of technology in physical education curricula.
• The impact of standardized testing on physical education programs.
• Strategies for promoting inclusivity and diversity in physical education classes.
• The role of assessment and feedback in enhancing student learning in physical education.
• The effectiveness of different teaching methods in physical education.
• Examining the relationship between physical education and academic performance.
• Addressing gender disparities in physical education participation and achievement.
• Incorporating cultural competency in physical education curricula.
• The influence of teacher-student relationships on student engagement in physical education.
• Exploring the role of outdoor education in physical education programs.

Physical Activity and Health

• Investigating the effects of physical activity on mental health and well-being.
• The relationship between physical activity and obesity rates among children and adolescents.
• Analyzing the impact of physical activity on cardiovascular health.
• Exploring the role of physical activity in reducing the risk of chronic diseases.
• Investigating the psychological benefits of regular physical activity.
• The impact of physical activity interventions on sedentary behavior.
• Examining the relationship between physical activity and cognitive function.
• Analyzing the influence of physical activity on sleep patterns.
• Exploring the role of physical activity in promoting healthy aging.
• Investigating the socio-economic factors influencing physical activity participation.

Sports Psychology and Performance

• Understanding the psychological factors influencing sports performance.
• Examining the role of motivation in sports participation and performance.
• Analyzing the impact of imagery and visualization techniques on athletic performance.
• Investigating the effects of stress and anxiety on sports performance.
• Exploring the psychological benefits of team sports participation.
• The influence of leadership styles on team cohesion and performance.
• Analyzing the role of self-confidence in sports performance.
• Understanding the psychological challenges faced by athletes with disabilities.
• Investigating the relationship between personality traits and sports performance.
• Exploring the effects of psychological interventions on sports performance enhancement.

Exercise Physiology and Biomechanics

• Investigating the physiological adaptations to different types of exercise.
• Analyzing the biomechanics of specific movements in sports and exercise.
• Exploring the effects of different training modalities on muscle strength and endurance.
• The role of nutrition in exercise performance and recovery.
• Investigating the effects of high-intensity interval training on cardiovascular fitness.
• Analyzing the biomechanical factors influencing running gait and performance.
• Exploring the physiological responses to altitude training.
• Investigating the effects of aging on exercise capacity and performance.
• Analyzing the impact of environmental factors on exercise performance.
• Understanding the role of genetics in exercise physiology and performance.

Adapted Physical Education

• Examining the benefits and challenges of inclusive physical education programs.
• The role of assistive technology in facilitating physical education for individuals with disabilities.
• Investigating the effectiveness of adapted physical education interventions.
• Exploring strategies for promoting social inclusion in adapted physical education.
• Analyzing the impact of inclusive physical education on self-esteem and self-efficacy.
• Understanding the experiences and perceptions of individuals with disabilities in physical education.
• Investigating the role of community partnerships in supporting adapted physical education.
• Examining the professional development needs of physical education teachers in inclusive settings.
• Analyzing the influence of policy and legislation on the provision of adapted physical education.
• Exploring the role of peer support in enhancing the participation of individuals with disabilities in physical education.

Physical Education Pedagogy and Teacher Training

• Investigating the impact of professional development programs on physical education teacher effectiveness.
• Exploring the use of technology in enhancing physical education pedagogy.
• Analyzing the role of reflection and self-assessment in physical education teacher development.
• Investigating the factors influencing physical education teacher job satisfaction.
• Understanding the challenges faced by physical education teachers in multicultural classrooms.
• Examining the relationship between teacher-student interaction and student engagement in physical education.
• Exploring effective strategies for managing behavior in physical education classes.
• Analyzing the impact of mentoring and coaching on physical education teacher development.
• Investigating the influence of school climate on physical education teacher motivation and performance.
• Exploring the integration of social-emotional learning in physical education curricula.

Physical Education Policy and Advocacy

• Analyzing the impact of policy on the provision of physical education in schools.
• Investigating the role of advocacy organizations in promoting quality physical education programs.
• Understanding the factors influencing physical education policy adoption and implementation.
• Examining the relationship between physical education policies and student health outcomes.
• Analyzing the impact of budgetary constraints on the quality of physical education programs.
• Investigating the role of community partnerships in supporting physical education initiatives.
• Exploring strategies for promoting physical education policy reform.
• Understanding the influence of parental involvement on physical education policy and practice.
• Analyzing the effects of policy changes on physical education teacher preparation programs.
• Investigating the perceptions and attitudes of stakeholders towards physical education policies.

Assessment and Evaluation in Physical Education

• Analyzing the effectiveness of different assessment methods in physical education.
• Investigating the use of technology in assessing physical education outcomes.
• Exploring the role of self-assessment and peer assessment in physical education.
• Understanding the challenges and opportunities of authentic assessment in physical education.
• Analyzing the impact of assessment practices on student motivation and engagement in physical education.
• Investigating the alignment between physical education curriculum, instruction, and assessment.
• Exploring the role of formative assessment in enhancing student learning in physical education.
• Understanding the influence of standardized testing on physical education assessment practices.
• Investigating the relationship between assessment practices and equity in physical education.
• Analyzing the use of data-driven decision-making in improving physical education programs.

Physical Education and Technology

• Investigating the use of wearable devices in monitoring physical activity and fitness levels.
• Exploring the impact of virtual reality and augmented reality in physical education.
• Analyzing the role of mobile applications in promoting physical activity and health.
• Understanding the benefits and challenges of online physical education courses.
• Investigating the use of gamification in enhancing student engagement in physical education.
• Exploring the influence of exergaming on physical activity participation.
• Analyzing the effectiveness of technology-mediated feedback in physical education.
• Investigating the role of social media in promoting physical activity and healthy lifestyles.
• Understanding the integration of technology in physical education teacher preparation programs.
• Exploring the ethical considerations of using technology in physical education.

Physical Education and Social Justice

• Analyzing the relationship between physical education and social inequality.
• Investigating the experiences and perceptions of marginalized groups in physical education.
• Exploring strategies for promoting social justice in physical education curricula.
• Understanding the role of physical education in fostering cultural competence and inclusion.
• Investigating the impact of gender norms on physical education experiences.
• Analyzing the influence of socioeconomic status on access to quality physical education.
• Exploring the intersectionality of race, gender, and physical education experiences.
• Investigating the role of physical education in promoting social-emotional well-being and resilience.
• Analyzing the impact of inclusive policies and practices on social justice in physical education.
• Understanding the challenges and opportunities of integrating social justice in physical education pedagogy.

The comprehensive list of physical education research paper topics presented here is just the beginning of your research journey. Delve into the categories, choose a topic that resonates with your interests, and embark on a fascinating exploration of the subject matter. Remember to consider the relevance, significance, and feasibility of your chosen topic, and conduct thorough research to develop a well-informed and insightful research paper. Whether you seek to uncover the benefits of physical activity or analyze the effectiveness of different teaching methods, these topics will inspire you to expand your understanding of physical education and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

Physical Education Research Guide

Welcome to the world of physical education research! This page serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers in the field of education who are eager to explore the realm of physical education through the lens of research papers. Physical education plays a vital role in promoting health, wellness, and overall development among individuals of all ages. It encompasses a wide range of physical education research paper topics, from the impact of physical activity on academic performance to the effectiveness of various teaching approaches in physical education.

The primary objective of this page is to provide you with a comprehensive overview of physical education research paper topics. By delving into these topics, you will gain a deeper understanding of the key issues, theories, and practices within the field. The list of topics is categorized into 10 distinct categories, each offering 10 diverse and thought-provoking research paper ideas. Whether you’re interested in exploring the role of technology in physical education or investigating the social and cultural aspects of sports, you’ll find a wealth of ideas to spark your curiosity and fuel your research journey.

In addition to the extensive list of research paper topics, this page also offers expert advice on how to choose the most appropriate topic for your research project. Selecting a compelling and relevant research topic is essential to ensure the success of your study. Our expert guidance will provide you with valuable insights and practical tips to help you navigate through the multitude of options and select a topic that aligns with your interests, research goals, and academic requirements.

Furthermore, we understand that crafting a research paper can be a challenging task. To support your academic journey, we offer custom writing services that allow you to order a personalized research paper on any physical education topic of your choice. Our team of expert degree-holding writers possesses the knowledge and expertise to deliver high-quality, well-researched papers that meet your specific needs. With our commitment to in-depth research, customized solutions, and adherence to formatting styles such as APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard, we strive to provide you with a seamless and professional writing experience.

So, whether you’re a student embarking on a research project or a researcher seeking new avenues of exploration, this page is designed to inspire, inform, and empower you in your quest for knowledge in the field of physical education. Let us embark on this exciting journey together as we delve into the fascinating world of physical education research paper topics.

Choosing a Physical Education Topic

When it comes to choosing a research paper topic in the field of physical education, it is crucial to select a subject that aligns with your interests, addresses a relevant issue, and allows for meaningful exploration. To help you make an informed decision, here are ten expert tips on selecting the right physical education research paper topic:

• Identify your passion : Consider the aspects of physical education that you find most fascinating and meaningful. Are you interested in exploring the impact of technology on physical education, the role of physical education in promoting mental health, or the relationship between physical activity and academic performance? By selecting a topic that aligns with your passion, you will be more motivated to dive deep into the research and produce an exceptional paper.
• Stay updated with current literature : Regularly review the latest research articles, books, and journals in the field of physical education. This will help you identify emerging trends, controversial topics, and gaps in existing knowledge, enabling you to choose a research topic that is current and relevant.
• Consider the target population : Physical education encompasses various age groups and populations, including children, adolescents, adults, and individuals with special needs. Reflect on which population interests you the most and tailor your research topic accordingly. For example, you may explore the effectiveness of physical education programs for children with disabilities or the impact of physical activity interventions on older adults’ well-being.
• Delve into emerging areas : Explore emerging areas within physical education that are gaining attention, such as inclusive education, adaptive physical education, or the integration of technology in teaching and learning. By choosing a topic in these emerging areas, you can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Address local or global issues : Consider researching topics that address local or global issues in physical education. For instance, you may examine the impact of socio-cultural factors on physical education participation rates in a specific community or analyze the effects of globalization on physical education curriculum development.
• Consult with experts : Seek guidance from professors, academic advisors, or professionals in the field of physical education. They can provide valuable insights, suggest potential research topics, and help you narrow down your focus based on their expertise and experience.
• Conduct a literature review : Before finalizing your research topic, conduct a comprehensive literature review to identify existing studies, theories, and gaps in knowledge. This will help you refine your research question and ensure that your topic contributes to the existing body of literature.
• Consider research feasibility : Assess the availability of data sources, research methods, and potential challenges associated with your chosen topic. Ensure that you have access to relevant data, research participants (if applicable), and the necessary resources to carry out your study successfully.
• Balance novelty and significance : Strive to find a balance between selecting a novel and unique topic while ensuring its significance within the field of physical education. Aim to choose a topic that adds value to the existing knowledge and has the potential to influence practice or policy in a meaningful way.
• Reflect on personal and professional goals : Consider how your chosen research topic aligns with your personal and professional goals. Will it contribute to your academic and career development? Does it align with your long-term aspirations within the field of physical education? Selecting a topic that resonates with your goals will enhance your motivation and dedication throughout the research process.

Remember, the process of choosing a research paper topic in physical education is iterative. Be open to exploring different ideas, seeking feedback from experts, and refining your topic based on the available resources and research feasibility. By selecting a topic that aligns with your passion, addresses a relevant issue, and has the potential for significant impact, you will be well-equipped to embark on a successful research journey in the field of physical education.

How to Write a Physical Education Research Paper

Writing a research paper in the field of physical education requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective organization of ideas. Here are some essential steps to guide you through the process of writing a compelling and well-structured physical education research paper:

• Understand the assignment : Familiarize yourself with the requirements and guidelines provided by your instructor or educational institution. Pay attention to the research question, formatting style, word count, and any specific instructions or expectations.
• Conduct thorough research : Begin by conducting extensive research on your chosen topic. Utilize various sources such as academic journals, books, reputable websites, and databases to gather relevant and reliable information. Take detailed notes and ensure that you cite your sources accurately.
• Develop a strong thesis statement : Formulate a clear and concise thesis statement that captures the main objective or argument of your research paper. The thesis statement should guide your research and provide a roadmap for the rest of your paper.
• Outline your paper : Create a well-organized outline to structure your research paper. Divide it into sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, analysis, and conclusion. Outline the main points and supporting evidence you will include in each section.
• Write a compelling introduction : Begin your paper with an engaging introduction that grabs the reader’s attention and provides background information on the topic. Clearly state the purpose of your research, introduce the key concepts, and present your thesis statement.
• Conduct a comprehensive literature review : Dedicate a section of your paper to reviewing relevant literature on the topic. Summarize and analyze existing studies, theories, and perspectives related to your research question. Identify gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Describe your research methodology : Explain the research design, methods, and procedures you used to collect and analyze data. Provide a clear description of the participants, materials, and instruments used. Justify the appropriateness of your chosen methods for addressing your research question.
• Present your findings : Share the results of your research in a clear and organized manner. Use tables, graphs, or charts to present quantitative data and provide detailed descriptions for qualitative data. Analyze and interpret the findings in relation to your research question.
• Discuss the implications and significance : Analyze the implications of your findings and their significance in the field of physical education. Discuss how your research contributes to the existing knowledge, addresses the research question, and impacts practice or policy.
• Conclude your paper effectively : Summarize the main points of your research paper in the conclusion section. Restate your thesis statement and highlight the key findings and implications. Discuss the limitations of your study and suggest areas for further research.
• Revise and edit : Review your research paper thoroughly for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Check for grammatical and spelling errors, and ensure proper citation of sources using the required formatting style.
• Seek feedback : Before submitting your final paper, seek feedback from peers, professors, or mentors. Incorporate their suggestions and revisions to improve the overall quality of your research paper.

By following these steps and dedicating sufficient time to each stage of the writing process, you can produce a well-researched and well-structured physical education research paper that effectively contributes to the field.

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Home » Blog » List of Interesting Health and Physical Education Project Topics & Ideas for Beginners

List of Interesting Health and Physical Education Project Topics & Ideas for Beginners

Health and physical education project topics & ideas.

Health and Physical Education — We have developed a compelling list of interesting Health and Physical Education research project topics. These topics, when adequately executed, are guaranteed to get you a good grade in your final year project.

1. Patterns of Health-Related Work-Family Conflict and Intervention Strategies among Commercial Bank Employees in Enugu State.

2. Knowledge, Attitude and Practice Regarding Food and Personal Hygiene among Restaurant Food Handlers in Bauchi Local Government Area, Bauchi State.

3. Demographic Determinants of Risky Sexual Behaviour among In-School Adolescents in Wukari Local Government Area, Taraba State Nigeria.

4. Socio-Demographic Correlates and Preventive Measures of Elder Abuse in Imo East Senatorial District of Imo State.

5. Prevalence and Preventive Measures for Gestational Diabetes among Childbearing Mothers in Owerri North Local Government Area of Imo State.

6. Stress Management Practices and Sources among Academic Staff of Tertiary Institutions in Adamawa State.

7. Morbidity and Mortality Prevalence of Six Killer Diseases Among Fewer than Five Children in Enugu East Local Government Area of Enugu State.

8. Maternal Perception Of Gastrointestinal Problems Arising From Complementary Feeding Of Children In Owerri West Local Government Area Of Imo State, Nigeria.

9. Knowledge and Practice of Safe Motherhood Initiative Among Childbearing Mothers Attending Mch Clinics in Nsukka Health District.

10. Extent of Drug Abuse Among Secondary School Students in Ezza North LGA., Ebonyi State.

11. Tobacco Use Knowledge, Attitude and Practice Among Students in Tertiary Institutions in Kogi State, Nigeria.

12. Socio-Demographic Correlates of Stigmatization of Psychiatric Patients Among Health Care Workers in Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Enugu.

13. Availability and Strategies for Improving Resources for Inclusion of Students with Special Needs in Secondary Schools in Enugu State.

14. Nutritional Status of Primary School Children in Enugu South Local Government Area, Enugu State.

15. Prevalence of Pregnancy-Related Illnesses of Women Attending Antenatal Clinic at Owerri West Local Government Area of Imo State.

16. Health Needs and Health Problems of Child Bearing Women in Ayamelum LGA of Anambra.

17. Community Involvement in Health Care Programmes in Umunze Orumba South Local Government Area Anambra State.

18. Perceived Influence of Electronic Media on Sports Development in Anambra State, Nigeria.

19. Knowledge of Hypertension among Adults in Owerri Senatorial zone of Imo state, Nigeria.

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• Open access
• Published: 21 June 2024

Effects of different types of exercise intensity on improving health-related physical fitness in children and adolescents: a systematic review

• Xianxian Zhou 1 ,
• Jiayu Li 1 &
• Xiaoping Jiang 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  14301 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Health services
• Public health

A substantial body of empirical evidence reveals that physical activity is associated with a wide range of positive physical and mental health outcomes. However, an absence of comprehensive syntheses is observed concerning the varying effects of different exercise intensities on the improvement of physical health among children and adolescents. The aim of this review is to systematically investigate the effects of different exercise intensities on the physical fitness of children and adolescents, to analyses the optimal exercise intensities for improving physical fitness, and to provide a relevant theoretical basis for optimizing school physical education curricula. A systematic search strategy was used in this study in four online databases (PubMed, Scopus, EBSCO and Web of Science). Intervention studies that met the inclusion criteria underwent a thorough screening process, and their methodological quality was assessed utilizing the PEDro scale. The selected literature was systematically analyzed and evaluated through induction, summary, analysis, and evaluation. These findings indicate that high-intensity exercise training exerts significant positive effects on body composition, cardiopulmonary function and muscle fitness in children and adolescents. Therefore, we suggest that schools should focus on high-intensity sports in their physical education curriculum, which can further improve the student's PHYSICAL FITNESS.

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Introduction.

Overweight and obesity in children and adolescents have become a global public health problem 1 . The prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents has been reported to have increased from 0.7% to 5.6% 2 . The persistence of overweight and obesity into adulthood has the potential to lead to chronic diseases, including type 2 diabetes, cardiometabolic disorders, and a range of psychosocial problems 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , Numerous studies have shown that physical activity is one of the most important interventions to reduce physical health and psychological problems in adolescents 7 , 8 , 9 . WHO recommends that children and adolescents should engage in an average of 60 min of moderate to high-intensity physical activity (MVPA) per day to obtain health benefits 10 , however, more than 80%of adolescents fail to reach the minimum recommended amount of physical activity 11 . Given that adolescents have difficulty starting and following recommended guidelines for 30–60 min of moderate-intensity training per day 12 , 13 , there is a need to explore and develop engaging alternatives for youth to achieve the many health benefits of regular physical activity. Traditionally, moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) has been the most common type of exercise recommended to improve body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) 14 , 15 . However, in recent years, a growing body of laboratory evidence has shown that high-intensity exercise training is less time-consuming than MICT in improving body composition and other health indicators in obese children and adolescents 16 , 17 , 18 . Whether high-intensity or low-intensity exercise training is more beneficial to the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents is still highly debated. Therefore, there is a need to further explore differences in the effectiveness of different exercise intensity interventions in improving PHYSICAL FITNESS in children and adolescents.

PHYSICAL FITNESS is a multidimensional state of being. PHYSICAL FITNESS is the body’s ability to function efficiently and effectively. It is a state of being that consists of at least FIVE HEALTH-RELATED and SIX SKILL-RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS COMPONENTS, each of which contributes to total quality of life. The five components of health-related PHYSICAL FITNESS are BODY COMPOSITION, CARDIOVASCULAR FITNESS, FLEXIBILITY, MUSCULAR ENDURANCE, AND STRENGTH 19 . A recent narrative and meta-analysis of 20 studies evaluated the efficacy of HIIT for improving HEALTH-RELATED FITNESS (ie, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness, body composition and flexibility). The results indicated significant improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition through HIIT, with notable effects observed in these areas 13 . Previous meta-analyses have weakened the interpretation of findings due to small sample sizes. Furthermore, there is less research on exercise interventions to treat PHYSICAL FITNESS in children and adolescents than in adults, particularly in terms of exploring exercise-related variables (intensity and duration).

Therefore, this systematic review aims to systematically summarized the effects of different exercise intensities on health-related fitness in children and adolescents and to analyze which exercise intensity is more conducive to improving health-related fitness in children and adolescents.

This review was performed according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines 20 , and the Cochrane Handbook for systematic review 21 . The PRISMA checklist is presented in Additional File 1.

Search strategy

A comprehensive search was done systematically through PubMed, Scopus, EBSCO, and Web of Science up to the 5 of June 2024. Searching terms were based on adapted PICO questions to search through the aforementioned databases to access all the important articles. Free text words and medical subject heading (MeSH) terms were used. (1) children OR childhood OR pre*schooler OR schoolchildren OR preadolescent OR adolescent OR adolescence OR youth;(2) physical*activity OR physical*education OR exercise OR fitness OR sport;(3) strength OR flexibility OR motor OR endurance OR agility OR body composition OR anthropometry OR body mass index OR waist circumference OR overall adiposity OR central adiposity OR overweight OR obesity OR risk factors OR risk score cardiovascular disease OR metabolic syndrome OR blood glucose OR glucose tolerance OR insulin resistance OR insulin sensitivity OR blood lipids OR dyslipidemia OR diabetes OR blood pressure OR hypertension OR inflammatory markers OR bone mineral OR bone mineral content;(4) random OR random*controlled trial OR controlled trial OR trial. (The search strategy used for each database is provided in the supplementary material (table S2). At the same time, the reference lists of included articles and relevant reviews were retrospectively included to supplement the missing literature in the computer search. The systematic search process was conducted by XXZ and JYL. Any disagreement of an included/excluded study was resolved by the author PXJ.

Eligibility criteria of the selected studies

The inclusion criteria for articles were determined using the PICOS (Participants/Interventions/Comparisons/Outcomes/Study Design) principles, as follows. Participants (P): Children and adolescents (individuals in the 10–19 year age group 22 , including samples of overweight/obese children, but excluding samples of children with medical conditions); Interventions (I):interventions in the form of exercise, High-intensity aerobic exercise, Low-intensity aerobic training (LIT), Endurance training (ET), High-intensity interval exercise (HIIE), Moderate-intensity exercise (MIE),HIIT, moderate-intensity continuous (MICT); Comparisons (C): control group performed low to moderate intensity physical activity or no artificially designed physical exercise; Outcomes (O): assessment of at least one of the following indicators (i.e., body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness, strength, flexibility, motor, endurance, agility, body composition, anthropometry, body mass index, waist circumference, overall adiposity , central adiposity , overweight , obesity ,risk factors , risk score cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, blood glucose, glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, insulin sensitivity, blood lipids, dyslipidemia, diabetes, blood pressure, hypertension, inflammatory markers, bone mineral, bone mineral content); Study Design (S): controlled trial.

Exclusion criteria: (1) studies not related to the topic (non-physical activity, physical activity); (2) non-intervention studies (observational studies, systematic reviews) and studies that did not provide sufficient comparisons to compare; (3) Exclude other age groups other than 3–19 years old. The title, abstract and full text were independently assessed by two authors for eligibility. Finally, randomized controlled trials were limited to articles published in English.

Data extraction

Data extraction from the included studies was independently performed by two authors (XXZ and JYL). For each study, data were extracted for the characteristics of the study population. These include (1) first author’s surname; (2) year of publication; (3) purpose; (4) results; (5) the characteristics, sample size and age of the participants; (6) sampling type; (7) type of research; (8) Characteristics of physical exercise (type, frequency and duration). Any disagreement in data extraction was resolved by the third author PXJ (Table 1 ).

Quality assessment

Papers that met the inclusion criteria were independently assessed by two authors (XXZ and JYL). This review assessed the included literature using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale, a credit rating scale developed by the Australian Centre for Evidence-Based Practice. The PEDro scale is a valid measure of the methodological quality of clinical trial 23 . The scale consisted of randomized grouping (2 items), blinding (3 item), data reporting (3 item), data analysis (1 item), and follow-up (1 item), with a total of 10 criteria. Each item was recorded as 1 point when it appeared in the article and 0 points when it was not reflected, for a total score of 0 to 10 points. To avoid subjective opinions, two reviewers assessed the opinions, and the third judged the differences. It classifies papers into three levels: high quality above 8, medium quality 4–7, and low quality below 4 points. Disagreements were solved by a third party (PXJ) (Table 2 ).

Data synthesis and analysis

Due to the heterogeneity of the studies, no meta-analysis was performed. Instead, intervention characteristics for each study were summarized and analyzed and then recorded in a standardized form created by the authors. The effectiveness of the intervention was calculated using the formula: number of effective trials (post-intervention scores significantly higher than pre-intervention or control scores)/total number of trials. Data analysis was performed by the first author XXZ and then validated by the second author JYL.

Literature screening process and results

A preliminary search of the database yielded 10,030 relevant studies. We first imported the documents into the document management software Endnote, and after removing duplicate documents and screening titles and abstracts, we excluded 9990 articles. Of the remaining 40 articles, 30 articles were obtained after screening and checking the full text, and the irrelevant articles were eliminated. The reasons for the exclusion based on the full text were: (1) no intervention studies (3 articles); (2) The age does not meet (3 articles); (3) non-full text (2 articles); (4) non-English articles (2 articles). The PRISMA flowchart is shown in Fig.  1 .

Flow chart of literature retrieval.

The systematic search of relevant literature published as of 5 June 2024 found 30 relevant articles, the earliest of which was published in 1999. The study included 30 related papers from the United States, Canada, Brazil, Denmark, Spain, China, Australia, the United Kingdom, Singapore, France, Portugal, Colombia, and Switzerland.

Study characteristics were summarized in Table 1 , and the final analysis included 6494 children and adolescents with participants ranging in age from 5 to 18 years, with most studies including healthy children and adolescents, but nine studies including overweight or obese children. Study sizes ranged from 10 to 2166. Physical activity interventions mainly included HIIT (8/30; 27%), aerobic training (5/30; 17%), resistance training (2/30; 7%), physical education (1/30; 3%), endurance training (1/30; 3%), acute exercise (1/30; 3%) and other interventions. Outcome measures: body mass index, waist circumference, body fat, cardiorespiratory fitness, and muscle fitness (muscular endurance, muscle strength and muscular flexibility). Quality scores for 30 studies are shown in Table 2 . The studies ranged in their scores from 3 to 10. Only two studies achieved high-quality scores (≥ 8) (Table 2 ). One study scored below 4. Blinding techniques ranged from 0 to 3 in this study, with only one study scoring 3 and four scoring 1; Fifteen studies scored 0.

Effects of different exercise intensity on BODY COMPOSITION in children and adolescents

A total of 11 studies in this study assessed the effects of different exercise intensities on body composition (weight, BMI, body fat, waist circumference, fat-free mass, and other relevant indicators), of which 9 showed that high-intensity exercise interventions had a positive effect on overweight or obese children and adolescents, but 2 had no positive effect.

Weight, BMI and body fat

A total of 8 of the 11 studies assessed changes in body weight, BMI, adiposity, or percentage of body fat measured. Six of the eight studies, reported positive effects of high-intensity exercise interventions on body weight, BMI, or body fat in overweight and obese child adolescents. However, 2 studies showed moderate or no positive effects of high-intensity exercise interventions on BMI, and body fat in overweight or obese children and adolescents.

Tadiotto et al. conducted a 12-week HIIT and MIIT intervention study and found significant reductions in (body mass index) BMI-z, (waist-to-height ratio) WHtR, and LDL-c in HIIT 28 . Benson et al. compared the effects of high-intensity progressive resistance training (PRT) on body composition in obese children and showed that an 8-week PRT intervention resulted in significant improvements in adiposity, percentage body fat, and body mass index 34 . Recent findings have shown that after 12 weeks of HIIT and MICT interventions, there was a significant reduction in BMI and body fat mass in the HIIT group compared to the control group, as well as a significant reduction in visceral adipose tissue (− 53 g vs. − 17 g, p  < 0.01), LDL cholesterol was reduced only in the HIIT group, whereas in MICT only the body fat percentage was significantly reduced (− 17.2%, p  < 0.05) 31 . In addition, Winn et al. compared the effects of HIIT on adolescents over a 6-month period and showed that after a 6-month school HIIT intervention, BMI was maintained in the HIIT group and significantly increased in the control group, and that HIIT was an effective tool for maintaining BMI 47 .

In a study assessing the effect of different exercise intensities on energy expenditure for spontaneous physical activity in adolescents, Paravidino et al. found that the mean energy expenditure was 82, 286 and 343 kcal in the control, moderate and vigorous exercise groups, respectively ( p  < 0.001), and the results suggest that high intensities are more conducive to an increase in energy expenditure, and thus to weight loss 27 . Saidi et al. studied the effect of vigorous exercise on subsequent dietary intake in obese adolescent girls and showed a significant reduction in adiposity in the exercise group compared to the control group ( p  < 0.02) 45 .

In the present study, 2 studies reported no significant effects of different intensities of exercise on body composition in overweight or obese children and adolescents. Gomes et al. compared the effects of different aerobic training intensities over a period of 12 on the body composition of obese adolescents, and showed a decrease in body weight, BMI, and body fat in both the intervention and control groups after a 12-week intervention ( p  < 0.001), but these results could not be attributed solely to aerobic training intensity due to the multidisciplinary intervention 40 . In another study, Costigan et al. conducted an 8-week study of aerobic training (AEP) and resistance and aerobic programming (RAP) with 68 secondary school students, and the results showed a moderate effect of the BMI intervention for participants in the AEP and RAP groups. It may be related to the small sample size 43 .

Waist circumference

Three randomized controlled trials assessed changes in waist circumference and all found beneficial effects. (Insert literature), a study conducted by Farah et al., showed that after 6 months of high-intensity aerobic training (HIT) and low-intensity aerobic training (LIT), significant beneficial changes in waist circumference were found only in the HIT group 24 . Benson et al. investigated the effects of 8 weeks of high-intensity progressive resistance training (PRT) on body composition in obese children and compared the effects between the experimental and control groups, showing that significant changes in waist circumference were obtained in the intervention group after 8 weeks of PRT training 34 . Costigan et al. conducted an 8-week study of aerobic training (AEP), resistance and aerobic programming (RAP) with 68 secondary school students and showed that participants in the AEP and RAP groups had significant changes in waist circumference ( p  = 0.024) 43 .

Fat-free mass

Only 1 study evaluated the effect of different exercise intensities on fat-free mass. Leppanen et al. investigated the effect of physical activity intensity and sedentary behaviours (ST) on body composition in 4 years old children. The results showed that the higher the intensity of moderate-to-vigorous exercise, the lower the percentage of fat (%FM, p  = 0.015), the VPA (high intensity) and MVPA (moderate-to-vigorous exercise intensity) the higher the fat-free mass index (FFMI, p  = 0.002 and p  = 0.011) Time spent on VPA was associated with higher FFMI 38 .

Effects of different exercise intensities on CARDIOPULMONARY FUNCTION (CRF) in children and adolescents

A total of 16 studies investigated the effects of different exercise intensity interventions on cardiorespiratory fitness, and positive effects were found in all studies. In general, cardiorespiratory fitness improved with high-intensity exercise interventions. The included studies assessed vascularity, heart rate, lipids, insulin sensitivity, inflammatory markers, diabetes, and other relevant indicators.

Blood vessels

A total of 4 out of 16 studies investigated the effects of exercise intensity interventions on blood vessels in children and adolescents. Four studies demonstrated that high-intensity training interventions had a positive effect on blood vessels.

Bond et al. investigated the effect of exercise intensity on protecting the vascular system from high-fat diets in adolescents study by intervening with high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and moderate-intensity exercise (MIE) in 20 adolescents, and showed that exercise intensity plays an important role in protecting the vascular system from the deleterious effects of HFM, and that in the adolescent population, performing HIIE may be more effective than MIE in Provides better vascular benefits 26 . In a study examining the effects of sprint interval exercise on post-exercise metabolism and blood pressure in adolescents, it was shown that acute sprint interval exercise leads to an increase in short-term oxygen uptake and a decrease in blood pressure in adolescents 37 . Farpour-Lambert et al. investigated the effect of physical activity on systemic blood pressure in adolescent obese children, and after a 3-month intervention, significant changes in systolic and diastolic blood pressure were obtained in the intervention group compared to the control group 51 . Buchan et al. investigated whether a high-intensity training (HIT) intervention could improve the CVD risk profile of adolescents in a time-effective manner, and after a 7-week HIT intervention, a significant reduction in systolic blood pressure was obtained in the intervention group compared to the control group 41 .

Insulin sensitivity

Of the 16 studies, only 2 randomized controlled trials assessed the effect of exercise intensity on insulin sensitivity. Only one study showed that a high-intensity exercise intervention could have a positive effect on insulin sensitivity. In the first randomized controlled trial, the Davis study found that after the intervention, the high-dose aerobic training group had a greater reduction in insulin (AUC), which could be effective in reducing metabolic risk 36 . However, in another randomized trial of 106 overweight and obese adolescents who underwent high-intensity endurance training (ET) and moderate-intensity (ET) for 6 months, the results showed that ET significantly improved cardiorespiratory fitness in obese adolescents, but the effect of exercise intensity on insulin sensitivity and triglycerides remained unclear due to lack of compliance 25 .

Inflammation

A total of 3 out of 16 studies assessed the effect of exercise intensity interventions on inflammation, with only 2 showing a positive effect of high-intensity exercise interventions on the prevention of inflammation. The results of the study by Ramirez-Velez et al. suggest the utility of high-intensity aerobic and resistance training as a means of modulating the levels of certain pro-inflammatory interleukins in adolescent subjects, thereby playing an important role in the prevention of diseases associated with low-grade inflammation, such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes 30 . A study by Tadiotto et al. found that C-reactive protein (CRP) was significantly reduced in the HIIT group, promoting beneficial changes in obesity and inflammatory processes 28 . However, in a study conducted by Buchan et al. with 89 adolescent students to assess whether the HIIT intervention could improve the cardiovascular disease risk profile of secondary school students in a time-effective manner, after a 7-week intervention, the results showed no significant differences between groups for any of the nine biochemical risk markers for cardiovascular disease, but significantly improved cardiorespiratory fitness 41 .

Two of the 16 studies showed that high-intensity exercise interventions had a positive effect on heart rate. In one study examining the effect of exercise intensity on blood pressure and heart rate in obese adolescents, after a 6-month period of HIT and LIT, beneficial changes in HR and HRV occurred only in the HIT group 24 . In a randomized controlled trial, Ketelhut et al. assessed the effect of implementing school-specific HIIT in a physical education curriculum on various hemodynamics parameters and heart rate variability, and after a 12-week intervention, the results showed that significant changes in heart rate were obtained in the intervention group ( p  = 0.010) 52 .

In addition, five other studies have all demonstrated the beneficial effects of high-intensity exercise interventions on cardiorespiratory fitness. Grasten et al. examined the effects of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and ST with cardiorespiratory fitness in schoolchildren from 2017 to 2020, assessing accelerometer based MVPA by using waist-worn activity monitors and CRFs at four measurement points using the 20-m shuttle run test and ST, which showed a positive correlation between MVPA and CRF, and a negative correlation between ST and CRF 42 . Taber et al. conducted a moderate and vigorous exercise intervention with 1,029 eighth-grade girls and measured cardiorespiratory fitness using the Modified Physical Exercise Capacity Test (MPCT), which showed that vigorous exercise was positively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness 35 . Dias et al. showed that after 12 weeks of HIIT and MICT interventions, the HIIT group had a significant increase in relative peak VO2 compared to MICT, which was very effective in improving cardiorespiratory fitness 32 . Both studies by Gerber et al. and Leppanen et al. showed that higher levels of MVPA were associated with higher CRF scores 39 .

Effects of different exercise intensities on FLEXIBILITY in children and adolescents

Only two studies assessed changes in flexibility and no effects were found. The first study, conducted by Buchan et al., showed that after a 7-week period of high-intensity interval exercise, the intervention group showed an increase in vertical performance, and 10-m sprint speed ( p  <  = 0.05), while the control group showed a significant decrease in both flexibility and vertical performance 41 . The most recent study, conducted by Juric et al. investigated the effects of a HIIT intervention lasting 12 weeks on balance, coordination, speed, flexibility, strength, and agility in 10- to 15-year-old students, and showed no significant effects. This may be because short-term HIIT interventions of only two 10-min sessions per week do not provide sufficient stimulation for fitness (muscular strength, muscular endurance, power, speed, flexibility, and balance) enhancement 50 .

Effects of different exercise intensities on MUSCLE FITNESS in children and adolescents

Five studies assessed changes in muscle fitness, and four showed that high-intensity exercise interventions had a positive impact on muscle fitness in children and adolescents. Larsen et al. explored whether the musculoskeletal fitness of 8–10 year old schoolchildren is affected by frequent high-intensity physical education classes, and showed that after a 10-month intervention of varying intensities, the intervention group had higher scores for changes in bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral density (aBMD) change scores were higher, suggesting that well organized high-intensity physical education sessions can promote the development of musculoskeletal fitness in young children 29 . A study of the effects of different resistance training programs on the development of muscular strength and endurance in children found a significant increase in leg extension muscular endurance with low repetition-heavy loads and high repetition-heavy loads, with high repetition-medium loads being significantly greater than low repetition-heavy loads training, and in the chest press exercise only the high repetition-medium loads exercise group had significantly greater muscular strength and muscular endurance than the control group 33 . Benson et al. found that an 8-week PRT (two sets of high-intensity exercises targeting major muscle groups) intervention resulted in significant increases in upper body strength and lower body strength compared to a control group 34 . Leppanen et al. investigated the effect of physical activity intensity on PHYSICAL FITNESS in children by using the PREFIT PHYSICAL FITNESS test to measure PHYSICAL FITNESS (that is, cardiorespiratory fitness, lower and upper body muscular strength and motor fitness), and the results showed that replacing sedentary, low- or moderate-intensity exercise with 5 min of high-intensity exercise per day promoted an increase in muscle strength 38 .

However, Videira-Silva et al. showed no significant improvement in muscular endurance in participants in the 12-week HIIT group 49 . That's because the study, which only had two 10-min short-term high-intensity interval exercise sessions per week, failed to provide enough stimulation for fitness enhancement. Therefore, long-term, high-intensity training may be necessary to effectively improve muscle fitness in children and adolescents.

This review aimed to summarize the effects of physical activity of different exercise intensities on the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents. The analysis included 30 interventional studies from 15 countries. 30 studies were assessed as above average, with good reason to believe that different exercise intensities had different effects on PHYSICAL FITNESS in children and adolescents. Based on strict restrictions on the nature of the intervention included in the studies, the studies included in the study span the years 1999 to 2024 (Table 1 ). It can be guessed that since 1999, researchers have gradually found differences in improving the PHYSICAL FITNESS of adolescents with different exercise intensities. In addition, from the perspective of regions and countries where the literature is published, relevant research is mainly concentrated in developed countries and some developing countries. This may be because, with the increase in material wealth, the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents has received a high level of attention. Judging from the number of relevant published literature, there is still a lack of research on the effects of different exercise intensities on the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents internationally. Therefore, this study aims to draw the attention of more draw the attention of more researchers from different regions and countries to this topic and encourage the conduction of controlled trials with high-quality evidence to further demonstrate the positive effects of different exercise intensities.

This study shows that high intensity exercise training has significant effects in improving body composition. It was mainly more effective in reducing visceral fat. These results align with a previous review by Batacan et al., which synthesized 65 studies and showed that HIIT can significantly improve waist circumference and body fat percentage in people who are overweight or obese 54 . A meta-analysis of adolescents found that exercise interventions of different intensities were differentially effective in reducing body weight and body mass index, and that high-intensity aerobic exercise and high-intensity aerobic exercise combined with high-intensity resistance training were more effective than low- and moderate-intensity exercise interventions 55 . We suspect that this may be due to the fact that high-intensity exercise leads to excessive post-exercise oxygen consumption and the substrate for this energy oxidation is fat, during high-intensity exercise the body needs to secrete more adrenaline and noradrenaline to control the muscles, and in addition the body has to maintain high metabolic levels for a longer period of time even after exercise. All of these effects lead to an increase in the body's resting metabolic levels, which further stimulates fat burning and leads to weight loss 56 , 57 . It is also interesting to note that Buchan and Kargarfard, when exploring the effects of HIIT on body composition in normal and obese adolescents, did not find any good changes in body composition or waist circumference in the intervention group. Both studies claimed that the lack of effect on body composition was due to the short duration of the training (duration of 7 and 8 weeks) 58 , 59 . Therefore, we suggest that relevant scholars pay more attention to the optimal training time when high-intensity exercise training can effectively improve the body composition of children and adolescents, and provide more effective training programs to reduce the obesity rate of children and adolescents at home and abroad.

This study showed that both high-intensity exercise training and moderate to low-level exercise training can improve cardiorespiratory fitness in children and adolescents, but high-intensity exercise training has a more significant effect on cardiorespiratory function. This finding coincides with previous conclusions 60 , 61 , 62 . A meta-analysis of adolescents aged 11–17 years found that high-intensity exercise training has a significant effect on improving cardiorespiratory fitness in adolescents compared to moderate-intensity exercise 60 , which is consistent with our findings. The mechanism by which this occurs may be due to the fact that high-intensity training increases the oxidative capacity of skeletal muscle more efficiently than conventional training methods. For example, in terms of the molecular adaptive mechanisms of skeletal muscle oxidative capacity, high-intensity exercise activates the activity of AMPK and MAPK exercise-responsive kinases 63 , 64 , while increasing the amount of mRNA for PGC-qα, a transcription factor that regulates the oxidative function of mitochondria. With the activation of the joints leading to increased transcription of mitochondrial substances, this allows the body's aerobic and anaerobic capacity to be enhanced, leading to improved cardiorespiratory fitness 65 . We therefore recommend that schools should incorporate high-intensity program in their physical education curricula so as to improve the cardiorespiratory fitness of children and adolescents and to reduce the probability of children and adolescents suffering from cardiovascular diseases in adulthood.

Muscle fitness is widely recognized as a key fitness component for maintaining overall health and is negatively correlated with obesity 66 .In this review, five studies confirmed the effects of different exercise intensities on muscle fitness function in children and adolescents. A systematic study of school-age children and adolescents suggests that high-intensity physical activity is more beneficial in building muscle 67 . Our findings are supported by Smith et al.'s study, where strenuous physical activity was positively associated with muscle fitness in children and adolescents 68 . In addition, only 1 study in this study showed that high-intensity training was effective in improving muscle flexibility. Muscle flexibility can be expressed as the normal physiological range of joint motion 69 . If adequate flexibility is lacking, daily activities will become difficult. In addition, reduced flexibility can also lead to musculoskeletal injuries 70 . Therefore, maintaining (or increasing) flexibility is essential as it maintains normal joint motion, thereby reducing the risk of injury 71 . A study of adolescents aged 14–17 years found that a 12-week, high-intensity training intervention resulted in adolescents displaying greater flexibility 72 , which is consistent with our findings. Furthermore, in the literature included in this review, only 1 study showed that high-intensity training improves muscle flexibility, but there was insufficient evidence that muscle flexibility is associated with high-intensity training. We speculate that on the one hand, this may be related to limitations in the assessment of muscle flexibility. The currently commonly used methods of assessing muscle flexibility (sitting and stretching) are unable to detect a lack of function due to muscle laxity 73 ; the other side of the coin is that most of the current research on muscle flexibility has focused on the elderly population, with less attention paid to children and adolescents. This is due to the fact that muscle flexibility decreases with age, leading to increased joint stiffness and progressive loss of balance, which increases the risk of falls in older adults 73 . Overall, appropriate levels of flexibility have positive implications for the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents, and exploring scientifically sound methods of assessing flexibility and research on flexibility in children and adolescents should receive more attention.

Research limitations and prospects

Although this review discusses the effects of different exercise intensities on the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents from four aspects, its limitations should be properly examined. This review provides direction for further research on the effects of different exercise intensities on the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents. Although an extensive literature search was conducted, including articles published before 2024, it is possible that some relevant literature may have been overlooked due to variations in keywords used in this study. Additionally, we conducted an extensive literature search in four major databases, but some published non-English foreign studies may have been missed in this review as our search was limited to English-language journal articles.

Despite these limitations, this review systematically collated the literature reports on the different effects of different exercise intensities on the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents. Future research could explore higher-quality randomize controlled trials to provide more convincing evidence for optimal exercise intensity to improve the health of children and adolescents. Future research should also focus on the effect of different exercise intensities on muscle flexibility. At the same time, more comprehensive exercise evaluation is needed to support high-intensity exercise training as an effective exercise program to improve the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents.

Conclusions

This systematic review demonstrates a positive association between high-intensity exercise training and PHYSICAL FITNESS in children and adolescents. High-intensity exercise training yields notable improvement in body composition (reduced body mass index, waist circumference, and body fat), cardiopulmonary function, and muscle strength in children and adolescents. Furthermore, the high-intensity training group outperforms both the moderate-intensity group and the control group in terms of improving physical fitness. Specifically, participation in HIIT exhibits a more significant effect on improving PHYSICAL FITNESS in children and adolescents. Based on the findings, we recommend that schools optimize their physical education programs by incorporating more high-intensity physical activities, thereby promoting the healthy growth of children and adolescents through effective exercise.

Moreover, the study highlights that the effects of high-intensity physical activity on the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents may be influenced by factors such as average age, overweight or obesity of participants. Therefore, further refinement of the study design is necessary, along with additional high-quality research, particularly randomized controlled trials, to ensure the long-term reliability of the results. Additionally, in terms of measurement of related indicators, this study primarily relies on manual measurement and automated equipment, which may introduce measurement errors. Subsequent studies could consider using more advanced instruments to assess relevant indicators of the PHYSICAL FITNESS of children and adolescents.

Data availability

Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files.

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Xianxian Zhou, Jiayu Li & Xiaoping Jiang

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Zhou, X., Li, J. & Jiang, X. Effects of different types of exercise intensity on improving health-related physical fitness in children and adolescents: a systematic review. Sci Rep 14 , 14301 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-64830-x

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• Physical Education and Health

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

The physical education curriculum uses a developmentally sequenced skill-based approach, emphasizing student success through small classes and sequential motor skill development.  Units covered in physical education include soccer, flag football, volleyball, recreational games, basketball, lacrosse, and swimming in the summer.  Skills practiced in class are generalized to the residential program during the afternoon athletic activity period.  Special emphasis is placed on sportsmanship and participation in the activities.  Soccer and basketball are team sports in which TKS plays other small private schools in the local area to allow students to experience team sports and competition found in the regular school environment.

The health curriculum is integrated in both the academic and residential programs.. Health topics include:

• Emotional health, including anger, depression, frustration, affection, and personal space
• Physical health, including diseases, diet, exercise, fitness, first aid, and personal safety
• Social health, including working with others, leadership, acceptance of self and others, significant others
• Spiritual health, including relaxation, interests, and hobbies
• Occupational health, including transitions, school, college, and jobs
• Intellectual health, including school, interests, goals, and ambitions

We address health topics in context to the students’ development and the information is given to the boys at a relevant and appropriate time rather than in isolation in a health classroom. Emotions are identified and described within the daily program and group work during dorm meetings. Some topics, such as first aid and personal safety, are covered during the residential program. Social topics are dealt with during group times and within the daily program. Relaxation, interests, and hobbies are accentuated during the Friday club times and during occupational therapy sessions. Topics involving transitions, school, future goals and ambitions are covered in school and during the transition groups held each spring. Additionally, several school-wide events are held relevant to health topics, including a career and health fair.

• Academic Overview
• Afternoon Activities

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• Data, Statistics, and Research
• Healthy People 2030
• Healthy Eating and Active Living Survey (CBS HEAL)
• Interactive Database
• DNPAO Published Research

Related Topics:

• Physical Activity

Healthy People 2030 Related to Physical Activity, Nutrition, and Obesity

Healthy People 2030 sets data-driven national objectives to improve health and well-being over the next decade. Healthy People 2030 includes 359 core — or measurable — objectives as well as developmental and research objectives. Below are the indicators and objectives that align with the work of CDC's Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity (DNPAO).

Leading health indicators

Of the core Healthy People 2030 objectives, there is a subset of 23 leading health indicators . This subset helps organizations, communities, and states focus their resources and efforts to improve the health and well-being of all people. Four leading health indicators are directly related to DNPAO's work:

• Reduce consumption of added sugars by people 2 and older—NWS–10 .
• Reduce household food insecurity and hunger—NWS–01 .
• Increase the proportion of adults who do enough aerobic and muscle-strengthening activity—PA–05 .
• Reduce the proportion of children and adolescents with obesity—NWS–04.

In addition to the leading health indicators, the objectives below are related to DNPAO's work.

Healthy eating

For people 2 and older :

• Increase fruit consumption—NWS–06 .
• Increase vegetable consumption—NWS–07 .
• Increase consumption of dark green vegetables, red and orange vegetables, and beans and peas—NWS–08 .
• Increase whole grain consumption—NWS–09 .
• Reduce consumption of saturated fat—NWS–11 .
• Reduce consumption of sodium—NWS–12 .

Vitamins and minerals

• Increase calcium consumption—NWS–13 .
• Increase potassium consumption—NWS–14 .
• Increase vitamin D consumption—NWS–15 .

For other population groups :

• Reduce iron deficiency in children 1 to 2 years—NWS–16 .
• Reduce iron deficiency in females 12 to 49—NWS–17 .
• Increase the proportion of women of childbearing age who get enough folic acid—MICH–12 .

Breastfeeding

• Increase the proportion of infants who are breastfed exclusively through age 6 months—MICH–15 .
• Increase the proportion of infants who are breastfed at 1 year—MICH–16 .

Healthy food environment

• Increase the proportion of students participating in the School Breakfast Program—AH–04 .
• Eliminate very low food security in children—NWS–02 .

Physical activity for children and adolescents

Increase the proportion of:

• Children who do enough aerobic physical activity—PA–09 .
• Children aged 2 to 5 years who get no more than one hour of screen time a day—PA–13 .
• Children and adolescents who play sports—PA–12 .
• Adolescents who do enough aerobic physical activity—PA–06 .
• Adolescents who do enough muscle–strengthening activity—PA–07 .
• Adolescents who do enough aerobic and muscle-strengthening activity—PA–08 .
• Adolescents who participate in daily school physical education—ECPB–01 .

Physical activity for adults

• Reduce the proportion of adults who do no physical activity in their free time—PA–01 .

Increase the proportion of adults:

• Who do enough aerobic physical activity for substantial health benefits—PA–02 .
• Who do enough aerobic physical activity for extensive health benefits—PA–03 .
• Who do enough muscle–strengthening activity—PA–04 .
• With arthritis who get counseling for physical activity—A–04 .

Physical activity for older adults

• Increase the proportion of older adults with physical or cognitive health problems who get physical activity—OA–01 .
• Reduce the rate of emergency department visits due to falls among older adults—OA–03 .

Neighborhood and built environment

• Adults who walk or bike to get places—PA–10 .
• Adolescents who walk or bike to get places—PA–11 .

Healthy weight for adults

• Reduce the proportion of adults with obesity—NWS–03 .
• Increase the proportion of health care visits by adults with obesity that include counseling on weight loss, nutrition, or physical activity—NWS–05 .
• Increase the proportion of women who had a healthy weight before pregnancy—MICH–13 .
• Children who get sufficient sleep—EMC–03 .
• High school students who get enough sleep—SH–04 .
• Adults who get enough sleep—SH–03 .

Developmental objectives

In addition to core objectives, developmental objectives represent specific high-priority public health issues. These public health issues are associated with evidence-based interventions but do not yet have reliable baseline data.

The developmental objectives related to DNPAO are to increase the proportion of:

• Children who participate in high–quality early childhood education programs—EMC-D03 .
• Schools that don't sell less healthy foods and drinks—ECBP-D02 .
• Worksites that offer an employee physical activity program—ECBP-D04 .
• Worksites that offer an employee nutrition program—ECBP-D05 .

Research objectives

Research objectives represent public health issues with a high health or economic burden. These public health issues can also have significant disparities between population groups. These public health issues are not yet associated with evidence-based interventions.

Objectives are to increase the proportion of:

• Childcare centers where children aged 3 to 5 years do at least 60 minutes of physical activity a day—PA–RO1 .
• Eligible students participating in the Summer Food Service Program—AH-R03 .

Overall health and well-being measures

Overall health and well-being measures are broad outcome measures intended to assess the Healthy People 2030 vision . This vision is of a society where all people can achieve their full potential for health and well-being across the lifespan. Unlike the leading health indicators and core objectives, these measures do not have targets.

• Overall well-being—OHM-1

Healthy life expectancy

• Life expectancy at birth—free of activity limitation—OHM-2 .
• Life expectancy at birth—free of disability—OHM-3 .
• Life expectancy at birth—in good or better health—OHM-4 .

Mortality and health summary

• Life expectancy at birth—OHM-5 .
• Free of activity limitation (all ages)—OHM-6 .
• Free of disability (ages 1 and older)—OHM-7 .
• Respondent-assessed health status — in good or better health (all ages)—OHM-8 .

Objective code abbreviations

• A—Arthritis
• DO—Developmental Objective
• ECBP—Educational and Community-Based Programs
• EMC—Early and Middle Childhood
• MICH—Maternal, Infant, and Child Health
• NWS—Nutrition and Weight Status
• OA—Older Adults
• OHM—Overall Health and Well–Being Measures
• PA—Physical Activity
• RO—Research Objective
• SH—Sleep Health

Data, Trends, Maps

An interactive database plus lists of published research about nutrition, physical activity, and obesity.

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Health Lesson: Learning About Bones

Information on this page is mapped to national science and health education standards and is for students in grades 4 through 6 who are learning about the human body. Teachers may also use these resources to inform their lesson plans.

On This Page

• For Students : Find all classroom materials and activities about bones
• Kahoot! Quiz : Test your knowledge about muscles on your own or as a class!
• Vocabulary : See all of the medical terms in this lesson defined
• Teacher's Corner : See the National Education Standards covered in these lessons

For Students

What would your body be like without bones ? Bones give your body shape, help you move, protect your organs, and more! On this page, you can learn about bones, what happens when they get hurt, and how to keep them healthy.

What are bones?

Bones are the tissues —groups of cells that work together—that make up your skeleton. Bones might remind you of dead things or fossils, but the bones in your body are alive. They grow and change all the time!

Bones keep your body healthy in many ways. They:

• Support and hold up your body . Without bones your body would be a squishy blob on the ground.
• Help you move . Muscles work together with bones to move your body around.
• Protect your organs . Some bones shield your organs from injury. For example, your ribs protect your heart and lungs, and your skull protects your brain.
• Make blood cells . Some types of bone have a jelly-like material inside called bone marrow (MEH-row) . New blood cells are made inside the bone marrow!
• Store energy . Some types of bone, like the leg bones, contain cells that store fat and release it when your body needs energy.
• Store minerals and vitamin D . Bones can store minerals like calcium and phosphorus, and vitamin D, and release them when your body needs them.  

What are bones made of?

Bones are made mostly of a protein called collagen (KAA-luh-jn) and a mineral called calcium phosphate (KAL-see-uhm FAA-sfayt) . Together, these materials make your bones strong and flexible.

Bones have three layers:

• The periosteum (peh-ree-ow-STEE-uhm) is a thin membrane covering the bone that contains nerves and blood vessels.
• Compact bone is the dense and hard outer layer of the bone that you see when you look at a skeleton.
• Cancellous (KAN-suh-luhs) bone is inside the compact bone. It is full of holes and looks a little like a sponge. Bone marrow fills in the holes of the sponge.

Bones are held together at the joints by ligaments (LI-guh-muhnts) , a type of tissue that is like a strong rubber band. Learn more about joints , which are made up of ligaments and other types of tissue.

Try this experiment at home to learn what makes bones strong and flexible at the same time! Be sure to wash your hands with soap and water after touching the bones!

How do bones grow?

As you get older and grow taller, your bones grow, too! There are special zones of bones that grow with you called growth plates .

Did You Know?

A baby is born with about 300 bones. Many of them eventually fuse (grow together) to form the 206 bones that adults have.

Bone tissue is constantly changing in a process called remodeling . All the time, old or damaged bone tissue is broken down, and new bone tissue is made to replace it. When you’re young, new bone is made faster than old bone is broken down, which means that your bones get denser and stronger. In most people, the amount of bone tissue in the skeleton peaks by their mid- to late 20s.

• The bone cells that break down old bone are called osteoclasts (AA-stee-uh-klasts) .
• The bone cells that make new bone are called osteoblasts (AA-stee-uh-blasts) .

As you age, old bone tissue is broken down faster than new bone is made. For some people, the bones become weaker and easier to break. This condition is called osteoporosis (aa-stee-ow-opr-OW-suhs) .

Doctors have special names for the ways bones can break. Learn about the different types of fractures with this activity !

What happens when bones break?

Broken bones are also called fractures (FRAK-chrz) . The break can go through only part of the bone or completely through it.

It hurts to break a bone! There might also be swelling and bruising. If you are injured and go to the doctor, the doctor may take pictures of your bone with x-rays to see if it is broken. If you do have a broken bone, the doctor may put on a cast, splint, or brace to keep the bone from moving around as it heals, and to make sure it heals correctly. Sometimes, bones move so much when they break that the doctor has to “set the bone”—put it back in the right place before putting a cast, splint, or brace on it.

How much force does it take to break a bone? Try this experiment at home with chicken bones to find out!

Most broken bones heal within a few months. First, your body forms a blood clot around the break to protect it and deliver the cells that will heal it. Next, a healing zone called a callus (KA-luhs) forms around the break. It joins the bones together. At first, the callus is soft, but it gets harder and stronger as the bone heals.

What is scoliosis ?

Your backbone, also called your spine, is actually made of many small bones called vertebrae (VUR-tuh-bray) that form a line. Scoliosis (skow-lee-OW-suhs) happens when the spine bones are curved instead of being straight.

Most of the time, people get scoliosis as pre-teens or teenagers. By going to the doctor and getting treated when needed, people with scoliosis can have healthy, active lives.

Small curves usually don’t cause problems. If a doctor notices you have a curved spine, they may just check it every once in a while, to make sure the curve doesn’t get worse. Really big curves or small curves that get worse can cause health problems. In these cases, doctors treat scoliosis with a back brace or surgery.

Doctors don’t know what causes scoliosis, but they do know that having a parent who had scoliosis makes it more likely that you will have it, too.

How can I help keep my bones healthy?

Avoid bone injuries..

Wear the right equipment to protect your bones. Always wear a helmet to protect your skull while biking, scootering, skateboarding, or skating. You can also wear elbow and knee pads to protect your arms and legs.

When playing sports like football, soccer, lacrosse, or ice hockey, always wear all the right equipment. Make sure the safety gear fits you, or else it might not do its job.

When you’re in the car, remember to buckle your seatbelt.

Get plenty of physical activity every day. Your bones respond to exercise by making new bone tissue, which helps keep them strong.

To keep bones healthy, do activities that put weight on your bones. Playing basketball, kickball, walking, jumping rope, and dancing are good examples.

Eat well to keep your bones healthy.

Calcium and vitamin D . Remember that bones are made of a mineral called calcium phosphate? To keep bones strong, you need to get that calcium from food or supplements . You can get calcium from milk, cheese, and yogurt. Leafy green vegetables like broccoli, brussels sprouts, and kale are also important sources of calcium.

Vitamin D helps your body absorb the calcium in the foods you eat. You can get vitamin D from certain foods , like eggs, fish, and special types of orange juice, milk, and cereals that have vitamin D added to them.

Eat a balanced diet . Try to eat a combination of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean protein, and low-fat dairy.  Eating a variety of foods and being active every day helps keep your body healthy and strong. While you need both muscle and fat for your body to work properly, in general, having more healthy muscle tissue helps keep your bones healthy.

Test your knowledge about bones with this Kahoot! quiz

This Kahoot! quiz tests your knowledge about bones and how to keep them healthy.

Check out our other webpages to learn about joints , muscles , and skin .

Bone marrow (MEH-row). A jelly-like material inside some types of bones. New blood cells are made inside the bone marrow.

Bone remodeling (ruh-MAA-duh-luhng). A process where old or damaged bone tissue is broken down, and new bone tissue is made to replace it.

Calcium phosphate (KAL-see-uhm FAA-sfayt). A mineral, along with a type of protein called collagen, that make up bones. Calcium phosphate helps make bones hard and strong.

Callus (KA-luhs). A healing zone that forms around a broken bone and helps join the bone pieces together.

Cancellous (KAN-suh-luhs) bone. The bone layer inside the compact bone. It is full of holes and looks a little like a sponge.

Cells. The smallest building blocks of life. Your body is made of trillions of cells!

Collagen (KAA-luh-jn). A type of protein, along with a mineral called calcium phosphate, that make up bones. Collagen helps make bones flexible and strong.

Compact (KUHM-pakt) bone. The smooth and hard outer layer of the bone that you see when you look at a skeleton.

Fractures (FRAK-chrz). Broken bones.

Growth plates. Special zones of bones that grow with you.

Ligaments (LI-guh-muhnts). Tissues that hold bones together.

Membrane. A thin sheet of tissue that acts as a boundary or lining.

Mineral. Solid substances made in nature, but not by living things, that can help your body grow and stay healthy.

Organ. A part of the body that has a specific job.

Osteoblasts (AA-stee-uh-blasts). The bone cells that make new bone.

Osteoclasts (AA-stee-uh-klasts). The bone cells that break down old bone.

Osteoporosis (aa-stee-ow-opr-OW-suhs). A condition that some people get when they age, where old bone tissue is broken down faster than new bone is made, which can make the bones weaker and easier to break.

Periosteum (peh-ree-ow-STEE-uhm). A thin membrane covering the bone, which contains nerves and blood vessels.

Proteins. Large chains of molecules made by living things and essential to life. There are many different types of proteins, and proteins do several different jobs. For example, they provide structure for the cell and can also help important chemical reactions happen in the body.

Scoliosis (skow-lee-OW-suhs). A condition that happens when the spine bones are curved instead of being straight.

Supplement. A substance that a person can add to their diet to make sure they get all the nutrients their body needs.

Tissues. Groups of cells that work together.

Vertebrae (VUR-tuh-bray). Small bones arranged in a line that form your backbone, also called your spine. 

Teacher’s Corner

The content on this NIAMS webpage aligns with the following national standards:

Next Generation Science Standards

• NGSS Standard 4-LS1-1 “Animals have internal and external structures that serve various functions in growth, survival, behavior, and reproduction.”
• NGSS MS-LS1-1 “All living things are made up of cells , which are the smallest units that can be said to be alive. An organism may consist of one single cell (unicellular) or many different numbers and types of cells (multicellular).”
• NGSS MS-LS1-3 “In multicellular organisms, the body is a system of multiple interacting subsystems. These subsystems are groups of cells that work together to form tissues and organs that are specialized for particular body functions.”

National Health Education Standards

• NHES 1.5.1 “Describe the relationship between healthy behaviors and personal health.”
• NHES 1.5.4 “Describe ways to prevent common childhood/adolescent injuries and health problems.”
• NHES 1.5.5 “Describe when it is important to seek health care.”

CDC Healthy Schools

• CDC Characteristics of an Effective Health Education Curriculum, Characteristic 4 : “Address social pressures and influences”

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Effectiveness of an ecological model-based active transport education program on physical and mental health in high school students (mov-es project): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

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Merellano-Navarro, E.; Godoy-Cumillaf, A.; Collado-Mateo, D.; Aguilar-Valdés, M.; Torres-Mejías, J.; Almonacid-Fierro, A.; Valdés-Badilla, P.; Giakoni-Ramírez, F.; Bruneau-Chávez, J.; Olivares, P.R. Effectiveness of an Ecological Model-Based Active Transport Education Program on Physical and Mental Health in High School Students (MOV-ES Project): Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial. Healthcare 2024 , 12 , 1259. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12131259

Merellano-Navarro E, Godoy-Cumillaf A, Collado-Mateo D, Aguilar-Valdés M, Torres-Mejías J, Almonacid-Fierro A, Valdés-Badilla P, Giakoni-Ramírez F, Bruneau-Chávez J, Olivares PR. Effectiveness of an Ecological Model-Based Active Transport Education Program on Physical and Mental Health in High School Students (MOV-ES Project): Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial. Healthcare . 2024; 12(13):1259. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12131259

Merellano-Navarro, Eugenio, Andrés Godoy-Cumillaf, Daniel Collado-Mateo, Mirko Aguilar-Valdés, Jorge Torres-Mejías, Alejandro Almonacid-Fierro, Pablo Valdés-Badilla, Frano Giakoni-Ramírez, José Bruneau-Chávez, and Pedro R. Olivares. 2024. "Effectiveness of an Ecological Model-Based Active Transport Education Program on Physical and Mental Health in High School Students (MOV-ES Project): Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial" Healthcare 12, no. 13: 1259. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12131259

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PSEB Class 8 Health and Physical Education Syllabus 2024-25: Download Syllabus PDF for 2025 Board Exams

Pseb class 8 health and physical education syllabus 2024-25: download pseb class 8 health and physical education new syllabus for the academic year 2024-25 in pdf format. get the latest topics in the syllabus for the 2025 board exams..

Punjab Board Class 8 Health and Physical Education Syllabus 2024-25: The Punjab Board of School Education (PSEB) aims to provide holistic education to students and thus also emphasises developing physical fitness and education along with academic knowledge. This ensures that students can tackle all the challenges, irrespective of their source. Physical fitness is directly linked to mental wellbeing, which helps students perform better in academics.

PSEB 8th Health and Physical Education Syllabus 2024-25

The complete syllabus of Health and Physical Education for Punjab Board Class 8 students is provided here. Check the syllabus and download its PDF from the link given below.

To get the syllabus of other subjects for Punjab Board Class 8 check the ‘related’ check of this article.

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“My Health, My Right”: A Call to Action on World Health Day

The 7th of April marks the founding anniversary of the World Health Organization. It was on this day, in 1948, that the WHO constitution came into force for the first time. 

It is on this day that the world observes World Health Day each year. This year, we mark the occasion under the theme “My health, my right.” 

This year’s theme was chosen to champion the right of everyone, everywhere to have access to quality health services, education, and information. It tells us of the right to safe drinking water, clean air, and good nutrition.  It reminds us that quality housing, decent working and environmental conditions, and freedom from discrimination are rights that should be enjoyed by everyone. 

Indeed, ensuring that every person reaches their highest attainable standard of physical and mental well-being is the core of the WHO’s mission. It is incumbent upon us to ensure that each person’s race or religion, their political beliefs, or their economic or social conditions are no impediment to this. 

My own vision for the World Health Organization’s South-East Asia Region is a region where people ‘take a holistic approach to health and well-being, and are physically and mentally empowered to achieve their full potential’. I would like to see a region where ‘the right to health is enjoyed by everyone, starting from before birth, including the most vulnerable, and covering every community’. 

One might ask how the right to health is manifested? This is done by ensuring universal access to high-quality health services, and addressing underlying determinants of health, such as education, safe food and water, adequate housing, good environmental conditions and more. 

In short, the right to health requires that both health services and the underlying determinants of health are available, accessible, acceptable and of adequate quality. 

Today, on World Health Day, we say with pride that our South-East Asia Region has seen many gains, and has much to celebrate with regard to the right to health. Over the years, our Member States have racked up improvements in many different health indicators. 

The Universal Health Coverage service coverage index has improved from 47 (in 2010) to 62 (in 2021). The average density of medical professionals has increased by 30.5% since 2015, currently standing at just over 28 per 10,000 people. These gains in numbers are complemented by ongoing transformative health professional educational initiatives throughout the Region. 

From 2000 to 2020, our Region reduced the maternal mortality rate by 68.5%. Under-five mortality dropped from 84 to 29 per 1000 live births, and neonatal mortality fell from 41 to 17 per 1000 live births. 

Regional immunization coverage for Diphtheria tetanus toxoid and pertussis (DTP3), Measles-containing-vaccine second-dose (MCV2), and Pneumococcal Conjugate vaccine (PCV3) significantly increased from 2021 to 2022. Most Member States are meeting or expected to meet the 2030 global target of over 90% coverage for DTP3 and MCV2. 

Between 2015 and 2021, new HIV infections in the Region declined by 25% and malaria incidence rates by 62%. The average International Health Regulations (IHR) Core Capacity index scores improved from 64 to 68 between 2015 and 2022. 

Nonetheless, challenges remain. 

Nearly 40% of our Region's population still lacks coverage by essential health services, and the COVID-19 pandemic has stalled or even reversed progress in some Member States.  

Adequate investment in health remains a challenge, with current government health expenditure in the Region being unacceptably low. As a result, the out-of-pocket health expenditure faced by people is unacceptably high. The proportion of households experiencing financial hardship in accessing basic health care has been rising in several countries, pushing many households into avoidable financial hardship. 

We continue to face challenges in tackling communicable diseases like tuberculosis (TB), and although the probability of death between the ages of 30 and 70 years from four major diseases (cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, and chronic respiratory diseases) has decreased by 13% since 2000, it still remains unacceptably high at 21.6%.  

Worryingly, poor quality care accounts for more deaths than lack of access to care. Those from vulnerable and disadvantaged groups often receive the worst care. Too many still face stigma related to certain health conditions, such as HIV/AIDS, disability, or mental health conditions. They also face discrimination in the health system based on their gender, class, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, or other characteristics. 

Gender inequality hampers equitable access to diagnosis and treatment for non-communicable health conditions. For example, compared with men, a higher proportion of women with raised blood glucose go untreated. This gap is also seen for hypertension. Violence against women and girls persists, constituting a violation of their human rights and a critical public health concern. 

Against this backdrop, we call on Governments to increase investments in health and strengthen health systems, particularly focusing on primary health care. Good laws and policies are essential to address various health determinants, including tobacco control, environmental protection, and better nutrition. Health services must be made more accessible, acceptable, and of better quality for all individuals, without discrimination. 

To address these and other issues, I have outlined five priority areas where I intend to focus during my tenure. These include mental health, women and children (including pregnant women), vulnerable population groups, climate change, and technology and innovations. 

The gains we make in these areas will be felt throughout our communities and countries, and will leave lasting multi-generational benefits. 

It is up to governments and organizations such as WHO, as duty-bearers, to respect, protect, and fulfil the right to health and ensure its progressive realization. 

On this World Health Day, on the 76 th founding anniversary of the World Health Organization, let us renew our commitment to a future where health is not a privilege but a promise—a promise to safeguard the dignity and well-being of everyone, everywhere. 

Let us remember “My Health, My Right.”

Saima Wazed

Regional Director WHO South-East Asia Region

MSU Extension Osceola County

Planting seeds for health hersey coa.

July 2, 2024 1:00PM - 12:00AM 1PM - 2:15 PM

215 N Division Street Hersey, MI 49639

Growing your own vegetables has many benefits, including healthier eating and reduced stress. The Planting Seeds for Health program will help participants learn basic gardening skills and use what they grow to prepare healthy and tasty dishes.

Each of the 6 lessons will have the following topics:

• Nutrition Education
• Taste testing
• Physical activities
• Gardening Activity

Tags: osceola , plantingseedsforhealth

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Healthcare Access and Health Equity Outcomes Among Adults With Cardiometabolic Conditions

Johnson SD Walden University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Presentation Documents

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OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this quantitative cross-sectional study was to analyze the influence of healthcare access (wellness visits and health insurance status), health behaviors (alcohol use and physical activity), and sociodemographic factors (race/ethnicity, sex, age, education, marital status, family job status, and body mass index) on health equity outcomes (health status) in 15,955 adult cardiometabolic National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) 2020 participants.

METHODS: Andersen’s behavioral model (conceptual theory) utilizes sociodemographic (predisposing) factors, healthcare access (enabling) factors, health behavior, cardiometabolic conditions (need), and health status (outcome) for healthcare utilization research. The 2020 NHIS secondary dataset was analyzed to address research questions using binary logistic regression.

RESULTS: The results showed that there was a statistically significant relationship between healthcare access, health behaviors, sociodemographic factors, and self-reported health status among adults with collective cardiometabolic conditions in the United States. Physical activity and alcohol use had the highest effect size, demonstrating these key variables as meaningful in predicting health equity represented by health status outcome.

Epidemiology & Public Health, Patient-Centered Research

Topic Subcategory

Patient Behavior and Incentives, Patient-reported Outcomes & Quality of Life Outcomes, Public Health

Cardiovascular Disorders (including MI, Stroke, Circulatory), Diabetes/Endocrine/Metabolic Disorders (including obesity)

40 Facts About Elektrostal

Written by Lanette Mayes

Modified & Updated: 01 Jun 2024

Reviewed by Jessica Corbett

Elektrostal is a vibrant city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia. With a rich history, stunning architecture, and a thriving community, Elektrostal is a city that has much to offer. Whether you are a history buff, nature enthusiast, or simply curious about different cultures, Elektrostal is sure to captivate you.

This article will provide you with 40 fascinating facts about Elektrostal, giving you a better understanding of why this city is worth exploring. From its origins as an industrial hub to its modern-day charm, we will delve into the various aspects that make Elektrostal a unique and must-visit destination.

So, join us as we uncover the hidden treasures of Elektrostal and discover what makes this city a true gem in the heart of Russia.

Key Takeaways:

• Elektrostal, known as the “Motor City of Russia,” is a vibrant and growing city with a rich industrial history, offering diverse cultural experiences and a strong commitment to environmental sustainability.
• With its convenient location near Moscow, Elektrostal provides a picturesque landscape, vibrant nightlife, and a range of recreational activities, making it an ideal destination for residents and visitors alike.

Known as the “Motor City of Russia.”

Elektrostal, a city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia, earned the nickname “Motor City” due to its significant involvement in the automotive industry.

Home to the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Elektrostal is renowned for its metallurgical plant, which has been producing high-quality steel and alloys since its establishment in 1916.

Boasts a rich industrial heritage.

Elektrostal has a long history of industrial development, contributing to the growth and progress of the region.

Founded in 1916.

The city of Elektrostal was founded in 1916 as a result of the construction of the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Located approximately 50 kilometers east of Moscow.

Elektrostal is situated in close proximity to the Russian capital, making it easily accessible for both residents and visitors.

Known for its vibrant cultural scene.

Elektrostal is home to several cultural institutions, including museums, theaters, and art galleries that showcase the city’s rich artistic heritage.

A popular destination for nature lovers.

Surrounded by picturesque landscapes and forests, Elektrostal offers ample opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, and birdwatching.

Hosts the annual Elektrostal City Day celebrations.

Every year, Elektrostal organizes festive events and activities to celebrate its founding, bringing together residents and visitors in a spirit of unity and joy.

Has a population of approximately 160,000 people.

Elektrostal is home to a diverse and vibrant community of around 160,000 residents, contributing to its dynamic atmosphere.

Boasts excellent education facilities.

The city is known for its well-established educational institutions, providing quality education to students of all ages.

A center for scientific research and innovation.

Elektrostal serves as an important hub for scientific research, particularly in the fields of metallurgy , materials science, and engineering.

Surrounded by picturesque lakes.

The city is blessed with numerous beautiful lakes , offering scenic views and recreational opportunities for locals and visitors alike.

Well-connected transportation system.

Elektrostal benefits from an efficient transportation network, including highways, railways, and public transportation options, ensuring convenient travel within and beyond the city.

Famous for its traditional Russian cuisine.

Food enthusiasts can indulge in authentic Russian dishes at numerous restaurants and cafes scattered throughout Elektrostal.

Home to notable architectural landmarks.

Elektrostal boasts impressive architecture, including the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord and the Elektrostal Palace of Culture.

Offers a wide range of recreational facilities.

Residents and visitors can enjoy various recreational activities, such as sports complexes, swimming pools, and fitness centers, enhancing the overall quality of life.

Provides a high standard of healthcare.

Elektrostal is equipped with modern medical facilities, ensuring residents have access to quality healthcare services.

Home to the Elektrostal History Museum.

The Elektrostal History Museum showcases the city’s fascinating past through exhibitions and displays.

A hub for sports enthusiasts.

Elektrostal is passionate about sports, with numerous stadiums, arenas, and sports clubs offering opportunities for athletes and spectators.

Celebrates diverse cultural festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal hosts a variety of cultural festivals, celebrating different ethnicities, traditions, and art forms.

Electric power played a significant role in its early development.

Elektrostal owes its name and initial growth to the establishment of electric power stations and the utilization of electricity in the industrial sector.

Boasts a thriving economy.

The city’s strong industrial base, coupled with its strategic location near Moscow, has contributed to Elektrostal’s prosperous economic status.

Houses the Elektrostal Drama Theater.

The Elektrostal Drama Theater is a cultural centerpiece, attracting theater enthusiasts from far and wide.

Popular destination for winter sports.

Elektrostal’s proximity to ski resorts and winter sport facilities makes it a favorite destination for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter activities.

Promotes environmental sustainability.

Elektrostal prioritizes environmental protection and sustainability, implementing initiatives to reduce pollution and preserve natural resources.

Home to renowned educational institutions.

Elektrostal is known for its prestigious schools and universities, offering a wide range of academic programs to students.

Committed to cultural preservation.

The city values its cultural heritage and takes active steps to preserve and promote traditional customs, crafts, and arts.

Hosts an annual International Film Festival.

The Elektrostal International Film Festival attracts filmmakers and cinema enthusiasts from around the world, showcasing a diverse range of films.

Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation.

Elektrostal supports aspiring entrepreneurs and fosters a culture of innovation, providing opportunities for startups and business development .

Offers a range of housing options.

Elektrostal provides diverse housing options, including apartments, houses, and residential complexes, catering to different lifestyles and budgets.

Home to notable sports teams.

Elektrostal is proud of its sports legacy , with several successful sports teams competing at regional and national levels.

Boasts a vibrant nightlife scene.

Residents and visitors can enjoy a lively nightlife in Elektrostal, with numerous bars, clubs, and entertainment venues.

Promotes cultural exchange and international relations.

Elektrostal actively engages in international partnerships, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic collaborations to foster global connections.

Surrounded by beautiful nature reserves.

Nearby nature reserves, such as the Barybino Forest and Luchinskoye Lake, offer opportunities for nature enthusiasts to explore and appreciate the region’s biodiversity.

Commemorates historical events.

The city pays tribute to significant historical events through memorials, monuments, and exhibitions, ensuring the preservation of collective memory.

Promotes sports and youth development.

Elektrostal invests in sports infrastructure and programs to encourage youth participation, health, and physical fitness.

Hosts annual cultural and artistic festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal celebrates its cultural diversity through festivals dedicated to music, dance, art, and theater.

Provides a picturesque landscape for photography enthusiasts.

The city’s scenic beauty, architectural landmarks, and natural surroundings make it a paradise for photographers.

Connects to Moscow via a direct train line.

The convenient train connection between Elektrostal and Moscow makes commuting between the two cities effortless.

A city with a bright future.

Elektrostal continues to grow and develop, aiming to become a model city in terms of infrastructure, sustainability, and quality of life for its residents.

In conclusion, Elektrostal is a fascinating city with a rich history and a vibrant present. From its origins as a center of steel production to its modern-day status as a hub for education and industry, Elektrostal has plenty to offer both residents and visitors. With its beautiful parks, cultural attractions, and proximity to Moscow, there is no shortage of things to see and do in this dynamic city. Whether you’re interested in exploring its historical landmarks, enjoying outdoor activities, or immersing yourself in the local culture, Elektrostal has something for everyone. So, next time you find yourself in the Moscow region, don’t miss the opportunity to discover the hidden gems of Elektrostal.

Q: What is the population of Elektrostal?

A: As of the latest data, the population of Elektrostal is approximately XXXX.

Q: How far is Elektrostal from Moscow?

A: Elektrostal is located approximately XX kilometers away from Moscow.

Q: Are there any famous landmarks in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to several notable landmarks, including XXXX and XXXX.

Q: What industries are prominent in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal is known for its steel production industry and is also a center for engineering and manufacturing.

Q: Are there any universities or educational institutions in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to XXXX University and several other educational institutions.

Q: What are some popular outdoor activities in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal offers several outdoor activities, such as hiking, cycling, and picnicking in its beautiful parks.

Q: Is Elektrostal well-connected in terms of transportation?

A: Yes, Elektrostal has good transportation links, including trains and buses, making it easily accessible from nearby cities.

Q: Are there any annual events or festivals in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal hosts various events and festivals throughout the year, including XXXX and XXXX.

Elektrostal's fascinating history, vibrant culture, and promising future make it a city worth exploring. For more captivating facts about cities around the world, discover the unique characteristics that define each city . Uncover the hidden gems of Moscow Oblast through our in-depth look at Kolomna. Lastly, dive into the rich industrial heritage of Teesside, a thriving industrial center with its own story to tell.

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