research on health benefits of ginger

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Ginger Benefits

Ginger adds a fragrant zest to both sweet and savory foods. The pleasantly spicy “kick” from the root of Zingiber officinale, the ginger plant, is what makes ginger ale, ginger tea, candies and many Asian dishes so appealing.

What is ginger good for?

In addition to great taste, ginger provides a range of health benefits that you can enjoy in many forms. Here’s what you should know about all the ways ginger can add flavor to your food and support your well-being.

Health Benefits of Ginger

Ginger is not just delicious.  Gingerol , a natural component of ginger root, benefits gastrointestinal motility ― the rate at which food exits the stomach and continues along the digestive process. Eating ginger encourages efficient digestion, so food doesn’t linger as long in the gut.

• Nausea relief.  Encouraging stomach emptying can relieve the discomforts of nausea due to:
• Chemotherapy . Experts who work with patients receiving chemo for cancer, say ginger may take the edge off post-treatment nausea, and without some of the side effects of anti-nausea medications.
• Pregnancy . For generations, women have praised the power of ginger to ease “morning sickness” and other queasiness associated with pregnancy. Even the American Academy of Obstetrics and Gynecology mentions ginger as an acceptable nonpharmaceutical remedy for nausea and vomiting.
• Bloating and gas . Eating ginger can cut down on fermentation, constipation and other causes of bloating and intestinal gas.
• Wear and tear on cells . Ginger contains antioxidants. These molecules help manage free radicals, which are compounds that can damage cells when their numbers grow too high.
• Is ginger anti-inflammatory?  It is possible. Ginger contains over 400 natural compounds, and some of these are anti-inflammatory. More studies will help us determine if eating ginger has any impact on conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis or respiratory inflammation.

Ginger Tea Benefits

Ginger tea is fantastic in cold months, and delicious after dinner. You can add a little lemon or lime, and a small amount of honey and make a great beverage.

Commercial ginger tea bags are available at many grocery stores and contain dry ginger, sometimes in combination with other ingredients. These tea bags store well and are convenient to brew. Fresh ginger has strong health benefits comparable to those of dried, but tea made with dried ginger may have a milder flavor.

Making ginger root tea with fresh ginger takes a little more preparation but tends to deliver a more intense, lively brew.

How to Make Ginger Tea

It’s easy:

• Buy a piece of fresh ginger.
• Trim off the tough knots and dry ends.
• Carefully peel it.
• Cut it into thin, crosswise slices.
• Put a few of the slices in a cup or mug.
• Pour in boiling water and cover.

To get all the goodness of the ginger, let the slices steep for at least 10 minutes.

Ginger tea is a healthier alternative to ginger ale, ginger beer and other commercial canned or bottled ginger beverages. These drinks provide ginger’s benefits, but many contain a lot of sugar. It may be better to limit these to occasional treats or choose sugar-free options.

Ginger Root Versus Ginger Powder

Both forms contain all the health benefits of ginger. Though it’s hard to beat the flavor of the fresh root, ginger powder is nutritious, convenient and economical.

Fresh ginger lasts a while in the refrigerator and can be frozen after you have peeled and chopped it. The powder has a long shelf life and is ready to use without peeling and chopping.”

Ginger paste can stay fresh for about two months when properly stored, either in the refrigerator or freezer.

Should you take a ginger supplement?

Ginger supplements aren’t necessary, and experts recommend that those who want the health benefits of ginger enjoy it in food and beverages instead of swallowing ginger pills, which may contain other, unnoted ingredients.

They point out that in general, the supplement industry is not well regulated, and it can be hard for consumers to know the quantity, quality and added ingredients in commercially available nutrition supplements.

For instance, the Food and Drug Administration only reviews adverse reports on nutrition supplements. People should be careful about nutrition supplements in general, and make sure their potency and ingredients have been vetted by a third party, not just the manufacturer.

How to Eat Ginger

In addition to tea, plenty of delicious recipes include ginger in the form of freshly grated or minced ginger root, ginger paste or dry ginger powder.

Ginger can balance the sweetness of fruits and the flavor is great with savory dishes, such as lentils.

Pickled ginger, the delicate slices often served with sushi, is another option. The sweet-tart-spicy condiment provides the healthy components of ginger together with the probiotic benefit of pickles. And, compared to other pickled items, pickled ginger is not as high in sodium.

Ginger Side Effects

Research shows that ginger is safe for most people to eat in normal amounts — such as those in food and recipes. However, there are a couple of concerns.

Higher doses, such as those in supplements, may increase risk of bleeding. The research isn’t conclusive, but people on anti-coagulant therapy (blood thinners such as warfarin, aspirin and others) may want to be cautious.

Studies are exploring if large amounts of ginger may affect insulin and lower blood sugar, so until more is known, people with diabetes can enjoy normal quantities of ginger in food but should steer clear of large-dose ginger supplements.

For any questions about ginger or any other food ingredient and how it might affect your health, a clinical dietitian can provide information and guidance.

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Orally consumed ginger and human health: an umbrella review

Affiliations.

• 1 Nutrition and Dietetics Research Group, Faculty of Health Science & Medicine, Bond University, Robina, Queensland, Australia.
• 2 Deakin University, Impact (the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation), Food & Mood Centre, Geelong, Australia.
• 3 Department of Science, Nutrition Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
• PMID: 35147170
• PMCID: PMC9170469
• DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/nqac035

Background: Emerging evidence supports the health benefits of ginger for a range of conditions and symptoms; however, there is a lack of synthesis of literature to determine which health indications are supported by quality evidence.

Objectives: In this umbrella review of systematic reviews we aimed to determine the therapeutic effects and safety of any type of ginger from the Zingiber family administered in oral form compared with any comparator or baseline measures on any health and well-being outcome in humans.

Methods: Five databases were searched from inception to April 2021. Review selection and quality were assessed in duplicate using the Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews-2 (AMSTAR-2) checklist and the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) method, with results presented in narrative form.

Results: Twenty-four systematic reviews were included with 3% overlap of primary studies. The strongest evidence was found for the antiemetic effects of ginger in pregnant women (effect size: large; GRADE: high), analgesic effects for osteoarthritis (effect size: small; GRADE: high), and glycemic control (effect size: none to very large; GRADE: very low to moderate). Ginger also had a statistically significant positive effect on blood pressure, weight management, dysmenorrhea, postoperative nausea, and chemotherapy-induced vomiting (effect size: moderate to large; GRADE: low to moderate) as well as blood lipid profile (effect size: small; GRADE: very low) and anti-inflammatory and antioxidant biomarkers (effect size: unclear; GRADE: very low to moderate). There was substantial heterogeneity and poor reporting of interventions; however, dosage of 0.5-3 g/d in capsule form administered for up to 3 mo was consistently reported as effective.

Conclusions: Dietary consumption of ginger appears safe and may exert beneficial effects on human health and well-being, with greatest confidence in antiemetic effects in pregnant women, analgesic effects in osteoarthritis, and glycemic control. Future randomized controlled and dose-dependent trials with adequate sample sizes and standardized ginger products are warranted to better inform and standardize routine clinical prescription.

Keywords: Zingiber officinale; chronic disease; gastrointestinal conditions; ginger; pain; umbrella review.

© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition.

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Common Names:  ginger

Latin Names:  Zingiber officinale

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• Native to parts of Asia, such as China, Japan, and India, ginger has a leafy stem and yellowish-green flowers. The spice comes from the rhizome (underground stem) of the plant. 
• Ginger has been used for medicinal purposes in China for more than 2,500 years, and it has had a prominent role in Chinese, Indian, and Japanese medicine since the 1500s. 

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• There have been many studies of the use of ginger for health purposes in people.

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• Research shows that ginger may be helpful for mild nausea and vomiting associated with pregnancy.
• Most studies of ginger for motion sickness haven’t shown it to be helpful.
• In general, ginger hasn’t been shown to relieve nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy, although it might be helpful if taken in combination with certain types of chemotherapy or certain drugs used to prevent nausea and vomiting.
• It’s uncertain whether ginger is helpful for postoperative nausea and vomiting.
• A small amount of research suggests that ginger dietary supplements might be helpful for menstrual cramps.
• There’s not enough evidence to show whether ginger supplements are helpful for symptoms of knee osteoarthritis.

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• Ginger has been used safely in many research studies where it was taken orally (by mouth) as a dietary supplement. Ginger products may also be safe for topical use (on the skin).
• Ginger can have side effects such as abdominal discomfort, heartburn, diarrhea, and mouth and throat irritation, especially if taken in large doses.
• Some studies of the use of ginger during pregnancy suggest it is safe, but the evidence is not conclusive. If you’re considering using ginger while pregnant, consult your health care provider. Little is known about whether it’s safe to use ginger while breastfeeding.

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• Take charge of your health—talk with your health care providers about any complementary health approaches you use. Together, you can make shared, well-informed decisions.

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• Araya-Quintanilla F, Gutierrez-Espinoza H, Munoz-Yanez MJ, et al. Effectiveness of ginger on pain and function in knee osteoarthritis: a PRISMA systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain Physician. 2020;23(2):E151-E161.
• Crichton M, Marshall S, Marx W, et al. Efficacy of ginger (Zingiber officinale) in ameliorating chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and chemotherapy-related outcomes: a systematic review update and meta-analysis. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2019;119(12):2055-2068.
• Ginger. Natural Medicines website. Accessed at naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com on March 5, 2020. [Database subscription].
• Khorasani F, Aryan H, Sobhi A, et al. A systematic review of the efficacy of alternative medicine in the treatment of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2020;40(1):10-19.
• McParlin C, O’Donnell A, Robson SC, et al. Treatments for hyperemesis gravidarum and nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: a systematic review. JAMA. 2016;316(13):1392-1401.
• Pattanittum P, Kunyanone N, Brown J, et al. Dietary supplements for dysmenorrhoea. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016;(3):CD002124. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on August 31, 2020.
• Tóth B, Lantos T, Hegyi P, et al. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) : an alternative for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. A meta-analysis. Phytomedicine. 2018;50:8-18.
• Xu Y, Yang Q, Wang X. Efficacy of herbal medicine (cinnamon/fennel/ginger) for primary dysmenorrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of International Medical Research . 2020;48(6):1-12.

This publication is not copyrighted and is in the public domain. Duplication is encouraged.

NCCIH has provided this material for your information. It is not intended to substitute for the medical expertise and advice of your health care provider(s). We encourage you to discuss any decisions about treatment or care with your health care provider. The mention of any product, service, or therapy is not an endorsement by NCCIH.

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Ginger is most often used for .

Ginger is a spice that has traditionally been treated as medicine in both Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ayurveda, doses of 1-3g can reduce nausea and ease digestion quite effectively; superloading the powdered rhizome at 10-15g daily might increase testosterone .

Last Updated: March 13, 2024

What are other names for Ginger

• Zingiber officinale Roscoe
• Zingiberaceae
• Curcumin (other bioactive of the Zingiberaceae family)

Dosage information Medical disclaimer

Typically, dosages of 1-3g are used as a preventative treatment for nausea. This applies to morning sickness in pregnancy, motion sickness, and sometimes chemotherapy or operation-induced nausea.

For other usages of ginger, 1g is typically used. This seems to be effective for increasing intestinal motility, but was insufficient in reducing blood glucose in the one study attempting it.

For testosterone boosting, a supplement is probably advised. The dosage used in rats, after conversion to humans based on Body Surface Area, equates to about 14g from natural sources (usually less of an extract percentage than is possible with supplements).

Ginger can be ingested via several ways, and the following is an approximate standardization table for 1g of Ginger Extract : [1]

• A capsule that has 1g ginger extract in it
• A teaspoon of fresh, grated, rhizome (the vertical aspect of ginger root)
• 2 droppers (2mL) of liquid extract
• 2 teaspoons (10mL) of syrup
• 4 cups (8 oz each) ginger tea, steeping 1/2 teaspoon grated ginger for 5–10 min
• 8-oz cup ginger ale, made with real ginger
• 2 pieces crystallized ginger, each 1 inch square, 1/4 inch thick

Examine Database: Ginger

Pregnancy And Delivery Health 5 Studies 1 Outcome Morning Sickness 4 Studies 1 Outcome Surgical Recovery 4 Studies 1 Outcome Hyperemesis Gravidarum 3 Studies 1 Outcome High Cholesterol 2 Studies 10 Outcomes Primary Dysmenorrhea 2 Studies 2 Outcomes Osteoarthritis 2 Studies 2 Outcomes Chemotherapy Side-Effects 2 Studies 1 Outcome Digestive Health 2 Studies 2 Outcomes Motion Sickness 2 Studies 3 Outcomes Muscle Recovery 2 Studies 3 Outcomes General Athletic Performance 2 Studies 3 Outcomes Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease 1 Study 1 Outcome Infertility 1 Study 9 Outcomes Aerobic Exercise Performance 1 Study 2 Outcomes Bone Cancer 1 Study 1 Outcome Cognitive Improvement 1 Study 2 Outcomes Colorectal Cancer 1 Study 2 Outcomes Lactation 1 Study 1 Outcome Metabolic Health 1 Study 6 Outcomes Pneumonia 1 Study 1 Outcome Vertigo 1 Study 2 Outcomes Weight Loss & Maintenance 1 Study 6 Outcomes

Research Feed Read all studies

In this randomized controlled trial in participants with multiple sclerosis, supplementation with ginger (compared with placebo) reduced some markers of inflammation and disease activity and was associated with improvements in physical and psychological well-being.

Research Breakdown

Sources and Composition

Sources and Background

Composition

Pharmacology

Serotonergic Neurotransmission

Interactions with Glucose Metabolism

Blood Glucose

Obesity and Fat Mass

Thermic Effect of Food

Interactions with Digestion and Nausea

Usage in Pregnancy

Morning Sickness

Dysmenorrhea

Interactions with Hormones

Testosterone

Interactions with Peripheral Organ Systems

Nutrient-Nutrient Interactions

Magnolia Officinalis

Safety and Toxicity

In pregnancy

Interactions

• ^ Bryer E A literature review of the effectiveness of ginger in alleviating mild-to-moderate nausea and vomiting of pregnancy J Midwifery Womens Health . ( 2005 Jan-Feb )

Examine Database References

• Testosterone - Waleed Abid Al-Kadir Mares, Wisam S. Najam The effect of Ginger on semen parameters and serum FSH, LH & testosterone of infertile men Tikrit Medical Journal . ( )
• Gastric Emptying Rate - Stewart JJ, Wood MJ, Wood CD, Mims ME Effects of ginger on motion sickness susceptibility and gastric function Pharmacology . ( 1991 )
• Nausea Symptoms - Ernst E, Pittler MH Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials Br J Anaesth . ( 2000 Mar )
• Rate of Perceived Exertion - Black CD, Oconnor PJ Acute effects of dietary ginger on quadriceps muscle pain during moderate-intensity cycling exercise Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab . ( 2008 Dec )
• Muscle Soreness - Black CD, Herring MP, Hurley DJ, O'Connor PJ Ginger (Zingiber officinale) reduces muscle pain caused by eccentric exercise J Pain . ( 2010 Sep )
• Metabolic Rate - Muhammad S Mansour, Yu-Ming Ni, Amy L Roberts, Michael Kelleman, Arindam Roychoudhury, Marie-Pierre St-Onge Ginger consumption enhances the thermic effect of food and promotes feelings of satiety without affecting metabolic and hormonal parameters in overweight men: a pilot study Metabolism . ( 2012 Oct )
• High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Alizadeh-Navaei R, Roozbeh F, Saravi M, Pouramir M, Jalali F, Moghadamnia AA Investigation of the effect of ginger on the lipid levels. A double blind controlled clinical trial Saudi Med J . ( 2008 Sep )
• Lower Esophageal Pressure - Lohsiriwat S, Rukkiat M, Chaikomin R, Leelakusolvong S Effect of ginger on lower esophageal sphincter pressure J Med Assoc Thai . ( 2010 Mar )
• Gastric Emptying Rate - Wu KL, Rayner CK, Chuah SK, Changchien CS, Lu SN, Chiu YC, Chiu KW, Lee CM Effects of ginger on gastric emptying and motility in healthy humans Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol . ( 2008 May )
• Nausea Symptoms - Keating A, Chez RA Ginger syrup as an antiemetic in early pregnancy Altern Ther Health Med . ( 2002 Sep-Oct )
• Nausea Symptoms - Borrelli F, Capasso R, Aviello G, Pittler MH, Izzo AA Effectiveness and safety of ginger in the treatment of pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting Obstet Gynecol . ( 2005 Apr )
• Nausea Symptoms - Vutyavanich T, Kraisarin T, Ruangsri R Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled trial Obstet Gynecol . ( 2001 Apr )
• Nausea Symptoms - Willetts KE, Ekangaki A, Eden JA Effect of a ginger extract on pregnancy-induced nausea: a randomised controlled trial Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol . ( 2003 Apr )
• Nausea Symptoms - Apariman S, Ratchanon S, Wiriyasirivej B Effectiveness of ginger for prevention of nausea and vomiting after gynecological laparoscopy J Med Assoc Thai . ( 2006 Dec )
• Nausea Symptoms - Nanthakomon T, Pongrojpaw D The efficacy of ginger in prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after major gynecologic surgery J Med Assoc Thai . ( 2006 Oct )
• Nausea Symptoms - Chaiyakunapruk N, Kitikannakorn N, Nathisuwan S, Leeprakobboon K, Leelasettagool C The efficacy of ginger for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: a meta-analysis Am J Obstet Gynecol . ( 2006 Jan )
• Dizziness - Grøntved A, Hentzer E Vertigo-reducing effect of ginger root. A controlled clinical study ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec . ( 1986 )
• Nausea Symptoms - Smith C, Crowther C, Willson K, Hotham N, McMillian V A randomized controlled trial of ginger to treat nausea and vomiting in pregnancy Obstet Gynecol . ( 2004 Apr )
• Nausea Symptoms - Fischer-Rasmussen W, Kjaer SK, Dahl C, Asping U Ginger treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol . ( 1991 Jan 4 )
• Nausea Symptoms - Pillai AK, Sharma KK, Gupta YK, Bakhshi S Anti-emetic effect of ginger powder versus placebo as an add-on therapy in children and young adults receiving high emetogenic chemotherapy Pediatr Blood Cancer . ( 2011 Feb )
• Inflammation - Zahmatkash M, Vafaeenasab MR Comparing analgesic effects of a topical herbal mixed medicine with salicylate in patients with knee osteoarthritis Pak J Biol Sci . ( 2011 Jul 1 )
• Osteoarthritis Symptoms - Bliddal H, Rosetzsky A, Schlichting P, Weidner MS, Andersen LA, Ibfelt HH, Christensen K, Jensen ON, Barslev J A randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study of ginger extracts and ibuprofen in osteoarthritis Osteoarthritis Cartilage . ( 2000 Jan )
• Gastric Emptying Rate - Hu ML, Rayner CK, Wu KL, Chuah SK, Tai WC, Chou YP, Chiu YC, Chiu KW, Hu TH Effect of ginger on gastric motility and symptoms of functional dyspepsia World J Gastroenterol . ( 2011 Jan 7 )
• Memory - Saenghong N, Wattanathorn J, Muchimapura S, Tongun T, Piyavhatkul N, Banchonglikitkul C, Kajsongkram T Zingiber officinale Improves Cognitive Function of the Middle-Aged Healthy Women Evid Based Complement Alternat Med . ( 2012 )
• Colorectal Cancer Risk - Zick SM, Turgeon DK, Vareed SK, Ruffin MT, Litzinger AJ, Wright BD, Alrawi S, Normolle DP, Djuric Z, Brenner DE Phase II study of the effects of ginger root extract on eicosanoids in colon mucosa in people at normal risk for colorectal cancer Cancer Prev Res (Phila) . ( 2011 Nov )
• Gastric Emptying Rate - Shariatpanahi ZV, Taleban FA, Mokhtari M, Shahbazi S Ginger extract reduces delayed gastric emptying and nosocomial pneumonia in adult respiratory distress syndrome patients hospitalized in an intensive care unit J Crit Care . ( 2010 Dec )
• PMS Symptoms - Khayat S, Kheirkhah M, Behboodi Moghadam Z, Fanaei H, Kasaeian A, Javadimehr M Effect of treatment with ginger on the severity of premenstrual syndrome symptoms ISRN Obstet Gynecol . ( 2014 May 4 )
• Dysmenorrhea Symptoms - Ozgoli G, Goli M, Moattar F Comparison of effects of ginger, mefenamic acid, and ibuprofen on pain in women with primary dysmenorrhea J Altern Complement Med . ( 2009 Feb )
• Milk Production - Siew Cheng Foong, May Loong Tan, Wai Cheng Foong, Lisa A Marasco, Jacqueline J Ho, Joo Howe Ong Oral galactagogues (natural therapies or drugs) for increasing breast milk production in mothers of non-hospitalised term infants Cochrane Database Syst Rev . ( 2020 May 18 )

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Top 15 Proven Benefits of Ginger

by Meenakshi Nagdeve last updated - February 29, 2024 Medically reviewed by Dr. Sandesh Krishna Bhosale (BAMS, PGDHA) ✓ Evidence Based

Ginger is a spice with potential anti-inflammatory properties. The top health benefits of ginger may include its ability to help relieve nausea and pain, improve respiratory conditions, and reduce flatulence.  Ginger also helps boost bone health, strengthen the immune system, and increase appetite. This spicy root is also good for mitigating obesity and relieving the pain related to menstrual disorders.

What is Ginger?

Ginger, also known as Zingiber officinale , is a flowering plant, whose root or rhizome is used as a spice. It can be consumed in many forms, fresh, dried, powdered, and in the form of oil and juice. Ginger is a common ingredient in Asian cuisines where it is used to build flavors in curries, dressings, and soups. It is also used in sweets and alcoholic beverages such as ginger cookies, ginger beer , and wine. [1]

Today, ginger is on the FDA’s list of generally safe foods and is often used to mask the taste of bitter medicines such as cough syrups.

Ginger roots can be used to make a healing cup of tea. Photo Credit: Shutterstock

Ginger Nutrition

Most of the benefits derived from ginger are because of the presence of an active constituent called gingerol. According to the USDA FoodData Central , it is also rich in carbohydrates , dietary fiber, and protein . In terms of minerals, it has sodium , iron , potassium , magnesium, phosphorus , and zinc. its vitamins include vitamin C, folate, vitamin B6, riboflavin , and niacin . [3] [4]

There are many anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds like pantothenic acid , beta-carotene, capsaicin, curcumin, caffeic acid, and salicylate in it. Also, the presence of active compounds like shogaol, zerumbone, terpenoids, flavonoids, paradol, and zingerone in ginger provides many health benefits. [5]

Health Benefits of Ginger

While the traditional uses of ginger for better health are numerous, today we can easily add to it the multiple beneficial properties discovered and confirmed by research. Let’s take a look at some of the most popular health benefits of ginger.

May Relieve Nausea

The consumption of fresh ginger has been shown to be effective in alleviating various forms of nausea, including morning sickness , motion sickness, and chemotherapy side effects. This may be due to its ability to increase gastric motility and block serotonin receptors in the gut lining, which can help to silence the nerves that trigger the vomiting reflex. [6]

Although a study published in Nutrition Journal reveals that ginger may help in relieving nausea during pregnancy, but was not seen to be as effective in treating problems of vomiting. Significantly, it did not show any side effects, an important factor when treating pregnant women. Ginger is not recommended for use during pregnancy, especially for people close to labor, with a history of pregnancy loss or vaginal bleeding, or with clotting disorders. [7]

Its quick absorption and rapid regulation of body functions cure nausea in people who have undergone surgeries, without any side effects.

Ginger is a common ingredient in Asian cuisines where it is used to build flavors in curries, dressings, and soups.

May Aid in Weight Loss

Ginger can potentially aid in weight loss through various mechanisms. It’s known to boost metabolism , suppress appetite, regulate blood sugar , and reduce inflammation, all of which are relevant factors in weight management . : [9]

• Reduce inflammation: Inflammation is a major contributor to obesity and weight gain. Ginger compounds such as 6-shogaol, zingerone, and 8-shogaol have been shown to decrease inflammation and improve symptoms in both human and animal models. [10]
• Boost metabolism: Ginger has been shown to boost metabolism in animals . A recent study found that ginger supplementation increased energy expenditure and fat burning in rats. [11] [12]
• Reduce appetite: A study found that ginger supplementation reduced hunger and increased fullness in people with overweight or obesity. [13]

It is important to note that the research on the effects of ginger on weight loss is still in its early stages. More research is needed to confirm the long-term safety and efficacy of ginger supplementation for weight loss.

May Treat Cold and Flu

This is traditionally used in many Asian countries against cold and flu. A study published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology found that fresh ginger shows potential antiviral properties against respiratory tract infections. It can be used in the form of tea for providing relief to sore throat and coughing. [14] [15]

May Aid in Digestion

Ginger finds a prominent mention in Chinese medicine as a facilitator of the digestive process. While many of its benefits are established part of traditional medicinal history, a review published in 2019 in the journal Food, Science & Nutrition  asked for more human studies to understand effective dosage. The study, however, agreed that there was substantial anecdotal evidence, backed by clinical trials. [16]

It is also frequently used as an appetizer or an aperitif since it can stimulate the appetite while preparing the digestive system for an influx of food. It works well as a carminative , thus helping with flatulence. [17]

May Be Remedial for Stomach Ulcers

Ginger may prevent the occurrence of ulcers, which are generally characterized by bleeding and acute gastric irritability. It has anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties that can help to reduce inflammation and kill the bacteria that cause ulcers. [18] [19]

According to a study published in 2016 in the World Journal of Gastrointestinal Pharmacology and Therapeutics , it is very effective in inhibiting the growth of H. pylori bacteria, which is ulcerogenic, thus keeping your stomach healthy. [20]

May Reduce Arthritis Pain

Ginger is known to boost bone health and relieve joint pain associated with arthritis. It may contain gingerol, which has powerful anti-inflammatory properties. It can improve movement in osteoarthritis, knee inflammation, and rheumatoid arthritis, as cited in a study  published in Arthritis & Rheumatism journal. Along with that, it also suppresses the inflammatory compounds like cytokines and chemokines at the source before they begin to affect the body. [21] [22] [23] [24]

If you are considering using ginger to treat osteoarthritis, it is important to talk to your doctor first. Ginger can interact with certain medications, and it is not suitable for everyone.

May Relieve Asthma

Ginger has been used traditionally as a potential medicine to treat respiratory disorders. A study conducted in 2015  also seconded its potential anti-inflammatory properties. Zerumbone, an active compound, may help relieve asthma. Research shows that allergic airway inflammation is majorly caused by Th2 dominance and the spicy root is successfully able to suppress it. [25] [26]

Recent animal studies have shown ginger’s active components, gingerol, and shogaol may have the potential as a therapeutic option for asthma. More research is needed to confirm the safety and efficacy of ginger for the treatment of asthma in humans. [27] [28]

May Aid in Liver Protection

People suffering from tuberculosis can benefit from ginger, as it helps prevent hepatotoxicity. Animal studies show that it also protects against the liver-damaging cadmium poisoning caused due to the significant ingestion of cadmium. Its essential oil exerts a protective effect against the non-alcoholic fatty liver disease occurring because of obesity. [29] [30] [31]

May Relieve Muscle Pain

Ginger is well-known for reducing muscle pain and soreness caused due to exercising. The potentially anti-inflammatory properties of this root are to be credited for this benefit. The study points out that ‘daily consumption of raw and heat-treated ginger resulted in moderate-to-large reductions in muscle pain following exercise-induced muscle injury.’ [32] [33] [34]

May Help Manage Dysmenorrhea

Ginger may help reduce the levels of prostaglandins in the body, hence it aids in relieving cramps and other forms of discomfort and pain during menstruation. Scientists believe that high levels of prostaglandins contribute to increased menstrual cramps. These hormones function as chemical messengers are the key activators of symptoms such as cramps, pains, and fevers. According to a report published in ISRN Obstetrics and Gynecology , it can also help to reduce the severity of mood and behavior during PMS. [35] [36] [37]

Might Boost Heart Health

Ginger may protect cardiovascular health by lowering LDL cholesterol levels and increasing HDL cholesterol levels. [38] [39]

A meta-analysis of 26 randomized controlled trials showed that ginger consumption could significantly improve total triglyceride, cholesterol, LDL, and HDL levels. The most effective dose was >1500 mg/d for more than 8 weeks. It may also reduce the risk of blood clotting, thereby helping regulate hypertension and keeping your heart healthy. [40] [41]

May Control Diabetes

Ginger may help regulate the blood sugar levels in people suffering from type 2 diabetes. Glycemic and lipid abnormalities lead to long-term complications in diabetics, as per a research study published in the International Journal of Endocrinology Metabolism in 2017. Therefore, to improve your insulin resistance and control diabetes , consider adding this root to your diet. Another study published in the journal Complementary Therapies in Medicine in 2014 demonstrated “daily consumption of 3 one-gram capsules of ginger powder for 8 weeks is useful for patients with type 2 diabetes.” [42] [43]

May Improve Dental Health

Ginger is known to inhibit bacterial, viral, and fungal infections, owing to the presence of gingerol in it. It may also help in maintaining oral health by killing the pathogens in the mouth and keeping the teeth and gums intact. Its potential antibacterial properties may help ward off pathogenic bacteria that cause urinary tract infections (UTI), bronchitis. [44]

May Alleviate Diarrhea

It has been used since ancient times to help with diarrhea since it may prevent stomach spasms and gas that contribute to and stimulate it. In China, the powdered form is given to those with diarrhea and this traditional practice is followed for thousands of years; scientists have concluded that these ancient treatments are indeed beneficial for this condition. [45]

May Increase Sexual Activity

A known potential aphrodisiac, ginger was used in many cultures to arouse desire and enhance sexual activity. The book Ginger: A Versatile Healing Herb mentions the use of Ayurveda as an aphrodisiac. Its scent has a unique allure that helps in increasing fertility and establishing a sexual connection. This root also helps increase blood circulation. [46] [47]

Uses of Ginger

• Fresh raw ginger root is a staple ingredient in Asian cuisines. It is used in curries, soups , rice , noodles, and stews.
• Pickled ginger is offered with sushi as a palate cleanser.  Ginger-garlic paste is used across cuisines.
• World over, it is also used to flavor beverages such as tea, specialty coffees, lemonades, cocktails, and even smoothies.
• Ginger cookies, candied ginger, and the gingerbread man are popular holiday favorites.
• Ginger Tea – You can make tea by steeping grated ginger in boiled water. It is a natural cure for sore throat, coughs, and colds.
• Ginger juice and chews are other home remedies, often given to alleviate nausea and digestive problems.
• It is often used in herbal products such as soaps, shampoos, massage oils, and perfumes.

Ginger supplements are available in most pharmacies in the form of:

• Dried ginger root
• Powder form
• Essential oils

How to Buy & Store Ginger?

Select a root that is wrinkle-free or has minimal wrinkles and taut skin . Make sure the skin is not thick and bruised. The best way to check is by scraping it with your nail. The aroma of the fresh root is peppery, sharp, and strong, so inhale the fragrance and enjoy shopping!

It can be stored in a plastic bag in the refrigerator. However, you should peel, cut, or grate it only before using it. If you want to store a cut piece of the root, dry it first so that it doesn’t rot away.

Side Effects

The commonly observed side effects are as follows:

• Stomach upset
• Breathing issues
• Acid-reflux : It may worsen acid reflux in some people.
• Gallstones : It can increase bile production, which may cause the stone to create a block in bile flow. The National Centre for Complementary and Integrative Health recommends that people with gallstone disease exercise caution when using ginger as it can increase the flow of bile. [48]
• Blood-thinning : It should not be eaten with blood-thinning medicines or aspirin as it may affect blood clots .
• Pregnant women : Though it is generally considered safe, women with a history of miscarriage should consult a doctor before making any dietary change. [49]

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Meenakshi Nagdeve , Co-Founder, Organic Facts  is a health and wellness enthusiast and is responsible for managing it. She has completed the Nutrition And Healthy Living Cornell Certificate Program , Cornell University, US. She holds a Post Graduate Diploma in Management from IIM Bangalore and B. Tech in Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science from IIT Bombay. Prior to this, she worked for a few years in IT and Financial services. An ardent follower of  naturopathy, she believes in healing with foods. In her free time, she loves to travel and taste different types of teas.

© 2024 Organic Information Services Pvt Ltd. All the information on this website is for education purpose only. Consult a medical practitioner for health problems. Images are provided by Shutterstock & our contributors. Organic Facts may receive a portion of revenues if you click on the sponsored ads and links by Google, Ezoic, or the Amazon Affiliate program.

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Our articles are evidence-based and contain scientific references, fact-checked by experts. We source information from studies, clinical trial findings, and meta-analyses published in peer-reviewed journals.

To increase transparency to the user, we provide reference links marked by numbers in parentheses in the copy of the article. The entire list of reference links is also provided at the bottom of the article.

What Is Ginger?

Ginger is a flowering tropical plant that grows in China, India, Africa, the Caribbean, and other warm climates. The root of the ginger plant is well-known as a spice and flavoring. It's been a traditional remedy in many cultures for thousands of years.

Ginger Health Benefits

Ginger is a common folk treatment for upset stomach and nausea. There's evidence that it helps.

Ginger seems to aid digestion and saliva flow. Studies found that taking ginger could ease nausea and vomiting in some pregnant women.

But pregnant women should be careful with ginger. Some experts worry that it could raise the risk of miscarriage , especially in high doses.

Ginger seems to help with nausea caused by vertigo as well. There's mixed evidence about whether it helps with nausea caused by motion sickness , surgery, or chemotherapy .

Ginger does seem to help with painful periods . In one study, more than 60% of women felt that ginger lessened pain .

There's strong evidence that ginger may ease osteoarthritis pain. It may also help with:

• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Muscle and joint pain

But more research is needed to know for sure.

Lab and animal studies have found that ginger may, theoretically:

• Lessen swelling
• Lower blood sugar
• Lower cholesterol
• Protect against Alzheimer's disease
• Prevent blood clotting

Clinical evidence shows evidence that ginger may help lower blood sugar and blood pressure .

Some people apply ginger compresses to the skin for pain. We don't know if this works or not.

Optimal doses of ginger have not been set for any condition. Quality and active ingredients in supplements may vary widely from maker to maker. This makes it very hard to set a standard dose. Ask your doctor for advice.

Ginger Nutrition

Two teaspoons of ginger has 4 calories. The root doesn’t provide many vitamins or minerals , but it’s full of antioxidants that help protect your cells from damage and prevent disease.

Ginger Natural Sources

Ginger is a common spice and added flavoring. Many people drink ginger teas or soft drinks.

Ginger is a common ingredient in chai tea . You can also find ginger lollipops, candies, and capsules.

Ginger Risks

Side effects. In small doses, ginger has few side effects. High doses of ginger -- more than 5 grams a day -- increase the chances of side effects. Ginger on the skin may cause a rash .

Eating or drinking it may cause:

• Upset stomach
• Mouth irritation

Risks. Ginger may raise the risk of bleeding. If you have a bleeding disorder, it may not be safe. Always tell your doctor about herbal medicines you take, including ginger

Interactions. If you take any medications regularly, talk to your doctor before you start using ginger supplements. They could interact with blood thinners and medications for diabetes and high blood pressure .

The FDA does regulate dietary supplements , but it treats them like foods rather than medications. Unlike drugmakers, the makers of supplements don’t have to show their products are safe or effective before selling them on the market.

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12 Ginger Benefits … for the Body and Brain

By Rachael Link, MS, RD

May 24, 2024

With its zesty, peppery flavor and its extensive list of health benefits, ginger root is equal parts delicious and nutritious. It’s one of the most used dietary condiments in the world today, versatile, easy to add to recipes, and ginger benefits have been associated with everything from beating motion sickness to better brain function.

The health benefits of ginger are largely due to its antioxidants, anti-inflammatory properties and content of therapeutic compounds like gingerol, shogaol, paradol and zingerone.

In fact, more than 100 compounds have reportedly been isolated from ginger. They give it not only antioxidant abilities, but also anticancer, neuroprotective and cardiovascular protective ones, too.

Available in fresh, dried, ground, capsule and juice form, this spice is easy to add to your diet and can have a lasting impact on just about every system in the human body.

What Is Ginger?

It has been used across the globe as a natural remedy for thousands of years due to its medicinal properties. In fact, ancient Chinese, Roman, Greek, Arabic and Sanskrit texts have all documented the use of this spice to help improve general health and well-being.

What are popular uses of ginger? You can find it in fresh, ground or capsule form — or even as ginger essential oil — and can use it as a culinary spice, digestive aid, tea or for aromatherapy.

Research is just beginning to scrape the surface when it comes to the multitude of benefits associated with ginger root. From fighting infections to decreasing cholesterol and enhancing weight loss, it’s clear that adding ginger root to your diet could have a powerful effect on health.

Ginger Benefits

What are the health benefits of ginger? This spice contains a diverse array of many important compounds, vitamins and minerals — such as gingerol, which studies show has potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Here’s more about how this common spice can promote digestive health and beyond:

1. Helps treat nausea and morning sickness

Used historically as a natural remedy for sea sickness and morning sickness, perhaps the most well-known of all ginger benefits is its ability to treat nausea and vomiting.

One review looked at the results of 12 studies composed of 1,278 pregnant women and found that it was effective at decreasing symptoms of nausea with minimal risk of side effects.

Another study from the University of Rochester Medical Center showed that it helped reduce severity of nausea in patients receiving chemotherapy.

2. Fights fungal infections

Fungal infections cause a wide variety of conditions, from yeast infections to jock itch and athlete’s foot. Fortunately, ginger helps kill off disease-causing fungi due to its powerful antifungal properties.

A 2016 test-tube study found ginger extract to be effective against two types of yeast that commonly cause fungal infections in the mouth. Another test-tube study measured the antifungal effects of 29 plant species and found that ginger was among the most effective at killing off fungus.

3. May protect against stomach ulcers

Several animal studies have found that ginger benefits may include helping prevent the formation of stomach ulcers, which are painful sores that form in the lining of the stomach and cause symptoms like indigestion, fatigue, heartburn and abdominal discomfort.

In fact, one 2011 animal study showed that ginger powder protected against aspirin-induced ulcers by decreasing levels of inflammatory proteins and blocking the activity of enzymes related to ulcer development.

4. Eases menstrual pains

Unfortunately, symptoms like pain, period cramps (dysmenorrhea) and headaches are commonly associated with menstruation for many women. While some turn to over-the-counter medications to provide symptom relief, natural treatments like ginger can be just as useful at easing menstrual pain.

A study published in the  Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicines showed that ginger reduces menstrual pain as effectively as drugs like ibuprofen and mefenamic acid. Another study in 2009 had similar findings, reporting that it decreased both the intensity and duration of pain.

5. May inhibit cancer growth

A 2018 study found that ginger derivatives, in the form of an extract or isolated compounds, exhibit relevant antiproliferative, antitumor, invasive and anti-inflammatory activities. This means you can add it to your list of cancer-fighting foods .

Test-tube studies show that this spice’s components may be effective in blocking cancer cell growth and development for ovarian, pancreatic and prostate cancer. However, more research is needed to determine how well it can inhibit cancer and how it may translate to humans.

6. Can help regulate blood sugar and fight obesity

Research shows that ginger helps promote normal blood sugar. That means it may be helpful for reducing negative symptoms associated with high blood glucose levels, such as frequent urination, headaches (including migraines) and increased thirst.

According to one 2018 study, it can improve lipid profiles and benefit glucose control, insulin sensitivity and glycosylated hemoglobin to protect against development of type 2 diabetes.

In one 2015 study, ginger supplementation actually reduced fasting blood suga r by 12 percent and improved long-term blood sugar control by 10 percent.

A 2021 study conducted on mice found that ginger also has anti-obesity effects and may play a role in modulating development of adipocytes (fat tissue). When mice were fed a high-fat diet, ginger supplementation significantly reduced weight gain , hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol) and hepatic steatosis (liver fat) without altering food intake.

It’s believed to have this effect due to its ability to fight oxidative stress and inflammation that interfere with metabolic health.

7. Relieves joint and muscle pain

Because of its ability to reduce inflammation, adding ginger into your diet could help treat both muscle pain and arthritis-related joint pain, including from osteoarthritis.

One study showed that daily consumption resulted in moderate to large reductions in muscle pain caused by exercise-induced muscle injury. Another study found that ginger extract helped decrease knee pain and the need for pain medication in individuals with osteoarthritis.

8. Helps lower cholesterol levels

From producing bile to manufacturing hormones, cholesterol is essential to overall health. However, high levels of cholesterol can build up in the blood, causing blockages and increasing your risk of heart disease.

One of the biggest ginger benefits is its ability to naturally lower cholesterol levels and triglycerides to reduce your risk of heart problems.

A study conducted at Babol University of Medical Sciences in Iran found that ginger capsule supplementation (3 g/day in 3 divided doses) was able to significantly reduce bad LDL cholesterol and raise beneficial HDL cholesterol compared to a placebo.

An animal study also showed that ginger was nearly as effective in lowering cholesterol (improving cholesterol markers) as atorvastatin, a drug commonly prescribed for high blood cholesterol.

9. Supports brain function

Ginger is a great food for the brain .

Neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s have been linked to oxidative stress and chronic inflammation in the brain. With its wealth of antioxidants and potent anti-inflammatory properties, ginger is believed to play an important role in the health of your brain.

Several animal studies have found evidence that ginger extract could help  protect against brain aging and cognitive decline. Not only that, but a 2012 study also found that ginger extract helped improve cognitive function and attention in middle-aged women.

10. Helps fight bacterial infections

In addition to its antifungal properties, ginger boasts the ability to fight off bacterial infections as well, such as urinary tract infections, pneumonia and bronchitis.

According to one test-tube study, the compounds found in this spice could help inhibit the growth of certain strains of bacteria that cause gum disease. Another test-tube study showed that ginger extract was effective against several strains of drug-resistant bacteria as well.

11. Eases inflammation

Although inflammation can be a normal, healthy immune response to injury and infection, chronic inflammation is believed to be a major contributor to conditions like heart disease, obesity, diabetes and cancer.

One review in the  International Journal of Preventive Medicine noted that ginger extract is an anti-inflammatory food and may help inhibit the synthesis of certain markers of inflammation.

According to a 2020 meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, there’s evidence demonstrating a significant impact of ginger in lowering circulating inflammatory mediators, including C-reactive protein (CRP), hs-CRP and TNF-α levels.

There is also a possibility that ginger benefits include preventing blood clots (thus reducing risk of heart attack) due to its natural acids that thin the blood, but studies so far are inconclusive.

12. Promotes proper digestion

One of the most powerful ginger benefits is its ability to support digestive health and prevent problems like dyspepsia, a common condition of impaired digestion characterized by symptoms like pain, heartburn, fullness and discomfort.

According to a study in the  World Journal of Gastroenterology , ginger helps speed up the emptying of the stomach by 25 percent compared to a placebo in people with indigestion. Another study even found that taking ginger capsules with a meal actually doubled the speed of gastric emptying.

Nutrition Facts

As mentioned above, ginger is full of protective compounds, most notably gingerol, but also:

• polysaccharides
• organic acids

A 100-gram serving of raw ginger root contains approximately :

• Calories: 80
• Total Carbohydrates: 17.8 g
• Sugar: 1.7 g
• Total Fat: 0.8 g
• Saturated Fat: 0.2 g
• Polyunsaturated Fat: 0.2 g
• Monounsaturated Fat: 0.2 g
• Trans Fat: 0 g
• Protein: 1.8 g
• Sodium: 13 mg (0.6% DV*)
• Copper: 0.2 mg (22% DV)
• Vitamin B6: 0.2 mg (12% DV)
• Magnesium: 43 mg (10% DV)
• Potassium: 415 mg (9% DV)
• Manganese: 0.2 mg (9% DV)
• Vitamin C: 5 mg (6% DV)
• Niacin: 0.8 mg (5% DV)
• Phosphorus: 34 mg (3% DV)
• Iron: 0.6 mg (3% DV)

*Daily Value: Percentages are based on a diet of 2,000 calories a day.

In addition to the nutrients listed above, ginger also contains a small amount of calcium, zinc, pantothenic acid, riboflavin and thiamine.

However, keep in mind that most people consume a very small portion of ginger, so it should be combined with a variety of other  nutrient-dense foods  to meet your micronutrient needs.

You can find ginger in a variety of forms and can easily incorporate into your daily routine each day.

When purchasing fresh ginger, look for roots that have thin, shiny skin that can easily be scraped with your fingernail. The root should also have a sharp, peppery and pungent aroma.

Ginger that has gone bad, on the other hand, will have soft spots and a moist texture while cut ginger will begin to darken around the edges when it’s past its prime.

Ginger root can be eaten fresh, ground, juiced or infused into your favorite beverages. Pills are also available in tablet or capsule form to supply you with a quick and concentrated dose of antioxidants.

Studies have found that doses of about 1500 milligrams per day , taken in divided doses, are beneficial for nausea relief and other common digestive issues.

In Traditional Chinese Medicine, it’s also mixed with aconite and licorice root to help with respiratory conditions.

Additionally, ginger essential oil is also available and can be applied topically or taken internally for a boost of gingerol.

You can also use this spice to make a homemade cough syrup, add a few tablespoons to a relaxing hot bath or mix it into a soothing foot soak.

How to Eat Ginger

This spice has a unique, sharp, peppery flavor and distinct aroma that makes an excellent addition to many different dishes. In fact, there are a myriad of recipes available that use it, ranging from main courses to desserts and beyond.

Try cutting the root into thin slices and adding a bit to smoothies or vegetable juices for an extra bit of zing. It can also be grated and added to soups, salads, stir-fries or even sweets to increase the flavor and nutrition content.

It makes a tasty addition to sauces, stews, marinades and curries as well.

Ground ginger can also be used in cooking and in baked goods, desserts and candies, such as gingerbread cookies , pumpkin or apple muffins, and homemade cough drops .

It works well with other spices, like garlic and allspice , as well.

Ginger Tea and Ginger Water

A nice cup of ginger root tea or ginger water is the perfect remedy for a queasy stomach or a long, stressful day. Best of all, it’s easy to prepare both of these beverages right from the comfort of your own kitchen by using fresh ginger.

Simply wash a two-inch knob of fresh ginger root, and cut it into very thin slices. Add the slices to hot water, and boil for 10–30 minutes, depending on how strong you want it to be.

Remove from the heat, strain, discard the pieces and add in your choice of lemon  or lime juice to enhance the flavor. You can enjoy your drink hot or cold based on your personal preference.

What happens if you drink ginger tea every day? Ginger tea and water benefits include relaxing the body, soothing the gastrointestinal tract and alleviating nausea. It’s generally safe and health-promoting to drink one to three cups daily.

Ginger Juice and Ginger Shots

Another easy way to get in your daily dose of ginger is by juicing it. Do this by either using a juicer or peeling and grating a knob of the root, then using a cheesecloth to squeeze out the juices.

Another option is gulping down a ginger shot straight or mixing it with other fresh vegetable juices for a surge of extra nutrients. Recipes like this orange ginger carrot juice , for instance, are great for supplementing your diet with the vitamins and minerals that you need to function and thrive.

Ginger juice is also a staple ingredient in many types of Asian cuisine and can be added to classic dishes like ginger beef or cashew chicken.

Lastly, try ginger shots , a DIY recipe that’s loaded with healthy ingredients.

How to Store Ginger

To get the most use from this spice, store it unpeeled in a plastic bag, and put it in the crisper compartment of the refrigerator. Refrigerated roots can last around three to four weeks or even longer with proper storage.

You can also freeze slices of the root to stretch its shelf life even further. This works especially well if you plan to grate it.

Simply wrap your slices or the whole root n a plastic bag, and store it in the freezer.

If you’re using it to make juice, you can grate it and extract the juice without defrosting it first. Alternatively, try chopping or mincing it before freezing it to make preparation a breeze.

Risks and Side Effects

What might ginger be bad for? In moderation, it’s generally safe and unlikely to cause any adverse side effects in most people.

However, for some people it’s capable of causing reactions including abdominal discomfort, a bad taste in the mouth, heartburn and diarrhea, especially when consumed in large amounts.

Although rare, some people may also have an allergy to ginger. If you experience any food allergy symptoms like hives, swelling or difficulty breathing, stop use immediately, and talk to your doctor.

When applied to the skin, ginger essential oil may cause skin irritation in some people. It’s best to try a skin patch test by applying a small amount of oil first to make sure your skin is not sensitive.

Additionally, if taking capsules, always start with a low dose and work your way up to assess your tolerance. Stick to the recommended dosage, and decrease as needed if you have any negative symptoms.

If you take any prescription drugs or are undergoing treatment for a chronic disease, such as cancer, talk to your doctor before beginning any herbal supplementation.

It’s generally safe to use during pregnancy (and is often encouraged for morning sickness), but get your doctor’s advice before introducing it to your routine.

• Ginger ( Zingiber officinale ) is one of the most commonly used dietary condiments in the world.
• Research shows it contributes to human health by supporting digestion, decreasing morning sickness and easing menstrual pains, in part because it’s full of antioxidants, including gingerol.
• Other ginger benefits for men and women include reducing inflammation, fighting fungal and bacterial infections, treating ulcers, improving brain function, and decreasing pain associated with osteoarthritis.
• Try cooking with fresh ginger or using it in ground form in recipes, including herbal tea , soups and stir-fries. You can also take a supplement daily, brew up a cup of tea or use it in essential oil form to take advantage of this superstar spice.

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Science-backed benefits of ginger tea & the best times to drink it.

Known for its spicy, pungent, and peppery taste, ginger is a root that boasts a long list of health-promoting properties. One of the most popular ways to enjoy this nutritious ingredient is to make ginger tea.

This flavorful beverage has long been a staple in many traditional forms of medicine—but there's also plenty of modern science backing up its health impacts.

We consulted the research and reached out to nutrition experts to learn more about the top benefits of ginger tea and how to make it a regular part of your rotation.

What is ginger tea?

Ginger tea is a beverage typically made by steeping fresh or dried ginger in boiling water, giving it a sharp, slightly spicy taste and aroma. Premade ginger tea bags are also widely available and are generally pretty affordable, with prices ranging from around $0.10 to $0.50 each.

Ginger has a long history in traditional forms of medicine. In fact, Ayurvedic practitioner Nidhi Pandya tells mindbodygreen that it's widely used in both traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda. "In Ayurveda, it's used to reset the environment of the gut," she explains.

According to Pandya, the system of medicine uses ginger to support the gut microbiome after illness, enhance the absorption of other herbs, and treat certain digestive issues such as diarrhea.

Ginger tea nutrition

The exact nutrient content of ginger tea can vary depending on how you brew it and whether you pair ginger with any other herbs or ingredients. However, here is a general overview of the nutrients found in a typical cup of ginger tea 1 , according to the USDA:

• Calories: 2.4
• Carbs: 0.4 gram
• Fat: 0.02 gram
• Fiber: 0 grams
• Protein: 0.05 gram
• Copper: 0.03 milligrams

Like other types of tea , ginger tea is low in most vitamins and minerals, so it's unlikely to make a major dent in your daily nutritional needs. However, its antioxidant profile is where ginger really shines.

Ginger contains beneficial plant compounds 2 like gingerol and shogaol. It's believed that these compounds act as antioxidants and are responsible for many of the powerful health benefits of ginger, including its ability to ease nausea, alleviate inflammation, and protect heart health.

Ginger tea benefits

Not only can sipping a soothing cup of ginger tea help you relax and unwind at the end of the day, but it might also bring a few impressive health benefits to the table. Here are a few of the top perks, according to experts and the latest research:

It can help settle an upset stomach

For many, ginger tea is a tried-and-true method to ease nausea and stomach upset. It's believed to increase the movement of food through the gastrointestinal tract and speed up the emptying of the stomach, thereby reducing digestive distress 3 .

According to Amanda Sauceda, M.S., RDN , a registered dietitian who specializes in gut health, this is one of the benefits of ginger, with the most evidence to back it up.

Studies show that ginger might be especially beneficial in treating morning sickness. In fact, one review found that ginger is safe and effective and could significantly decrease nausea and vomiting 4 during pregnancy. It might also help prevent nausea and vomiting 5 after surgery, according to another analysis of 14 studies, which found that ginger was more effective than a placebo.

However, Sauceda notes that most of the research is focused on ginger supplements rather than ginger tea specifically. "When you drink ginger tea, you'll still be getting those beneficial compounds, but it wouldn't be in the amounts you'd find in a supplement."

It may ramp up immune function

Certain compounds found in ginger tea could support immune health 6 by altering specific pathways in the body that drive inflammation. Ginger might also have antimicrobial properties 7 , which could block the growth of bacteria, fungi, and viruses. According to Sauceda, this may be thanks to the presence of several specific compounds in ginger, such as gingerol .

Although there's not much research on humans available, preclinical studies have turned up some promising results. For example, a recent study in mice found that certain compounds extracted from ginger root could improve the composition of the gut microbiome, resulting in enhanced immune function 8 .

A 2013 test-tube study also found that fresh ginger might have antiviral effects 9 against respiratory syncytial virus, a type of viral infection that causes cold-like symptoms. Still, more studies in humans on the effects of ginger tea on immune function are needed.

It offers gut-boosting benefits

Beyond combating nausea, ginger tea might also be beneficial for other aspects of digestive health. For example, it may improve indigestion by relieving pressure 10 on the lower esophageal sphincter, helping to reduce symptoms like acid reflux and heartburn.

Plus, it might even be useful for other issues. According to a 2022 study, supplementing with ginger extract for four weeks was able to help reduce symptoms 11 of functional dyspepsia, a condition characterized by stomach pain, bloating, and feeling full quickly after eating. Another study showed that it could help improve vomiting 12 in children with gastroenteritis, or stomach flu.

It might enhance heart health

Ginger tea can be a powerful ingredient to help keep your heart healthy and strong. This is thanks in part to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects 13 of ginger, along with its ability to protect against disease-causing compounds known as free radicals.

Plus, according to Sauceda, ginger might even help lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels, both of which are risk factors for heart disease.

While there's not a lot of research on ginger tea specifically, there have been plenty of studies demonstrating the heart-protecting properties of ginger. For instance, one 2022 review showed that ginger could improve levels of triglycerides 14 and total, LDL (bad), and HDL (good) cholesterol.

What's more, another study found that daily ginger consumption was tied to a lower risk of high blood pressure 15 , along with a reduced risk of developing heart disease in the long run.

It could alleviate pain and inflammation

Interestingly, studies show that ginger can reduce markers of inflammation 16 and alleviate pain, which could be beneficial for a variety of chronic conditions, such as joint problems .

According to one study, ginger was able to decrease levels of inflammatory markers 17 like C-reactive protein and interleukin 1-beta in people with rheumatoid arthritis. Another study evaluating the pain-relieving properties 18 of ginger found that ginger powder could be as effective as ibuprofen at managing the aftereffects of surgery.

Science showcase

When to drink it.

Here are a few ways to include this flavorful beverage in your routine:

• Drink a bit before a long car ride: Ginger tea is often used as a natural remedy for motion sickness, making it a good option if you find yourself feeling queasy during long trips in the car. Drink a cup before you head out or pour some into a tumbler and bring it on the go.
• Swap it for coffee in the morning: If you're trying to cut back on your caffeine intake , keeping some ginger on hand might help. Try adding a squeeze of lemon for a more refreshing morning beverage or mix in some coconut milk and maple syrup to help match the creamy taste of coffee.
• Have a cup at the first sign of sniffles: Ginger tea offers up some impressive immune-boosting benefits, which can be great for combating illness and infection. Drink a cup or two when you start feeling under the weather, and pair with other natural ingredients for immunity .
• Enjoy with meals for better digestion: Thanks to its ability to keep things moving through the digestive tract, ginger tea is perfect if you find yourself feeling bloated or uncomfortable after a hearty meal. Brew up a batch and drink it alongside your meal to improve digestion naturally .
• Use it to wind down before bedtime: Because ginger tea is completely free of caffeine , you can enjoy it at any time of day without worrying about affecting your sleep schedule. Try sipping ginger as a sleepy tea before bed for a relaxing way to end your evening.

Ginger tea recipes

Brewing your own fresh ginger tea at home can be an easy and affordable alternative to prepackaged tea bags. Here's how to make your own DIY ginger tea:

Ingredients:

• 1-inch chunk of fresh ginger
• 1 cup water
• Lemon (optional)
• Turmeric (optional)
• Honey (optional)
• Mint leaves (optional)
• Start by slicing a 1-inch chunk of fresh ginger into a few smaller pieces to help maximize its flavor and potency. While some people opt to peel the ginger first, it's not necessary if you're short on time or want to save on food waste .
• Next, add the ginger to a saucepan and combine with 1 cup of water over high heat.
• Bring it to a boil and reduce the heat to let it simmer for around 5 to 10 minutes or a bit longer if you prefer a stronger, bolder taste .
• Remove it from the heat and strain directly into a mug using a fine-mesh strainer or sieve. Serve with a slice of lemon, a dash of turmeric , a drizzle of honey, or a sprig of fresh mint leaves for extra flavor.

Using dried ginger

To get the most bang for your buck, Pandya says you can also add a pinch or two of dried ginger to your tea on a daily basis, either alone or alongside other healing herbs and spices. If you're using dried ginger, stick to around 2 teaspoons per serving.

How to take your tea up a notch

If you're feeling creative and looking to mix things up, you can let it cool for a bit and then add a few ice cubes for a refreshing cup of iced ginger tea. Alternatively, try pouring some frothed oat milk on top for a fluffy ginger latte.

Pandya recommends pairing fresh ginger with cooling herbs such as licorice or fennel, which can help balance the warming properties of ginger. She notes that fennel tea also works especially well with dried ginger.

Be sure to save your scraps after each batch, as you can reuse ginger to make tea up to three or four times. The peels also work well in spicy broths or smoothies and can add a zing of flavor to marinades for meat or steamed veggies. Compost any leftover ginger to help scale back your environmental footprint.

Ginger tea side effects

In moderation, a cup or two of ginger tea each day can be a great addition to a balanced diet. However, Sauceda notes that ginger might not be recommended for people taking certain medications, including blood thinners or drugs for high blood pressure or diabetes.

While this is more likely a concern with high-dose supplements rather than the occasional cup of ginger tea, it's always a good idea to check in with your doctor before adding ginger tea to your routine if you're concerned.

What does ginger tea do to your body?

"Ginger has been linked to helping improve inflammation, blood pressure, blood sugar, and even cholesterol," says Sauceda. Plus, it may also be beneficial for improving gut health, easing pain, and enhancing immune function.

Is it good to drink ginger tea every day?

You don't need to drink ginger tea every day to reap the benefits, but you absolutely can enjoy it daily. Try pairing it with other herbs and ingredients to boost the potential health benefits.

Does ginger tea reduce belly fat?

While there's no research on whether ginger tea offers any fat-burning benefits , some research suggests that ginger supplementation could help reduce body weight and belly fat. Be sure to pair it with a balanced diet and regular physical activity.

The takeaway

Not only is ginger tea soothing and flavorful, but it's also super nutritious. This is one ancient remedy with plenty of modern science to back it up.

Drinking a cup or two of ginger tea each day is a great way to take advantage of the many potential benefits of this functional root .

• https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/2346077/nutrients
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31151279/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4818021
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29614764/
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34312974/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9483099/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6616534/
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36395935/
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23123794/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6341159
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33305631/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8252074/
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34388275/
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36165525/
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28336112/
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32763761/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7137811/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5356382/

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• November 15, 2023
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Have you heard about the health benefits of ginger, right? If not, buckle up because, by the time you’re through with this article, you’ll be amazed by what this fiery little root can do for you! Imagine a single ingredient with the power to boost your health in not one, not two, but TWENTY different ways! Ready to dive in?

Ginger’s Grand Entrance: A Quick History

Before we unleash ginger’s long list of benefits, let’s take a quick trip down memory lane. Once upon a time, ancient Chinese and Indian civilizations recognized this golden root as a panacea. Fast forward to today, and it’s taking the modern health world by storm. But why?

20 Health Benefits of Ginger

A natural digestive aid.

Have you ever had that unsettling feeling in your stomach after a big meal? Many have vouched for ginger’s uncanny ability to soothe digestive discomfort. Tanya, a yoga teacher from San Francisco, says, “Whenever I feel bloated or gassy, a cup of ginger tea does the trick!”

Combating Nausea

Sea sickness, morning sickness, or just a random wave of nausea? One of the most touted benefits of ginger is its anti-nausea effects. Sarah, an expectant mother, recalls, “Ginger candies were my best friend during my first trimester!”

Pain Reliever

Did you know that ginger might give conventional painkillers a run for their money? For centuries, people have turned to ginger to alleviate headaches, menstrual pain, and more.

Anti-Inflammatory Properties

You’ve probably heard of inflammation, right? Ginger contains compounds like gingerol that can help reduce it. Tom, a runner from Boston, shares, “Adding ginger to my diet has made those post-run sore muscles less of an issue.”

Lowering Blood Sugars

Are you looking to keep those blood sugar levels in check? Studies have indicated ginger might be your ally in this fight.

Cholesterol Check

High cholesterol ringing alarm bells? Ginger can help in keeping those levels in a healthy range.

Fights Infections

This spicy root isn’t just about flavor. It’s packed with bioactive compounds that can help fend off nasty infections.

Boosts Immunity

Winter’s coming, and the cold’s catching on? One of the benefits of ginger includes bolstering your immune defense.

Aids Weight Loss

Paired with a balanced diet and regular exercise , ginger might just help shed those extra pounds!

Fights Cancer

Emerging research suggests that the compounds in ginger might have anti-cancer properties. While more studies are needed, the prospects are promising!

Improves Brain Function

Brain fog? Ginger’s antioxidants could help enhance brain function and protect against age-related decline.

Fights Allergies

Seasonal sniffles and sneezes? There’s evidence that one of the benefits of ginger is its ability to combat allergic reactions.

Reduces Menstrual Pain

Ladies, ginger might just be the natural remedy you’ve been looking for during that time of the month.

Battles Fungal Infections

Athlete’s foot or other pesky fungal infections? Ginger’s antifungal properties might come to the rescue!

Improves Breath

Bad breath woes? Chewing on ginger after a meal might help neutralize bad odors.

Supports Heart Health

Looking out for your ticker? Ginger can possibly play a role in promoting heart health by lowering blood pressure and preventing blood clots.

Enhances Skin Health

Did you know that the benefits of ginger also touch upon skincare? Its antioxidants can provide a natural glow and fight skin-damaging agents.

Promotes Nutrient Absorption

Want to make the most of the nutrients from your food? Ginger can potentially enhance nutrient absorption in the body.

Provides Relief from Asthma

Asthma can be tough, but some find relief with ginger due to its anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties.

Acts as an Antioxidant Powerhouse

Last but not least, ginger is loaded with antioxidants that battle free radicals, helping to keep you youthful and vibrant.

A Fiery Finish!

So, next time you come across ginger in your spice rack or at the grocery store, remember the wealth of benefits it offers. From digestion to fighting diseases, the benefits of ginger truly span a spectrum! Why not incorporate it into your diet and start reaping its golden rewards?

Here are some scientific and reliable sources about the health benefits of ginger by their link:

• “Ginger (Zingiber Officinale)”  by the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7019938/
• “Ginger (Zingiber Officinale)”  by the Mayo Clinic:  https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/multimedia/spices/sls-20076032?s=5
• “Ginger (Zingiber Officinale)”  by WebMD:  https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-961/ginger
• “Ginger (Zingiber Officinale)”  by Healthline:  https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/11-proven-benefits-of-ginger
• “Ginger (Zingiber Officinale)”  by Medical News Today:  https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/11-proven-benefits-of-ginger

Please note that these are just a few examples, and there is a lot of other research on the health benefits of ginger. It is important to talk to your doctor to see if ginger is right for you.

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8 reasons to drink raw Ginger water after every meal

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As a millennial who fell for the problematic juice cleanse fad in the early 2010s, I’ve always been skeptical about ginger shot benefits. I was worried daily ginger shots were just the modern version of pressed juice culture, and thought the last thing we needed was (another) regression to early-aughts diet delusion .

Fortunately, that’s not what the ginger shot boom is about. After looking further into the buzzy beverage, it turns out daily ginger shots are ingested for health benefits and are not meant to replace meals—unlike the “juicing” of yesteryear.

What’s more, there is plenty of actual research confirming ginger shot benefits, like premenstrual pain relief and helping to reduce nausea , which actual dietitians can speak to (more on that below).

Above all, I was influenced by the slew of fellow beauty and wellness writers swearing ginger shots helped boost their immunity and energy levels, since I’m so prone to getting sick. My regular colds tend to last well over 10 days and often evolve into some form of a sinus infection, while I struggle with chronic fatigue and persistent nausea as is.

If something as simple as a daily ginger shot could help, why not give it a try, right?

That was my logic going into my three-week ginger shot experiment, where I knew my immune system would be put to the test. I was traveling extensively, attending two weddings and several family events on opposite coasts, and spending much of the time outdoors in the blazing sun.

I knew it would be a lot, so I stocked up on ginger shots in advance—I drank both Sol-ti Ginger SuperShots and +GNGR Immunity Booster Ginger Shots —and hoped they might help.

Remarkably, they may have. Now that I’m back home and readjusted to my regular routine—I’ve continued drinking ginger shots for good measure—I’m shocked by how healthy and energetic I managed to stay throughout my especially chaotic month of travel.

The entire month, I kept thinking, “I’m going to get sick,” because that’s how it’s gone in the past—especially during the summer. But somehow, I ended up only taking one sick day due to what may have actually been allergies; I came right into the office afterwards and have felt totally fine since. I also felt like I could keep up. I didn’t nap once on any of my trips, or even cancel plans due to fatigue (which I’m known to do).

Could this really be the result of daily ginger shots? Or was it a placebo effect? For me personally, it’s still unclear—though I’ll likely never forego my daily ginger shot again.

Want to try them yourself? Here’s everything you need to know about ginger benefits, according to a registered dietitian.

What are ginger shots?

“Ginger shots are typically made from blended or juiced ginger root, lemon juice, and cayenne powder, which provides a tangy and spicy concoction that can be used to make someone feel they are jump-starting their morning or providing a healthful boost throughout the day,” says Shannon O’Meara, RD, a registered dietitian with Orlando Health .

Are ginger shots good for you?

Research shows that “ginger can be beneficial for reducing pain from your menstrual cycle , improving pain from osteoarthritis, and reducing severity for pregnancy-related nausea ,” O’Meara says. There is also some research suggesting that ginger can alter the bacteria within the gut microbiome, she adds.

Registered dietician and Hilma nutrition advisor Megan DeChatelets, MS, CDN, also notes that ginger can help with bloating , as it “can soothe digestive distress and speed up stomach emptying,” especially in the form of tea.

Otherwise, research has found that ginger has anti-inflammatory properties , may help balance blood sugar levels, and may possibly lower cholesterol . Some studies have even found that ginger may be beneficial in combatting bacterial and fungal infections and aid with chronic indigestion .

As for why it seemingly helps boost immunity? “Citrus juice, which is commonly found in ginger shots, is a great source of vitamin C, which is beneficial for your immune system due to its antioxidant properties, and metabolism of nutrients within the body,” O’Meara explains.

Its high levels of vitamin C and antioxidants are also beneficial for hair growth and skin health. “Citrus fruits, like oranges, grapefruits, and lemons, are rich in vitamin C, which supports collagen production,” says Serena Poon , nutritionist, celebrity chef, and founder of Just Add Water and Culinary Alchemy. “Collagen is an important component of the proteins that make up healthy hair, and antioxidants may help protect your hair from oxidative stress, keeping it looking young and radiant.”

How often should you take ginger shots?

I personally took my ginger shots every morning, but not first thing: I always took them after eating breakfast. “I would recommend taking it with food as the spiciness and warmth from the shot can cause some heartburn in some individuals,” O’Meara agrees.

As for how often to drink ginger shots? “If you want to take a ginger shot, you can do it as often as you would like,” says O’Meara. Again, I take them everyday, but that’s up to your preference.

Do ginger shots help you lose weight?

While there is technically some research claiming ginger may help with weight loss, O’Meara says that “there is a lack of research in humans to suggest that doing ginger shots will help you lose weight.”

“There may or may not be a benefit in taking ginger shots for weight loss, but what is known is that ginger shots do not overshadow following a healthful diet and active lifestyle to help with weight control,” she explains.

Lastly, it’s important to note that while ginger shots have health benefits, they are not a replacement for a balanced diet. “If someone enjoys taking a ginger shot in the morning to feel like they are getting a jump-start to their day, it can be a great option,” says O’Meara. “But to ensure you are truly jump-starting your metabolism, eating whole foods such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins, as well as eating breakfast , will be what’s best.”

Can you make ginger shots at home?

“You can make ginger shots at home by using a blender or you can buy them premade,” says O’Meara. “The only difference there would be is the ingredients used, and if you make them at home, you can control how much added sugar is in the product and make it to your liking.”

I personally used premade shots because I was traveling and didn’t have consistent access to a kitchen, though there are plenty of ways to consume ginger that doesn’t require taking a shot, such as drinking ginger tea or eating ginger root.

Sol-ti Ginger SuperShot

+GNGR Immunity Booster Organic Ginger Shots (Pack of 12)

Greenhouse Juice Organic Fiery Ginger Wellness Shots 12-Count

The Ginger People Ginger Rescue Shots

Ginger shots recipe.

See O’Meara’s recipe for homemade ginger shots below.

Ingredients:

• 2 Tbsp. ginger root, peeled, chopped
• 1–2 lemons, juiced
• 1/4 cup water
• 1 Tbsp. honey
• Pinch of cayenne pepper

Directions:

Combine all ingredients into a food processor or blender. Pulse or blend until combined. Strain juice into 2 cups using a fine mesh sieve.

Danielle Sinay is the associate beauty editor at  Glamour.  Follow her on Instagram  @daniellesinay .

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5 Impressive Health Benefits of Cranberry Juice

Plus, how to pick out the healthiest cranberry juice option at the store.

Kirsten Nunez has been a health and fitness writer at Real Simple since 2021 and has been writing for nearly a decade.

Haley is a Wisconsin-based creative freelancer and recent graduate. She has worked as an editor, fact checker, and copywriter for various digital and print publications. Her most recent position was in academic publishing as a publicity and marketing assistant for the University of Wisconsin Press

What Is Cranberry Juice?

Cranberry juice nutrition facts, what is a healthy serving of cranberry juice, top health benefits of cranberry juice.

• Risks and Side Effects

How to Choose the Healthiest Cranberry Juice

Anna Volobueva/Getty Images

Known for its deep red color and sweet-tart taste, cranberry juice is a classic drink that’s stood the test of time. It’s perfect for quenching your thirst, whether you’re looking for an alternative to water or other types of fruit juices. But is cranberry juice actually healthy for you, and if so, how much is a good amount to drink? We tapped registered dietitians to learn more about the health benefits of cranberry juice, plus how to find the healthiest one in stores.

Cranberry juice is the liquid from cranberries, a small dark red fruit that’s native to North America. The berries are crushed into a pulp, which is then pressed to remove the juice. This juice is filtered and pasteurized before being packaged into bottles. Depending on the manufacturer, the liquid might be blended with other fruit juices.

While cranberry juice can be part of a healthy diet, it doesn’t offer a ton of nutritional bang for your buck. “Juice is primarily carbohydrates, with very little protein and no fat,” explains registered dietitian Maddie Pasquariello, MS, RDN . These two nutrients are important for promoting satiety and slowing digestion, which would otherwise pump the brakes on blood sugar spikes, she adds. 

Plus, many cranberry juices on the market contain added sugars or feature a blend of different ingredients, so it can be difficult to know how much cranberry juice you’re actually getting, says Pasquariello.

In general, it’s safe to drink eight ounces (one glass) of cranberry juice per day as part of a balanced diet, says Kristen Carli, MS, RD, registered dietitian nutritionist and founder of Camelback Nutrition Wellness .

However, as with all foods and drinks, there’s no one-size-fits-all serving size for cranberry juice. The ideal amount depends on several factors, including your age and health status, notes Carli. It’s also essential to consider other foods and drinks you’re consuming, especially if you’re trying to limit your intake of added sugars, which are found in many cranberry juices.

If you’re unsure how much cranberry juice is safe for you to drink, chat with your doctor or a registered dietitian, recommends Carli. They can assess your medical history and lifestyle, and determine the healthiest serving for you.

It reduces oxidative stress.

For a tasty way to lower oxidative stress, sip on cranberry juice. “Cranberries contain a class of antioxidants called polyphenols, which include subgroups like phenolic acids, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and flavonoids,” says Pasquariello. Antioxidants in general protect cells from oxidative stress—a process that, over time, can destroy healthy cells and increase the risk of chronic conditions, including type 2 diabetes, lung disease, and heart disease, notes Pasquariello.

It’s worth noting that the antioxidant content of cranberry juice isn’t comparable to whole cranberries. The juicing process removes the antioxidant-packed skin and seeds, reducing the antioxidant content by about 30 to 40% . Cranberry juice blended with other juices might even have less, depending on the antioxidant profile of the latter. Still, this doesn’t mean cranberry juice isn’t a noteworthy source of antioxidants; it’s just not as rich as whole, fresh cranberries.

It increases hydration.

When it comes to staying hydrated , you’re not limited to plain water. Fruit juice—including cranberry juice—is fair game, thanks to its high water content. This can help boost your hydration, which is vital for basic bodily processes like regulating body temperature, supporting digestion, and absorbing nutrients, says Carli.

It promotes immune function.

“Cranberry juice contains compounds like proanthocyanidins and vitamin C, which are known to support immune function,” explains Carli. Vitamin C is especially important for top-notch immunity, as it’s essential for the production and function of white blood cells, she notes. These cells help your immune system respond to infections, as they’re responsible for fighting and destroying germs that might make you sick. The antioxidants in cranberries (and therefore, cranberry juice) also have anti-inflammatory properties, which also contribute to healthy immune function, says Pasquariello.

 It might support urinary tract health.

If cranberry juice had a claim to fame, it would be its link to urinary tract health. Specifically, it’s associated with a lower risk of urinary tract infections (UTIs), which are marked by symptoms like a persistent urge to pee, pelvic pain, or cloudy urine. This cranberry juice benefit is thought to be related to its proanthocyanidins, which may prevent harmful bacteria from sticking to the walls of the urinary tract, potentially reducing the risk of UTIs, says Carli. With that in mind, regularly drinking cranberry juice could theoretically provide some protection—but there isn’t currently enough evidence to prove a definitive benefit. Research also suggests its effects may be limited, so more studies are needed.

Otherwise, drinking more liquids in general can help prevent or manage UTIs, notes Pasquariello. This can include cranberry juice if you happen to enjoy the drink and are looking for tasty alternatives to water. But take note: If you’ve already been diagnosed with a UTI, it’s still important to complete the recommended course of antibiotics in addition to drinking liquids, says Pasquariello.

It may support heart health.

As the antioxidants in cranberry juice combat oxidative stress, they could also reduce the risk of heart disease. That’s because oxidative stress can damage cells in the heart, negatively affecting heart function over time. Cranberries and cranberry juice also contain flavonoids, a type of antioxidant that may prevent atherosclerosis, notes Pasquariello. Atherosclerosis happens when plaque builds up in your arteries, potentially reducing blood flow and increasing the risk of heart disease. However, the potential heart-related benefits of cranberry juice come from in vitro studies—which are done in a petri dish or test tube vs. in a living organism—so more research is needed before confirming the cardioprotective effects of cranberries and cranberry juice, says Pasquariello.

Risks and Side Effects of Cranberry Juice

“While cranberry juice is generally safe for most people, consuming large amounts may lead to upset stomach or diarrhea,” says Carli. This is due to its acidic nature and high sugar content.

If you’re prone to kidney stones, be mindful when drinking cranberry juice, recommends Carli. Cranberries contain oxalates, which can contribute to the formation of kidney stones. Likewise, if you’re taking blood-thinning medications, cranberry juice might interact with these drugs, so talk to your doctor before sipping on the drink, says Carli.

If you want to find the healthiest cranberry juice in stores, there are several things to consider when shopping. First, look for one that’s made of pure cranberries, suggests Pasquariello. It will likely be labeled “100% pure cranberry juice.” Also, choose a product with no added sugars.

Cranberries - One of Three Native Fruits to North America . University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension.

Sharifi-Rad M, Anil Kumar NV, Zucca P, et al. Lifestyle, oxidative stress, and antioxidants: back and forth in the pathophysiology of chronic diseases .  Front Physiol . 2020;11:694

Nakamura Y, Watanabe H, Tanaka A, Yasui M, Nishihira J, Murayama N. Effect of increased daily water intake and hydration on health in japanese adults .  Nutrients . 2020;12(4):1191.

Lykkesfeldt J. On the effect of vitamin C intake on human health: How to (Mis)interprete the clinical evidence .  Redox Biol . 2020;34:101532.

Gbinigie OA, Spencer EA, Heneghan CJ, Lee JJ, Butler CC. Cranberry extract for symptoms of acute, uncomplicated urinary tract infection: a systematic review .  Antibiotics (Basel) . 2020;10(1):12.

D’Oria R, Schipani R, Leonardini A, et al. The role of oxidative stress in cardiac disease: from physiological response to injury factor.   Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity . 2020;2020:1-29.

Atrahimovich D, Avni D, Khatib S. Flavonoids-macromolecules interactions in human diseases with focus on alzheimer, atherosclerosis and cancer .  Antioxidants . 2021;10(3):423.

Blumberg JB, Basu A, Krueger CG, et al. Impact of cranberries on gut microbiota and cardiometabolic health: proceedings of the cranberry health research conference 2015 .  Advances in Nutrition . 2016;7(4):759S-770S.

Siener R. Nutrition and kidney stone disease .  Nutrients . 2021;13(6):1917.

Yu CP, Yang MS, Hsu PW, Lin SP, Hou YC. Bidirectional influences of cranberry on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin with mechanism elucidation .  Nutrients . 2021;13(9):3219.

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Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S, editors. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd edition. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2011.

Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd edition.

Chapter 7 the amazing and mighty ginger.

Ann M. Bode and Zigang Dong .

7.1. INTRODUCTION

The use of “natural” or alternative medicines has increased markedly over the last few years. More and more older adults (i.e., baby boomers) are using complementary and alternative medicine dietary supplements and herbal remedies without advice from a physician on the assumption that these substances will have a beneficial effect ( Cohen, Ek, and Pan 2002 ). However, this might not be a safe or advisable practice. For example, at least one recent survey revealed a significant problem with herb-chemotherapeutic drug interactions in cancer patients and, notably, at least half of the herbal remedies taken by these patients lacked research data documenting their potential interactions ( Engdal, Klepp, and Nilsen 2009 ). Regrettably, a great deal of the information regarding the effectiveness and safety of these remedies has been garnered from anecdotal or historical accounts, and much of the information offered is generally misleading and might even be detrimental ( Ernst and Schmidt 2002 ).

Ginger ( Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae) is one of the most commonly consumed dietary condiments in the world ( Surh et al. 1999 ). The oleoresin (i.e., oily resin) from the rhizomes (i.e., roots) of ginger contains many bioactive components, such as [6]-gingerol (1-[4′-hydroxy-3′- methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-decanone; Figure 7.1 ), which is the primary pungent ingredient that is believed to exert a variety of remarkable pharmacological and physiological activities. Although ginger is generally considered to be safe ( Kaul and Joshi 2001 ), the lack of a complete understanding of its mechanisms of action suggests caution in its therapeutic use ( Wilkinson 2000a ). Previous reviews ( Barrett, Kiefer, and Rabago 1999 ; Ness, Sherman, and Pan 1999 ; Talalay and Talalay 2001 ) have emphasized the importance of careful scientific research in establishing the safety and efficacy of potential therapeutic plant remedies and in defining the risks and benefits of herbal medicine. Ginger has been used for thousands of years for the treatment of numerous ailments, such as colds, nausea, arthritis, migraines, and hypertension. The medicinal, chemical, and pharmacological properties of ginger have been extensively reviewed ( Surh, Lee, and Lee 1998 ; Ernst and Pittler 2000 ; Afzal et al. 2001 ; Bode and Dong 2004 ; Boone and Shields 2005 ; Borrelli et al. 2005 ; Chrubasik and Pittler 2005 ; Chrubasik, Pittler, and Roufogalis 2005 ; Grzanna, Lindmark, and Frondoza 2005 ; Thompson and Potter 2006 ; Eliopoulos 2007 ; Shukla and Singh 2007 ; White 2007 ; Ali et al. 2008 ; Nicoll and Henein 2009 ). Over the last few years, interest in ginger or its various components as valid preventive or therapeutic agents has increased markedly, and scientific studies focusing on verification of ginger’s pharmacological and physiological actions have likewise increased ( Ali et al. 2008 ). The primary purpose of this chapter is to comprehensively examine the available scientific evidence regarding ginger’s proven effectiveness in preventing or treating a variety of pathologic conditions.

Structure of [6]-gingerol, believed to be the most abundant bioactive component of ginger root.

7.2. HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF GINGER

Ginger is a member of a plant family that includes cardamom and turmeric. Its spicy aroma is mainly due to presence of ketones, especially the gingerols, which appear to be the primary component of ginger studied in much of the health-related scientific research. The rhizome, which is the horizontal stem from which the roots grow, is the main portion of ginger that is consumed. Ginger’s current name comes from the Middle English gingivere , but this spice dates back over 3000 years to the Sanskrit word srngaveram , meaning “horn root,” based on its appearance. In Greek, it was called ziggiberis , and in Latin, zinziberi . Interestingly, ginger does not grow in the wild and its actual origins are uncertain.

Indians and Chinese are believed to have produced ginger as a tonic root for over 5000 years to treat many ailments, and this plant is now cultivated throughout the humid tropics, with India being the largest producer. Ginger was used as a flavoring agent long before history was formally recorded. It was an exceedingly important article of trade and was exported from India to the Roman Empire over 2000 years ago, where it was especially valued for its medicinal properties. Ginger continued to be a highly sought after commodity in Europe even after the fall of the Roman Empire, with Arab merchants controlling the trade in ginger and other spices for centuries. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the value of a pound of ginger was equivalent to the cost of a sheep. By medieval times, it was being imported in preserved form to be used in sweets. Queen Elizabeth I of England is credited with the invention of the gingerbread man, which became a popular Christmas treat.

7.3. USAGE, PREPARATION, AND PROCESSING

Ginger is used in numerous forms, including fresh, dried, pickled, preserved, crystallized, candied, and powdered or ground. The flavor is somewhat peppery and slightly sweet, with a strong and spicy aroma. The concentration of essential oils increases as ginger ages and, therefore, the intended use of the rhizome determines the time when it is harvested. If extracting the oil is the main purpose, then ginger can be harvested at 9 months or longer. Ginger is commonly pickled in sweet vinegar, which turns it a pink color; this form is popular with sushi. Ginger harvested at 8-9 months has a tough skin that must be removed before eating, and the root is more pungent and is used dried or pulverized into ground ginger. This is the form most commonly found in our spice racks and used in cookies, cakes, and curry mixes. Candied or crystallized ginger is cooked in sugar syrup and coated with granulated sugar. Ginger harvested at 5 months is not yet mature and has a very thin skin, and the rhizomes are tender with a mild flavor and are best used in fresh or preserved forms.

7.4. BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS OF GINGER

At least 115 constituents in fresh and dried ginger varieties have been identified by a variety of analytical processes. Gingerols are the major constituents of fresh ginger and are found slightly reduced in dry ginger, whereas the concentrations of shogaols, which are the major gingerol dehydration products, are more abundant ( Jolad et al. 2005 ) in dry ginger than in fresh ginger. At least 31 gingerol-related compounds have been identified from the methanolic crude extracts of fresh ginger rhizome ( Jiang, Solyom et al. 2005 ). Ginger has been fractionated into at least 14 bioactive compounds, including [4]-gingerol, [6]-gingerol, [8]-gingerol, [10]-gingerol, [6]-paradol, [14]-shogaol, [6]-shogaol, 1-dehydro-[10]-gingerdione, [10]-gingerdione, hexahydrocurcumin, tetrahydrocurcumin, gingerenone A, 1,7-bis-(4′ hydroxyl-3′ methoxyphenyl)-5-methoxyhepthan-3-one, and methoxy-[10]-gingerol ( Koh et al. 2009 ). The proportion of each individual component in a sample of ginger depends on country of origin, commercial processor, and whether the ginger is fresh, dried, or processed ( Schwertner, Rios, and Pascoe 2006 ). Of the bioactive pungent components of Jamaican ginger, including [6]-, [8]-, and [10]-gingerols and [6]-shogaol, [6]-gingerol appears to be the most abundant pungent bioactive compound in most of the oleoresin samples studied ( Bailey-Shaw et al. 2008 ). Although phylogenetic analysis has showed that all ginger samples from widely different geographical origins are genetically indistinguishable, metabolic profiling showed some quantitative differences in the contents of [6]-, [8]-, and [10]-gingerols ( Jiang et al. 2006 ). An examination of the concentrations of [6]-, [8]-, and [10]-gingerols and [6]-shogaol in 10 different ginger-root dietary supplements purchased randomly from a variety of pharmacies and health food stores yielded some disconcerting results ( Schwertner, Rios, and Pascoe 2006 ). Perhaps not surprisingly, the content of these active components was found to vary extensively from none or very minute amounts to several milligrams per gram. In addition, the suggested serving size ranged from about 250 mg to 4.8 g/day ( Schwertner, Rios, and Pascoe 2006 ). The basis for the wide range of dosing is not clear. These studies suggest that ginger contains a variety of bioactive compounds and standardization of contents is critically lacking.

7.5. METABOLISM OF GINGER

Although ginger is one of the most widely consumed spices in the world, not a great deal is known regarding its metabolism or metabolites. Evaluating the bioactivity of ginger is necessary for completely understanding its mechanism of action and potential therapeutic effects. Although many food-derived supplements are consumed today with little knowledge of their activity or safety, more attention is beginning to be given to addressing these issues. The most well-studied bioactive component of ginger is probably [6]-gingerol ( Surh et al. 1999 ). The careful isolation of several metabolites of [6]-gingerol following its oral administration (50 mg/kg) to rats was reported ( Nakazawa and Ohsawa 2002 ). A primary metabolite, (S)-[6]-gingerol-4′- 0 -β-glucuronide, was detected in the bile and several minor metabolites were found in β-glucuronidase-treated urine, suggesting that [6]-gingerol undergoes conjugation and oxidation of its phenolic side chain ( Nakazawa and Ohsawa 2002 ). Gingerol is rapidly cleared from rat plasma following intravenous administration (3 mg/kg; Ding et al. 1991 ), and it was reported to be metabolized enzymatically in a stereospecific reduction to gingerdiol ( Surh and Lee 1994 ).

A method has been developed for the simultaneous quantification of [6]-, [8]-, and [10]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol in rat plasma in pharmacokinetic studies after oral administration of ginger oleoresin ( Wang et al. 2009b ). The investigators were able to identify a glucuronide of [6]-gingerol after hydrolysis of β-glucuronidase, and the intestinal glucuronidation was further confirmed by comparing plasma samples of hepatic portal vein and femoral vein ( Wang et al. 2009b ). This method was also used to obtain pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution, and excretion studies of 6-gingerol after oral or intraperitoneal administration in rats ( Wang et al. 2009a ). In a study in which a ginger extract (approximately 53% [6]-gingerol) was administered to rats by oral ingestion, [6]-gingerol was absorbed rapidly into the plasma, with a maximal concentration (4.23 μg/mL) being reached after 10 minutes ( Jiang, Wang, and Mi 2008 ). The [6]-gingerol was distributed to various tissues and the most concentration was found in the gastrointestinal tract. Peak concentrations of [6]-gingerol were reached in most tissues at about 30 minutes, and the concentration in tissues was higher than that in plasma ( Jiang, Wang, and Mi 2008 ).

At least one clinical trial focused on the pharmacokinetics of [6]-, [8]-, and [10]-gingerols and [6]-shogaol along with their respective conjugate metabolites ( Zick et al. 2008 ). In this case, human volunteers were given ginger at doses ranging from 100 mg to 2 g and blood samples were taken at 15 minutes to 72 hours after a single oral dose. Results indicated that the free forms of [6]-, [8]-, and [10]-gingerols or [6]-shogaol were not detectable, whereas the respective glucuronide of each compound was detected, suggesting that these ginger components are readily absorbed after oral consumption and can be detected as glucuronide conjugates ( Zick et al. 2008 ). Although progress in determining the active components and metabolites of ginger and understanding their pharmacokinetics has been made, more work is clearly needed.

7.6. HEALTH EFFECTS: THE SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

Because ginger and its metabolites appear to accumulate in the gastrointestinal tract, the consistent observations of ginger exerting many of its effects in this area are not surprising. Ginger has been purported to exert a variety of powerful therapeutic and preventive effects and has been used for thousands of years for the treatment of hundreds of ailments from colds to cancer. Like many medicinal herbs, much of the information has been handed down by word of mouth with little controlled scientific evidence to support the numerous claims. However, in the last few years, more organized scientific investigations have focused on the mechanisms and targets of ginger and its various components. In Sections 7.6.1 through 7.6.5 , the evidence for the effectiveness of ginger as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory agent, antinausea compound, and anticancer agent as well as the protective effect of ginger against other disease conditions are reviewed ( Figure 7.2 ).

The variety of protective effects wielded by ginger.

7.6.1. G eneral A ntioxidant P roperties of G inger

The presence of oxidative stress is associated with numerous diseases and a common mechanism often put forth to explain the actions and health benefits of ginger is associated with its antioxidant properties ( Aeschbach et al. 1994 ; Ahmad, Katiyar, and Mukhtar 2001 ). Ginger was reported to decrease age-related oxidative stress markers ( Topic et al. 2002 ) and was suggested to guard against ethanol-induced hepatotoxicity by suppressing oxidative consequences in rats treated with ethanol ( Mallikarjuna et al. 2008 ). Ginger root contains a very high level (3.85 mmol/100 g) of total antioxidants, surpassed only by pomegranate and some types of berries ( Halvorsen et al. 2002 ). The phorbol ester, 12- O -tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), promotes oxidative stress by activating the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase system or the xanthine oxidase system or both. Ginger was reported to suppress TPA-induced oxidative stress in human promyelocytic leukemia (HL)-60 cells and Chinese hamster ovary AS52 cells ( Kim et al. 2002 ). Others have shown that ginger compounds effectively inhibit superoxide production ( Krishnakantha and Lokesh 1993 ). Several reports indicate that ginger suppresses lipid peroxidation and protects the levels of reduced glutathione ( GSH; Reddy and Lokesh 1992 ; Ahmed, Seth, and Banerjee 2000 ; Ahmed, Seth, Pasha, and Banerjee 2000 ; Shobana and Naidu 2000 ; Ahmed et al. 2008 ; El-Sharaky et al. 2009 ).

Reactive nitrogen species, such as nitric oxide (NO), influence signal transduction and cause DNA damage, which contributes to disease processes. Nitric oxide is produced by inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which is stimulated in response to various stresses. [6]-gingerol was reported to dose-dependently inhibit NO production and reduce iNOS in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse macrophages ( Ippoushi et al. 2003 ). [6]-gingerol also effectively suppressed peroxynitritemediated oxidative damage ( Ippoushi et al. 2003 ). Ippoushi et al. (2003) later proposed that [6]-gingerol and peroxynitrite form a symmetric dimer with [6]-gingerol covalently linked at the aromatic ring of peroxynitrite, attenuating peroxynitrite-induced oxidation and nitration reactions ( Ippoushi et al. 2005 ). [6]-shogaol, 1-dehydro-[10]-gingerdione, and [10]-gingerdione also decreased LPS-induced NO production, and [6]-shogaol and 1-dehydro-[10]-gingerdione were reported to effectively reduce iNOS expression ( Koh et al. 2009 ). In the bromobenzene (BB)-induced hepatotoxicity model, orally given ginger extract (100 mg/kg body weight [BW]) normalized NO levels and total and reduced glutathione levels, and also decreased the level of lipid peroxidation ( El-Sharaky et al. 2009 ). Ginger consumption has also been reported to decrease lipid peroxidation and normalize the activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase, as well as GSH and glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, and glutathione-S-transferase, in rats ( Ahmed et al. 2008 ). Ginger supplementation before ischemia/reperfusion resulted in a higher total antioxidant capacity (i.e., normalized glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activities) and lower total oxidant (lower tissue malondialdehyde, NO, and protein carbonyl contents) status levels compared to an untreated group of Wistar albino rats ( Uz et al. 2009 ). Overall, the rats fed ginger (5%) experienced less kidney damage due to oxidative stress induced by ischemia/reperfusion ( Uz et al. 2009 ).

Ginger extract has been reported to exert radioprotective effects in mice exposed to gamma radiation ( Jagetia et al. 2003 ), and the effect was associated with decreased lipid peroxidation and protection of GSH levels ( Jagetia, Baliga, and Venkatesh 2004 ). [6]-gingerol pretreatment also decreased oxidative stress induced by ultraviolet B (UVB) and activated caspase-3, -8, -9, and Fas expression ( Kim et al. 2007 ). Evidence does seem to suggest that ginger and some of its components are effective antioxidants in vitro. However, whether the physiological activity occurs in humans in vivo is not clear, and the specific mechanism and cellular targets are still to be determined.

7.6.2. A nti -I nflammatory E ffECTS Of G lnger

One of the many health claims attributed to ginger is its purported ability to decrease inflammation, swelling, and pain. [6]-gingerol ( Young et al. 2005 ), a dried ginger extract, and a dried gingerol-enriched extract ( Minghetti et al. 2007 ) were each reported to exhibit analgesic and potent anti-inflammatory effects. Earlier animal studies suggest that rat hind limbs perfused with [6]-gingerol showed increased heat production that was associated with increased oxygen consumption and lactate efflux ( Eldershaw et al. 1992 ). The thermogenesis was at least partly associated with vasoconstriction independent of adrenergic receptors or secondary catecholamine release. In contrast, larger doses of ginger components inhibited oxygen consumption, which was attributed to disruption of mitochondrial function ( Eldershaw et al. 1992 ). These results were supported in a later study in which rats that were given a single intraperitoneal injection of [6]-gingerol (2.5 or 25 mg/kg) exhibited a rapid, marked drop in body temperature and a significant decrease in metabolic rate ( Ueki et al. 2008 ).

Data suggest that ginger may exhibit anti-inflammatory effects through the modulation of calcium levels mediated through transient receptor potential vanilloid subtype 1 (TRPV1), which is a heat-and pain-sensitive receptor that can interact with [6]-gingerol ( Dedov et al. 2002 ). [6]-gingerol has been reported to induce a substantial rise in intracellular calcium levels in Madin-Darby canine kidney renal tubular cells by stimulating both extracellular calcium influx and thapsigargin (an endoplasmic reticulum Ca 2+ pump inhibitor)-sensitive intracellular calcium release ( Chen et al. 2008 ). The gingerols are known to be TRPV1 agonists ( Dedov et al. 2002 ), and the [6,8,10]-gingerols and [6,8,10]-shogaols can increase the intracellular calcium concentration in TRPV1-expressing HEK293 cells through TRPV1 ( Iwasaki et al. 2006 ). Shogaols appear to be more potent than the gingerols, and most of the compounds cause aversive or nociceptive responses mediated by TRPV1 when applied to the eye or following subcutaneous injection to the hind paw, respectively ( Iwasaki et al. 2006 ). In this case, most of the ginger compounds also promoted adrenal catecholamine secretion, which influences energy consumption ( Iwasaki et al. 2006 ).

Ginger has been suggested to be effective against inflammation, osteoarthritis, and rheumatism ( Reginster et al. 2000 ). However, inconsistencies in clinical studies have led to debate regarding the effectiveness and safety of ginger for treatment of arthritis ( Marcus and Suarez-Almazor 2001 ). An earlier study showed that ginger oil (33 mg/kg), administered orally to rats for 26 days, caused a significant repression of paw and joint swelling associated with severe chronic adjuvant arthritis ( Sharma, Srivastava, and Gan 1994 ). More recently, the effectiveness of a crude ginger extract was compared with a fraction containing only gingerols and derivatives to inhibit joint swelling in the streptococcal cell wall-induced arthritis animal model of rheumatoid arthritis ( Funk et al. 2009 ). Results indicated that although both extracts could prevent joint inflammation, the crude dichloromethane extract, which also contained essential oils and more polar compounds, was more effective (when normalized to gingerol content) in preventing both joint inflammation and destruction ( Funk et al. 2009 ). In humans, one study showed no difference between placebo and ginger in patients with osteoarthritis of the hip or knee ( Bliddal et al. 2000 ). In contrast, patients suffering from osteoarthritis of the knee showed a consistently greater response to treatment with ginger extract compared with the control group ( Altman and Marcussen 2001 ). In addition, relief from pain and swelling was reported in patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, or general muscular discomfort when using powdered ginger as a dietary supplement for 3 months to 2 years ( Srivastava and Mustafa 1992 ). Besides pain relief from arthritis, results of a double-blind comparative clinical trial indicated that ginger (250-mg capsules) was as effective as the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs mefenamic acid (250 mg) and ibuprofen (400 mg) in relieving pain in women with primary dysmenorrhea (Ozgoli, Goli, and Moattar 2009). In contrast, consumption of 2 g of ginger before 30 minutes of cycling exercise (60% VO 2 ) had no effect on quadriceps muscle pain, rating of perceived exertion, work rate, heart rate, or oxygen uptake ( Black and Oconnor 2008 ).

Researchers have hypothesized that the anti-inflammatory effects of ginger might be related to its ability to inhibit prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis ( Srivastava and Mustafa 1992 ). Some others have showed that gingerols actively inhibit arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase, an enzyme of leukotriene biosynthesis ( Kiuchi et al. 1992 ). [8]-gingerol, but not [6]-gingerol, was shown to inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression, which is induced during inflammation to increase formation of prostaglandins ( Tjendraputra et al. 2001 ). Others have also reported that ginger extract suppresses the activation of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and expression of COX-2 in human synoviocytes ( Frondoza et al. 2004 ). Proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-12, which are produced primarily by macrophages, play an important role in sepsis, ischemia/reperfusion injury, and transplant rejection. [6]-gingerol was reported to inhibit the production of proinflammatory cytokines from LPS-stimulated peritoneal macrophages, but to have no effect on the function of antigen presenting cells (APC) or the LPS-induced expression of proinflammatory chemokines ( Tripathi et al. 2007 ). However, this same group later reported that a ginger extract attenuated the production of IL-12, TNF-α, and IL-1β proinflammatory cytokines and RANTES (regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted) and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) proinflammatory chemokines in LPS-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophages ( Tripathi, Bruch, and Kittur 2008 ). In general, ginger extract inhibited macrophage activation and APC function, and indirectly suppressed T-cell activation ( Tripathi, Bruch, and Kittur 2008 ). Other stable [6]-gingerol metabolites or analogs were reported to suppress LPS-induced NO production in murine macrophages mainly by reducing inos gene and iNOS protein production ( Aktan et al. 2006 ). Some of ginger’s anti-inflammatory effects appear to be associated with decreased IκBα degradation and impaired nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) nuclear translocation of p65 ( Aktan et al. 2006 ; Lee et al. 2009 ). The majority of scientific evidence does seem to suggest that ginger and its various components have anti-inflammatory effects both in vitro and ex vivo. However, the data supporting ginger as an effective anti-inflammatory agent in humans in vivo are still contradictory and incomplete.

7.6.3. G inger as an A ntinausea A gent

The most common and well-established use of ginger throughout history is probably its utilization in alleviating symptoms of nausea and vomiting. The benefits and dangers of herbal treatment of liver and gastrointestinal distress have been reviewed ( Langmead and Rampton 2001 ), and several controlled studies have reported that ginger is generally effective as an antiemetic ( Aikins Murphy 1998 ; Ernst and Pittler 2000 ; Jewell and Young 2000 , 2002 , 2003 ; Langmead and Rampton 2001 ; Dupuis and Nathan 2003 ; Boone and Shields 2005 ; Borrelli et al. 2005 ; Bryer 2005 ; Mahesh, Perumal, and Pandi 2005 ; Chaiyakunapruk et al. 2006 ; Thompson and Potter 2006 ; Quimby 2007 ). The effectiveness of ginger as an antiemetic has been attributed to its carminative effect, which helps to break up and expel intestinal gas. This idea was supported by the results of a randomized, double-blind trial in which healthy volunteers reported that ginger effectively accelerated gastric emptying and stimulated antral contractions ( Wu et al. 2008 ). Previously, [6]-gingesulfonic acid, isolated from ginger root, was showed to be effective against HCl/ethanol-induced gastric lesions in rats ( Yoshikawa et al. 1992 ). This compound showed weaker pungency but more potent antiulcer activity than [6]-gingerol or [6]-shogaol ( Yoshikawa et al. 1994 ).

Ginger root is commonly recommended for preventing seasickness ( Schmid et al. 1994 ) and is found to be superior to dimenhydrinate (Dramamine) or placebo against symptoms of motion sickness ( Mowrey and Clayson 1982 ). A follow-up study also indicated that 1 g of ginger might be effective in reducing the subjective severity of seasickness in naval cadets on the high seas ( Grontved et al. 1988 ). On the other hand, additional research studies showed no benefits of using ginger for treating motion sickness ( Wood et al. 1988 ; Stewart et al. 1991 ), and at least one group reported that patients receiving ginger extract for treating osteoarthritis experienced more, although mild, gastrointestinal adverse events compared to a placebo-treated group ( Altman and Marcussen 2001 ). The exact antiemetic mechanism of ginger is not clear, although some evidence suggests that it inhibits serotonin receptors and exerts its antiemetic effects directly on the gastrointestinal system and in the central nervous system ( DerMarderosian and Beutler 2006 ). Although the antiemetic effects of ginger are the most well-studied effects of this condiment and have been reviewed extensively, the effectiveness and safety of ginger for treating nausea and vomiting have been questioned in the past because the findings reported were often contradictory ( Wilkinson 2000b ). At the same time, ginger continues to be recommended for alleviating nausea and vomiting associated with pregnancy, chemotherapy, and certain surgical procedures.

Nausea and vomiting during pregnancy affects most pregnant women, and over the years ginger has been used to try to alleviate the condition ( Aikins Murphy 1998 ; Jewell and Young 2000 , 2002 , 2003 ; Fugh-Berman and Kronenberg 2003 ; Boone and Shields 2005 ; Borrelli et al. 2005 ; Bryer 2005 ; Chrubasik, Pittler, and Roufogalis 2005 ; White 2007 ). At least one survey indicated that the overall use of dietary supplements in pregnant women appears to be low, but ginger is commonly recommended and used to prevent nausea ( Tsui, Dennehy, and Tsourounis 2001 ). Several double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials have indicated that ginger consumption is effective and safe in helping to prevent nausea and vomiting during pregnancy ( Portnoi et al. 2003 ; Willetts, Ekangaki, and Eden 2003 ). Randomized trials suggest that although ginger might not be as potent as some treatments ( Jewell and Young 2000 ), its consumption for treating nausea or vomiting or both in early pregnancy has very few or no adverse side effects and seems to be effective ( Niebyl 1992 ; Jackson 2001 ; Vutyavanich, Kraisarin, and Ruangsri 2001 ; Jewell and Young 2002 ; Niebyl and Goodwin 2002 ). In fact, ginger has been reported to be as effective as dimenhydrinate (i.e., Dramamine) in treating nausea and vomiting in pregnancy with fewer side effects ( Pongrojpaw, Somprasit, and Chanthasenanont 2007 ). Women who received ginger (250-mg capsules) appeared to experience less vomiting and nausea compared to those receiving placebo ( Ozgoli, Goli, and Simbar 2009 ), and ginger also relieved pain from primary dysmenorrhea ( Ozgoli, Goli, and Simbar 2009 ). The effectiveness of ginger has been compared with that of vitamin B6 (another recommended therapy) in randomized, double-blind, controlled trials. Results indicated that ginger and vitamin B6 therapy were equally effective in reducing nausea and the number of vomiting episodes during pregnancy ( Sripramote and Lekhyananda 2003 ; Smith et al. 2004 ). In a later randomized, double-blind, controlled trial, pregnant women were randomly divided to receive either 650 mg of ginger or 25 mg of vitamin B6 (3xd/4 days). In this case, ginger actually appeared to be more effective than vitamin B6, with only minor side effects ( Chittumma, Kaewkiattikun, and Wiriyasiriwach 2007 ). These results were supported in an additional trial in which pregnant women with nausea were randomized into groups to receive either 1 g of ginger/day or 40 mg of vitamin B6/day for 4 days. Results of this trial indicated that compared with a baseline, nausea and vomiting in the ginger group were significantly less than those reported by the vitamin B6 group ( Ensiyeh and Sakineh 2009 ). A systematic review of the results of other double-blind, randomized, controlled trials, uncontrolled trials, case reports, and observational studies indicated that ginger is superior to placebo and as effective as vitamin B6 in relieving the severity of nausea and vomiting, with no reported side effects or adverse effects on pregnancy ( Borrelli et al. 2005 ). A similar review of the literature regarding the safety and efficacy of ginger in the management of nausea and vomiting during pregnancy revealed that ginger appears to be a relatively low-risk and effective treatment for these symptoms ( Boone and Shields 2005 ). Importantly, no differences in birth weight, gestational age, or frequencies of congenital abnormalities have been observed between ginger-treated and untreated mothers ( Willetts, Ekangaki, and Eden 2003 ). A survey of a group of obstetricians and gynecologists revealed that most of them would recommend taking an antiemetic (71.3%), and specifically ginger (51.8%), to patients suffering from moderate to severe nausea ( Power, Holzman, and Schulkin 2001 ).

Ginger has been recommended to combat nausea associated with chemotherapy ( Sharma and Gupta 1998 ; Grant and Lutz 2000 ). Gingerol was reported to reduce cisplatin (a platinum-based chemotherapy drug)-induced emesis in a vomiting model of mink possibly by inhibiting the central or peripheral increase of 5-hydroxytryptamine, dopamine, and substance P ( Qian et al. 2009 ). In contrast, addition of ginger root powder (1 g/day) to a standard antiemetic regimen with metoclopramide had no advantage in reducing nausea or vomiting in acute or delayed phases of cisplatin-induced emesis in gynecologic cancer patients ( Manusirivithaya et al. 2004 ). Cisplatin can cause renal oxidative and nitrosative stress and dysfunction. However, rats that were administered cisplatin and [6]-gingerol exhibited lower lipid peroxidation and conservation of GSH coupled with enhanced superoxide dismutase and catalase, which resulted in a restoration of normal renal function ( Kuhad et al. 2006 ). Complementary intervention with ginger has also been suggested to have possible benefits in preventing acute chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) in children ( Dupuis and Nathan 2003 ). However, the results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial indicated that ginger did not provide any additional benefit in reducing CINV when given with a 5-hydroxytryptamine 3 (HT3) receptor antagonist and/or aprepitant (a substance P antagonist; Zick et al. 2009 ). Notably, compared with a normal diet, high-protein meals with ginger consumed twice daily were reported to reduce the delayed nausea of chemotherapy and decrease the use of antiemetic medications ( Levine et al. 2008 ).

Ginger was suggested to be an effective postoperative prophylactic antiemetic ( Phillips, Ruggier, and Hutchinson 1993 ) that is not associated with effects on gastric emptying ( Phillips, Ruggier, and Hutchinson 1993 ). However, the effectiveness of ginger in preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting has been disputed ( Visalyaputra et al. 1998 ). One study indicated that pretreatment with ginger extracts reversed experimentally induced delay in gastric emptying in rats ( Gupta and Sharma 2001 ), and ginger was also reported to reduce food transit time in experimental rats, an effect that might have implications in the prevention of colon cancer or constipation ( Platel and Srinivasan 2001 ). The digestive stimulatory effects of ginger and other spices might be associated with positive effects on trypsin and pancreatic lipase ( Platel and Srinivasan 2000 ) and ginger’s ability to increase gastric motility ( Micklefield et al. 1999 ).

Several groups have studied the effectiveness of ginger in preventing nausea associated with gynecological laparoscopy. Patients who took ginger (1 g) appeared to experience less nausea incidence, especially within 2-4 hours of the procedure, and some reported less vomiting also ( Pongrojpaw and Chiamchanya 2003 ). These results were supported by a later study involving 60 patients who received either 3 g of ginger or placebo 1 hour before the procedure. Although nausea was less in the ginger group at 2 hours postprocedure, vomiting did not vary between the two groups ( Apariman, Ratchanon, and Wiriyasirivej 2006 ). However, at 6 hours, patients who had received ginger reported significantly less nausea and vomiting than the placebo group ( Apariman, Ratchanon, and Wiriyasirivej 2006 ). Results of another similar trial indicated that ginger (1 g) taken 1 hour before major gynecologic surgery decreased nausea and vomiting at 2 and 6 hours postsurgery compared to placebo, and had no adverse side effects ( Nanthakomon and Pongrojpaw 2006 ). In contrast, at least one trial indicated that ginger was not effective in reducing the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting in patients undergoing gynecologic laparoscopy ( Eberhart et al. 2003 ). Finally, a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials comparing ginger with placebo in preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting revealed that a fixed dose of at least 1 g of ginger appears to be more effective than placebo ( Chaiyakunapruk et al. 2006 ). Overall, these results suggest that ginger is probably fairly effective in alleviating nausea and vomiting associated with a variety of conditions. Although the mechanism is not clear, ginger appears to have no adverse side effects and never seems to worsen nausea and vomiting.

7.6.4. A nticarcinogenic A ctivities of G inger

A great deal of interest by numerous research groups, including our own, is now being focused on the cancer-preventive and potential cancer therapeutic applications of ginger and its various components. Several aspects of the chemopreventive effects of numerous phytochemical dietary and medicinal substances, including ginger, have been reviewed previously ( Surh, Lee, and Lee 1998 ; Surh 1999 , 2002 ; Bode and Dong 2004 ; Shukla and Singh 2007 ; Aggarwal et al. 2008 ). Studies focused on the anticancer activities of various forms of ginger from a crude or partially purified extract to gingerols, especially [6]-gingerol; shogaols, especially [6]-shogaol; and zerumbone, a sesquiterpene compound derived from ginger and a number of minor components and metabolites. The effectiveness of ginger in preventing or suppressing cancer growth has been examined in a variety of cancer types, including lymphoma, hepatoma, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, skin cancer, liver cancer, and bladder cancer. The mechanisms proposed to explain the anticancer activities of ginger and its components include antioxidant activity and the ability to induce apoptosis, decrease proliferation, cause cell-cycle arrest, and suppress activator protein 1 (AP-1) and NF-κB/COX-2 signaling pathways ( Figure 7.3 ).

The anticancer activities exerted by ginger.

The anticancer activities of [6]-gingerol and zerumbone have been associated with their antioxidant activities. Several ginger components were reported to have effective anticancer promoter activity based on their ability to inhibit TPA-induced Epstein-Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) in Raji cells ( Vimala, Norhanom, and Yadav 1999 ; Kapadia et al. 2002 ). [6]-gingerol was reported to suppress the reactive oxygen species-potentiated invasive capacity of ascites hepatoma AH109A cells by reducing peroxide levels ( Yagihashi, Miura, and Yagasaki 2008 ). In normal RL34 rat liver epithelial cells, zerumbone was found to induce glutathione S-transferase and the nuclear localization of the transcription factor Nrf2, which binds to the antioxidant response element (ARE) of phase II enzyme genes ( Nakamura et al. 2004 ). Zerumbone potentiated the expression of several Nrf2/ARE-dependent phase II enzyme genes, including Y-glutamyl-cysteine synthetase, glutathione peroxidase, and hemeoxygenase-1 ( Nakamura et al. 2004 ). Others have reported that zerumbone decreases TPA-induced hydrogen peroxide formation and edema corresponding to enhanced levels of various antioxidant enzymes ( Murakami et al. 2004 ). These types of changes have been linked with lower 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-initiated/TPA-promoted tumor incidence, number of tumors per mouse, and tumor volume ( Murakami et al. 2004 ).

Zerumbone has also been reported to downregulate CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), which is highly expressed in various tumors, including breast, ovary, prostate, gastrointestinal, head and neck, bladder, brain, and melanoma tumors ( Sung et al. 2008 ). Because the CXCR4 mediates homing of tumor cells to specific organs that express its ligand, CXCL12, zerumbone was suggested as a potential suppressor of cancer metastasis and was effective in suppressing CXCR4 in a variety of cancers, including those of the pancreas, lung, kidney, and skin ( Sung et al. 2008 ). Furthermore, zerumbone effectively attenuated osteoclast formation induced by human breast tumor cells and by multiple myeloma and decreased osteolysis dose-dependently in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer tumor-bearing athymic nude mice, suggesting that it might be effective in preventing cancer-associated bone loss or osteoporosis ( Sung et al. 2009 ). [6]-gingerol has also been reported to suppress adhesion, invasion, motility, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, and MMP-9 messenger ribonu-cleic acid (mRNA) expression and protein activities in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cell lines ( Lee, Seo, Kang, and Kim 2008 ).

Ginger and its constituents have been reported to inhibit tumor promotion in mouse skin ( Katiyar, Agarwal, and Mukhtar 1996 ). In particular, [6]-gingerol has been reported to be highly effective as an anticancer agent in skin in vivo in the two-stage initiation-promotion mouse skin model. In this model, tumors are initiated by a one time application of DMBA followed by repeated topical applications of TPA beginning a few days later. Topical application of [6]-gingerol on the shaved backs of female ICR mice decreased the incidence of DMBA-initiated/TPA-promoted skin papilloma formation and also suppressed TPA-induced epidermal ornithine decarboxylase activity and inflammation ( Park et al. 1998 ). Results of a similar study indicated that in the DMBA/TPA skin tumor model, topical application of [6]-paradol or [6]-dehydroparadol prior to the application of TPA significantly decreased both the number of tumors per mouse and the number of mice exhibiting tumors ( Chung et al. 2001 ).

Earlier studies suggest that gingerol is an effective inhibitor of azoxymethane-induced intestinal carcinogenesis in rats ( Yoshimi et al. 1992 ). Ginger supplementation (50 mg/kg BW) was reported to suppress the number of tumors as well as the incidence of 1, 2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH)-induced colon cancer ( Manju and Nalini 2005 ). The effect was attributed to decreased oxidative damage associated with enhanced catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione transferase activities as well as increased GSH ( Manju and Nalini 2005 ). This group later reported that administration of ginger to DMH-treated rats significantly decreased the incidence and number of tumors as well as the activity of microbial enzymes, β-glucuronidase, and mucinase ( Manju and Nalini 2006 ). Finally, Wistar rats that were fed a ginger extract (1% mixed in diet) exhibited significantly lower multiplicity of urothelial lesions (hyperplasia and neoplasia) than untreated groups ( Ihlaseh et al. 2006 ).

Studies suggest that ginger compounds suppress proliferation of human cancer cells through the induction of apoptosis ( Lee et al. 1998 ; Lee and Surh 1998 ; Thatte, Bagadey, and Dahanukar 2000 ). A saline extract prepared from ginger extract suppressed the proliferation of HEp-2 cells by inducing cytotoxic effects and DNA fragmentation ( Vijaya Padma, Arul Diana Christie, and Ramkuma 2007 ). Ginger extract and especially [6]-gingerol were reported to effectively decrease proliferation of YYT colon cancer cells and the angiogenic potential of endothelial cell tubule formation in immortalized MS1 endothelial cells ( Brown et al. 2009 ). [10]-gingerol was reported to cause a significant and prolonged increase in intracellular calcium and cytotoxicity in human colorectal cancer SW480 cells ( Chen, Li, and Kuo 2009 ). [6]-gingerol was reported to inhibit both proliferation and invasion of ascites hepatoma AH109A cells and appeared to act by causing an S-phase arrest, elongated doubling time of hepatoma cells, and an increased rate of apoptosis ( Yagihashi, Miura, and Yagasaki 2008 ). This compound also induced cell-cycle arrest and suppressed the growth of human pancreatic cancer cell lines, human pancreatic adenocarcinoma (HPAC) cells, which express wild-type p53 and BxPC-3 cells that express a mutant p53 protein ( Park et al. 2006 ). Interestingly, [6]-gingerol appeared to be most effective in inducing apoptosis in p53-mutant cells and induced arrest, but not apoptosis, in p53-expressing cells ( Park et al. 2006 ). [6]-gingerol was further reported to suppress proliferation and induce apoptosis or G1 cell-cycle arrest in several colorectal cell lines, including HCT116, SW480, HT29, LoVo, and Caco2 cells ( Lee, Cekanova, and Baek 2008 ). These effects were associated with a decreased abundance of cyclin D1 (a proto-oncoprotein that is overexpressed in cancer) and increased expression of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-activated gene (NAG-1), a proapoptotic and antitumorigenic protein ( Lee, Cekanova, and Baek 2008 ).

Through the comparison of promotion-sensitive (P + ) and promotion-resistant (P - ) derivatives of the mouse epidermal JB6 cell lines, AP-1 was reported to have a critical role in tumor promotion ( Huang, Ma, Bowden, and Dong 1996 ; Huang, Ma, and Dong 1996 ). In addition, blocking the tumor promoter–induced activation of AP-1 inhibited neoplastic transformation ( Dong et al. 1994 ). Epidermal growth factor (EGF) is known to induce a relatively high level of AP-1 activity and cell transformation ( Huang, Ma, and Dong 1996 ). We previously investigated the effect of two structurally related compounds of the ginger family, [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol, on EGF-induced cell transformation and AP-1 activation ( Bode et al. 2001 ). Our results provided the first evidence that both compounds block EGF-induced cell transformation, but by different mechanisms. [6]-gingerol appeared to act by directly inhibiting AP-1 DNA binding activity and transactivation, whereas [6]-paradol appeared to act by inducing apoptosis ( Bode et al. 2001 ). Others report that [6]-gingerol causes DNA fragmentation and suppresses Bcl-2 expression in promyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cells ( Wang et al. 2003 ), and also induces growth inhibition and caspase-mediated apoptosis in human epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells ( Nigam et al. 2009 ). [6]-paradol and other structurally related derivatives, such as [10]-paradol, [3]-dehydroparadol, [6]-dehydroparadol, and [10]-dehydroparadol, inhibited proliferation of KB oral squamous carcinoma cells in a time-and dose-dependent manner ( Keum et al. 2002 ). [6]-dehydroparadol (75 μM) was more potent than the other compounds tested, and it induced apoptosis through a caspase-3-dependent mechanism ( Keum et al. 2002 ).

[6]-shogaol [1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-4-decen-3-one], an alkanone from ginger, exhibited the most potent cytotoxicity against human A549, SK-OV-3, SK-MEL-2, and HCT15 tumor cells, compared to [4]-, [6]-, [8]-, and [10]-gingerols ( Kim et al. 2008 ). This compound also inhibited proliferation of several transgenic mouse ovarian cancer cell lines, including C1 and C2 ( Kim et al. 2008 ). Further, [6]-shogaol was reported to inhibit the growth of and induce apoptosis in COLO 205 cells ( Pan et al. 2008 ). Treatment with [6]-shogaol, but not [6]-gingerol, induced DNA fragmentation in COLO 205 colon cancer cells. Apoptosis was mediated by activation of caspase-9, -3, and -8, resulting in the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c , upregulation of proapoptotic Bax, and downregulation of antiapoptotic Bcl2, and the induction of growth arrest and DNA damage (GADD)-inducible transcription factor 153 (GADD153) mRNA and protein ( Pan et al. 2008 ). [6]-shogaol induced apoptosis of hepatoma cells mediated by activation of caspase-3 and -7 ( Chen et al. 2007 ). The compound was also reported to reduce the viability of gastric cancer cells by directly damaging microtubules and inducing mitotic arrest ( Ishiguro et al. 2007 ).

NF-κB is a rapidly induced stress-responsive transcription factor that functions to intensify the transcription of a variety of genes, including cytokines, growth factors, and acute response proteins ( Baldwin 1996 ). Its activation is also linked to mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathways ( Schulze-Osthoff et al. 1997 ). The mechanism for NF-κB activation is well known. In its inactive form, NF-κB is found in the cytosol bound to an inhibitory protein called inhibitory kappa B (IκB). When stimulated, IκB is phosphorylated by an IκB kinase, which releases it from NF-κB and is subsequently degraded. Following its separation from IκB, NF-κB is translocated into the nucleus, where it activates gene transcription by binding to its specific DNA sequence found in certain genes. Importantly, NF-κB activation is associated with initiation or acceleration of tumorigenesis ( Gilmore 1997 ), and in JB6 cells, inhibition of NF-κB also blocks tumor promoter-induced cell transformation ( Li et al. 1997 ). [6]-gingerol might exert its effects by suppressing the NF-κB/COX-2 pathway. This idea is supported by data indicating that the reduction of UVB-induced expression and transactivation of COX-2 by [6]-gingerol was associated with the suppression of IκBα phosphorylation (Ser32) resulting in a decreased translocation of NF-κB from cytosol to nucleus in HaCaT cells ( Kim et al. 2007 ). A ginger extract fed to rats with experimentally induced liver cancer resulted in decreased NF-κB and TNF-α expression ( Habib et al. 2008 ). [6]-gingerol was reported to suppress TNF related apoptosis induced ligand (TRAIL)-induced NF-κB activation, resulting in apoptosis mediated by caspase-3 or -7 activation, which was associated with the down-regulation of clAP1, a negative regulator of these caspases ( Ishiguro et al. 2007 ).

Zerumbone has been reported to suppress NF-κB activation induced by a variety of stimuli, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF), cigarette smoke condensate, and hydrogen peroxide ( Takada, Murakami, and Aggarwal 2005 ). It also suppressed IκBα kinase phosphorylation and degradation, resulting in a downregulation of constitutively active NF-κB and many of its regulated gene targets, such as COX-2, cyclin D1, Bcl2, and other antiapoptotic genes, thereby enhancing apoptosis induced by chemotherapeutic agents ( Takada, Murakami, and Aggarwal 2005 ). Zerumbone was also reported to suppress receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) activity in mouse monocytes (osteoclast precursor cells) by inhibiting IκBα kinase activity, phosphorylation, and degradation ( Sung et al. 2009 ). Oral administration of zerumbone (100, 250, or 500 ppm) to ICR mice decreased inflammation and the multiplicity of colon adenocarcinomas induced by intraperitoneal injection of azoxymethane (AOM, 10 mg/kg BW; Kim et al. 2009 ). Additionally, zerumbone (250 or 500 ppm) effectively suppressed 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone-induced lung adenoma formation in female A/J mice ( Kim et al. 2009 ). This ginger derivative appeared to exert its effects by inhibition of proliferation, induction of apoptosis, and suppression of NF-κB and heme oxygenase expression in both colon and lung cancer tissues ( Kim et al. 2009 ). In an earlier study, [6]-gingerol was reported to inhibit both the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF)-induced proliferation of human endothelial cells and cause cell-cycle arrest in the G1 phase ( Kim, Min et al. 2005 ). [6]-gingerol also blocked capillary-like tube formation by endothelial cells in response to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and strongly inhibited sprouting of endothelial cells in the rat aorta and formation of new blood vessels in the mouse cornea in response to VEGF ( Kim, Min et al. 2005 ).

Investigators suggested that the effectiveness of ginger might be related to its ability to inhibit prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis ( Srivastava and Mustafa 1992 ). Some researchers showed that gingerol actively inhibits arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase, an enzyme of leukotriene biosynthesis ( Kiuchi et al. 1992 ). The leukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H) protein is regarded as a relevant target for cancer therapy, and our in silico prediction using a reverse-docking approach revealed that LTA4H might be a potential target for [6]-gingerol ( Jeong et al. 2009 ). Our prediction was supported by work showing that [6]-gingerol suppresses anchorage-independent cancer cell growth by binding to LTA4H and inhibiting LTA4H activity in HCT116 colorectal cancer cells. We further found that [6]-gingerol effectively suppressed tumor growth in vivo in nude mice, an effect that was mediated by the inhibition of LTA4H activity. Collectively, these findings indicate a crucial role of LTA4H in cancer and also support the anticancer efficacy of [6]-gingerol targeting of LTA4H for the prevention of colorectal cancer ( Jeong et al. 2009 ). Importantly, these are the first results that identify a direct target of [6]-gingerol to explain its anticancer activity.

Cyclooxygenase-2 is an important enzyme in prostaglandin biosynthesis, and is regarded as a promising molecular target for many anti-inflammatory as well as chemopreventive agents. Topical application of [6]-gingerol was reported to suppress TPA-induced COX-2 expression, p38 phosphorylation, and NF-κB DNA binding activity in mouse skin ( Kim et al. 2004 ). These results were further expanded to show that pretreatment of mouse skin with [6]-gingerol resulted in decreased TPA-induced NF-κB DNA binding and transcriptional activity by suppressing both IκBα phosphorylation and degradation and p65 phosphorylation and nuclear translocation ( Kim, Kundu et al. 2005 ). The interaction of phosphorylated p65 (Ser536) with CREB (cAMP response element binding) protein, a transcriptional coactivator of NF-κB, was prevented by [6]-gingerol, and the inhibitory effect of [6]-gingerol on p38 phosphorylation, an upstream mediator of COX-2 activation, was observed ( Kim, Kundu et al. 2005 ).

Treatment of cultured ovarian cancer cells with [6]-shogaol caused a marked growth inhibition that was associated with suppression of NF-κB activation as well as the diminished secretion of angiogenic factors, VEGF and IL-8 ( Rhode et al. 2007 ), suggesting a role for this compound in preventing angiogenesis in cancer. In contrast to most reports, dietary consumption of ginger (0.5% or 1.0%) did not suppress aberrant crypt foci (ACF) formation or reduce the number of crypts per ACF in DMH-treated rats compared to untreated control rats ( Dias et al. 2006 ). Dietary ginger did not significantly change the proliferative or apoptotic indexes of the colonic crypt cells induced by DMH ( Dias, 2006 ). In marked contrast to many studies, ginger extract was not able to inhibit the development of N -butyl- N -(4-hydroxybutyl)-nitrosamine (BBN)/ N -methyl- N -nitrosourea (MNU)-induced bladder cancer in male Swiss mice. In fact, in BBN/MNU/2% ginger-treated mice, the incidence of grade 2 transitional cell carcinoma was increased ( Dias et al. 2006 ; Bidinotto et al. 2006 ).

7.6.5. C ardiovascular and O ther D isease -P reventive E ffECTs of G inger

In addition to its effects in relation to cancer, some evidence supports a protective role for ginger in cardiovascular function and a number of other disease conditions. Ginger has gained interest for its potential to treat various aspects of cardiovascular disease, and the in vitro and animal data supporting the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiplatelet, hypotensive, and hypolipidemic effects of this condiment have been reviewed ( Nicoll and Henein 2009 ). However, human trials are less convincing and more investigations are needed ( Nicoll and Henein 2009 ). Caution when taking ginger and other herbal extracts has been suggested because of an apparent association of ginger with reported incidences of increased risk of bleeding following surgery ( Chang and Whitaker 2001 ; Pribitkin and Boger 2001 ) or if taken with anticoagulant drugs such as warfarin ( Heck, DeWitt, and Lukes 2000 ). However, the data are not conclusive ( Vaes and Chyka 2000 ). At least one study indicates that ginger has no effect on blood pressure, heart rate, or coagulation parameters and does not interact with anticoagulant drugs such as warfarin ( Weidner and Sigwart 2000 ). These findings were supported in a later study in which ginger was reported to have no effect on clotting status or the pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects ( Jiang, Williams et al. 2005 ). An aqueous ginger extract was reported to induce a dose-dependent decrease in arterial blood pressure in a variety of animal models ( Ghayur and Gilani 2005a , b ).

At least one group found that administration or consumption of standardized ginger extract decreased aortic atherosclerotic lesion areas, plasma triglycerides and cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-associated lipid peroxides, and LDL aggregation in mice ( Fuhrman et al. 2000 ). In rabbits that were fed a high-cholesterol diet, administration of ginger extract resulted in a significant antihyperlipidemic effect and a lower degree of atherosclerosis compared to the group that was fed cholesterol alone ( Bhandari, Sharma, and Zafar 1998 ). Importantly, ginger powder (3 g/day in 1-g capsule 3xd) significantly lowered lipid levels in volunteer patients in a double-blind, controlled clinical trial study ( Alizadeh-Navaei et al. 2008 ). Triglyceride and cholesterol were substantially decreased as was LDL levels compared to placebo group. Notably, the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) level of the ginger group was higher than that of the placebo group, whereas the very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) level of the placebo group was higher than that of the ginger group ( Alizadeh-Navaei et al. 2008 ). Dried ginger powder (0.1 g/kg BW, per oral administration [p.o.] for 75 days) significantly lowered (50%) the development of atheroma in the aorta and coronary arteries of rabbits that were fed cholesterol ( Verma et al. 2004 ). This effect was associated with decreased lipid peroxidation and increased fibrinolytic activity with ginger, but blood lipid levels were not different from control animals ( Verma et al. 2004 ). Another compound isolated from ginger, (E)-8 β,17-epoxylabd-12-ene-15,16-dial, was reported to inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis ( Tanabe et al. 1993 ), and ginger meal (1%) decreased serum cholesterol levels significantly ( Dias et al. 2006 ). Ginger was also reported to slightly reduce retinoid-binding protein mRNA expression levels in liver and visceral fat in male rats that were fed cholesterol to induce hyperlipidemia ( Matsuda et al. 2009 ). These results hint that ginger consumption might improve lipid metabolism ( Matsuda et al. 2009 ).

Antiplatelet therapy is an effective approach for preventing coronary heart disease. Ginger components are suggested as a potential new class of platelet-activation inhibitors without the potential side effects of aspirin, which is most commonly used in this approach. In a comparison of gingerols and analogs with aspirin, ginger compounds were found to be less potent compared to aspirin in inhibiting arachidonic acid-induced platelet release and aggregation and COX activity ( Koo et al. 2001 ). However, several analogs had a significant inhibitory effect, suggesting that further development of more potent gingerol analogs might have value as an alternative to aspirin therapy in preventing ischemic heart disease ( Koo et al. 2001 ). Consumption of ginger (5 g) inhibited platelet aggregation induced in men who consumed 100 g of butter daily for 7 days ( Verma et al. 1993 ), and a later study showed that ginger enhanced fibrinolytic activity ( Verma and Bordia 2001 ). An evaluation of the antiplatelet activity of 20 pungent constituents of ginger revealed that [8]-paradol was the most potent COX-1 inhibitor and antiplatelet aggregation agent ( Nurtjahja-Tjendraputra et al. 2003 ). [8]-gingerol and [8]-shogaol were also found to be effective antiplatelet aggregation agents ( Nurtjahja-Tjendraputra et al. 2003 ). Ginger and nifedipine (a calcium-channel blocker) were reported to have a synergistic effect on antiplatelet aggregation in normal human volunteers and hypertensive patients ( Young et al. 2006 ). Ginger oil (24% citral) effectively lowered spontaneous or prostoglandin F2-alpha (PGF2-alpha)-2α-induced rat myometrial (uterus) contractility, and increases in external calcium concentration reversed the relaxant effects of ginger oil ( Buddhakala et al. 2008 ). Ginger compounds have been reported to directly stimulate myocardial sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) calcium uptake ( Antipenko, Spielman, and Kirchberger 1999 ; Maier et al. 2000 ), but its therapeutic use in treating heart failure has not been advocated ( Maier et al. 2000 ). Ginger is also used to treat asthma, diabetes, and other conditions.

Asthma is a chronic disease characterized by inflammation and hypersensitivity of airway smooth muscle cells to different substances that induce spasms, and ginger has been used for centuries in treating respiratory illnesses. Components of ginger rhizomes are reported to contain potent compounds capable of suppressing allergic reactions and might be useful for the treatment and prevention of allergic diseases ( Chen et al. 2009 ). Ghayur, Gilani, and Janssen (2008) reported that a ginger extract inhibits airway contraction and associated calcium signaling, possibly by blocking plasma membrane calcium channels. In a mouse model of Th2-mediated pulmonary inflammation, an intraperitoneal injection of a ginger extract mainly comprised of gingerols markedly decreased the recruitment of eosinophils to the lungs in ovalbumin-sensitized mice and also suppressed the Th2 cell-driven response to allergen ( Ahui et al. 2008 ).

Ginger has been suggested to have antidiabetic effects. In the streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat model, rats that were fed ginger exhibited better glucose tolerance and higher serum insulin levels than untreated rats, suggesting that it can help control blood sugar levels ( Islam and Choi 2008 ). Treatment with a ginger extract produced a significant reduction in fructose-induced elevation in lipid levels, body weight, hyperglycemia, and hyperinsulinemia associated with insulin resistance ( Kadnur and Goyal 2005 ). An aqueous extract of raw ginger (administered daily, 500 mg/kg intraperitoneally) to streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats lowered serum glucose, cholesterol, and triacylglycerol levels; decreased urine protein levels, water intake, and urine output; and prevented the weight loss associated with diabetes in this model ( Al-Amin et al. 2006 ). [6]-gingerol has also been found to enhance differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and to enhance insulin-sensitive glucose uptake ( Sekiya, Ohtani, and Kusano 2004 ). A later study showed that [6]-shogaol or [6]-gingerol significantly inhibited TNF-α-mediated downregulation of adiponectin expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes ( Isa et al. 2008 ). [6]-shogaol appeared to function as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ agonist, whereas [6]-gingerol acted by suppressing TNF-α-induced JNKs signaling ( Isa et al. 2008 ). These results give some suggestion that ginger might be valuable in managing the effects of diabetes in humans.

Dried ginger may have beneficial effects in treating dementia, including Alzheimer’s disease ( Ghayur, Gilani, Ahmed, Khalid, Nawaz, Agbedahunsi, Choudhary, and Houghton 2008 ). Ulcerative colitis is a chronically recurrent inflammatory bowel disease of unknown origin, and in rats, ginger extract alleviated the symptoms of acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis ( El-Abhar, Hammad, and Gawad 2008 ).

7.7. SAFETY, EFFICACY, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS

Ginger is recognized by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a food additive that is “generally recognized as safe.” However, and notably, in 1930, thousands of Americans were poisoned and paralyzed by an illicit extract of Jamaican ginger (jake) that was used to circumvent Prohibition laws. The extract had been adulterated with a neurotoxic organophosphate compound, triorthocresyl phosphate ( TOCP; Crandall 1931 ; Morgan and Penovich 1978 ). The extract was banned in 1931.

Early studies suggest that ginger extract increased the mutagenesis ability of 2(2-furyl)-3(5-nitro-2-fury)acryl amide (AF2) or N -methyl- N ′-nitro- N -nitrosoguanidine (NTG), and [6]-gingerol was determined to be an active mutagen ( Nakamura and Yamamoto 1982 ). A later study suggests that [6]-shogaol is much less mutagenic than [6]-gingerol and that the active part of [6]-gingerol is the aliphatic chain moiety containing a hydroxyl group ( Nakamura and Yamamoto 1983 ). To our knowledge, these studies have not been confirmed nor repeated, and no recent evidence suggests that ginger or its components are mutagenic.

Oral administration of a ginger extract (1000 mg/kg) was reported to be tolerated well by pregnant rats, and it exerted no adverse effects on the mothers or in the development of fetuses ( Weidner and Sigwart 2001 ). This result is somewhat in contrast to an earlier study, in which administration of ginger tea to pregnant rats resulted in twice the loss of embryos but heavier surviving fetuses compared to untreated controls ( Wilkinson 2000a ). Ginger rhizome extract (0.5-10.0 g/kg) administered intraperitoneally to mice was reported to have no clastogenic effects compared to ginger oil, which produced some chromosomal irregularities ( Mukhopadhyay and Mukherjee 2000 ).

Most recently, male and female rats that were fed ginger powder (500, 1000, or 2000 mg/kg BW) by gavage for 35 days did not exhibit any overall mortalities or abnormalities in behavior, growth, or food and water consumption ( Rong et al. 2009 ). No overt organ abnormalities were observed and hematological and blood biochemical parameters in treated and untreated control animals were similar. The only real difference observed was a slightly decreased absolute and relative weight of the testes only at the highest dose (2000 mg/kg; Rong et al. 2009 ). Observational studies in humans suggest no evidence of teratogenicity from treatments for early pregnancy nausea that included ginger ( Jewell and Young 2003 ). These results were confirmed in a similar trial showing that administration of ginger beginning at the first trimester of pregnancy did not appear to increase the rates of major malformations above the baseline rate of 1-3% ( Portnoi et al. 2003 ). Overall, these data indicate that ginger consumption appears to be very safe with very limited side effects.

7.8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Ginger is not only an extremely popular dietary condiment used for flavoring food but also an herb that has been used for thousands of years as a medicinal herb to treat a variety of ailments. Chemical and metabolic analyses have revealed that ginger comprises hundreds of compounds and metabolites. The most extensively studied bioactive components include gingerols and shogaols, especially [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol, respectively. The content of each component is clearly dependent on the source and preparation of the ginger rhizome. Research interest in determining the role of natural compounds in preventing disease has increased markedly over the last few years. In spite of the abundance of research studies, many of the results are phenomenon based and provide data that are descriptive and observational rather than mechanistic. More studies are needed in animals and humans on the kinetics of ginger and its constituents and on the effects of consumption over a long period of time. Specific molecular targets and mechanisms of action need to be identified. Ginger clearly has a vast number of components and metabolites, many of which have not been studied in detail. The lack of standardization of ginger supplements is disconcerting, and whether consumption of high levels of isolated components (e.g., [6]-gingerol) is advisable is uncertain. [6]-gingerol or other ginger components might require inter-reactivity or dependency on other components in the whole food source to exert their positive effects.

Research data indicate that ginger and its constituents accumulate in the gastrointestinal tract, which supports the many observations of ginger’s effectiveness as an antinausea agent and as a possible colon cancer-preventing compound. Ginger acts as a potent antioxidant in vitro and ex vivo, but the data are not obvious for in vivo application and specific targets and mechanisms are lacking. Ginger appears to exert anti-inflammatory effects by suppressing COX-2 with subsequent inhibition of prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis. On the other hand, the data supporting the effectiveness of ginger in alleviating pain and swelling associated with arthritis are somewhat conflicting. The most common use of ginger is to alleviate the vomiting and nausea associated with pregnancy, chemotherapy, and some types of surgery. The clinical data undoubtedly indicate that ginger is at least as effective, and may be better, than vitamin B6 in treating these symptoms. Again, mechanisms are lacking, but no reports indicate that ginger has any adverse side effects or that it can worsen illness in pregnant women or patients. Interest in ginger as an anticancer agent has markedly increased over the last few years and a direct protein target has been identified in colon cancer. Ginger also appears to reduce cholesterol and improve lipid metabolism, thereby helping to decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

In summary, ginger has been reported to possess diverse pharmacological properties, although its specific biological targets are largely unknown and remain to be determined. However, in spite of the lack of specific mechanistic information, use of ginger appears to be safe and its effects are mighty and amazing in its many applications.

• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writing of this chapter was supported by the Hormel Foundation and Pediatrics Pharmaceuticals (Iselin, New Jersey).

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• Cite this Page Bode AM, Dong Z. The Amazing and Mighty Ginger. In: Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S, editors. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd edition. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2011. Chapter 7.

In this Page

• INTRODUCTION
• HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF GINGER
• USAGE, PREPARATION, AND PROCESSING
• BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS OF GINGER
• METABOLISM OF GINGER
• HEALTH EFFECTS: THE SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
• SAFETY, EFFICACY, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS
• SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

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