examples of good research questions in education

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110+ Exceptional Education Research Topics Ideas

Letters that make up the words of education

Topics for education research usually comprise school research topics, research problems in education, qualitative research topics in education, and concept paper topics about education to mention a few.

If you’re looking for research titles about education, you’re reading the right post! This article contains 110 of the best education research topics that will come in handy when you need to choose one for your research. From sample research topics in education, to research titles examples for high school students about education – we have it all.

Educational Research Topics

Research title examples for college students, quantitative research titles about education, topics related to education for thesis, research titles about school issues, ph.d. research titles in education, elementary education research topics, research title examples about online class, research titles about modular learning, examples of research questions in education, special education research titles.

The best research titles about education must be done through the detailed process of exploring previous works and improving personal knowledge.

Here are some good research topics in education to consider.

What Are Good Research Topics Related to Education?

The role of Covid-19 in reinvigorating online learning
The growth of cognitive abilities through leisure experiences
The merits of group study in education
Merits and demerits of traditional learning methods
The impact of homework on traditional and modern education
Student underdevelopment as a result of larger class volumes
Advantages of digital textbooks in learning
The struggle of older generations in computer education
The standards of learning in the various academic levels
Bullying and its effects on educational and mental health
Exceptional education tutors: Is the need for higher pay justifiable?

The following examples of research titles about education for college students are ideal for a project that will take a long duration to complete. Here are some education topics for research that you can consider for your degree.

Modern classroom difficulties of students and teachers
Strategies to reform the learning difficulties within schools
The rising cost of tuition and its burden on middle-class parents
The concept of creativity among public schools and how it can be harnessed
Major difficulties experienced in academic staff training
Evaluating the learning cultures of college students
Use of scientific development techniques in student learning
Research of skill development in high school and college students
Modern grading methods in underdeveloped institutions
Dissertations and the difficulties surrounding their completion
Integration of new gender categories in personalized learning

These research topics about education require a direct quantitative analysis and study of major ideas and arguments. They often contain general statistics and figures to back up regular research. Some of such research topics in education include:

The relationship between poor education and increased academic fees
Creating a social link between homeschool and traditional schoolgoers
The relationship between teacher satisfaction and student performance
The divide between public and private school performance
The merits of parental involvement in students’ cognitive growth.
A study on child welfare and its impact on educational development
The relationship between academic performance and economic growth
Urbanization in rural areas and its contribution to institutional growth
The relationship between students and professors in dissertation writing
The link between debt accumulation and student loans
Boarding schools and regular schools: The role these two school types play in cognitive development

Educational-related topics used for a thesis normally require a wide aspect of study and enough educational materials. Here are some education research topics you can use for write my thesis .

The difficulties of bilingual education in private universities
Homework and its impact on learning processes in college education
Dissertation topic selection: Key aspects and research obligations
Social media research topics and their educational functions
A detailed educational review of student learning via virtual reality techniques
Ethnicities in universities and their participation in group activities
The modern approach to self-studying for college students
Developing time management skills in modern education
Guidelines for teacher development in advanced educational institutions
The need for religious education in boarding schools
A measure of cognitive development using digital learning methods

A research title about school issues focuses on activities surrounding the school environment and its effects on students, teachers, parents, and education in general. Below are some sample research titles in education, relating to school issues.

Learning English in bilingual schools
A study of teachers’ role as parent figures on school grounds
Addressing the increased use of illegal substances and their effects in schools
The benefits of after-class activities for foreign students
Assessing student and teacher relationships
A study of the best methods to implement safety rules in school
Major obstacles in meeting school schedules using boarding students as a case study
The need for counseling in public and private schools: Which is greater?
Academic volunteering in understaffed public schools
Modern techniques for curbing school violence among college students
The advantages and disadvantages of teacher unions in schools

As you create your proposed list of research topics in education, consider scientific journals for referencing purposes. Here are some Ph.D. research titles for education.

The modern methods of academic research writing
The role of colleges in advanced mental care
The merits and demerits of Ph.D. studies in Europe and Africa
Interpersonal relationships between students and professors in advanced institutions
A review of community colleges: merits and demerits
Assessing racism in academic ethnic minorities
The psychological changes of students in higher education
The questionable standards of student loan provisions
The merits of personalized teaching techniques in colleges
The wage gap between private and public university teachers
Teacher responsibilities in private universities versus public universities

The research topics in elementary education in 2023 are very different from the elementary education research topics from five or ten years ago. This creates interesting grounds for different research titles for elementary education.

Here are some elementary education title research ideas.

Assessing quick computer literacy among elementary school pupils.
The role of video games in childhood brain development
Male vs female role models in early education periods
The advantages of digital textbooks in elementary schools
The impact of modern curriculums on elementary education
Lack of proper school grooming is a cause of violence.
Should elementary school children be taught about LGBTQ?
A review of the need for sexual education in elementary schools
The effects of emotional dependence in early childhood learners.
The need for constant technology supervision of elementary school students
Advantages of computer-guided education in elementary schools

Here are some research title examples for students taking online classes.

The academic difficulties experienced by online students.
A study of decreased attention in online classes
The upsides and downsides of online education
The rising fees of online and traditional education in universities
A detailed study on the necessity of college internships
The need to provide college scholarships based on environmental achievements
How online education terminates university fraternities and sororities.
The role of academic supervisors in career selection
Why interactive assignments improved learning capabilities during the pandemic
Merits of education in online learning environments
Why online lessons are the least effective for some college students

The modular learning approach focuses primarily on learning outcomes. Here are some examples of research titles about modular learning.

Modular learning and the role of teachers in its execution
Teaching techniques of religious institutions
Potential risks of accelerated learning
Modular learning on students’ future performances
The general overview of modular learning amongst students
The modern Advantages and disadvantages of inclusive classes
Observing student developments in modular learning
Music therapy for fostering modular learning techniques
The creation of a personalized curriculum for students.
Applications of modular learning both in home-schooling?
The benefits of modular learning towards creating a more holistic educational system

These research title examples about education answer important questions and they can also be argumentative essay topics .

Here are some titles of research about education questions.

What impacts do learning approaches provide for students?
How can schools manage their increasing gender differences?
What fosters the provision of learning needs?
What are the best educational recruitment methods?
How can cognitive development improve education?
How can you assess the moral growth of institutions?
What are the primary causes of educational differences in geographical locations?
How can institutions address increasing mental health needs?
Why is early intervention essential in students with mental health setbacks?
What are the characteristics of mental health deterioration among students?
What techniques are acceptable in regulating the violence of students in institutions

Some of the research title examples about education include:

How do schools create more personalized learning methods?
Evaluating mental health setbacks during education
The impact of modern technology on special education
The cognitive improvements via specialized learning in dyslexic children
The psychological link between dyslexia and bullying in high school
Impact of social isolation in special education classes
The difficulties in providing specialized learning environments
A study of orphan students with disabilities and their aptitudes for learning
How special classes improve the self-esteem of disabled students.
How to use modern teaching techniques in unique learning environments.
A study of the application of digital games to autistic learning

Final words about education research topics

We have provided some reliable examples of a research topic about education you can use for write my thesis . You can use these research titles in education to cultivate your ideas, create inspiration, or for online research. Remember always to select a topic that you’re naturally passionate about and do diligent research, and reach out to our professional writing services if you need any help.

List of education research paper topics

Education research paper topics refer to a wide range of subjects that students can explore in the field of education. Here is a list of topics for your inspiration:

Impact of Online Learning on Student Engagement and Academic Performance
Effectiveness of Project-Based Learning in Promoting Critical Thinking Skills
Socioeconomic Status and Access to Quality Education
Virtual and Augmented Reality in Enhancing the Learning Experience
Role of Teacher Expectations in Shaping Student Outcomes
Peer Mentoring Programs in Supporting Student Success
Classroom Design and Student Learning Outcomes
Technology-Assisted Language Learning in Second Language Acquisition
Differentiated Instruction in Meeting Diverse Student Needs
Cultural Competence in Teacher Effectiveness and Student Achievement
Teacher-Student Relationships and Student Motivation
Mindfulness Practices in Promoting Student Well-Being and Academic Achievement
Teacher Professional Development and Instructional Quality
Community Partnerships in Improving Educational Opportunities and Outcomes
Inquiry-Based Learning in Promoting Scientific Literacy
Experiential Learning Methods
Parental Involvement and Student Success
Early Childhood Education Outcomes
Class Size and Academic Performance
Motivation and Academic Performance
School Climate and Academic Performance
Collaborative Learning Approaches
Cultural Competence and Academic Achievement
Early Literacy Instruction and Future Reading Success
Gender Disparities in Stem Academic Performance

Higher education research paper topics

This subtopic explores the impact of higher education on career prospects, the cost and affordability of college, the effectiveness of online learning, and the benefits of international study programs. Conducting research on these topics can lead to a better understanding of higher education and help achieve positive outcomes.

Examining the Relationship between Online Learning and Student
Engagement and Academic Performance in Higher Education
The Effectiveness of Technology in Advancing Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education
Mental Health Consequences of Student Loan Debt: A Study
Cultural Backgrounds and Their Influence on Students' Academic Experiences and Outcomes in Higher Education
Evaluating the Impact of Mindfulness-Based Programs on Reducing Stress and Enhancing Academic Performance in College Students
Assessing the Role of Faculty Diversity in Improving Student Learning and Success in Higher Education
Student Engagement and Retention Rates in Higher Education: A Correlation Analysis
The Preparedness of Competency-Based Education Programs for the Workforce
The Continuing Impact of COVID-19 on Higher Education and Its Future Prospects
The Contribution of Student Support Services to Academic Success and Graduation Rates in Higher Education

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Special education research topics

Assistive Technology for Academic Success
Inclusive Education Best Practices
Parent Involvement for Disability Outcomes
Differentiated Instruction for Disabled Students
Early Intervention for Young Learners
Positive Behavior Interventions for Disabilities
Co-teaching Models for Disabled Students
Teacher Attitudes Towards Disabilities
Peer Mentoring for Emotional Development
Vocational Training for Disabled Employment
Individualized Education Programs and Outcomes
Reading Interventions for Learning Disabilities
Social Skills Training for Disabilities
Paraeducators’ Support for Disabled Students
Self-Determination for Independent Living Skills
Peer Support Groups for Emotional Outcomes
Assistive Tech for Extracurricular Activities
Mindfulness Interventions for Self-Regulation
Collaborative Problem-Solving for Disabilities
Physical Activity for Emotional Well-Being
Inclusive Education for Students with special needs

Educational research topics on child development

This topic covers a broad range of research topics, including the effects of nature and nurture on child development, the impact of early childhood experiences on later development, the role of play in learning, and the influence of family and cultural factors on child development.

Play and Learning in Early Childhood Development
Mindfulness and Its Role in Promoting Child Development
Nature Exposure and Children’s Cognitive Development
Art Education for Child Development
Family Dynamics Impact on Child Development
The Effect of Trauma on Child Development
Bilingualism and Cognitive Development in Children
Creativity for Early Childhood Development
Socioeconomic Status and Child Development
Peer Mentoring for Child Development
How Motor Skills Affect Children’s Academic Success?
The Impact of Parent-Child Communication on Child Development
Attachment and Self-Esteem Development in Children
The Influence of Childcare Settings on Child Development
Outdoor Play’s Relationship to Child Development
Social Media and Adolescent Development
Importance of Empathy for Child Development
Culture and Gender Identity Development in Children
The Importance of Resilience for Child Development
Role of Executive Functioning in Social Skills Development

Educational research topics for college students

Effects of Technology on Student Learning Outcomes in Higher Education
A Comparative Study on Student Engagement and Achievement in Online Versus Traditional Classroom Instruction
Teacher Feedback and Its Impact on Student Performance
Parent Involvement and Its Influence on Student Academic Achievement
Correlational Study on Sleep Habits and Academic Performance Among College Students
Comparison of Different Study Techniques and Strategies for College Students
Cultural Diversity in the Classroom and Its Effects on Student Learning
Investigating the Relationship Between Student Motivation and Academic Performance
Teaching Methodologies and Student Achievement in Stem Fields
Impact of Teacher Expectations on Student Academic Achievement
Comparative Study on Gender and Academic Performance in Different Subject Areas
Extracurricular Activities and Academic Achievement: Examining the Relationship
Effects of Peer-To-Peer Learning on Student Academic Performance
The Impact of College Entrance Exams on Student Academic Performance
Exploring the Relationship Between Social Media Use and Academic Performance Among College Students
A Comparative Study on the Impact of Active Versus Passive Learning Approaches on Student Academic Performance
Examining the Impact of Teacher Training on Student Academic Achievement
The Effects of Teacher Burnout on Student Academic Achievement
Different Types of Assessments and Their Effects on Student Academic Performance
The Relationship Between College Students’ Study Habits and Academic Performance

Latest research topics in education

How Can Technology Be Used to Enhance Student Learning in the Classroom?
What Are the Benefits and Challenges of Homeschooling as a Form of Education?
How Does the Use of Social Media Affect Student Engagement and Academic Performance?
What Is the Impact of Teacher-Student Relationships on Student Motivation and Achievement?
How Can Cultural Diversity Be Effectively Incorporated Into the Classroom to Promote Learning and Understanding?
What Are the Best Strategies for Promoting Effective Reading Skills in Students of All Ages?
How Can Project-Based Learning Be Used to Promote Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills in Students?
What Are the Most Effective Ways to Promote Student Creativity and Innovation in the Classroom?
How Does Teacher Feedback and Assessment Impact Student Learning and Academic Success?
What Are the Benefits and Challenges of Online Learning in Higher Education?
How Can Differentiated Instruction Be Used to Meet the Needs of Diverse Learners in the Classroom?
What Is the Impact of Parental Involvement on Student Academic Achievement?
How Can Schools Promote Positive Mental Health and Well-Being in Students?
What Is the Role of Experiential Learning in Promoting Student Engagement and Learning Outcomes?
What Are the Best Strategies for Promoting Effective Writing Skills in Students of All Ages?
How Can Schools Effectively Address and Prevent Bullying and Cyberbullying?
What Is the Impact of Student-Teacher Ratio on Student Academic Achievement?
How Can Schools Promote Effective Collaboration and Teamwork Skills in Students?
What Are the Benefits and Challenges of Competency-Based Education in Higher Education?
How Can Schools Effectively Support and Accommodate Students With Disabilities?

Topics for action research in education

Discover how to make a positive difference in the world of education through innovative and effective action research. Learn about topics for action research that are relevant to current educational practices and trends. Get started on making your mark through thoughtful exploration of educational topics for action research!

The Impact of Project-Based Learning on Student Achievement
Strategies to Increase Student Engagement Through Technology Integration
Methods to Improve Reading Comprehension in Elementary School Students
Addressing Absenteeism Among High School Students
Effective Strategies for Promoting Collaborative Learning
Developing Critical Thinking Skills in Middle School Students
Improving Teacher-Student Relationships to Enhance Student Learning
Mindfulness Practices to Reduce Student Anxiety
Examining the Effectiveness of Differentiated Instruction on Student Learning Outcomes
Investigating the Effects of Physical Activity on Academic Achievement
Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices to Meet the Needs of Diverse Students
Investigating the Effects of Class Size on Student Achievement
Strategies to Improve Parent Involvement in the Education Process to Support Student Success
Examining the Effects of Music Education on Academic Achievement
Effective Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners
Investigating the Effects of School Uniforms on Student Behavior
Promoting Positive Behavior in the Classroom Through Positive Reinforcement
Addressing Academic Stress Among High School Students
Strategies to Address Student Learning Gaps Caused by Pandemic-Related Disruptions
The Impact of Teacher Professional Development on Student Learning Outcomes

Provocative education research topics

Research into education is groundbreaking, with new discoveries and ideas being created every day. This list of provocative research topics focuses on the most timely and important questions in education today. From educational technology to teaching methods and beyond, these questions are sure to spark intriguing conversations and novel insights.

How Does the Use of Technology in the Classroom Impact Student Learning Outcomes?
To What Extent Does Parental Involvement Affect Academic Performance?
In What Ways Does Teacher Diversity Influence Student Success?
What Are the Benefits and Challenges of Multilingual Education in the Classroom?
How Does Social Media Use Affect Student Learning and Academic Achievement?
What Are the Strengths and Weaknesses of Standardized Testing in Measuring Student Learning?
What Is the Relationship Between Classroom Environment and Academic Achievement?
How Does Project-Based Learning Develop Critical Thinking Skills in Students?
What Is the Correlation Between Mental Health and Academic Performance?
How Effective Is Differentiated Instruction in Promoting Student Engagement?
What Is the Impact of Professional Development on Teacher Efficacy and Student Learning Outcomes?
How Does Collaborative Learning Impact Student Academic Achievement?
What Is the Role of School Culture in Promoting Academic Success?
How Can Education Promote Equity and Social Justice in the Classroom?
How Does Online Learning Compare to Traditional Classroom Learning in Developing Student Competencies?
What Is the Correlation Between Parenting Styles and Student Academic Success?
How Do Gender and Cultural Differences Impact Learning Styles and Academic Achievement?
What Is the Relationship Between Extracurricular Activities and Academic Success?
How Effective Is Personalized Learning in Fostering Student Motivation and Engagement?
What Is the Long-Term Impact of Early Childhood Education on Academic Achievement and Success?

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How to choose a good topic on education subject

Choosing a good topic on education is essential for engaging your audience and making an impact. To do this successfully, consider the following steps:

Determine your passions: contemplate the facets of education that captivate and inspire you the most.
Know your audience: be mindful of the readers or viewers of your work, and consider their interests and preferences.
Explore contemporary trends and concerns: investigate recent developments, tendencies, technologies, approaches, policies, and research within education that are currently influencing the field.
Uncover knowledge voids: pinpoint areas within education where research or comprehension is lacking, and choose a subject that addresses these deficiencies while contributing to the broader field.
Consult with experts: engage with teachers, professors, or other industry professionals to gather insights on potential subjects - they may even provide helpful recommendations or direct you to valuable resources!

Choosing the right research topic is vital for students in the field of education. Staying informed about current trends and developments is key. This article provides a diverse list of top education research paper topics, allowing students to select an intriguing idea that aligns with their interests and goals. To save time and effort, you can choose to pay for papers , guaranteeing expertly crafted research papers while you concentrate on your academic goals.

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71 Best Education Dissertation Topic Ideas

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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education dissertation topics ideas, explained below

It’s hard to choose and settle on a topic for your education dissertation. When I was choosing my topic, I was confused and uncertain. I wished I had a list like this that would help me out!

The topics below are best for undergraduate (B.A / B.Ed) or masters (M.A / M.Ed) students. Check out these 51 topic ideas, use them, and adapt them to create a topic that suits you.

The Lazy Man’s Top 10

before I dig in…

Here is a quick list of my top 9 favorite education dissertation topic ideas:

What skill development strategies can be observed in children’s play?
What evidence is there for the theory of multiple intelligences?
What are parents’ attitudes toward play-based learning in schools?
Is there a correlation between student stress levels and standardized exams?
What are the differences in teaching strategies between experienced and novice teachers?
What are the greatest challenges faced by teachers in their first 3 years in the profession?
What does the literature say about the differences between phonics and whole language learning?
What are the factors facilitating successful inclusion of students with behavioral disabilities?
What do teachers believe has been the effect of technology on students’ learning?

Read this First: 9 Tips for Choosing a Dissertation Topic

Education Dissertation Topic Ideas (List

1. dissertation ideas for studying early childhood education.

Structured and Unstructured Play: What are the perspectives of parents about the benefits of structured and unstructured play for children?
Transitioning to School: What do educators identify as the key challenges of transitioning from early childhood to compulsory schooling settings?
Children’s Book Representation: How do the 50 most popular children’s books of the 21 st Century promote gender norms? (For this one, consider also using the social graces concept to add a more analytical lens.)
Montessori Settings: What do teachers in Montessori educational settings perceive to be the benefits and limitations of a Montessori-style education?
Parents’ Anxieties: What are parents’ initial anxieties about sending their children to preschool?
Studying Promotional Literature: A semiotic analysis of the representation of the stages of play in early childhood learning center promotional literature.
Representation in News: How is the early childhood education and care (ECEC) profession represented in mainstream news?
Benefits of ECE: What do parent perceive to be the developmental benefits of early childhood education for their children?
Impact of Digital Technologies on Early Learning : Exploring how the use of tablets, educational apps, and digital storytelling influences cognitive and social development in preschool children.
Parental Involvement and Its Effects on Early Childhood Education : Examining the role of parental engagement in the educational outcomes and social development of preschool children.
Comparative Study of Outdoor Versus Indoor Play in Early Childhood Development : Assessing the impact of outdoor play environments versus traditional indoor classrooms on physical, emotional, and cognitive growth in young children.
Nutrition and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood : Investigating the correlation between nutritional intake and cognitive development in preschool-aged children.
Early Intervention Strategies for Children with Special Needs : Exploring effective early intervention techniques for children with developmental delays or disabilities in early childhood education settings.
The Role of Storytelling in Language Development : Analyzing how storytelling and narrative play contribute to language acquisition and literacy skills in early childhood.
Effects of Teacher-Child Ratio on Learning Outcomes : Evaluating the impact of teacher-to-child ratios in preschool settings on individual attention, learning outcomes, and overall classroom dynamics.
Exploring Play-Based Learning Versus Structured Curriculum in Early Education : Comparing the outcomes of play-based learning approaches to more structured, curriculum-based methods in early childhood education.
Social-Emotional Learning in Early Childhood Education : Investigating the integration and effectiveness of social-emotional learning programs in fostering emotional intelligence, empathy, and interpersonal skills in young children.
Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood Classrooms : Investigating how educators can integrate various cultural backgrounds and practices into their teaching to create an inclusive environment for children.

2. Dissertation Ideas for Studying Elementary Teaching

Piaget’s Stages: Are Piaget’s stages of development an accurate reflection of the abilities of children in the concrete stage of development?
Behavior Management Styles: What are teachers’ perspectives of authoritarian behavior management strategies ?
Behavior Management Strategies: What do teachers perceive as the most effective behavior management strategy for children aged 5 – 7?
Pros and Cons of Homework : What do parents perceive to be the benefits of no homework for children?
Autism in Classrooms: What are parents’ perceptions and concerns about integration of children with autism into mainstream classrooms?
Seating Arrangements: How do changes in seating arrangements from rows to table groups impact learning in a Grade 5 classroom?
Benefits of Play Breaks: According to educators, what are the benefits and limitations of regular play breaks for learning?
Phonics vs Whole Language Learning: What do teachers perceive to be the benefits and limitations of the phonics versus whole language learning approaches to literacy?
Development through Play: What skill development strategies can be observed in children’s play during recess breaks in schools?
Compulsory School Uniforms: What do educators in a school that has compulsory school uniforms see as the educational benefits or drawbacks of compulsory uniforms?
Sense of Belonging: What are the barriers and opportunities for promoting a ‘sense of belonging’ in primary school classrooms?
Technology Integration in Elementary Classrooms : Investigating the impact of integrating technology such as interactive whiteboards and educational software on student engagement and learning outcomes.
Differentiated Instruction Strategies : Evaluating the effectiveness of differentiated instruction in meeting the diverse learning needs of students in elementary school settings.
Parent-Teacher Communication : Analyzing the role of parent-teacher communication in student academic performance and behavioral development in elementary schools.
Impact of Bilingual Education : Exploring the cognitive, linguistic, and academic outcomes of bilingual education programs in elementary schools.
Teacher Perceptions of Standardized Testing : Investigating elementary school teachers’ views on the impact of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning.
Social Skills Development Through Cooperative Learning : Examining the effectiveness of cooperative learning strategies in promoting social skills and teamwork among elementary school students.
Environmental Education in Elementary Curriculum : Analyzing the impact of incorporating environmental education into the elementary curriculum on students’ awareness and attitudes towards environmental issues.

Related: How to Write a Dissertation from Beginning to End

3. Dissertation Ideas for Studying Middle & High School Contexts

Homework vs Extracurricular Activities: What are students’ perceptions of the impact of homework on their after school extracurricular activities?
Nationalism in Curriculum Documents: How are nationalist ideologies reinforced and challenged in the current curriculum documents of [your jurisdiction]?
Preparation for Life: What are students’ perceptions of how well school prepares them for university / trades / real life?
Standardized Tests: What are students’ / teachers’/ parents’ perceptions of standardized tests in high school?
Mentorship: What do high school teachers in leadership positions perceive to be the best approaches to mentoring early career teachers?
Childhood Citizenship: Which models of childhood citizenship are evident in [your jurisdiction’s] curriculum?
Traits of Quality Teachers: What do parents perceive to be the traits of quality teachers in primary school vs. high school?
Students’ Perceptions of Teachers: What do adolescents see as the qualities of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ teachers?
Moral Values in Education: What do educators see as their role versus parents’ roles in promoting the moral values of children?
Migrant Challenges in the School System: What do parents of immigrant children see as the challenges their children face in schools in their new nation?

4. Educational Technology Dissertation Ideas

Use of Electronic Whiteboards: How prepared do pre-service teachers feel about teaching using Electronic White Boards?
Mobile Phones in the Classroom: What are parents’ perceptions of classroom mobile phone apps that are designed to increase parent-student interactions?
Impact of Technology on Learning: What are teachers’ perspectives of the impact of technology on student learning?
Gaming for Creative Writing: Can gaming help promote creative writing skills among boys aged 10-12?
Best Age for Introducing Technology: What age do parents perceive to be the best age for introducing children to technology?
Boys vs Girls Technology Usage: What are the differences between boys’ and girls’ technology usage habits during free time at school?
Online Learning Benefits and Challenges: What social, pedagogical and cognitive benefits and limitations do students face when learning online ?
Use of AI Large Language Models: How can Large Language Models like ChatGPT be beneficial for learning?

5. General Education and Teaching Dissertation Ideas

The Value of University: What do experienced educators perceive is the value of their university education?
Poverty and Education: What are teachers’ perceptions of the barriers and opportunities to learning for children in poverty?
Challenges faced by [Gender] Teachers: What challenges do male educators face in their first 5 years of teaching?
Anti-Bullying Policies: What are the main ways school leaders approach whole-school anti-bullying policy development?
Behavior Management for Developmental Delays: How do teachers differentiate their behavior management strategies for children with developmental delays?
Netiquette: What do teachers believe to be effective netiquette rules for online learning ?
Motivations for Taking a Promotion: What are the factors that impact teachers’ motivations for promotion into leadership positions in schools?
Reflective Practice: What do teachers perceive to be the role of reflection in their practice, and what are the most common reflective practice strategies among practitioners?
Theory Testing: What evidence is there for the theory of multiple intelligences?
Extroverts vs Introverts: How do Introverted and Extroverted Students Learn Differently?
Purpose of Schooling: What do parents perceive to be the purpose of schooling?
Experienced vs Novice Teachers: What differences are there in behavior management strategies for experienced versus novice teachers?
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation: What do teachers believe are the benefits and challenges of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation strategies ?

6. Ideas that Involve Interviewing your Classmates!

A lot of my students like to use this idea because they can use a snowball sampling method rather than having to seek out teachers or schools to interview and study:

Concerns in Entering the Teaching Profession: What do pre-service teachers see as their biggest worries about entering the teaching profession?
Feeling Unprepared: What do pre-service teachers perceive to be the major factors that their degree does not prepare them for, before entering the workforce?
Benefits of a Dissertation Project: What do a cohort of teacher education students see as the benefits of conducting a final dissertation project prior to entering the profession? (see also: cohort effect )
Differences in Perspectives (Freshman vs Senior): What are the differences between freshman (first year) and senior (final year) students’ perspectives of the role of the classroom teacher in the 21 st Century?

Read Also: 25 Sociology Dissertation Ideas

What to do once you Choose your Topic for an Education Dissertation

Hopefully by now you have highlighted or written down 3 topics that caught your eye.

I recommend for your next step that you organize a meeting with your dissertation supervisor. Your supervisor will talk with you about your three ideas and give you advice on which to choose and why.

Each university has different requirements, so you’ll need to get input from your supervisor. Your supervisor is the person who can help you to navigate the special requirements of your particular program of study.

You’ll find that you and your supervisor will be able to tailor your chosen topic to you and your needs.

Good luck, and please do leave a comment below if you found this post useful!

I’m also always looking for more ideas to add to this list so if you came up with another idea, share it below.

Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 20 Montessori Toddler Bedrooms (Design Inspiration)
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 21 Montessori Homeschool Setups
Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Hidden Talents Examples

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500+ Educational Research Topics

Education is a fundamental human right that plays a vital role in shaping the future of individuals, communities, and societies. In order to improve the effectiveness of education, it is crucial to engage in rigorous educational research that seeks to understand how people learn, what factors influence their learning outcomes, and how educational systems can be designed to promote equitable access and success for all learners. Educational research topics cover a wide range of issues, from exploring new teaching methods to examining the impact of technology on learning. In this blog post, we will delve into some of the most important and relevant educational research topics, highlighting their significance and potential impact on the field of education.

Educational Research Topics

Educational Research Topics are as follows:

The effects of personalized learning on student academic achievement
The impact of teacher expectations on student achievement
The effectiveness of flipped classroom models on student engagement and learning outcomes
The impact of classroom design on student behavior and learning
The relationship between socio-economic status and student academic achievement
The effectiveness of differentiated instruction on student academic achievement
The impact of technology on student learning outcomes
The effectiveness of online learning versus traditional classroom instruction
The influence of teacher expectations on student achievement
The role of parental involvement in student success
The relationship between school culture and student engagement
The impact of teacher training on student achievement
The effectiveness of peer tutoring programs
The relationship between socioeconomic status and academic achievement
The effectiveness of project-based learning
The impact of standardized testing on student motivation and achievement
The role of homework in student learning
The relationship between teacher-student rapport and academic achievement
The effectiveness of differentiated instruction
The relationship between student self-esteem and academic achievement
The impact of school size on student achievement
The role of school discipline policies in student behavior and achievement
The effectiveness of character education programs
The relationship between school funding and student achievement
The impact of school start times on student achievement
The effectiveness of arts education programs
The relationship between teacher feedback and student learning
The impact of school climate on student achievement
The effectiveness of online assessment tools
The relationship between teacher expectations and student behavior
The impact of school resources on student achievement
The effectiveness of teacher collaboration
The relationship between student motivation and academic achievement
The impact of class size on student achievement
The role of student-teacher trust in academic achievement
The effectiveness of student-led conferences
The relationship between student self-efficacy and academic achievement
The impact of school culture on teacher job satisfaction
The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning
The relationship between teacher stress and student achievement
The impact of school safety measures on student achievement
The effectiveness of flipped classroom instruction
The relationship between teacher diversity and student achievement
The impact of technology integration on teacher job satisfaction
The effectiveness of project-based assessment
The relationship between school climate and teacher job satisfaction
The impact of teacher job satisfaction on student achievement
The effectiveness of service-learning programs
The relationship between school leadership and teacher job satisfaction
The impact of parent-teacher communication on student achievement
The effectiveness of online professional development for teachers
The relationship between student engagement and teacher job satisfaction
The impact of peer mentoring programs on student achievement
The effectiveness of cooperative learning
The relationship between teacher-student ethnicity match and student achievement
The impact of school discipline policies on teacher job satisfaction
The relationship between teacher quality and student academic achievement
The effectiveness of technology integration in the classroom
The impact of parent involvement on student academic achievement
The relationship between teacher leadership and student academic achievement
The effectiveness of peer tutoring on student academic achievement
The impact of class size on student academic achievement
The effectiveness of project-based learning on student academic achievement
The impact of teacher diversity on student academic achievement
The relationship between student engagement and academic achievement
The effectiveness of student-centered learning on academic achievement
The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic achievement
The relationship between homework and academic achievement
The effectiveness of cooperative learning on academic achievement
The impact of school culture on academic achievement
The relationship between teacher collaboration and academic achievement
The effectiveness of online learning on academic achievement
The impact of standardized testing on student academic achievement
The relationship between teacher burnout and student academic achievement
The effectiveness of mindfulness interventions on student academic achievement
The impact of cultural competency on student academic achievement
The relationship between teacher job satisfaction and student academic achievement
The effectiveness of social-emotional learning on academic achievement
The impact of parent-teacher communication on academic achievement
The relationship between student-teacher relationships and academic achievement
The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning on academic achievement
The impact of learning environment on academic achievement
The relationship between student attendance and academic achievement
The effectiveness of feedback on academic achievement
The impact of teacher expectations on student behavior
The relationship between teacher training and academic achievement
The effectiveness of teacher professional development on academic achievement
The impact of teacher beliefs on student academic achievement
The relationship between classroom management and academic achievement
The effectiveness of bilingual education on academic achievement
The impact of cultural background on academic achievement
The relationship between teacher turnover and academic achievement
The effectiveness of tutoring programs on academic achievement
The impact of teacher salaries on academic achievement
The relationship between teacher-student racial matching and academic achievement
The effectiveness of college preparatory programs on academic achievement
The impact of high-stakes testing on academic achievement
The relationship between student well-being and academic achievement
The effectiveness of service learning on academic achievement.
The effects of technology on student learning outcomes.
The relationship between parental involvement and student achievement.
The impact of teacher feedback on student motivation and learning.
The effectiveness of online learning compared to traditional classroom instruction.
The role of emotional intelligence in academic success.
The relationship between sleep and academic performance.
The effectiveness of peer tutoring on student achievement.
The impact of early childhood education on later academic success.
The effects of social media on academic performance and well-being.
The impact of teacher expectations on student achievement.
The effectiveness of differentiated instruction on student learning outcomes.
The relationship between teacher burnout and student performance.
The effectiveness of inclusive education for students with disabilities.
The impact of teacher training and professional development on student outcomes.
The effects of school culture and climate on student engagement and achievement.
The relationship between homework and student achievement.
The effectiveness of gamification in education.
The impact of nutrition on student academic performance.
The effects of gender on academic achievement and attitudes towards learning.
The effectiveness of project-based learning on student engagement and learning outcomes.
The relationship between school attendance and academic performance.
The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic achievement and well-being.
The effectiveness of cooperative learning on student learning outcomes.
The effects of parental involvement in homework on student achievement.
The relationship between student engagement and academic performance.
The impact of classroom size on student learning outcomes.
The effectiveness of feedback in online learning environments.
The effects of poverty on student academic achievement.
The relationship between student motivation and academic achievement.
The impact of school leadership on student outcomes.
The effectiveness of formative assessment on student learning outcomes.
The effects of school funding on student achievement.
The relationship between student self-regulation and academic performance.
The impact of cultural diversity on academic achievement and student attitudes towards learning.
The effectiveness of technology integration in the classroom.
The effects of teacher diversity on student achievement and attitudes towards learning.
The relationship between teacher expectations and student engagement.
The impact of school policies on student academic performance and behavior.
The effectiveness of metacognitive strategies on student learning outcomes.
The effects of parental involvement on student behavior and well-being.
The relationship between teacher collaboration and student achievement.
The impact of school transitions on student academic performance and well-being.
The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning on student engagement and learning outcomes.
The effects of standardized testing on student motivation and learning.
The relationship between student self-efficacy and academic performance.
The impact of cultural competency training on teacher attitudes and student outcomes.
The effectiveness of blended learning on student achievement and engagement.
The effects of teacher beliefs and attitudes on student outcomes.
The relationship between student achievement and post-secondary success.
The impact of extracurricular activities on student academic performance and well-being.
The effectiveness of flipped classroom models in higher education
The relationship between teacher-student rapport and academic performance
The effects of parental involvement on student achievement
The effectiveness of differentiated instruction in mixed-ability classrooms
The impact of teacher collaboration on student learning outcomes
The effectiveness of project-based learning in K-12 education
The relationship between classroom climate and student motivation
The effects of social media use on academic performance
The impact of inclusive education on students with disabilities
The effectiveness of online learning in higher education
The relationship between school size and academic achievement
The effects of school uniforms on student behavior and academic performance
The impact of student-centered learning on student achievement
The effectiveness of cooperative learning in K-12 education
The relationship between teacher expectations and student achievement
The effects of school funding on student achievement
The impact of teacher training on student outcomes
The effectiveness of peer tutoring in K-12 education
The effects of class size on student achievement
The impact of bilingual education on student outcomes
The effectiveness of gamification in education
The relationship between standardized testing and student achievement
The effects of homework on student achievement
The impact of parental involvement on college retention rates
The effectiveness of problem-based learning in K-12 education
The effects of teacher feedback on student learning outcomes
The impact of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic performance
The effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in K-12 education
The relationship between teacher burnout and student outcomes
The effects of teacher-student racial/ethnic matching on academic performance
The impact of extracurricular activities on student achievement
The effectiveness of blended learning in higher education
The relationship between school leadership and student achievement
The effects of parental involvement on student attendance
The impact of peer influence on student achievement
The effectiveness of outdoor learning in K-12 education
The relationship between teacher autonomy and student outcomes
The effects of teacher diversity on student achievement
The impact of early childhood education on later academic achievement
The effectiveness of mindfulness practices in education
The relationship between teacher evaluation and student achievement
The effects of student self-assessment on learning outcomes
The impact of cultural competence on teacher-student relationships and academic performance
The effectiveness of online discussion forums in higher education
The relationship between school climate and student mental health
The effects of student-teacher race/ethnicity matching on academic performance
The impact of college majors on post-graduation outcomes.
The impact of technology on student engagement and academic performance
The effectiveness of project-based learning compared to traditional teaching methods
The impact of school uniforms on student behavior and academic performance
The relationship between teacher diversity and student outcomes
The effectiveness of peer mentoring for at-risk students
The impact of school funding on student achievement
The relationship between parent-teacher communication and student success
The effectiveness of social media for educational purposes
The impact of inclusive education on academic achievement
The effectiveness of teacher mentoring programs for new teachers
The relationship between school funding and student outcomes
The impact of teacher diversity on student achievement
The effectiveness of using games in the classroom for learning
The impact of teacher collaboration on teacher retention
The effectiveness of using graphic novels in the classroom for literacy development
The impact of standardized testing on student motivation and performance
The effectiveness of teacher coaching on teacher practice and student learning
The relationship between parent-teacher communication and student outcomes
The impact of peer mentoring on academic achievement
The effectiveness of teacher professional learning communities on student outcomes
The relationship between teacher personality and classroom climate
The impact of arts education on student creativity and academic achievement
The effectiveness of technology in teaching math
The relationship between teacher autonomy and teacher motivation
The impact of student-led conferences on parent involvement and academic performance
The effectiveness of differentiated instruction for gifted and talented students
The relationship between school discipline policies and student mental health
The impact of teacher leadership on school improvement
The effectiveness of using social media in education
The relationship between teacher beliefs and teacher effectiveness
The impact of school size on student outcomes
The effectiveness of using simulations in the classroom for learning
The relationship between parent involvement and teacher satisfaction
The impact of outdoor education on student learning and development
The effectiveness of using digital portfolios in the classroom for assessment
The relationship between teacher collaboration and teacher professional growth
The effectiveness of using multimedia in the classroom for learning
The relationship between school choice and student achievement
The impact of teacher empathy on student motivation and engagement
The effectiveness of using mindfulness practices in the classroom
The relationship between teacher creativity and student engagement
The impact of student ownership on academic performance
The effectiveness of using project-based learning in science education
The relationship between teacher job satisfaction and teacher retention
The impact of using drama in the classroom for learning
The effectiveness of using educational apps in the classroom
The relationship between teacher feedback and student achievement
The impact of peer assessment on student learning
The effectiveness of using simulations in social studies education
The impact of teacher-parent partnerships on student outcomes
The effectiveness of using podcasts in the classroom for learning
The relationship between teacher collaboration and teacher well-being
The impact of school culture on parent involvement
The effectiveness of using debate in the classroom for critical thinking skills.
The impact of teacher-student ratio on academic performance
The effectiveness of outdoor education on student learning
The impact of teacher gender on student engagement and achievement
The relationship between teacher feedback and student self-efficacy
The effectiveness of blended learning for language education
The impact of teacher-student relationships on student attendance
The relationship between teacher diversity and school culture
The effectiveness of cultural responsiveness in the classroom
The impact of school choice on student outcomes
The relationship between classroom design and student engagement
The effectiveness of differentiated instruction for gifted students
The impact of student mobility on academic achievement
The relationship between teacher experience and classroom management
The effectiveness of technology in teaching mathematics
The impact of teacher burnout on student performance
The relationship between teacher job satisfaction and student outcomes
The effectiveness of arts education on student development
The impact of standardized testing on student motivation and academic performance
The relationship between teacher-student trust and academic achievement
The effectiveness of online learning for adult education
The impact of school culture on teacher retention
The relationship between student motivation and academic success
The effectiveness of game-based learning for science education
The impact of teacher training on student outcomes in special education
The relationship between teacher beliefs and classroom management
The effectiveness of project-based learning for social studies education
The impact of school leadership on teacher job satisfaction
The relationship between teacher support and student mental health
The effectiveness of experiential learning for environmental education
The impact of teacher collaboration on student outcomes
The relationship between school climate and student achievement
The effectiveness of technology in teaching foreign languages
The impact of teacher evaluation on instructional quality
The relationship between school diversity and student achievement
The effectiveness of multicultural education for promoting social justice
The impact of teacher-student relationships on student self-esteem
The relationship between teacher turnover and student outcomes
The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning for mathematics education
The impact of school discipline policies on student behavior
The relationship between teacher expectations and student engagement
The effectiveness of technology in teaching literacy
The impact of teacher autonomy on classroom innovation
The relationship between school climate and teacher job satisfaction.
The relationship between classroom size and student achievement
The impact of school leadership on student outcomes
The effectiveness of different types of assessment methods
The influence of teacher attitudes on student motivation and engagement
The relationship between parental involvement and student achievement
The effectiveness of different teaching strategies for diverse learners
The impact of early childhood education on academic success
The relationship between teacher training and student outcomes
The effectiveness of different types of feedback on student learning
The impact of student-centered learning on academic performance
The effectiveness of differentiated instruction for diverse learners
The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic success
The relationship between school culture and student outcomes
The effectiveness of flipped classrooms compared to traditional classrooms
The impact of classroom management on student behavior and academic performance
The effectiveness of peer tutoring on student learning
The impact of parental involvement on student behavior and social-emotional development
The effectiveness of co-teaching for students with disabilities
The impact of bilingual education on academic achievement
The relationship between teacher beliefs and student achievement
The effectiveness of online learning compared to traditional classroom instruction
The impact of school culture on teacher satisfaction and retention
The relationship between teacher experience and student achievement
The effectiveness of technology-enhanced learning environments
The impact of teacher-student race/ethnicity matching on academic performance
The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning for science education
The relationship between school discipline policies and student outcomes
The effectiveness of teacher professional development on student learning
The impact of teacher preparation programs on teacher effectiveness
The relationship between classroom climate and student engagement
The effectiveness of teacher collaboration on student learning
The impact of social-emotional learning on academic performance
The relationship between teacher motivation and student achievement
The effectiveness of technology in teaching English as a second language
The impact of teacher autonomy on student outcomes
The relationship between teacher feedback and student motivation
The effectiveness of self-regulated learning strategies for academic success
The impact of single-sex education on student achievement
The relationship between teacher personality and student engagement
The effectiveness of experiential learning for history education
The impact of teacher-student relationships on student mental health
The relationship between school safety and student outcomes
The effectiveness of mindfulness practices on student behavior and academic performance.
The impact of technology on classroom learning
The effectiveness of differentiated instruction in diverse classrooms
The relationship between teacher burnout and student achievement
The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic performance
The effectiveness of teacher professional development on instructional practice
The effectiveness of online learning during the pandemic
The impact of teacher burnout on student achievement
The effectiveness of early childhood education programs
The impact of parental involvement on student success
The relationship between teacher expectations and student performance
The impact of school safety measures on student well-being
The relationship between school culture and teacher satisfaction
The effectiveness of using manipulatives in math education
The impact of homework on student achievement
The relationship between teacher preparation programs and teacher retention
The effectiveness of using technology for literacy development
The impact of social-emotional learning programs on student behavior and academic achievement
The relationship between school leadership and teacher morale
The effectiveness of using virtual reality in science education
The impact of teacher gender on student achievement
The relationship between parental involvement and student motivation
The effectiveness of project-based learning in social studies education
The impact of school climate on student attendance
The relationship between teacher experience and student outcomes
The effectiveness of using game-based learning in language arts education
The relationship between school funding and teacher quality
The effectiveness of using inquiry-based learning in science education
The impact of teacher expectations on student motivation
The relationship between school facilities and student achievement
The effectiveness of using music in the classroom for learning
The impact of teacher diversity on student outcomes
The effectiveness of using graphic organizers in the classroom for writing
The impact of teacher evaluation systems on teacher performance
The relationship between school size and student achievement
The effectiveness of using digital storytelling in the classroom
The impact of teacher feedback on student learning
The relationship between teacher professional development and student outcomes
The effectiveness of using problem-based learning in math education
The impact of school discipline policies on student outcomes
The relationship between teacher expectations and student self-esteem
The effectiveness of using visual aids in the classroom for learning
The impact of school culture on teacher collaboration
The relationship between school climate and student behavior
The effectiveness of using drama in language arts education
The impact of teacher motivation on student engagement
The relationship between school culture and student academic identity
The effectiveness of using mobile devices in the classroom for learning
The relationship between school climate and teacher retention
The effectiveness of using games for social-emotional learning
The impact of teacher-student racial matching on student achievement.
The relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement
The impact of inclusive education on social and emotional development
The effectiveness of blended learning on student outcomes
The impact of school culture on student behavior and attitudes
The effectiveness of flipped classroom models on student engagement
The relationship between teacher autonomy and student motivation
The impact of bilingual education on cognitive development
The effectiveness of cooperative learning strategies in the classroom
The effectiveness of classroom management strategies on student behavior
The impact of standardized testing on teaching and learning
The effectiveness of peer tutoring on academic achievement
The relationship between teacher training and student achievement
The impact of cultural diversity on classroom dynamics and learning
The effectiveness of technology in teaching and learning writing
The relationship between school facilities and student learning
The impact of teacher collaboration on instructional quality
The effectiveness of project-based learning in science education
The relationship between parent involvement and school climate
The impact of teacher feedback on student learning and motivation
The effectiveness of assessment tools in measuring student learning
The relationship between student attitudes and academic achievement
The impact of college readiness programs on student success
The effectiveness of using graphic organizers for teaching reading comprehension
The relationship between teacher leadership and school improvement
The impact of special education programs on student outcomes
The effectiveness of using digital tools in teaching and learning history
The relationship between school culture and student attendance
The impact of teacher expectations on student self-efficacy
The effectiveness of using peer assessment in student writing
The impact of teacher preparation programs on instructional quality
The impact of teacher-student ratio on student outcomes
The relationship between student engagement and academic achievement in online learning
The impact of teacher tenure policies on student outcomes
The relationship between school safety and student learning
The effectiveness of using game-based learning in the classroom.
The impact of COVID-19 on online learning in K-12 education
The effectiveness of differentiated instruction in a diverse classroom
The impact of early literacy intervention programs on reading comprehension
The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning in science education
The relationship between parent involvement and student academic success
The impact of teacher feedback on student writing
The effectiveness of using digital tools for formative assessment
The relationship between teacher burnout and student engagement
The relationship between school climate and bullying prevention
The impact of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic achievement
The effectiveness of using virtual reality in history education
The relationship between teacher expectations and student self-efficacy
The impact of teacher-student relationships on student well-being
The effectiveness of using games for math learning in elementary school
The relationship between teacher training and technology integration in the classroom
The impact of school culture on student mental health
The effectiveness of using project-based learning in social studies education
The relationship between teacher autonomy and job satisfaction
The impact of socio-economic status on access to higher education
The effectiveness of using technology for language learning
The relationship between school size and student outcomes
The impact of school leadership on teacher retention
The effectiveness of using active learning strategies in college classrooms
The relationship between teacher collaboration and student achievement
The impact of school-based mental health services on student well-being
The effectiveness of using assistive technology for special education students
The relationship between teacher job satisfaction and student performance
The impact of school-based health education programs on student health behaviors
The effectiveness of using simulations in science education
The effectiveness of using educational games for literacy development
The relationship between school culture and student academic achievement
The impact of teacher professional development on student outcomes
The effectiveness of using experiential learning in business education
The impact of teacher diversity on student engagement
The effectiveness of using graphic organizers in the classroom for reading comprehension
The relationship between school climate and teacher collaboration
The impact of school-based social-emotional learning programs on student behavior and academic performance
The effectiveness of using mobile devices for language learning
The relationship between teacher autonomy and teacher creativity
The effectiveness of using game-based learning for STEM education
The relationship between school climate and student motivation
The effectiveness of using mindfulness practices in the classroom for student well-being.
The effectiveness of personalized learning strategies
The effectiveness of mindfulness interventions in reducing stress and anxiety in students
The impact of teacher communication styles on student engagement
The relationship between bilingual education and cognitive development
The effectiveness of using virtual simulations in science education
The impact of school start times on student performance and well-being
The effectiveness of using art in language arts education
The impact of teacher-student race matching on student motivation and achievement
The relationship between school culture and student mental health
The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning in social studies education
The impact of peer mentoring on student success in college
The relationship between teacher burnout and student behavior
The effectiveness of using manipulatives in science education
The effectiveness of using gamification in math education
The impact of teacher-student gender matching on student attitudes towards STEM subjects
The relationship between student engagement and academic performance
The effectiveness of using social media in language learning
The relationship between school climate and parent involvement
The effectiveness of using technology in physical education
The effectiveness of using multimedia in history education
The impact of teacher motivation on student engagement and achievement
The relationship between school culture and parent satisfaction
The impact of teacher feedback on student motivation and self-regulation
The relationship between school climate and student attitudes towards diversity
The effectiveness of using blended learning in literacy education
The impact of teacher-student relationships on college success
The effectiveness of using digital portfolios for assessment
The impact of teacher diversity on school culture and climate
The relationship between school leadership and teacher professional development
The effectiveness of using inquiry-based learning in art education
The impact of teacher-student personality matching on academic achievement
The relationship between school climate and student creativity
The effectiveness of using coding in math education
The impact of teacher mentoring on new teacher retention
The relationship between school culture and student motivation
The effectiveness of using peer feedback in writing instruction
The impact of teacher diversity on student attitudes towards diversity
The relationship between school culture and student resilience
The effectiveness of using case-based learning in business education
The impact of teacher-student trust on student engagement and academic achievement.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

500+ Music Research Topics

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300+ Political Science Research Topics

500+ Google Scholar Research Topics

500+ Physics Research Topics

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Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on October 26, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

Focused on a single problem or issue
Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
Specific enough to answer thoroughly
Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, using sub-questions to strengthen your main research question, research questions quiz, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

Choose your topic
Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
Narrow your focus to a specific niche
Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

	Research question formulations
Describing and exploring
Explaining and testing
Evaluating and acting	is X

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Example research problem	Example research question(s)
Teachers at the school do not have the skills to recognize or properly guide gifted children in the classroom.	What practical techniques can teachers use to better identify and guide gifted children?
Young people increasingly engage in the “gig economy,” rather than traditional full-time employment. However, it is unclear why they choose to do so.	What are the main factors influencing young people’s decisions to engage in the gig economy?

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

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Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Criteria	Explanation
Focused on a single topic	Your central research question should work together with your research problem to keep your work focused. If you have multiple questions, they should all clearly tie back to your central aim.
Answerable using	Your question must be answerable using and/or , or by reading scholarly sources on the to develop your argument. If such data is impossible to access, you likely need to rethink your question.
Not based on value judgements	Avoid subjective words like , , and . These do not give clear criteria for answering the question.

Feasible and specific

Criteria	Explanation
Answerable within practical constraints	Make sure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific.
Uses specific, well-defined concepts	All the terms you use in the research question should have clear meanings. Avoid vague language, jargon, and too-broad ideas.
Does not demand a conclusive solution, policy, or course of action	Research is about informing, not instructing. Even if your project is focused on a practical problem, it should aim to improve understanding rather than demand a ready-made solution. If ready-made solutions are necessary, consider conducting instead. Action research is a research method that aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as it is solved. In other words, as its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time.

Criteria

Explanation

Answerable within practical constraints

Make sure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific.

Uses specific, well-defined concepts

All the terms you use in the research question should have clear meanings. Avoid vague language, jargon, and too-broad ideas.

Does not demand a conclusive solution, policy, or course of action

Research is about informing, not instructing. Even if your project is focused on a practical problem, it should aim to improve understanding rather than demand a ready-made solution.

If ready-made solutions are necessary, consider conducting instead. Action research is a research method that aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as it is solved. In other words, as its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time.

Complex and arguable

Criteria	Explanation
Cannot be answered with or	Closed-ended, / questions are too simple to work as good research questions—they don’t provide enough for robust investigation and discussion.
Cannot be answered with easily-found facts	If you can answer the question through a single Google search, book, or article, it is probably not complex enough. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation prior to providing an answer.

Relevant and original

Criteria	Explanation
Addresses a relevant problem	Your research question should be developed based on initial reading around your . It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline.
Contributes to a timely social or academic debate	The question should aim to contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on.
Has not already been answered	You don’t have to ask something that nobody has ever thought of before, but your question should have some aspect of originality. For example, you can focus on a specific location, or explore a new angle.

Chances are that your main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. That’s why sub-questions are important: they allow you to answer your main question in a step-by-step manner.

Good sub-questions should be:

Less complex than the main question
Focused only on 1 type of research
Presented in a logical order

Here are a few examples of descriptive and framing questions:

Descriptive: According to current government arguments, how should a European bank tax be implemented?
Descriptive: Which countries have a bank tax/levy on financial transactions?
Framing: How should a bank tax/levy on financial transactions look at a European level?

Keep in mind that sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if you need the findings to answer your main question. If your main question is simple enough to stand on its own, it’s okay to skip the sub-question part. As a rule of thumb, the more complex your subject, the more sub-questions you’ll need.

Try to limit yourself to 4 or 5 sub-questions, maximum. If you feel you need more than this, it may be indication that your main research question is not sufficiently specific. In this case, it’s is better to revisit your problem statement and try to tighten your main question up.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

Sampling methods
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Likert scales
Reproducibility

Statistics

Null hypothesis
Statistical power
Probability distribution
Effect size
Poisson distribution

Research bias

Optimism bias
Cognitive bias
Implicit bias
Hawthorne effect
Anchoring bias
Explicit bias

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (“ x affects y because …”).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses . In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

Researchability
Feasibility and specificity
Relevance and originality

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Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

How to Craft a Strong Research Question (With Research Question Examples)

A sound and effective research question is a key element that must be identified and pinned down before researchers can even begin their research study or work. A strong research question lays the foundation for your entire study, guiding your investigation and shaping your findings. Hence, it is critical that researchers spend considerable time assessing and refining the research question based on in-depth reading and comprehensive literature review. In this article, we will discuss how to write a strong research question and provide you with some good examples of research questions across various disciplines.

Table of Contents

The importance of a research question

A research question plays a crucial role in driving scientific inquiry, setting the direction and purpose of your study, and guiding your entire research process. By formulating a clear and focused research question, you lay the foundation for your investigation, ensuring that your research remains on track and aligned with your objectives so you can make meaningful contribution to the existing body of knowledge. A well-crafted research question also helps you define the scope of your study and identify the appropriate methodologies and data collection techniques to employ.

Key components of a strong research question

A good research question possesses several key components that contribute to the quality and impact of your study. Apart from providing a clear framework to generate meaningful results, a well-defined research question allows other researchers to understand the purpose and significance of your work. So, when working on your research question, incorporate the following elements:

Specificity : A strong research question should be specific about the main focus of your study, enabling you to gather precise data and draw accurate conclusions. It clearly defines the variables, participants, and context involved, leaving no room for ambiguity.
Clarity : A good research question is clear and easily understood, so articulate the purpose and intent of your study concisely without being generic or vague. Ensuring clarity in your research question helps both you and your readers grasp the research objective.
Feasibility : While crafting a research question, consider the practicality of conducting the research and availability of necessary data or access to participants. Think whether your study is realistic and achievable within the constraints of time, resources, and ethical considerations.

How to craft a well-defined research question

A first step that will help save time and effort is knowing what your aims are and thinking about a few problem statements on the area or aspect one wants to study or do research on. Contemplating these statements as one undertakes more progressive reading can help the researcher in reassessing and fine-tuning the research question. This can be done over time as they read and learn more about the research topic, along with a broad literature review and parallel discussions with peer researchers and supervisors. In some cases, a researcher can have more than one research question if the research being undertaken is a PhD thesis or dissertation, but try not to cover multiple concerns on a topic.

A strong research question must be researchable, original, complex, and relevant. Here are five simple steps that can make the entire process easier.

Identify a broad topic from your areas of interest, something that is relevant, and you are passionate about since you’ll be spending a lot of time conducting your research.
Do a thorough literature review to weed out potential gaps in research and stay updated on what’s currently being done in your chosen topic and subject area.
Shortlist possible research questions based on the research gaps or see how you can build on or refute previously published ideas and concepts.
Assess your chosen research question using the FINER criteria that helps you evaluate whether the research is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant. 1
Formulate the final research question, while ensuring it is clear, well-written, and addresses all the key elements of a strong research question.

Examples of research questions

Remember to adapt your research question to suit your purpose, whether it’s exploratory, descriptive, comparative, experimental, qualitative, or quantitative. Embrace the iterative nature of the research process, continually evaluating and refining your question as you progress. Here are some good examples of research questions across various disciplines.

Exploratory research question examples

How does social media impact interpersonal relationships among teenagers?
What are the potential benefits of incorporating mindfulness practices in the workplace?

Descriptive research question examples

What factors influence customer loyalty in the e-commerce industry?
Is there a relationship between socioeconomic status and academic performance among elementary school students?

Comparative research question examples

How does the effectiveness of traditional teaching methods compare to online learning platforms in mathematics education?
What is the impact of different healthcare policies on patient outcomes in various countries?

Experimental research question examples

What are the effects of a new drug on reducing symptoms of a specific medical condition?
Does a dietary intervention have an impact on weight loss among individuals with obesity?

Qualitative research question examples

What are the lived experiences of immigrants adapting to a new culture?
What factors influence job satisfaction among healthcare professionals?

Quantitative research question examples

Is there a relationship between sleep duration and academic performance among college students?
How effective is a specific intervention in reducing anxiety levels among individuals with phobias?

With these simple guidelines and inspiring examples of research questions, you are equipped to embark on your research journey with confidence and purpose. Here’s wishing you all the best for your future endeavors!

References:

How to write a research question: Steps and examples. Indeed Career Guide. Available online at https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-research-questions

R Discovery is a literature search and research reading platform that accelerates your research discovery journey by keeping you updated on the latest, most relevant scholarly content. With 250M+ research articles sourced from trusted aggregators like CrossRef, Unpaywall, PubMed, PubMed Central, Open Alex and top publishing houses like Springer Nature, JAMA, IOP, Taylor & Francis, NEJM, BMJ, Karger, SAGE, Emerald Publishing and more, R Discovery puts a world of research at your fingertips.

Try R Discovery Prime FREE for 1 week or upgrade at just US$72 a year to access premium features that let you listen to research on the go, read in your language, collaborate with peers, auto sync with reference managers, and much more. Choose a simpler, smarter way to find and read research – Download the app and start your free 7-day trial today !

What is Research Impact: Types and Tips for Academics

Research in Shorts: R Discovery’s New Feature Helps Academics Assess Relevant Papers in 2mins

EDUC H205 Introduction to Education Thought

Find Articles
Develop a Research Question
Keywords + Strategic Search
Evaluate: Scholarly vs Popular
Cite Sources

Instructional Video

Resources to Explore for Inspiration

Good researchers are curious and practice intellectual humility, in other words, they do not approach research with their minds already made up about what they will find. Use the resources below to discover contemporary topics in education and let your curiosity inspire you to learn more!

Full text discussions of current, controversial public policy issues in a variety of areas.

Articles include an overview, historical background, chronology, pro/con feature, plus resources for additional research. Graphics, photos and short "sidebar" features round out the reports. Shorter "Hot Topics" articles provide a solid introduction to subjects most in demand by students.

Features the complete contents of the latest issue; daily news and advice columns; current job listings; an archive of previously published content; discussion forums; and career-building tools such as online CV management, and salary databases.

What Works Clearinghouse (US Dept. of Education) For more than a decade, the WWC has been a central and trusted source of scientific evidence on education programs, products, practices, and policies. We review the research, determine which studies meet rigorous standards, and summarize the findings. We focus on high-quality research to answer the question “what works in education?”

Brainstorming

Learn More About Concept Maps Spartenburg Community College Library

Goldilocks Rule: Narrowing a Topic

Once you select a topic, refine your research question by asking the "5 W's"

Why – why is the topic important? (to the class, to the field, or to you - let your answer help shape the following questions)

Who – population or group (e.g., teens, college students, refugees), what – discipline or focus (e.g., psychology or classroom strategies), where – geographic location (e.g., united states; universities; rural areas), when – time or era (civil rights era; last 5 years; pre-covid).

Broad topic: Immigrants in public schools

Narrowed topic: Classroom strategies that affect education outcomes for immigrant students in rural US K-12 schools.

Adapted from: University of Michigan. (2023 Finding and Exploring your topic. Retrieved from https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283095&p=1886086

Goldilocker Tool: University of Michigan Libraries A simple survey tool that walks users through the process of shaping their topical research question using the "5 W's"

Broadening Your Topic

If you receive too few results, broaden your research question by revisiting the "5 W's"

Why – why is the topic important? (moving beyond your personal interest, how could your topic affect the region/state/country/world)

Who – population or group (instead of "teens" try "adolescents," instead of "refugees" try "immigrants"), what – discipline or focus (in addition to "psychology" add other disciplines such as "social work" or "school counseling"), where – geographic location (expand your geographic region to include additional communities), when – time or era (lengthen the amount of time), sample research questions.

A good research question is clear, focused, and has an appropriate level of complexity. Developing a strong question is a process, so you will likely refine your question as you continue to research and to develop your ideas.

Unclear : Why are social networking sites harmful?

Clear: How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues on such social networking sites as Facebook and TikTok?

Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment from global warming?

Focused: How is glacial melting affecting penguins in Antarctica?

Simple vs Complex

Too simple: How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?

Appropriately Complex: What are common traits of those suffering from diabetes in America, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the medical community in prevention of the disease?

Adapted from: George Mason University Writing Center. (2018). How to write a research question. Retrieved from https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/writing-resources/research-based-writing/how-to-write-a-research-question

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A Research Guide
Research Paper Topics

40 Education Research Paper Topics

Learn more: What is a research paper and how to write it?

List of 40 Hot Topics in Education

The development of critical thinking as the primary goal of the educational process
The evolution of approaches to education throughout history
Education and modern technologies, their positive and negative impact
Virtual reality worlds and education. Virtual classes and research rooms
The overview of the main modern approaches to education
Sex education: pros and cons
Education and gender: same-sex school and their comparison to the mixed-sex ones
Theoretical education vs practical education
The phenomenon of apprenticeship and its role in developing systems of education
What is considered basic education in different countries and why?
Preschool education: knowledge or social skills?
Shall the development of emotional intelligence be one of the goals of modern education?
Educational discrimination and its impact on the future of the pupils
Education and socialization of mentally challenged people. Similarities and differences.
Inclusive classes: how do pupils in such classes perform in comparison with non-inclusive ones?
Bell Curve controversy. How should grades be calculated?
Do we still need grades in the modern educational system?
Education and motivation:how to make pupils interested how to make pupils interested
How can modern education be compared with classical school education?
Bullying and unhealthy psychological atmosphere in class. Its impact on the quality of education
Shall parents be involved in the educational process?
Does education ever stop or it continues during the entire life?
Censorship and education. Shall we protect the students or guide them through everything they want to know?
Dress code and school rules. Are some of them outdated?
The role of discipline in education and its impact on the process of learning
Information overload:the bane of the modern world. How can we help the students to deal with it?
Summaries, audiobooks, and online problem solvers. Can the classical educational system endure this?
The authority of the teacher and its role in the educational process.
What qualities are essential for a modern teacher
Education and religion. Religious needs of the students. What if religion forbids some aspects of the study?
The Internet: the huge library and a very unsafe place. How to help students use it safely for educational purposes?
Standardized testing: a conventional way of checking the results of education or a new caste system?
Private education: what shall be in the school to get a license?
The history of the greatest universities in the world. What makes them so great now?
Alternative schooling: the main approaches and the results of it
Shall the development of personal morals be a part of school education?
Multicultural education. The teacher as a mediator if the cultural clash occurs.
Shall the teacher only teach? The role of a teacher as a negotiator and moral guide.
Response to Intervention (RTI): how shall it work?
School violence, dealing with it and minimizing harm.

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How to Write a Good Research Question (w/ Examples)

What is a Research Question?

A research question is the main question that your study sought or is seeking to answer. A clear research question guides your research paper or thesis and states exactly what you want to find out, giving your work a focus and objective. Learning how to write a hypothesis or research question is the start to composing any thesis, dissertation, or research paper. It is also one of the most important sections of a research proposal .

A good research question not only clarifies the writing in your study; it provides your readers with a clear focus and facilitates their understanding of your research topic, as well as outlining your study’s objectives. Before drafting the paper and receiving research paper editing (and usually before performing your study), you should write a concise statement of what this study intends to accomplish or reveal.

Research Question Writing Tips

Listed below are the important characteristics of a good research question:

A good research question should:

Be clear and provide specific information so readers can easily understand the purpose.
Be focused in its scope and narrow enough to be addressed in the space allowed by your paper
Be relevant and concise and express your main ideas in as few words as possible, like a hypothesis.
Be precise and complex enough that it does not simply answer a closed “yes or no” question, but requires an analysis of arguments and literature prior to its being considered acceptable.
Be arguable or testable so that answers to the research question are open to scrutiny and specific questions and counterarguments.

Some of these characteristics might be difficult to understand in the form of a list. Let’s go into more detail about what a research question must do and look at some examples of research questions.

The research question should be specific and focused

Research questions that are too broad are not suitable to be addressed in a single study. One reason for this can be if there are many factors or variables to consider. In addition, a sample data set that is too large or an experimental timeline that is too long may suggest that the research question is not focused enough.

A specific research question means that the collective data and observations come together to either confirm or deny the chosen hypothesis in a clear manner. If a research question is too vague, then the data might end up creating an alternate research problem or hypothesis that you haven’t addressed in your Introduction section .

	What is the importance of genetic research in the medical field?
	How might the discovery of a genetic basis for alcoholism impact triage processes in medical facilities?

The research question should be based on the literature

An effective research question should be answerable and verifiable based on prior research because an effective scientific study must be placed in the context of a wider academic consensus. This means that conspiracy or fringe theories are not good research paper topics.

Instead, a good research question must extend, examine, and verify the context of your research field. It should fit naturally within the literature and be searchable by other research authors.

References to the literature can be in different citation styles and must be properly formatted according to the guidelines set forth by the publishing journal, university, or academic institution. This includes in-text citations as well as the Reference section .

The research question should be realistic in time, scope, and budget

There are two main constraints to the research process: timeframe and budget.

A proper research question will include study or experimental procedures that can be executed within a feasible time frame, typically by a graduate doctoral or master’s student or lab technician. Research that requires future technology, expensive resources, or follow-up procedures is problematic.

A researcher’s budget is also a major constraint to performing timely research. Research at many large universities or institutions is publicly funded and is thus accountable to funding restrictions.

The research question should be in-depth

Research papers, dissertations and theses , and academic journal articles are usually dozens if not hundreds of pages in length.

A good research question or thesis statement must be sufficiently complex to warrant such a length, as it must stand up to the scrutiny of peer review and be reproducible by other scientists and researchers.

Research Question Types

Qualitative and quantitative research are the two major types of research, and it is essential to develop research questions for each type of study.

Quantitative Research Questions

Quantitative research questions are specific. A typical research question involves the population to be studied, dependent and independent variables, and the research design.

In addition, quantitative research questions connect the research question and the research design. In addition, it is not possible to answer these questions definitively with a “yes” or “no” response. For example, scientific fields such as biology, physics, and chemistry often deal with “states,” in which different quantities, amounts, or velocities drastically alter the relevance of the research.

As a consequence, quantitative research questions do not contain qualitative, categorical, or ordinal qualifiers such as “is,” “are,” “does,” or “does not.”

Categories of quantitative research questions


Attempt to describe the behavior of a population in regard to one or more variables or describe characteristics of those variables that will be measured. These are usually “What?” questions.	Seek to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable. These questions can be causal as well. Researchers may compare groups in which certain variables are present with groups in which they are not.	Designed to elucidate and describe trends and interactions among variables. These questions include the dependent and independent variables and use words such as “association” or “trends.”

Qualitative Research Questions

In quantitative research, research questions have the potential to relate to broad research areas as well as more specific areas of study. Qualitative research questions are less directional, more flexible, and adaptable compared with their quantitative counterparts. Thus, studies based on these questions tend to focus on “discovering,” “explaining,” “elucidating,” and “exploring.”

Categories of qualitative research questions


Attempt to identify and describe existing conditions.	Attempt to describe a phenomenon.	Assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures.

Examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena.	Focus on the unknown aspects of a particular topic.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Question Examples


Descriptive research question
Comparative research question
Correlational research question
Exploratory research question
Explanatory research question
Evaluation research question

stacks of books in black and white; research question examples

Good and Bad Research Question Examples

Below are some good (and not-so-good) examples of research questions that researchers can use to guide them in crafting their own research questions.

Research Question Example 1

The first research question is too vague in both its independent and dependent variables. There is no specific information on what “exposure” means. Does this refer to comments, likes, engagement, or just how much time is spent on the social media platform?

Second, there is no useful information on what exactly “affected” means. Does the subject’s behavior change in some measurable way? Or does this term refer to another factor such as the user’s emotions?

Research Question Example 2

In this research question, the first example is too simple and not sufficiently complex, making it difficult to assess whether the study answered the question. The author could really only answer this question with a simple “yes” or “no.” Further, the presence of data would not help answer this question more deeply, which is a sure sign of a poorly constructed research topic.

The second research question is specific, complex, and empirically verifiable. One can measure program effectiveness based on metrics such as attendance or grades. Further, “bullying” is made into an empirical, quantitative measurement in the form of recorded disciplinary actions.

Steps for Writing a Research Question

Good research questions are relevant, focused, and meaningful. It can be difficult to come up with a good research question, but there are a few steps you can follow to make it a bit easier.

1. Start with an interesting and relevant topic

Choose a research topic that is interesting but also relevant and aligned with your own country’s culture or your university’s capabilities. Popular academic topics include healthcare and medical-related research. However, if you are attending an engineering school or humanities program, you should obviously choose a research question that pertains to your specific study and major.

Below is an embedded graph of the most popular research fields of study based on publication output according to region. As you can see, healthcare and the basic sciences receive the most funding and earn the highest number of publications.

examples of good research questions in education

2. Do preliminary research

You can begin doing preliminary research once you have chosen a research topic. Two objectives should be accomplished during this first phase of research. First, you should undertake a preliminary review of related literature to discover issues that scholars and peers are currently discussing. With this method, you show that you are informed about the latest developments in the field.

Secondly, identify knowledge gaps or limitations in your topic by conducting a preliminary literature review . It is possible to later use these gaps to focus your research question after a certain amount of fine-tuning.

3. Narrow your research to determine specific research questions

You can focus on a more specific area of study once you have a good handle on the topic you want to explore. Focusing on recent literature or knowledge gaps is one good option.

By identifying study limitations in the literature and overlooked areas of study, an author can carve out a good research question. The same is true for choosing research questions that extend or complement existing literature.

4. Evaluate your research question

Make sure you evaluate the research question by asking the following questions:

Is my research question clear?

The resulting data and observations that your study produces should be clear. For quantitative studies, data must be empirical and measurable. For qualitative, the observations should be clearly delineable across categories.

Is my research question focused and specific?

A strong research question should be specific enough that your methodology or testing procedure produces an objective result, not one left to subjective interpretation. Open-ended research questions or those relating to general topics can create ambiguous connections between the results and the aims of the study.

Is my research question sufficiently complex?

The result of your research should be consequential and substantial (and fall sufficiently within the context of your field) to warrant an academic study. Simply reinforcing or supporting a scientific consensus is superfluous and will likely not be well received by most journal editors.

reverse triangle chart, how to write a research question

Editing Your Research Question

Your research question should be fully formulated well before you begin drafting your research paper. However, you can receive English paper editing and proofreading services at any point in the drafting process. Language editors with expertise in your academic field can assist you with the content and language in your Introduction section or other manuscript sections. And if you need further assistance or information regarding paper compositions, in the meantime, check out our academic resources , which provide dozens of articles and videos on a variety of academic writing and publication topics.

Think Like a Researcher: Instruction Resources: #6 Developing Successful Research Questions

Guide Organization
Overall Summary
#1 Think Like a Researcher!
#2 How to Read a Scholarly Article
#3 Reading for Keywords (CREDO)
#4 Using Google for Academic Research
#4 Using Google for Academic Research (Alternate)
#5 Integrating Sources
Research Question Discussion
#7 Avoiding Researcher Bias
#8 Understanding the Information Cycle
#9 Exploring Databases
#10 Library Session
#11 Post Library Session Activities
Summary - Readings
Summary - Research Journal Prompts
Summary - Key Assignments
Jigsaw Readings
Permission Form

Course Learning Outcome: Develop ability to synthesize and express complex ideas; demonstrate information literacy and be able to work with evidence

Goal: Develop students’ ability to recognize and create successful research questions

Specifically, students will be able to

identify the components of a successful research question.
create a viable research question.

What Makes a Good Research Topic Handout

These handouts are intended to be used as a discussion generator that will help students develop a solid research topic or question. Many students start with topics that are poorly articulated, too broad, unarguable, or are socially insignificant. Each of these problems may result in a topic that is virtually un-researchable. Starting with a researchable topic is critical to writing an effective paper.

Research shows that students are much more invested in writing when they are able to choose their own topics. However, there is also research to support the notion that students are completely overwhelmed and frustrated when they are given complete freedom to write about whatever they choose. Providing some structure or topic themes that allow students to make bounded choices may be a way mitigate these competing realities.

These handouts can be modified or edited for your purposes. One can be used as a handout for students while the other can serve as a sample answer key. The document is best used as part of a process. For instance, perhaps starting with discussing the issues and potential research questions, moving on to problems and social significance but returning to proposals/solutions at a later date.

Research Questions - Handout Key (2 pgs) This document is a condensed version of "What Makes a Good Research Topic". It serves as a key.
Research Questions - Handout for Students (2 pgs) This document could be used with a class to discuss sample research questions (are they suitable?) and to have them start thinking about problems, social significance, and solutions for additional sample research questions.
Research Question Discussion This tab includes materials for introduction students to research question criteria for a problem/solution essay.

Additional Resources

These documents have similarities to those above. They represent original documents and conversations about research questions from previous TRAIL trainings.

What Makes a Good Research Topic? - Original Handout (4 pgs)
What Makes a Good Research Topic? Revised Jan. 2016 (4 pgs)
What Makes a Good Research Topic? Revised Jan 2016 with comments

Topic Selection (NCSU Libraries)

Howard, Rebecca Moore, Tricia Serviss, and Tanya K. Rodrigues. " Writing from sources, writing from sentences ." Writing & Pedagogy 2.2 (2010): 177-192.

Research Journal

Assign after students have participated in the Developing Successful Research Topics/Questions Lesson OR have drafted a Research Proposal.

Think about your potential research question.

What is the problem that underlies your question?
Is the problem of social significance? Explain.
Is your proposed solution to the problem feasible? Explain.
Do you think there is evidence to support your solution?

Keys for Writers - Additional Resource

Keys for Writers (Raimes and Miller-Cochran) includes a section to guide students in the formation of an arguable claim (thesis). The authors advise students to avoid the following since they are not debatable.

"a neutral statement, which gives no hint of the writer's position"
"an announcement of the paper's broad subject"
"a fact, which is not arguable"
"a truism (statement that is obviously true)"
"a personal or religious conviction that cannot be logically debated"
"an opinion based only on your feelings"
"a sweeping generalization" (Section 4C, pg. 52)

The book also provides examples and key points (pg. 53) for a good working thesis.

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Last Updated: Apr 26, 2024 10:23 AM
URL: https://libguides.ucmerced.edu/think_like_a_researcher

How to Write a Research Question: Types and Examples

The first step in any research project is framing the research question. It can be considered the core of any systematic investigation as the research outcomes are tied to asking the right questions. Thus, this primary interrogation point sets the pace for your research as it helps collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work.  

Typically, the research question guides the stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Depending on the use of quantifiable or quantitative data, research questions are broadly categorized into quantitative or qualitative research questions. Both types of research questions can be used independently or together, considering the overall focus and objectives of your research.

What is a research question?

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, and arguable question on which your research and writing are centered. 1 It states various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the problem the study addresses. These questions also set the boundaries of the study, ensuring cohesion.

Designing the research question is a dynamic process where the researcher can change or refine the research question as they review related literature and develop a framework for the study. Depending on the scale of your research, the study can include single or multiple research questions.

A good research question has the following features:

It is relevant to the chosen field of study.
The question posed is arguable and open for debate, requiring synthesizing and analysis of ideas.
It is focused and concisely framed.
A feasible solution is possible within the given practical constraint and timeframe.

A poorly formulated research question poses several risks. 1

Researchers can adopt an erroneous design.
It can create confusion and hinder the thought process, including developing a clear protocol.
It can jeopardize publication efforts.
It causes difficulty in determining the relevance of the study findings.
It causes difficulty in whether the study fulfils the inclusion criteria for systematic review and meta-analysis. This creates challenges in determining whether additional studies or data collection is needed to answer the question.
Readers may fail to understand the objective of the study. This reduces the likelihood of the study being cited by others.

Now that you know “What is a research question?”, let’s look at the different types of research questions.

Types of research questions

Depending on the type of research to be done, research questions can be classified broadly into quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods studies. Knowing the type of research helps determine the best type of research question that reflects the direction and epistemological underpinnings of your research.

The structure and wording of quantitative 2 and qualitative research 3 questions differ significantly. The quantitative study looks at causal relationships, whereas the qualitative study aims at exploring a phenomenon.

Quantitative research questions:
Seeks to investigate social, familial, or educational experiences or processes in a particular context and/or location.
Answers ‘how,’ ‘what,’ or ‘why’ questions.
Investigates connections, relations, or comparisons between independent and dependent variables.

Quantitative research questions can be further categorized into descriptive, comparative, and relationship, as explained in the Table below.


Descriptive research questions	These measure the responses of a study’s population toward a particular question or variable. Common descriptive research questions will begin with “How much?”, “How regularly?”, “What percentage?”, “What time?”, “What is?” Research question example: How often do you buy mobile apps for learning purposes?
Comparative research questions	These investigate differences between two or more groups for an outcome variable. For instance, the researcher may compare groups with and without a certain variable. Research question example: What are the differences in attitudes towards online learning between visual and Kinaesthetic learners?
Relationship research questions	These explore and define trends and interactions between two or more variables. These investigate relationships between dependent and independent variables and use words such as “association” or “trends. Research question example: What is the relationship between disposable income and job satisfaction amongst US residents?

Qualitative research questions

Qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional, and more flexible. It concerns broad areas of research or more specific areas of study to discover, explain, or explore a phenomenon. These are further classified as follows:


Exploratory Questions	These question looks to understand something without influencing the results. The aim is to learn more about a topic without attributing bias or preconceived notions. Research question example: What are people’s thoughts on the new government?
Experiential questions	These questions focus on understanding individuals’ experiences, perspectives, and subjective meanings related to a particular phenomenon. They aim to capture personal experiences and emotions. Research question example: What are the challenges students face during their transition from school to college?
Interpretive Questions	These questions investigate people in their natural settings to help understand how a group makes sense of shared experiences of a phenomenon. Research question example: How do you feel about ChatGPT assisting student learning?

Mixed-methods studies

Mixed-methods studies use both quantitative and qualitative research questions to answer your research question. Mixed methods provide a complete picture than standalone quantitative or qualitative research, as it integrates the benefits of both methods. Mixed methods research is often used in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research, especially in the behavioral, health, and social science fields.

What makes a good research question

A good research question should be clear and focused to guide your research. It should synthesize multiple sources to present your unique argument, and should ideally be something that you are interested in. But avoid questions that can be answered in a few factual statements. The following are the main attributes of a good research question.

Specific: The research question should not be a fishing expedition performed in the hopes that some new information will be found that will benefit the researcher. The central research question should work with your research problem to keep your work focused. If using multiple questions, they should all tie back to the central aim.
Measurable: The research question must be answerable using quantitative and/or qualitative data or from scholarly sources to develop your research question. If such data is impossible to access, it is better to rethink your question.
Attainable: Ensure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific.
You have the expertise
You have the equipment and resources
Realistic: Developing your research question should be based on initial reading about your topic. It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline.
Based on some sort of rational physics
Can be done in a reasonable time frame
Timely: The research question should contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on.
Novel
Based on current technologies.
Important to answer current problems or concerns.
Lead to new directions.
Important: Your question should have some aspect of originality. Incremental research is as important as exploring disruptive technologies. For example, you can focus on a specific location or explore a new angle.
Meaningful whether the answer is “Yes” or “No.” Closed-ended, yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research questions. Such questions do not provide enough scope for robust investigation and discussion. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation before providing an answer.

Steps for developing a good research question

The importance of research questions cannot be understated. When drafting a research question, use the following frameworks to guide the components of your question to ease the process. 4

Determine the requirements: Before constructing a good research question, set your research requirements. What is the purpose? Is it descriptive, comparative, or explorative research? Determining the research aim will help you choose the most appropriate topic and word your question appropriately.
Select a broad research topic: Identify a broader subject area of interest that requires investigation. Techniques such as brainstorming or concept mapping can help identify relevant connections and themes within a broad research topic. For example, how to learn and help students learn.
Perform preliminary investigation: Preliminary research is needed to obtain up-to-date and relevant knowledge on your topic. It also helps identify issues currently being discussed from which information gaps can be identified.
Narrow your focus: Narrow the scope and focus of your research to a specific niche. This involves focusing on gaps in existing knowledge or recent literature or extending or complementing the findings of existing literature. Another approach involves constructing strong research questions that challenge your views or knowledge of the area of study (Example: Is learning consistent with the existing learning theory and research).
Identify the research problem: Once the research question has been framed, one should evaluate it. This is to realize the importance of the research questions and if there is a need for more revising (Example: How do your beliefs on learning theory and research impact your instructional practices).

How to write a research question

Those struggling to understand how to write a research question, these simple steps can help you simplify the process of writing a research question.


Topic selection	Choose a broad topic, such as “learner support” or “social media influence” for your study. Select topics of interest to make research more enjoyable and stay motivated.
Preliminary research	The goal is to refine and focus your research question. The following strategies can help: Skim various scholarly articles. List subtopics under the main topic. List possible research questions for each subtopic. Consider the scope of research for each of the research questions. Select research questions that are answerable within a specific time and with available resources. If the scope is too large, repeat looking for sub-subtopics.
Audience	When choosing what to base your research on, consider your readers. For college papers, the audience is academic. Ask yourself if your audience may be interested in the topic you are thinking about pursuing. Determining your audience can also help refine the importance of your research question and focus on items related to your defined group.
Generate potential questions	Ask open-ended “how?” and “why?” questions to find a more specific research question. Gap-spotting to identify research limitations, problematization to challenge assumptions made by others, or using personal experiences to draw on issues in your industry can be used to generate questions.
Review brainstormed questions	Evaluate each question to check their effectiveness. Use the FINER model to see if the question meets all the research question criteria.
Construct the research question	Multiple frameworks, such as PICOT and PEA, are available to help structure your research question. The frameworks listed below can help you with the necessary information for generating your research question.

Framework	Attributes of each framework
FINER	Feasible Interesting Novel Ethical Relevant
PICOT	Population or problem Intervention or indicator being studied Comparison group Outcome of interest Time frame of the study
PEO	Population being studied Exposure to preexisting conditions Outcome of interest

Sample Research Questions

The following are some bad and good research question examples

Example 1

Unclear: How does social media affect student growth?

Clear: What effect does the daily use of Twitter and Facebook have on the career development goals of students?

Explanation: The first research question is unclear because of the vagueness of “social media” as a concept and the lack of specificity. The second question is specific and focused, and its answer can be discovered through data collection and analysis.

Example 2

Simple: Has there been an increase in the number of gifted children identified?

Complex: What practical techniques can teachers use to identify and guide gifted children better?

Explanation: A simple “yes” or “no” statement easily answers the first research question. The second research question is more complicated and requires the researcher to collect data, perform in-depth data analysis, and form an argument that leads to further discussion.

References:

Thabane, L., Thomas, T., Ye, C., & Paul, J. (2009). Posing the research question: not so simple.  Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d’anesthésie ,  56 (1), 71-79.
Rutberg, S., & Bouikidis, C. D. (2018). Focusing on the fundamentals: A simplistic differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research.  Nephrology Nursing Journal ,  45 (2), 209-213.
Kyngäs, H. (2020). Qualitative research and content analysis.  The application of content analysis in nursing science research , 3-11.
Mattick, K., Johnston, J., & de la Croix, A. (2018). How to… write a good research question.  The clinical teacher ,  15 (2), 104-108.
Fandino, W. (2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls.  Indian Journal of Anaesthesia ,  63 (8), 611.
Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions.  ACP journal club ,  123 (3), A12-A13

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Transitive and Intransitive Verbs in the World of Research

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1000+ FREE Research Topics & Title Ideas

Select your area of interest to view a collection of potential research topics and ideas.

Or grab the full list 📋 (for free)

PS – You can also check out our free topic ideation webinar for more ideas

How To Find A Research Topic

If you’re struggling to get started, this step-by-step video tutorial will help you find the perfect research topic.

Research Topic FAQs

What (exactly) is a research topic.

A research topic is the subject of a research project or study – for example, a dissertation or thesis. A research topic typically takes the form of a problem to be solved, or a question to be answered.

A good research topic should be specific enough to allow for focused research and analysis. For example, if you are interested in studying the effects of climate change on agriculture, your research topic could focus on how rising temperatures have impacted crop yields in certain regions over time.

To learn more about the basics of developing a research topic, consider our free research topic ideation webinar.

What constitutes a good research topic?

A strong research topic comprises three important qualities : originality, value and feasibility.

Originality – a good topic explores an original area or takes a novel angle on an existing area of study.
Value – a strong research topic provides value and makes a contribution, either academically or practically.
Feasibility – a good research topic needs to be practical and manageable, given the resource constraints you face.

To learn more about what makes for a high-quality research topic, check out this post .

What's the difference between a research topic and research problem?

A research topic and a research problem are two distinct concepts that are often confused. A research topic is a broader label that indicates the focus of the study , while a research problem is an issue or gap in knowledge within the broader field that needs to be addressed.

To illustrate this distinction, consider a student who has chosen “teenage pregnancy in the United Kingdom” as their research topic. This research topic could encompass any number of issues related to teenage pregnancy such as causes, prevention strategies, health outcomes for mothers and babies, etc.

Within this broad category (the research topic) lies potential areas of inquiry that can be explored further – these become the research problems . For example:

What factors contribute to higher rates of teenage pregnancy in certain communities?
How do different types of parenting styles affect teen pregnancy rates?
What interventions have been successful in reducing teenage pregnancies?

Simply put, a key difference between a research topic and a research problem is scope ; the research topic provides an umbrella under which multiple questions can be asked, while the research problem focuses on one specific question or set of questions within that larger context.

How can I find potential research topics for my project?

There are many steps involved in the process of finding and choosing a high-quality research topic for a dissertation or thesis. We cover these steps in detail in this video (also accessible below).

How can I find quality sources for my research topic?

Finding quality sources is an essential step in the topic ideation process. To do this, you should start by researching scholarly journals, books, and other academic publications related to your topic. These sources can provide reliable information on a wide range of topics. Additionally, they may contain data or statistics that can help support your argument or conclusions.

Identifying Relevant Sources

When searching for relevant sources, it’s important to look beyond just published material; try using online databases such as Google Scholar or JSTOR to find articles from reputable journals that have been peer-reviewed by experts in the field.

You can also use search engines like Google or Bing to locate websites with useful information about your topic. However, be sure to evaluate any website before citing it as a source—look for evidence of authorship (such as an “About Us” page) and make sure the content is up-to-date and accurate before relying on it.

Evaluating Sources

Once you’ve identified potential sources for your research project, take some time to evaluate them thoroughly before deciding which ones will best serve your purpose. Consider factors such as author credibility (are they an expert in their field?), publication date (is the source current?), objectivity (does the author present both sides of an issue?) and relevance (how closely does this source relate to my specific topic?).

By researching the current literature on your topic, you can identify potential sources that will help to provide quality information. Once you’ve identified these sources, it’s time to look for a gap in the research and determine what new knowledge could be gained from further study.

How can I find a good research gap?

Finding a strong gap in the literature is an essential step when looking for potential research topics. We explain what research gaps are and how to find them in this post.

How should I evaluate potential research topics/ideas?

When evaluating potential research topics, it is important to consider the factors that make for a strong topic (we discussed these earlier). Specifically:

Originality
Feasibility

So, when you have a list of potential topics or ideas, assess each of them in terms of these three criteria. A good topic should take a unique angle, provide value (either to academia or practitioners), and be practical enough for you to pull off, given your limited resources.

Finally, you should also assess whether this project could lead to potential career opportunities such as internships or job offers down the line. Make sure that you are researching something that is relevant enough so that it can benefit your professional development in some way. Additionally, consider how each research topic aligns with your career goals and interests; researching something that you are passionate about can help keep motivation high throughout the process.

How can I assess the feasibility of a research topic?

When evaluating the feasibility and practicality of a research topic, it is important to consider several factors.

First, you should assess whether or not the research topic is within your area of competence. Of course, when you start out, you are not expected to be the world’s leading expert, but do should at least have some foundational knowledge.

Time commitment

When considering a research topic, you should think about how much time will be required for completion. Depending on your field of study, some topics may require more time than others due to their complexity or scope.

Additionally, if you plan on collaborating with other researchers or institutions in order to complete your project, additional considerations must be taken into account such as coordinating schedules and ensuring that all parties involved have adequate resources available.

Resources needed

It’s also critically important to consider what type of resources are necessary in order to conduct the research successfully. This includes physical materials such as lab equipment and chemicals but can also include intangible items like access to certain databases or software programs which may be necessary depending on the nature of your work. Additionally, if there are costs associated with obtaining these materials then this must also be factored into your evaluation process.

Potential risks

It’s important to consider the inherent potential risks for each potential research topic. These can include ethical risks (challenges getting ethical approval), data risks (not being able to access the data you’ll need), technical risks relating to the equipment you’ll use and funding risks (not securing the necessary financial back to undertake the research).

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Examples of Good and Bad Research Questions

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Written by Scribendi

So, you've got a research grant in your sights or you've been admitted to your school of choice, and you now have to write up a proposal for the work you want to perform. You know your topic, have done some reading, and you've got a nice quiet place where nobody will bother you while you try to decide where you'll go from here. The question looms:

What Is a Research Question?

Your research question will be your focus, the sentence you refer to when you need to remember why you're researching. It will encapsulate what drives you and be something your field needs an answer for but doesn't have yet.

Whether it seeks to describe a phenomenon, compare things, or show how one variable influences another, a research question always does the same thing: it guides research that will be judged based on how well it addresses the question.

So, what makes a research question good or bad? This article will provide examples of good and bad research questions and use them to illustrate both of their common characteristics so that you can evaluate your research question and improve it to suit your needs.

How to Choose a Research Question

At the start of your research paper, you might be wondering, "What is a good research question?"

A good research question focuses on one researchable problem relevant to your subject area.

To write a research paper , first make sure you have a strong, relevant topic. Then, conduct some preliminary research around that topic. It's important to complete these two initial steps because your research question will be formulated based on this research.

With this in mind, let's review the steps that help us write good research questions.

1. Select a Relevant Topic

When selecting a topic to form a good research question, it helps to start broad. What topics interest you most? It helps when you care about the topic you're researching!

Have you seen a movie recently that you enjoyed? How about a news story? If you can't think of anything, research different topics on Google to see which ones intrigue you the most and can apply to your assignment.

Also, before settling on a research topic, make sure it's relevant to your subject area or to society as a whole. This is an important aspect of developing your research question, because, in general, your research should add value to existing knowledge .

2. Thoroughly Research the Topic

Now that you've chosen a broad but relevant topic for your paper, research it thoroughly to see which avenues you might want to explore further.

For example, let's say you decide on the broad topic of search engines. During this research phase, try skimming through sources that are unbiased, current, and relevant, such as academic journals or sources in your university library.

Check out: 21 Legit Research Databases for Free Articles in 2022

Pay close attention to the subtopics that come up during research, such as the following: Which search engines are the most commonly used? Why do some search engines dominate specific regions? How do they really work or affect the research of scientists and scholars?

Be on the lookout for any gaps or limitations in the research. Identifying the groups or demographics that are most affected by your topic is also helpful, in case that's relevant to your work.

3. Narrow Your Topic to a Single Point

Now that you've spent some time researching your broad topic, it's time to narrow it down to one specific subject. A topic like search engines is much too broad to develop a research paper around. What specifically about search engines could you explore?

When refining your topic, be careful not to be either too narrow or too broad. You can ask yourself the following questions during this phase:

Can I cover this topic within the scope of my paper, or would it require longer, heavier research? (In this case, you'd need to be more specific.)

Conversely, is there not enough research about my topic to write a paper? (In this case, you'd need to be broader.)

Keep these things in mind as you narrow down your topic. You can always expand your topic later if you have the time and research materials.

4. Identify a Problem Related to Your Topic

When narrowing down your topic, it helps to identify a single issue or problem on which to base your research. Ask open-ended questions, such as why is this topic important to you or others? Essentially, have you identified the answer to "so what"?

For example, after asking these questions about our search engine topic, we might focus only on the issue of how search engines affect research in a specific field. Or, more specifically, how search engine algorithms manipulate search results and prevent us from finding the critical research we need.

Asking these "so what" questions will help us brainstorm examples of research questions we can ask in our field of study.

5. Turn Your Problem into a Question

Now that you have your main issue or problem, it's time to write your research question. Do this by reviewing your topic's big problem and formulating a question that your research will answer.

For example, ask, "so what?" about your search engine topic. You might realize that the bigger issue is that you, as a researcher, aren't getting the relevant information you need from search engines.

How can we use this information to develop a research question? We might phrase the research question as follows:

"What effect does the Google search engine algorithm have on online research conducted in the field of neuroscience?"

Note how specific we were with the type of search engine, the field of study, and the research method. It's also important to remember that your research question should not have an easy yes or no answer. It should be a question with a complex answer that can be discovered through research and analysis.

Perfect Your Paper

Hire an expert academic editor , or get a free sample, how to find good research topics for your research.

It can be fun to browse a myriad of research topics for your paper, but there are a few important things to keep in mind.

First, make sure you've understood your assignment. You don't want to pick a topic that's not relevant to the assignment goal. Your instructor can offer good topic suggestions as well, so if you get stuck, ask them!

Next, try to search for a broad topic that interests you. Starting broad gives you more options to work with. Some research topic examples include infectious diseases, European history, and smartphones .

Then, after some research, narrow your topic to something specific by extracting a single element from that subject. This could be a current issue on that topic, a major question circulating around that topic, or a specific region or group of people affected by that topic.

It's important that your research topic is focused. Focus lets you clearly demonstrate your understanding of the topic with enough details and examples to fit the scope of your project.

For example, if Jane Austen is your research topic, that might be too broad for a five-page paper! However, you could narrow it down to a single book by Austen or a specific perspective.

To keep your research topic focused, try creating a mind map. This is where you put your broad topic in a circle and create a few circles around it with similar ideas that you uncovered during your research.

Mind maps can help you visualize the connections between topics and subtopics. This could help you simplify the process of eliminating broad or uninteresting topics or help you identify new relationships between topics that you didn't previously notice.

Keeping your research topic focused will help you when it comes to writing your research question!

2. Researchable

A researchable question should have enough available sources to fill the scope of your project without being overwhelming. If you find that the research is never-ending, you're going to be very disappointed at the end of your paper—because you won't be able to fit everything in! If you are in this fix, your research question is still too broad.

Search for your research topic's keywords in trusted sources such as journals, research databases , or dissertations in your university library. Then, assess whether the research you're finding is feasible and realistic to use.

If there's too much material out there, narrow down your topic by industry, region, or demographic. Conversely, if you don't find enough research on your topic, you'll need to go broader. Try choosing two works by two different authors instead of one, or try choosing three poems by a single author instead of one.

3. Reasonable

Make sure that the topic for your research question is a reasonable one to pursue. This means it's something that can be completed within your timeframe and offers a new perspective on the research.

Research topics often end up being summaries of a topic, but that's not the goal. You're looking for a way to add something relevant and new to the topic you're exploring. To do so, here are two ways to uncover strong, reasonable research topics as you conduct your preliminary research:

Check the ends of journal articles for sections with questions for further discussion. These make great research topics because they haven't been explored!

Check the sources of articles in your research. What points are they bringing up? Is there anything new worth exploring? Sometimes, you can use sources to expand your research and more effectively narrow your topic.

4. Specific

For your research topic to stand on its own, it should be specific. This means that it shouldn't be easily mistaken for another topic that's already been written about.

If you are writing about a topic that has been written about, such as consumer trust, it should be distinct from everything that's been written about consumer trust so far.

There is already a lot of research done on consumer trust in specific products or services in the US. Your research topic could focus on consumer trust in products and services in a different region, such as a developing country.

If your research feels similar to existing articles, make sure to drive home the differences.

Whether it's developed for a thesis or another assignment, a good research topic question should be complex enough to let you expand on it within the scope of your paper.

For example, let's say you took our advice on researching a topic you were interested in, and that topic was a new Bridezilla reality show. But when you began to research it, you couldn't find enough information on it, or worse, you couldn't find anything scholarly.

In short, Bridezilla reality shows aren't complex enough to build your paper on. Instead of broadening the topic to all reality TV shows, which might be too overwhelming, you might consider choosing a topic about wedding reality TV shows specifically.

This would open you up to more research that could be complex enough to write a paper on without being too overwhelming or narrow.

6. Relevant

Because research papers aim to contribute to existing research that's already been explored, the relevance of your topic within your subject area can't be understated.

Your research topic should be relevant enough to advance understanding in a specific area of study and build on what's already been researched. It shouldn't duplicate research or try to add to it in an irrelevant way.

For example, you wouldn't choose a research topic like malaria transmission in Northern Siberia if the mosquito that transmits malaria lives in Africa. This research topic simply isn't relevant to the typical location where malaria is transmitted, and the research could be considered a waste of resources.

Do Research Questions Differ between the Humanities, Social Sciences, and Hard Sciences?

The art and science of asking questions is the source of all knowledge.

–Thomas Berger

First, a bit of clarification: While there are constants among research questions, no matter what you're writing about, you will use different standards for the humanities and social sciences than for hard sciences, such as chemistry. The former depends on subjectivity and the perspective of the researcher, while the latter requires answers that must be empirically tested and replicable.

For instance, if you research Charles Dickens' writing influences, you will have to explain your stance and observations to the reader before supporting them with evidence. If you research improvements in superconductivity in room-temperature material, the reader will not only need to understand and believe you but also duplicate your work to confirm that you are correct.

Do Research Questions Differ between the Different Types of Research?

Research questions help you clarify the path your research will take. They are answered in your research paper and usually stated in the introduction.

There are two main types of research—qualitative and quantitative.

If you're conducting quantitative research, it means you're collecting numerical, quantifiable data that can be measured, such as statistical information.

Qualitative research aims to understand experiences or phenomena, so you're collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as case studies or surveys.

The structure and content of your research question will change depending on the type of research you're doing. However, the definition and goal of a research question remains the same: a specific, relevant, and focused inquiry that your research answers.

Below, we'll explore research question examples for different types of research.

Examples of Good and Bad Research Questions

Comparative Research

Comparative research questions are designed to determine whether two or more groups differ based on a dependent variable. These questions allow researchers to uncover similarities and differences between the groups tested.

Because they compare two groups with a dependent variable, comparative research questions usually start with "What is the difference in…"

A strong comparative research question example might be the following:

"What is the difference in the daily caloric intake of American men and women?" ( Source .)

In the above example, the dependent variable is daily caloric intake and the two groups are American men and women.

A poor comparative research example might not aim to explore the differences between two groups or it could be too easily answered, as in the following example:

"Does daily caloric intake affect American men and women?"

Always ensure that your comparative research question is focused on a comparison between two groups based on a dependent variable.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research questions help you gather data about measurable variables. Typically, researchers asking descriptive research questions aim to explain how, why, or what.

These research questions tend to start with the following:

What percentage?

How likely?

What proportion?

For example, a good descriptive research question might be as follows:

"What percentage of college students have felt depressed in the last year?" ( Source .)

A poor descriptive research question wouldn't be as precise. This might be something similar to the following:

"What percentage of teenagers felt sad in the last year?"

The above question is too vague, and the data would be overwhelming, given the number of teenagers in the world. Keep in mind that specificity is key when it comes to research questions!

Correlational Research

Correlational research measures the statistical relationship between two variables, with no influence from any other variable. The idea is to observe the way these variables interact with one another. If one changes, how is the other affected?

When it comes to writing a correlational research question, remember that it's all about relationships. Your research would encompass the relational effects of one variable on the other.

For example, having an education (variable one) might positively or negatively correlate with the rate of crime (variable two) in a specific city. An example research question for this might be written as follows:

"Is there a significant negative correlation between education level and crime rate in Los Angeles?"

A bad correlational research question might not use relationships at all. In fact, correlational research questions are often confused with causal research questions, which imply cause and effect. For example:

"How does the education level in Los Angeles influence the crime rate?"

The above question wouldn't be a good correlational research question because the relationship between Los Angeles and the crime rate is already inherent in the question—we are already assuming the education level in Los Angeles affects the crime rate in some way.

Be sure to use the right format if you're writing a correlational research question.

How to Avoid a Bad Question

Ask the right questions, and the answers will always reveal themselves.

–Oprah Winfrey

If finding the right research question was easy, doing research would be much simpler. However, research does not provide useful information if the questions have easy answers (because the questions are too simple, narrow, or general) or answers that cannot be reached at all (because the questions have no possible answer, are too costly to answer, or are too broad in scope).

For a research question to meet scientific standards, its answer cannot consist solely of opinion (even if the opinion is popular or logically reasoned) and cannot simply be a description of known information.

However, an analysis of what currently exists can be valuable, provided that there is enough information to produce a useful analysis. If a scientific research question offers results that cannot be tested, measured, or duplicated, it is ineffective.

Bad Research Question Examples

Here are examples of bad research questions with brief explanations of what makes them ineffective for the purpose of research.

"What's red and bad for your teeth?"

This question has an easy, definitive answer (a brick), is too vague (What shade of red? How bad?), and isn't productive.

"Do violent video games cause players to act violently?"

This question also requires a definitive answer (yes or no), does not invite critical analysis, and allows opinion to influence or provide the answer.

"How many people were playing balalaikas while living in Moscow on July 8, 2019?"

This question cannot be answered without expending excessive amounts of time, money, and resources. It is also far too specific. Finally, it doesn't seek new insight or information, only a number that has no conceivable purpose.

How to Write a Research Question

The quality of a question is not judged by its complexity but by the complexity of thinking it provokes.

–Joseph O'Connor

What makes a good research question? A good research question topic is clear and focused. If the reader has to waste time wondering what you mean, you haven't phrased it effectively.

It also needs to be interesting and relevant, encouraging the reader to come along with you as you explain how you reached an answer.

Finally, once you explain your answer, there should be room for astute or interested readers to use your question as a basis to conduct their own research. If there is nothing for you to say in your conclusion beyond "that's the truth," then you're setting up your research to be challenged.

Good Research Question Examples

Here are some examples of good research questions. Take a look at the reasoning behind their effectiveness.

"What are the long-term effects of using activated charcoal in place of generic toothpaste for routine dental care?"

This question is specific enough to prevent digressions, invites measurable results, and concerns information that is both useful and interesting. Testing could be conducted in a reasonable time frame, without excessive cost, and would allow other researchers to follow up, regardless of the outcome.

"Why do North American parents feel that violent video game content has a negative influence on their children?"

While this does carry an assumption, backing up that assumption with observable proof will allow for analysis of the question, provide insight on a significant subject, and give readers something to build on in future research.

It also discusses a topic that is recognizably relevant. (In 2022, at least. If you are reading this article in the future, there might already be an answer to this question that requires further analysis or testing!)

"To what extent has Alexey Arkhipovsky's 2013 album, Insomnia , influenced gender identification in Russian culture?"

While it's tightly focused, this question also presents an assumption (that the music influenced gender identification) and seeks to prove or disprove it. This allows for the possibilities that the music had no influence at all or had a demonstrable impact.

Answering the question will involve explaining the context and using many sources so that the reader can follow the logic and be convinced of the author's findings. The results (be they positive or negative) will also open the door to countless other studies.

How to Turn a Bad Research Question into a Good One

If something is wrong, fix it if you can. But train yourself not to worry. Worry never fixes anything.

–Ernest Hemingway

How do you turn something that won't help your research into something that will? Start by taking a step back and asking what you are expected to produce. While there are any number of fascinating subjects out there, a grant paying you to examine income disparity in Japan is not going to warrant an in-depth discussion of South American farming pollution.

Use these expectations to frame your initial topic and the subject that your research should be about, and then conduct preliminary research into that subject. If you spot a knowledge gap while researching, make a note of it, and add it to your list of possible questions.

If you already have a question that is relevant to your topic but has flaws, identify the issues and see if they can be addressed. In addition, if your question is too broad, try to narrow it down enough to make your research feasible.

Especially in the sciences, if your research question will not produce results that can be replicated, determine how you can change it so a reader can look at what you've done and go about repeating your actions so they can see that you are right.

Moreover, if you would need 20 years to produce results, consider whether there is a way to tighten things up to produce more immediate results. This could justify future research that will eventually reach that lofty goal.

If all else fails, you can use the flawed question as a subtopic and try to find a better question that fits your goals and expectations.

Parting Advice

When you have your early work edited, don't be surprised if you are told that your research question requires revision. Quite often, results or the lack thereof can force a researcher to shift their focus and examine a less significant topic—or a different facet of a known issue—because testing did not produce the expected result.

If that happens, take heart. You now have the tools to assess your question, find its flaws, and repair them so that you can complete your research with confidence and publish something you know your audience will read with fascination.

Of course, if you receive affirmation that your research question is strong or are polishing your work before submitting it to a publisher, you might just need a final proofread to ensure that your confidence is well placed. Then, you can start pursuing something new that the world does not yet know (but will know) once you have your research question down.

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Chapter Outline

Empirical vs. ethical questions (4 minute read)
Characteristics of a good research question (4 minute read)
Quantitative research questions (7 minute read)
Qualitative research questions (3 minute read)
Evaluating and updating your research questions (4 minute read)

Content warning: examples in this chapter include references to sexual violence, sexism, substance use disorders, homelessness, domestic violence, the child welfare system, cissexism and heterosexism, and truancy and school discipline.

9.1 Empirical vs. ethical questions

Learning objectives.

Learners will be able to…

Define empirical questions and provide an example
Define ethical questions and provide an example

Writing a good research question is an art and a science. It is a science because you have to make sure it is clear, concise, and well-developed. It is an art because often your language needs “wordsmithing” to perfect and clarify the meaning. This is an exciting part of the research process; however, it can also be one of the most stressful.

Creating a good research question begins by identifying a topic you are interested in studying. At this point, you already have a working question. You’ve been applying it to the exercises in each chapter, and after reading more about your topic in the scholarly literature, you’ve probably gone back and revised your working question a few times. We’re going to continue that process in more detail in this chapter. Keep in mind that writing research questions is an iterative process, with revisions happening week after week until you are ready to start your project.

Empirical vs. ethical questions

When it comes to research questions, social science is best equipped to answer empirical questions —those that can be answered by real experience in the real world—as opposed to ethical questions —questions about which people have moral opinions and that may not be answerable in reference to the real world. While social workers have explicit ethical obligations (e.g., service, social justice), research projects ask empirical questions to help actualize and support the work of upholding those ethical principles.

In order to help you better understand the difference between ethical and empirical questions, let’s consider a topic about which people have moral opinions. How about SpongeBob SquarePants? [1] In early 2005, members of the conservative Christian group Focus on the Family (2005) [2] denounced this seemingly innocuous cartoon character as “morally offensive” because they perceived his character to be one that promotes a “pro-gay agenda.” Focus on the Family supported their claim that SpongeBob is immoral by citing his appearance in a children’s video designed to promote tolerance of all family forms (BBC News, 2005). [3] They also cited SpongeBob’s regular hand-holding with his male sidekick Patrick as further evidence of his immorality.

So, can we now conclude that SpongeBob SquarePants is immoral? Not so fast. While your mother or a newspaper or television reporter may provide an answer, a social science researcher cannot. Questions of morality are ethical, not empirical. Of course, this doesn’t mean that social science researchers cannot study opinions about or social meanings surrounding SpongeBob SquarePants (Carter, 2010). [4] We study humans after all, and as you will discover in the following chapters of this textbook, we are trained to utilize a variety of scientific data-collection techniques to understand patterns of human beliefs and behaviors. Using these techniques, we could find out how many people in the United States find SpongeBob morally reprehensible, but we could never learn, empirically, whether SpongeBob is in fact morally reprehensible.

Let’s consider an example from a recent MSW research class I taught. A student group wanted to research the penalties for sexual assault. Their original research question was: “How can prison sentences for sexual assault be so much lower than the penalty for drug possession?” Outside of the research context, that is a darn good question! It speaks to how the War on Drugs and the patriarchy have distorted the criminal justice system towards policing of drug crimes over gender-based violence.

Unfortunately, it is an ethical question, not an empirical one. To answer that question, you would have to draw on philosophy and morality, answering what it is about human nature and society that allows such unjust outcomes. However, you could not answer that question by gathering data about people in the real world. If I asked people that question, they would likely give me their opinions about drugs, gender-based violence, and the criminal justice system. But I wouldn’t get the real answer about why our society tolerates such an imbalance in punishment.

As the students worked on the project through the semester, they continued to focus on the topic of sexual assault in the criminal justice system. Their research question became more empirical because they read more empirical articles about their topic. One option that they considered was to evaluate intervention programs for perpetrators of sexual assault to see if they reduced the likelihood of committing sexual assault again. Another option they considered was seeing if counties or states with higher than average jail sentences for sexual assault perpetrators had lower rates of re-offense for sexual assault. These projects addressed the ethical question of punishing perpetrators of sexual violence but did so in a way that gathered and analyzed empirical real-world data. Our job as social work researchers is to gather social facts about social work issues, not to judge or determine morality.

Key Takeaways

Empirical questions are distinct from ethical questions.
There are usually a number of ethical questions and a number of empirical questions that could be asked about any single topic.
While social workers may research topics about which people have moral opinions, a researcher’s job is to gather and analyze empirical data.
Take a look at your working question. Make sure you have an empirical question, not an ethical one. To perform this check, describe how you could find an answer to your question by conducting a study, like a survey or focus group, with real people.

9.2 Characteristics of a good research question

Identify and explain the key features of a good research question
Explain why it is important for social workers to be focused and clear with the language they use in their research questions

Now that you’ve made sure your working question is empirical, you need to revise that working question into a formal research question. So, what makes a good research question? First, it is generally written in the form of a question. To say that your research question is “the opioid epidemic” or “animal assisted therapy” or “oppression” would not be correct. You need to frame your topic as a question, not a statement. A good research question is also one that is well-focused. A well-focused question helps you tune out irrelevant information and not try to answer everything about the world all at once. You could be the most eloquent writer in your class, or even in the world, but if the research question about which you are writing is unclear, your work will ultimately lack direction.

In addition to being written in the form of a question and being well-focused, a good research question is one that cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. For example, if your interest is in gender norms, you could ask, “Does gender affect a person’s performance of household tasks?” but you will have nothing left to say once you discover your yes or no answer. Instead, why not ask, about the relationship between gender and household tasks. Alternatively, maybe we are interested in how or to what extent gender affects a person’s contributions to housework in a marriage? By tweaking your question in this small way, you suddenly have a much more fascinating question and more to say as you attempt to answer it.

A good research question should also have more than one plausible answer. In the example above, the student who studied the relationship between gender and household tasks had a specific interest in the impact of gender, but she also knew that preferences might be impacted by other factors. For example, she knew from her own experience that her more traditional and socially conservative friends were more likely to see household tasks as part of the female domain, and were less likely to expect their male partners to contribute to those tasks. Thinking through the possible relationships between gender, culture, and household tasks led that student to realize that there were many plausible answers to her questions about how gender affects a person’s contribution to household tasks. Because gender doesn’t exist in a vacuum, she wisely felt that she needed to consider other characteristics that work together with gender to shape people’s behaviors, likes, and dislikes. By doing this, the student considered the third feature of a good research question–she thought about relationships between several concepts. While she began with an interest in a single concept—household tasks—by asking herself what other concepts (such as gender or political orientation) might be related to her original interest, she was able to form a question that considered the relationships among those concepts.

This student had one final component to consider. Social work research questions must contain a target population. Her study would be very different if she were to conduct it on older adults or immigrants who just arrived in a new country. The target population is the group of people whose needs your study addresses. Maybe the student noticed issues with household tasks as part of her social work practice with first-generation immigrants, and so she made it her target population. Maybe she wants to address the needs of another community. Whatever the case, the target population should be chosen while keeping in mind social work’s responsibility to work on behalf of marginalized and oppressed groups.

In sum, a good research question generally has the following features:

It is written in the form of a question
It is clearly written
It cannot be answered with “yes” or “no”
It has more than one plausible answer
It considers relationships among multiple variables
It is specific and clear about the concepts it addresses
It includes a target population
A poorly focused research question can lead to the demise of an otherwise well-executed study.
Research questions should be clearly worded, consider relationships between multiple variables, have more than one plausible answer, and address the needs of a target population.

Okay, it’s time to write out your first draft of a research question.

Once you’ve done so, take a look at the checklist in this chapter and see if your research question meets the criteria to be a good one.

Brainstorm whether your research question might be better suited to quantitative or qualitative methods.

Describe why your question fits better with quantitative or qualitative methods.
Provide an alternative research question that fits with the other type of research method.

9.3 Quantitative research questions

Describe how research questions for exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory quantitative questions differ and how to phrase them
Identify the differences between and provide examples of strong and weak explanatory research questions

Quantitative descriptive questions

The type of research you are conducting will impact the research question that you ask. Probably the easiest questions to think of are quantitative descriptive questions. For example, “What is the average student debt load of MSW students?” is a descriptive question—and an important one. We aren’t trying to build a causal relationship here. We’re simply trying to describe how much debt MSW students carry. Quantitative descriptive questions like this one are helpful in social work practice as part of community scans, in which human service agencies survey the various needs of the community they serve. If the scan reveals that the community requires more services related to housing, child care, or day treatment for people with disabilities, a nonprofit office can use the community scan to create new programs that meet a defined community need.

Quantitative descriptive questions will often ask for percentage, count the number of instances of a phenomenon, or determine an average. Descriptive questions may only include one variable, such as ours about student debt load, or they may include multiple variables. Because these are descriptive questions, our purpose is not to investigate causal relationships between variables. To do that, we need to use a quantitative explanatory question.

Quantitative explanatory questions

Most studies you read in the academic literature will be quantitative and explanatory. Why is that? If you recall from Chapter 2 , explanatory research tries to build nomothetic causal relationships. They are generalizable across space and time, so they are applicable to a wide audience. The editorial board of a journal wants to make sure their content will be useful to as many people as possible, so it’s not surprising that quantitative research dominates the academic literature.

Structurally, quantitative explanatory questions must contain an independent variable and dependent variable. Questions should ask about the relationship between these variables. The standard format I was taught in graduate school for an explanatory quantitative research question is: “What is the relationship between [independent variable] and [dependent variable] for [target population]?” You should play with the wording for your research question, revising that standard format to match what you really want to know about your topic.

Let’s take a look at a few more examples of possible research questions and consider the relative strengths and weaknesses of each. Table 9.1 does just that. While reading the table, keep in mind that I have only noted what I view to be the most relevant strengths and weaknesses of each question. Certainly each question may have additional strengths and weaknesses not noted in the table. Each of these questions is drawn from student projects in my research methods classes and reflects the work of many students on their research question over many weeks.

Table 9.1 Sample research questions: Strengths and weaknesses

What are the internal and external effects/problems associated with children witnessing domestic violence?	Written as a question	Not clearly focused	How does witnessing domestic violence impact a child’s romantic relationships in adulthood?
	Considers relationships among multiple concepts	Not specific and clear about the concepts it addresses
	Contains a population
What causes foster children who are transitioning to adulthood to become homeless, jobless, pregnant, unhealthy, etc.?	Considers relationships among multiple concepts	Concepts are not specific and clear	What is the relationship between sexual orientation or gender identity and homelessness for late adolescents in foster care?
	Contains a population
	Not written as a yes/no question
How does income inequality predict ambivalence in the Stereo Content Model using major U.S. cities as target populations?	Written as a question	Unclear wording	How does income inequality affect ambivalence in high-density urban areas?
	Considers relationships among multiple concepts	Population is unclear
Why are mental health rates higher in white foster children than African Americans and other races?	Written as a question	Concepts are not clear	How does race impact rates of mental health diagnosis for children in foster care?
	Not written as a yes/no question	Does not contain a target population

Making it more specific

A good research question should also be specific and clear about the concepts it addresses. A student investigating gender and household tasks knows what they mean by “household tasks.” You likely also have an impression of what “household tasks” means. But are your definition and the student’s definition the same? A participant in their study may think that managing finances and performing home maintenance are household tasks, but the researcher may be interested in other tasks like childcare or cleaning. The only way to ensure your study stays focused and clear is to be specific about what you mean by a concept. The student in our example could pick a specific household task that was interesting to them or that the literature indicated was important—for example, childcare. Or, the student could have a broader view of household tasks, one that encompasses childcare, food preparation, financial management, home repair, and care for relatives. Any option is probably okay, as long as the researcher is clear on what they mean by “household tasks.” Clarifying these distinctions is important as we look ahead to specifying how your variables will be measured in Chapter 11 .

Table 9.2 contains some “watch words” that indicate you may need to be more specific about the concepts in your research question.

Table 9.2 “Watch words” in explanatory research questions

Factors, Causes, Effects, Outcomes	What causes or effects are you interested in? What causes and effects are important, based on the literature in your topic area? Try to choose one or a handful you consider to be the most important.
Effective, Effectiveness, Useful, Efficient	Effective at doing what? Effectiveness is meaningless on its own. What outcome should the program or intervention have? Reduced symptoms of a mental health issue? Better socialization?
Etc., and so forth	Don’t assume that your reader understands what you mean by “and so forth.” Remember that focusing on two or a small handful concepts is necessary. Your study cannot address everything about a social problem, though the results will likely have implications on other aspects of the social world.

It can be challenging to be this specific in social work research, particularly when you are just starting out your project and still reading the literature. If you’ve only read one or two articles on your topic, it can be hard to know what you are interested in studying. Broad questions like “What are the causes of chronic homelessness, and what can be done to prevent it?” are common at the beginning stages of a research project as working questions. However, moving from working questions to research questions in your research proposal requires that you examine the literature on the topic and refine your question over time to be more specific and clear. Perhaps you want to study the effect of a specific anti-homelessness program that you found in the literature. Maybe there is a particular model to fighting homelessness, like Housing First or transitional housing, that you want to investigate further. You may want to focus on a potential cause of homelessness such as LGBTQ+ discrimination that you find interesting or relevant to your practice. As you can see, the possibilities for making your question more specific are almost infinite.

Quantitative exploratory questions

In exploratory research, the researcher doesn’t quite know the lay of the land yet. If someone is proposing to conduct an exploratory quantitative project, the watch words highlighted in Table 9.2 are not problematic at all. In fact, questions such as “What factors influence the removal of children in child welfare cases?” are good because they will explore a variety of factors or causes. In this question, the independent variable is less clearly written, but the dependent variable, family preservation outcomes, is quite clearly written. The inverse can also be true. If we were to ask, “What outcomes are associated with family preservation services in child welfare?”, we would have a clear independent variable, family preservation services, but an unclear dependent variable, outcomes. Because we are only conducting exploratory research on a topic, we may not have an idea of what concepts may comprise our “outcomes” or “factors.” Only after interacting with our participants will we be able to understand which concepts are important.

Remember that exploratory research is appropriate only when the researcher does not know much about topic because there is very little scholarly research. In our examples above, there is extensive literature on the outcomes in family reunification programs and risk factors for child removal in child welfare. Make sure you’ve done a thorough literature review to ensure there is little relevant research to guide you towards a more explanatory question.

Descriptive quantitative research questions are helpful for community scans but cannot investigate causal relationships between variables.
Explanatory quantitative research questions must include an independent and dependent variable.
Exploratory quantitative research questions should only be considered when there is very little previous research on your topic.
Identify the type of research you are engaged in (descriptive, explanatory, or exploratory).
Create a quantitative research question for your project that matches with the type of research you are engaged in.

Preferably, you should be creating an explanatory research question for quantitative research.

9.4 Qualitative research questions

List the key terms associated with qualitative research questions
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research questions

Qualitative research questions differ from quantitative research questions. Because qualitative research questions seek to explore or describe phenomena, not provide a neat nomothetic explanation, they are often more general and openly worded. They may include only one concept, though many include more than one. Instead of asking how one variable causes changes in another, we are instead trying to understand the experiences , understandings , and meanings that people have about the concepts in our research question. These keywords often make an appearance in qualitative research questions.

Let’s work through an example from our last section. In Table 9.1, a student asked, “What is the relationship between sexual orientation or gender identity and homelessness for late adolescents in foster care?” In this question, it is pretty clear that the student believes that adolescents in foster care who identify as LGBTQ+ may be at greater risk for homelessness. This is a nomothetic causal relationship—LGBTQ+ status causes changes in homelessness.

However, what if the student were less interested in predicting homelessness based on LGBTQ+ status and more interested in understanding the stories of foster care youth who identify as LGBTQ+ and may be at risk for homelessness? In that case, the researcher would be building an idiographic causal explanation . The youths whom the researcher interviews may share stories of how their foster families, caseworkers, and others treated them. They may share stories about how they thought of their own sexuality or gender identity and how it changed over time. They may have different ideas about what it means to transition out of foster care.

Because qualitative questions usually center on idiographic causal relationships, they look different than quantitative questions. Table 9.3 below takes the final research questions from Table 9.1 and adapts them for qualitative research. The guidelines for research questions previously described in this chapter still apply, but there are some new elements to qualitative research questions that are not present in quantitative questions.

Qualitative research questions often ask about lived experience, personal experience, understanding, meaning, and stories.
Qualitative research questions may be more general and less specific.
Qualitative research questions may also contain only one variable, rather than asking about relationships between multiple variables.

Table 9.3 Quantitative vs. qualitative research questions

How does witnessing domestic violence impact a child’s romantic relationships in adulthood?	How do people who witness domestic violence understand its effects on their current relationships?
What is the relationship between sexual orientation or gender identity and homelessness for late adolescents in foster care?	What is the experience of identifying as LGBTQ+ in the foster care system?
How does income inequality affect ambivalence in high-density urban areas?	What does racial ambivalence mean to residents of an urban neighborhood with high income inequality?
How does race impact rates of mental health diagnosis for children in foster care?	How do African-Americans experience seeking help for mental health concerns?

Qualitative research questions have one final feature that distinguishes them from quantitative research questions: they can change over the course of a study. Qualitative research is a reflexive process, one in which the researcher adapts their approach based on what participants say and do. The researcher must constantly evaluate whether their question is important and relevant to the participants. As the researcher gains information from participants, it is normal for the focus of the inquiry to shift.

For example, a qualitative researcher may want to study how a new truancy rule impacts youth at risk of expulsion. However, after interviewing some of the youth in their community, a researcher might find that the rule is actually irrelevant to their behavior and thoughts. Instead, their participants will direct the discussion to their frustration with the school administrators or the lack of job opportunities in the area. This is a natural part of qualitative research, and it is normal for research questions and hypothesis to evolve based on information gleaned from participants.

However, this reflexivity and openness unacceptable in quantitative research for good reasons. Researchers using quantitative methods are testing a hypothesis, and if they could revise that hypothesis to match what they found, they could never be wrong! Indeed, an important component of open science and reproducability is the preregistration of a researcher’s hypotheses and data analysis plan in a central repository that can be verified and replicated by reviewers and other researchers. This interactive graphic from 538 shows how an unscrupulous research could come up with a hypothesis and theoretical explanation after collecting data by hunting for a combination of factors that results in a statistically significant relationship. This is an excellent example of how the positivist assumptions behind quantitative research and intepretivist assumptions behind qualitative research result in different approaches to social science.

Qualitative research questions often contain words or phrases like “lived experience,” “personal experience,” “understanding,” “meaning,” and “stories.”
Qualitative research questions can change and evolve over the course of the study.
Using the guidance in this chapter, write a qualitative research question. You may want to use some of the keywords mentioned above.

9.5 Evaluating and updating your research questions

Evaluate the feasibility and importance of your research questions
Begin to match your research questions to specific designs that determine what the participants in your study will do

Feasibility and importance

As you are getting ready to finalize your research question and move into designing your research study, it is important to check whether your research question is feasible for you to answer and what importance your results will have in the community, among your participants, and in the scientific literature

Key questions to consider when evaluating your question’s feasibility include:

Do you have access to the data you need?
Will you be able to get consent from stakeholders, gatekeepers, and others?
Does your project pose risk to individuals through direct harm, dual relationships, or breaches in confidentiality? (see Chapter 6 for more ethical considerations)
Are you competent enough to complete the study?
Do you have the resources and time needed to carry out the project?

Key questions to consider when evaluating the importance of your question include:

Can we answer your research question simply by looking at the literature on your topic?
How does your question add something new to the scholarly literature? (raises a new issue, addresses a controversy, studies a new population, etc.)
How will your target population benefit, once you answer your research question?
How will the community, social work practice, and the broader social world benefit, once you answer your research question?
Using the questions above, check whether you think your project is feasible for you to complete, given the constrains that student projects face.
Realistically, explore the potential impact of your project on the community and in the scientific literature. Make sure your question cannot be answered by simply reading more about your topic.

Matching your research question and study design

This chapter described how to create a good quantitative and qualitative research question. In Parts 3 and 4 of this textbook, we will detail some of the basic designs like surveys and interviews that social scientists use to answer their research questions. But which design should you choose?

As with most things, it all depends on your research question. If your research question involves, for example, testing a new intervention, you will likely want to use an experimental design. On the other hand, if you want to know the lived experience of people in a public housing building, you probably want to use an interview or focus group design.

We will learn more about each one of these designs in the remainder of this textbook. We will also learn about using data that already exists, studying an individual client inside clinical practice, and evaluating programs, which are other examples of designs. Below is a list of designs we will cover in this textbook:

Surveys: online, phone, mail, in-person
Experiments: classic, pre-experiments, quasi-experiments
Interviews: in-person or via phone or videoconference
Focus groups: in-person or via videoconference
Content analysis of existing data
Secondary data analysis of another researcher’s data
Program evaluation

The design of your research study determines what you and your participants will do. In an experiment, for example, the researcher will introduce a stimulus or treatment to participants and measure their responses. In contrast, a content analysis may not have participants at all, and the researcher may simply read the marketing materials for a corporation or look at a politician’s speeches to conduct the data analysis for the study.

I imagine that a content analysis probably seems easier to accomplish than an experiment. However, as a researcher, you have to choose a research design that makes sense for your question and that is feasible to complete with the resources you have. All research projects require some resources to accomplish. Make sure your design is one you can carry out with the resources (time, money, staff, etc.) that you have.

There are so many different designs that exist in the social science literature that it would be impossible to include them all in this textbook. The purpose of the subsequent chapters is to help you understand the basic designs upon which these more advanced designs are built. As you learn more about research design, you will likely find yourself revising your research question to make sure it fits with the design. At the same time, your research question as it exists now should influence the design you end up choosing. There is no set order in which these should happen. Instead, your research project should be guided by whether you can feasibly carry it out and contribute new and important knowledge to the world.

Research questions must be feasible and important.
Research questions must match study design.
Based on what you know about designs like surveys, experiments, and interviews, describe how you might use one of them to answer your research question.
You may want to refer back to Chapter 2 which discusses how to get raw data about your topic and the common designs used in student research projects.
Not familiar with SpongeBob SquarePants? You can learn more about him on Nickelodeon’s site dedicated to all things SpongeBob: http://www.nick.com/spongebob-squarepants/ ↵
Focus on the Family. (2005, January 26). Focus on SpongeBob. Christianity Today . Retrieved from http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/januaryweb-only/34.0c.html ↵
BBC News. (2005, January 20). US right attacks SpongeBob video. Retrieved from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4190699.stm ↵
In fact, an MA thesis examines representations of gender and relationships in the cartoon: Carter, A. C. (2010). Constructing gender and relationships in “SpongeBob SquarePants”: Who lives in a pineapple under the sea . MA thesis, Department of Communication, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL. ↵
Writing from an outline (10 minute read plus an 8 minute video, and then a 15 minute video)
Writing your literature review (30 minute read)

Content warning: TBA

6.1: Writing from an outline

Learners will be able to...

Integrate facts from the literature into scholarly writing
Experiment with different approaches to integrating information that do not involve direct quotations from other authors

Congratulations! By now, you should have discovered, retrieved, evaluated, synthesized, and organized the information you need for your literature review. It’s now time to turn that stack of articles, papers, and notes into a literature review–it’s time to start writing!

The first step in research writing is outlining. In Chapter 4, we reviewed how to build a topical outline using quotations and facts from other authors. Use that outline (or one you write now) as a way to organize your thoughts.

Watch this video from Nicholas Cifuentes-Goodbody on Outlining . As he highlights, outlining is like building a mise en place before a meal--arranging your ingredients in an orderly way so you can create your masterpiece.

From quotations to original writing

Much like combining ingredients on a kitchen countertop, you will need to mix your ingredients together. That means you will not be relying extensively on quotations from other authors in your literature review. In moving from an outline to a literature review, the key intellectual move is relying on your own ideas about the literature, rather than quoting extensively from other sources.

Integrating ideas from other authors

Watch this video from Nicholas Cifuentes-Goodbody on using quotations in academic writing . In the video, he reviews a few different techniques to integrate quotations or ideas from other authors into your writing. All literature reviews use the ideas from other authors, but it's important not to overuse others' words. Your literature review is evaluated by your professor based on how well it shows you are able to make connections between different facts in the scientific literature. The examples in this section should highlight how to get other people's words out of the way of your own. Use these strategies to diversify your writing and show your readers how your sources contributed to your work.

1. Make a claim without a quote

Claim ( Citation )

Some view cities as the storehouse of culture and creativity, and propose that urbanization is a consequence of the attractiveness of these social benefits ( Mumford, 1961 ).

More information

Oftentimes you do not need to directly quote a source to convey its conclusions or arguments – and some disciplines discourage quoting directly! Rather you can paraphrase the main point of a paper in your own words and provide an in-text citation. A benefit of using this strategy is that you can offer support for a claim without using a whole paragraph to introduce and frame a quote. You should make sure that you fully understand the paper's argument and that you are following university citation guidelines before attempting to paraphrase something from a paper.

2. Make a claim that is supported by two or more sources:

Claim ( Citation 1 ; Citation 2 ).

Reviews of this literature concede difficulty in making direct comparisons of emission levels across different sets of analysis ( Bader and Bleischwitz, 2009 ; Kennedy et al., 2009 ; Ramaswami et al., 2012 ).

Sometimes multiple sources support your claim, or there are two major publications that deserve credit for providing evidence on a topic. This is a perfect time to use multiple citations. You can cite two, three, or more sources in a single sentence!

Make a claim that has been supported in multiple contexts:

Context 1 ( Citation ), Context 2 ( Citation ), Context 3 ( Citation ).

These results are supported by more recent research on transportation energy consumption ( Liddle, 2014 ), electricity consumption in buildings ( Lariviere and Lafrance, 1999 ), and overall urban GHG emissions ( Marcotullio et al., 2013b ).

More information:

Use this citation strategy when you want to show that a body of research has found support for some claim across several different contexts. This can show the robustness of an effect or phenomenon and can give your claim some added validity

3. Quote important or unique terms

Claim " Term " ( Citation ).

The spatial implications of this thinking are manifest in the " concentric ring model " of urban expansion and its variants ( Harris and Ullman, 1945 ).

While block or even whole-sentence citations are rare in most research papers in the science and social science disciplines, there is often a need to quote specific terms or phrases that were first coined by a certain source or that were well-explained in a specific paper.

4. Quoting definitions

Contextualize quote , " important word or phrase ."

Role conflict is defined as "A situation in which contradictory, competing, or incompatible expectations are placed on an individual by two or more roles held at the same time" (Open Sociology Dictionary, 2023); whereas, role strain is defined as "a situation caused by higher-than-expected demands placed on an individual performing a specific role that leads to difficulty or stress" (Open Sociology Dictionary, 2023). In our study, we hypothesize that caregivers who reenter higher education experience role conflict between school work, paid work, and care work. Further, we hypothesize that this conflict is greater in individuals who had experienced role strain in employment or caregiving prior to entering college.

A direct quotation can bring attention to specific language in your source. When someone puts something perfectly, you can use a quotation to convey the identical meaning in your work. Definitions are an excellent example of when to use a quotation. In other cases, there may be quotations from important thinkers, clients or community members, and others whose specific wording is important.

I encourage you to use few, if any, direct quotations in your literature review. Personally, I think most students are scared of looking stupid and would rather use a good quotation than risk not getting it right. If you are a student who considers themselves a strong writer, this may not sound relevant to you. However, I'm willing to bet that there are many of your peers for whom this describes a particular bit of research anxiety.

When using quotations, make sure to only include the parts of the quotation that are necessary. You do not need to use quotation marks for statistics you use. And I encourage you to find ways to put others' statistics in your sentences.

Why share information from other sources?

Now that you know some different sentence structures using APA citations, let's examine the purpose behind why you are sharing information from another source. Cited evidence can serve a wide range of purposes in academic papers. These examples will give you an idea of the different ways that you can use citations in your paper.

1. Summarize your source

The studies of Newman and Kenworthy ( 1989, 1999 ) demonstrate a negative relationship between population density and transportation fuel use .

You will help your reader understand your points better if you summarize the key points of a study. Describe the strengths or weaknesses a specific source that has been pivotal in your field. Describe the source's specific methodology, theory, or approach. Be sure to still include a citation. If you mention the name of the author in your text, you still need to provide the date of the study in a parenthetical citation.

2. Cite a method

Despite the popularity of the WUP indicators , they have been routinely criticized because the methodology relies on local- and country-speciﬁc deﬁnitions of bounding urban areas, resulting in of ten incomparable and widely divergent deﬁnitions of the population, density thresholds, or administrative/political units designated ( Satterthwaite, 2007 ).

This is an easy way to give credit to a source that has provided some evidence for the validity of a method or questionnaire. Readers can reference your citation if they are interested in knowing more about the method and its standing in the current literature.

3. Compare sources

Some evidence for this scaling relationship suggests that urban areas with larger population sizes have proportionally smaller energy infrastructures than smaller cities ( Bettencourt et al., 2007 ; Fragkias et al., 2013 ). Other evidence suggests that GHG emissions may increase more than proportionally to population size, such that larger cities exhibit proportionally higher energy demand as they grow than do smaller cities ( Marcotullio et al., 2013 ).

This is one of the most important techniques for creating an effective literature review. This allows you and your readers to consider controversies and discrepancies among the current literature, revealing gaps in the literature or points of contention for further study.

The examples in this guide come from:

Marcotullio, P. J., Hughes, S., Sarzynski, A., Pincetl, S., Sanchez Peña, L., Romero-Lankao, P., Runfola, D. and Seto, K. C. (2014), Urbanization and the carbon cycle: Contributions from social science. Earth's Future, 2: 496–514. doi:10.1002/2014EF000257

Avoiding plagiarism

The most difficult thing about avoiding plagiarism is that reading so much of other people's ideas can make them seem like your own after a while. We recommend you work through this interactive activity on determining how and when to cite other authors.

Research writing requires outlining, which helps you arrange your facts neatly before writing. It's similar to arranging all of your ingredients before you start cooking.
Eliminate quotations from your writing as much as possible. Your literature review needs to be your analysis of the literature, not just a summary of other people's good ideas.
Experiment with the prompts in this chapter as you begin to write your research question.

6.2 Writing your literature review

Describe the components of a literature review
Begin to write your literature review
Identify the purpose of a problem statement
Apply the components of a formal argument to your topic
Use elements of formal writing style, including signposting and transitions
Recognize commons errors in literature reviews

Writing about research is different than other types of writing. Research writing is not like a journal entry or opinion paper. The goal here is not to apply your research question to your life or growth as a practitioner. Research writing is about the provision and interpretation of facts. The tone should be objective and unbiased, and personal experiences and opinions are excluded. Particularly for students who are used to writing case notes, research writing can be a challenge. That's why its important to normalize getting help! If your professor has not built in peer review, consider setting up a peer review group among your peers. You should also reach out to your academic advisor to see if there are writing services on your campus available to graduate students. No one should feel bad for needing help with something they haven't done before, haven't done in a while, or were never taught how to do.

If you’ve followed the steps in this chapter, you likely have an outline, summary table, and concept map from which you can begin the writing process. But what do you need to include in your literature review? We’ve mentioned it before, but to summarize, a literature review should:

Introduce the topic and define its key terms.
Establish the importance of the topic.
Provide an overview of the important literature related to the concepts found in the research question.
Identify gaps or controversies in the literature.
Point out consistent findings across studies.
Synthesize that which is known about a topic, rather than just provide a summary of the articles you read.
Discuss possible implications and directions for future research.

Do you have enough facts and sources to accomplish these tasks? It’s a good time to consult your outlines and notes on each article you plan to include in your literature review. You may also want to consult with your professor on what is expected of you. If there is something you are missing, you may want to jump back to section 2.3 where we discussed how to search for literature. While you can always fill in material, there is the danger that you will start writing without really knowing what you are talking about or what you want to say. For example, if you don’t have a solid definition of your key concepts or a sense of how the literature has developed over time, it will be difficult to make coherent scholarly claims about your topic.

There is no magical point at which one is ready to write. As you consider whether you are ready, it may be useful to ask yourself these questions:

How will my literature review be organized?
What section headings will I be using?
How do the various studies relate to each other?
What contributions do they make to the field?
Where are the gaps or limitations in existing research?
And finally, but most importantly, how does my own research fit into what has already been done?

The problem statement

Scholarly works often begin with a problem statement, which serves two functions. First, it establishes why your topic is a social problem worth studying. Second, it pulls your reader into the literature review. Who would want to read about something unimportant?

A problem statement generally answers the following questions, though these are far from exhaustive:

Why is this an important problem to study?
How many people are affected by this problem?
How does this problem impact other social issues relevant to social work?
Why is your target population an important one to study?

A strong problem statement, like the rest of your literature review, should be filled with empirical results, theory, and arguments based on the extant literature. A research proposal differs significantly from other more reflective essays you’ve likely completed during your social work studies. If your topic were domestic violence in rural Appalachia, I’m sure you could come up with answers to the above questions without looking at a single source. However, the purpose of the literature review is not to test your intuition, personal experience, or empathy. Instead, research methods are about gaining specific and articulable knowledge to inform action. With a problem statement, you can take a “boring” topic like the color of rooms used in an inpatient psychiatric facility, transportation patterns in major cities, or the materials used to manufacture baby bottles, and help others see the topic as you see it—an important part of the social world that impacts social work practice.

The structure of a literature review

In general, the problem statement belongs at the beginning of the literature review. We usually advise students to spend no more than a paragraph or two for a problem statement. For the rest of your literature review, there is no set formula by which it needs to be organized. However, a literature review generally follows the format of any other essay—Introduction, Body, and Conclusion.

The introduction to the literature review contains a statement or statements about the overall topic. At a minimum, the introduction should define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern. You might consider presenting historical background, mentioning the results of a seminal study, and providing definitions of important terms. The introduction may also point to overall trends in what has been previously published on the topic or on conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence, conclusions, or gaps in research and scholarship. We also suggest putting in a few sentences that walk the reader through the rest of the literature review. Highlight your main arguments from the body of the literature review and preview your conclusion. An introduction should let the reader know what to expect from the rest of your review.

The body of your literature review is where you demonstrate your synthesis and analysis of the literature. Again, do not just summarize the literature. We would also caution against organizing your literature review by source—that is, one paragraph for source A, one paragraph for source B, etc. That structure will likely provide an adequate summary of the literature you’ve found, but it would give you almost no synthesis of the literature. That approach doesn’t tell your reader how to put those facts together, it doesn't highlight points of agreement or contention, or how each study builds on the work of others. In short, it does not demonstrate critical thinking.

Organize your review by argument

Instead, use your outlines and notes as a guide what you have to say about the important topics you need to cover. Literature reviews are written from the perspective of an expert in that field. After an exhaustive literature review, you should feel as though you are able to make strong claims about what is true—so make them! There is no need to hide behind “I believe” or “I think.” Put your voice out in front, loud and proud! But make sure you have facts and sources that back up your claims.

I’ve used the term “ argument ” here in a specific way. An argument in writing means more than simply disagreeing with what someone else said, as this classic Monty Python sketch demonstrates. Toulman, Rieke, and Janik (1984) identify six elements of an argument:

Claim: the thesis statement—what you are trying to prove
Grounds: theoretical or empirical evidence that supports your claim
Warrant: your reasoning (rule or principle) connecting the claim and its grounds
Backing: further facts used to support or legitimize the warrant
Qualifier: acknowledging that the argument may not be true for all cases
Rebuttal: considering both sides (as cited in Burnette, 2012) [1]

Let’s walk through an example. If I were writing a literature review on a negative income tax, a policy in which people in poverty receive an unconditional cash stipend from the government each month equal to the federal poverty level, I would want to lay out the following:

Claim: the negative income tax is superior to other forms of anti-poverty assistance.
Grounds: data comparing negative income tax recipients to people receiving anti-poverty assistance in existing programs, theory supporting a negative income tax, data from evaluations of existing anti-poverty programs, etc.
Warrant: cash-based programs like the negative income tax are superior to existing anti-poverty programs because they allow the recipient greater self-determination over how to spend their money.
Backing: data demonstrating the beneficial effects of self-determination on people in poverty.
Qualifier: the negative income tax does not provide taxpayers and voters with enough control to make sure people in poverty are not wasting financial assistance on frivolous items.
Rebuttal: policy should be about empowering the oppressed, not protecting the taxpayer, and there are ways of addressing taxpayer spending concerns through policy design.

Like any effective argument, your literature review must have some kind of structure. For example, it might begin by describing a phenomenon in a general way along with several studies that provide some detail, then describing two or more competing theories of the phenomenon, and finally presenting a hypothesis to test one or more of the theories. Or, it might describe one phenomenon, then describe another that seems inconsistent with the first, then propose a theory that resolves the inconsistency, and finally present a hypothesis to test that theory. In applied research, it might describe a phenomenon or theory, then describe how that phenomenon or theory applies to some important real-world situation, and finally, may suggest a way to test whether it does, in fact, apply to that situation.

Use signposts

Another important issue is signposting . It may not be a term you are familiar with, but you are likely familiar with the concept. Signposting refers to the words used to identify the organization and structure of your literature review to your reader. The most basic form of signposting is using a topic sentence at the beginning of each paragraph. A topic sentence introduces the argument you plan to make in that paragraph. For example, you might start a paragraph stating, “There is strong disagreement in the literature as to whether psychedelic drugs cause people to develop psychotic disorders, or whether psychotic disorders cause people to use psychedelic drugs.” Within that paragraph, your reader would likely assume you will present evidence for both arguments. The concluding sentence of your paragraph should address the topic sentence, discussing how the facts and arguments from the paragraph you've written support a specific conclusion. To continue with our example, I might say, “There is likely a reciprocal effect in which both the use of psychedelic drugs worsens pre-psychotic symptoms and worsening psychosis increases the desire to use psychedelic drugs.”

Signposting also involves using headings and subheadings. Your literature review will use APA formatting, which means you need to follow their rules for bolding, capitalization, italicization, and indentation of headings. Headings help your reader understand the structure of your literature review. They can also help if the reader gets lost and needs to re-orient themselves within the document. We often tell our students to assume we know nothing (they don’t mind) and need to be shown exactly where they are addressing each part of the literature review. It’s like walking a small child around, telling them “First we’ll do this, then we’ll do that, and when we’re done, we’ll know this!”

Another way to use signposting is to open each paragraph with a sentence that links the topic of the paragraph with the one before it. Alternatively, one could end each paragraph with a sentence that links it with the next paragraph. For example, imagine we wanted to link a paragraph about barriers to accessing healthcare with one about the relationship between the patient and physician. We could use a transition sentence like this: “Even if patients overcome these barriers to accessing care, the physician-patient relationship can create new barriers to positive health outcomes.” A transition sentence like this builds a connection between two distinct topics. Transition sentences are also useful within paragraphs. They tell the reader how to consider one piece of information in light of previous information. Even simple transitional words like 'however' and 'similarly' can help demonstrate critical thinking and link each building block of your argument together.

Many beginning researchers have difficulty incorporating transitions into their writing. Let’s look at an example. Instead of beginning a sentence or paragraph by launching into a description of a study, such as “Williams (2004) found that…,” it is better to start by indicating something about why you are describing this particular study. Here are some simple examples:

Another example of this phenomenon comes from the work of Williams (2004)...
Williams (2004) offers one explanation of this phenomenon...
An alternative perspective has been provided by Williams (2004)...

Now that we know to use signposts, the natural question is “What goes on the signposts?” First, it is important to start with an outline of the main points that you want to make, organized in the order you want to make them. The basic structure of your argument should then be apparent from the outline itself. Unfortunately, there is no formula we can give you that will work for everyone, but we can provide some general pointers on structuring your literature review.

The literature review tends to move from general to more specific ideas. You can build a review by identifying areas of consensus and areas of disagreement. You may choose to present historical studies—preferably seminal studies that are of significant importance—and close with the most recent research. Another approach is to start with the most distantly related facts and literature and then report on those most closely related to your research question. You could also compare and contrast valid approaches, features, characteristics, theories – that is, one approach, then a second approach, followed by a third approach.

Here are some additional tips for writing the body of your literature review:

Start broad and then narrow down to more specific information.
When appropriate, cite two or more sources for a single point, but avoid long strings of references for a single idea.
Use quotes sparingly. Quotations for definitions are okay, but reserve quotes for when something is said so well you couldn’t possible phrase it differently. Never use quotes for statistics.
Paraphrase when you need to relay the specific details within an article
Include only the aspects of the study that are relevant to your literature review. Don’t insert extra facts about a study just to take up space.
Avoid reflective, personal writing. It is traditional to avoid using first-person language (I, we, us, etc.).
Avoid informal language like contractions, idioms, and rhetorical questions.
Note any sections of your review that lack citations from the literature. Your arguments need to be based in empirical or theoretical facts. Do not approach this like a reflective journal entry.
Point out consistent findings and emphasize stronger studies over weaker ones.
Point out important strengths and weaknesses of research studies, as well as contradictions and inconsistent findings.
Implications and suggestions for further research (where there are gaps in the current literature) should be specific.

The conclusion should summarize your literature review, discuss implications, and create a space for further research needed in this area. Your conclusion, like the rest of your literature review, should make a point. What are the important implications of your literature review? How do they inform the question you are trying to answer?

You should consult with your professor and the course syllabus about the final structure your literature review should take. Here is an example of one possible structure:

Establish the importance of the topic
Number and type of people affected
Seriousness of the impact
Physical, psychological, economic, social, or spiritual consequences of the problem
Definitions of key terms
Supporting evidence
Common findings across studies, gaps in the literature
Research question(s) and hypothesis(es)

Editing your literature review

Literature reviews are more than a summary of the publications you find on a topic. As you have seen in this brief introduction, literature reviews represent a very specific type of research, analysis, and writing. We will explore these topics further in upcoming chapters. As you begin your literature review, here are some common errors to avoid:

Accepting a researcher’s finding as valid without evaluating methodology and data
Ignoring contrary findings and alternative interpretations
Using findings that are not clearly related to your own study or using findings that are too general
Dedicating insufficient time to literature searching
Reporting statistical results from a single study, rather than synthesizing the results of multiple studies to provide a comprehensive view of the literature on a topic
Relying too heavily on secondary sources
Overusing quotations
Not justifying arguments using specific facts or theories from the literature

For your literature review, remember that your goal is to construct an argument for the importance of your research question. As you start editing your literature review, make sure it is balanced. Accurately report common findings, areas where studies contradict each other, new theories or perspectives, and how studies cause us to reaffirm or challenge our understanding of your topic.

It is acceptable to argue that the balance of the research supports the existence of a phenomenon or is consistent with a theory (and that is usually the best that researchers in social work can hope for), but it is not acceptable to ignore contradictory evidence. A large part of what makes a research question interesting is uncertainty about its answer (University of Minnesota, 2016). [2]

In addition to subjectivity and bias, writer's block can obstruct the completion of your literature review. Often times, writer’s block can stem from confusing the creating and editing parts of the writing process. Many writers often start by simply trying to type out what they want to say, regardless of how good it is. Author Anne Lamott (1995) [3] terms these “shitty first drafts,” and we all write them. They are a natural and important part of the writing process.

Even if you have a detailed outline from which to work, the words are not going to fall into place perfectly the first time you start writing. You should consider turning off the editing and critiquing part of your brain for a while and allow your thoughts to flow. Don’t worry about putting a correctly formatted internal citation (as long as you know which source you used there) when you first write. Just get the information out. Only after you’ve reached a natural stopping point might you go back and edit your draft for grammar, APA style, organization, flow, and more. Divorcing the writing and editing process can go a long way to addressing writer’s block—as can picking a topic about which you have something to say!

As you are editing, keep in mind these questions adapted from Green (2012): [4]

Content: Have I clearly stated the main idea or purpose of the paper? Is the thesis or focus clearly presented and appropriate for the reader?
Organization: How well is it structured? Is the organization spelled out and easy to follow for the reader ?
Flow: Is there a logical flow from section to section, paragraph to paragraph, sentence to sentence? Are there transitions between and within paragraphs that link ideas together?
Development: Have I validated the main idea with supporting material? Are supporting data sufficient? Does the conclusion match the introduction?
Form: Are there any APA style issues, redundancy, problematic wording and terminology (always know the definition of any word you use!), flawed sentence constructions and selection, spelling, and punctuation?

Social workers use the APA style guide to format and structure their literature reviews. Most students know APA style only as it relates to internal and external citations. If you are confused about them, consult this amazing APA style guide from the University of Texas-Arlington library. Your university's library likely has resources they created to help you with APA style, and you can meet with a librarian or your professor to talk about formatting questions you have. Make sure you budget in a few hours at the end of each project to build a correctly formatted references page and check your internal citations. The highest quality online source of information on APA style is the APA style blog, where you can search questions and answers from the

Of course, APA style is about much more than knowing there is a period after "et al." or citing the location a book was published. APA style is also about what the profession considers to be good writing. If you haven't picked up an APA publication manual because you use citation generators, know that I did the same thing when I was in school. Purchasing the APA manual can help you with a common problem we hear about from students. Every professor (and every website about APA style) seems to have their own peculiar idea of "correct" APA style that you can, if needed, demonstrate is not accurate.

A literature review is not a book report. Do not organize it by article, with one paragraph for each source in your references. Instead, organize it based on the key ideas and arguments.
The problem statement draws the reader into your topic by highlighting the importance of the topic to social work and to society overall.
Signposting is an important component of academic writing that helps your reader follow the structure of your argument and of your literature review.
Transitions demonstrate critical thinking and help guide your reader through your arguments.
Editing and writing are separate processes.
Consult with an APA style guide or a librarian to help you format your paper.

Look at your professor's prompt for the literature review component of your research proposal (or if you don't have one, use the example question provided in this section).

Write 2-3 facts you would use to address each question or component in the prompt.
Reflect on which questions you have a lot of information about and which you need to gather more information about in order to answer adequately.

Outline the structure of your literature review using your concept map from Section 5.2 as a guide.

Identify the key arguments you will make and how they are related to each other.
Reflect on topic sentences and concluding sentences you would use for each argument.
Human subjects research (19 minute read)
Specific ethical issues to consider (12 minute read)
Benefits and harms of research across the ecosystem (7 minute read)
Being an ethical researcher (8 minute read)

Content warning: examples in this chapter contain references to numerous incidents of unethical medical experimentation (e.g. intentionally injecting diseases into unknowing participants, withholding proven treatments), social experimentation under extreme conditions (e.g. being directed to deliver electric shocks to test obedience), violations of privacy, gender and racial inequality, research with people who are incarcerated or on parole, experimentation on animals, abuse of people with Autism, community interactions with law enforcement, WWII, the Holocaust, and Nazi activities (especially related to research on humans).

With your literature review underway, you are ready to begin thinking in more concrete terms about your research topic. Recall our discussion in Chapter 2 on practical and ethical considerations that emerge as part of the research process. In this chapter, we will expand on the ethical boundaries that social scientists must abide by when conducting human subjects research. As a result of reading this chapter, you should have a better sense of what is possible and ethical for the research project you create.

6.1 Human subjects research

Understand what we mean by ethical research and why it is important
Understand some of the egregious ethical violations that have occurred throughout history

While all research comes with its own set of ethical concerns, those associated with research conducted on human subjects vary dramatically from those of research conducted on nonliving entities. The US Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) defines a human subject as “a living individual about whom an investigator (whether professional or student) conducting research obtains (1) data through intervention or interaction with the individual, or (2) identifiable private information” (USDHHS, 1993, para. 1). [5] Some researchers prefer the term "participants" to "subjects'" as it acknowledges the agency of people who participate in the study. For our purposes, we will use the two terms interchangeably.

In some states, human subjects also include deceased individuals and human fetal materials. Nonhuman research subjects, on the other hand, are objects or entities that investigators manipulate or analyze in the process of conducting research. Nonhuman research subjects typically include sources such as newspapers, historical documents, pieces of clothing, television shows, buildings, and even garbage (to name just a few), that are analyzed for unobtrusive research projects. Unsurprisingly, research on human subjects is regulated much more heavily than research on nonhuman subjects. This is why many student research projects use data that is publicly available, rather than recruiting their own study participants. However, there are ethical considerations that all researchers must take into account, regardless of their research subject. We’ll discuss those considerations in addition to concerns that are unique to human subject research.

Why do research participants need protection?

First and foremost, we are professionally bound to engage in the ethical practice of research. This chapter discusses ethical research and will show you how to engage in research that is consistent with the NASW Code of Ethics as well as national and international ethical standards all researchers are accountable to. Before we begin, we need to understand the historical occurrences that were the catalyst for the formation of the current ethical standards . This chapter will enable you to view ethics from a micro, mezzo, and macro perspective.

The research process has led to many life-changing discoveries; these have improved life expectancy, improved living conditions, and helped us understand what contributes to certain social problems. That said, not all research has been conducted in respectful, responsible, or humane ways. Unfortunately, some research projects have dramatically marginalized, oppressed, and harmed participants and whole communities.

Would you believe that the following actions have been carried out in the name of research? I realize there was a content warning at the beginning of the chapter, but it is worth mentioning that the list below of research atrocities may be particularly upsetting or triggering.

intentionally froze healthy body parts of prisoners to see if they could develop a treatment for freezing [6]
scaled the body parts of prisoners to how best to treat soldiers who had injuries from being exposed to high temperatures [7]
intentionally infected healthy individuals to see if they could design effective methods of treatment for infections [8]
gave healthy people TB to see if they could treat it [9]
attempted to transplant limbs, bones, and muscles to another person to see if this was possible [10]
castrated and irradiated genitals to see if they could develop a faster method of sterilization [11]
starved people and only allowed them to drink seawater to see if they could make saline water drinkable [12]
artificially inseminated women with animal sperm to see what would happen [13]
gassed living people to document how they would die [14]
conducted cruel experiments on people and if they did not die, would kill them so they could undergo an autopsy [15]
refused to treat syphilis in African American men (when treatment was available) because they wanted to track the progression of the illness [16]
vivisected humans without anesthesia to see how illnesses that researches gave prisoners impacted their bodies [17]
intentionally tried to infect prisoners with the Bubonic Plague [18]
intentionally infected prisoners, prostitutes, soldiers, and children with syphilis to study the disease's progression [19]
performed gynecological experiments on female slaves without anesthesia to investigate new surgical methods [20]

The sad fact is that not only did all of these occur, in many instances, these travesties continued for years until exposed and halted. Additionally, these examples have contributed to the formation of a legacy of distrust toward research. Specifically, many underrepresented groups have a deep distrust of agencies that implement research and are often skeptical of research findings. This has made it difficult for groups to support and have confidence in medical treatments, advances in social service programs, and evidence-informed policy changes. While the aforementioned unethical examples may have ended, this deep and painful wound on the public's trust remains. Consequently, we must be vigilant in our commitment to ethical research.

Many of the situations described may seem like extreme historical cases of misuse of power as researchers. However, ethical problems in research don't just happen in these extreme occurrences. None of us are immune to making unethical choices and the ethical practice of research requires conscientious mindful attention to what we are asking of our research participants. A few examples of less noticeable ethical issues might include: failing to fully explain to someone in advance what their participation might involve because you are in a rush to recruit a large enough sample; or only presenting findings that support your ideas to help secure a grant that is relevant to your research area. Remember, any time research is conducted with human beings, there is the chance that ethical violations may occur that pose social, emotional, and even physical risks for groups, and this is especially true when vulnerable or oppressed groups are involved.

A brief history of unethical social science research

Research on humans hasn’t always been regulated in the way it is today. The earliest documented cases of research using human subjects are of medical vaccination trials (Rothman, 1987). [21] One such case took place in the late 1700s, when scientist Edward Jenner exposed an 8-year-old boy to smallpox in order to identify a vaccine for the devastating disease. Medical research on human subjects continued without much law or policy intervention until the mid-1900s when, at the end of World War II, a number of Nazi doctors and scientists were put on trial for conducting human experimentation during the course of which they tortured and murdered many concentration camp inmates (Faden & Beauchamp, 1986). [22] The trials, conducted in Nuremberg, Germany, resulted in the creation of the Nuremberg Code , a 10-point set of research principles designed to guide doctors and scientists who conduct research on human subjects. Today, the Nuremberg Code guides medical and other research conducted on human subjects, including social scientific research.

Medical scientists are not the only researchers who have conducted questionable research on humans. In the 1960s, psychologist Stanley Milgram (1974) [23] conducted a series of experiments designed to understand obedience to authority in which he tricked subjects into believing they were administering an electric shock to other subjects. In fact, the shocks weren’t real at all, but some, though not many, of Milgram’s research participants experienced extreme emotional distress after the experiment (Ogden, 2008). [24] A reaction of emotional distress is understandable. The realization that one is willing to administer painful shocks to another human being just because someone who looks authoritative has told you to do so might indeed be traumatizing—even if you later learn that the shocks weren’t real.

Around the same time that Milgram conducted his experiments, sociology graduate student Laud Humphreys (1970) [25] was collecting data for his dissertation on the tearoom trade, which was the practice of men engaging in anonymous sexual encounters in public restrooms. Humphreys wished to understand who these men were and why they participated in the trade. To conduct his research, Humphreys offered to serve as a “watch queen,” in a local park restroom where the tearoom trade was known to occur. His role would be to keep an eye out for police while also getting the benefit of being able to watch the sexual encounters. What Humphreys did not do was identify himself as a researcher to his research subjects. Instead, he watched his subjects for several months, getting to know several of them, learning more about the tearoom trade practice and, without the knowledge of his research subjects, jotting down their license plate numbers as they pulled into or out of the parking lot near the restroom.

Sometime after participating as a watch queen, with the help of several insiders who had access to motor vehicle registration information, Humphreys used those license plate numbers to obtain the names and home addresses of his research subjects. Then, disguised as a public health researcher, Humphreys visited his subjects in their homes and interviewed them about their lives and their health. Humphreys’ research dispelled a good number of myths and stereotypes about the tearoom trade and its participants. He learned, for example, that over half of his subjects were married to women and many of them did not identify as gay or bisexual. [26]

Once Humphreys’ work became public, there was some major controversy at his home university (e.g., the chancellor tried to have his degree revoked), among scientists in general, and among members of the public, as it raised public concerns about the purpose and conduct of social science research. In addition, the Washington Post journalist Nicholas von Hoffman wrote the following warning about “sociological snoopers”:

We’re so preoccupied with defending our privacy against insurance investigators, dope sleuths, counterespionage men, divorce detectives and credit checkers, that we overlook the social scientists behind the hunting blinds who’re also peeping into what we thought were our most private and secret lives. But they are there, studying us, taking notes, getting to know us, as indifferent as everybody else to the feeling that to be a complete human involves having an aspect of ourselves that’s unknown (von Hoffman, 1970). [27]

In the original version of his report, Humphreys defended the ethics of his actions. In 2008 [28] , years after Humphreys’ death, his book was reprinted with the addition of a retrospect on the ethical implications of his work. In his written reflections on his research and the fallout from it, Humphreys maintained that his tearoom observations constituted ethical research on the grounds that those interactions occurred in public places. But Humphreys added that he would conduct the second part of his research differently. Rather than trace license numbers and interview unwitting tearoom participants in their homes under the guise of public health research, Humphreys instead would spend more time in the field and work to cultivate a pool of informants. Those informants would know that he was a researcher and would be able to fully consent to being interviewed. In the end, Humphreys concluded “there is no reason to believe that any research subjects have suffered because of my efforts, or that the resultant demystification of impersonal sex has harmed society” (Humphreys, 2008, p. 231). [29]

Today, given increasing regulation of social scientific research, chances are slim that a researcher would be allowed to conduct a project similar to Humphreys’. Some argue that Humphreys’ research was deceptive, put his subjects at risk of losing their families and their positions in society, and was therefore unethical (Warwick, 1973; Warwick, 1982). [30] Others suggest that Humphreys’ research “did not violate any premise of either beneficence or the sociological interest in social justice” and that the benefits of Humphreys’ research, namely the dissolution of myths about the tearoom trade specifically and human sexual practice more generally, outweigh the potential risks associated with the work (Lenza, 2004, p. 23). [31] What do you think, and why?

These and other studies (Reverby, 2009) [32] led to increasing public awareness of and concern about research on human subjects. In 1974, the US Congress enacted the National Research Act , which created the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The commission produced The Belmont Report , a document outlining basic ethical principles for research on human subjects (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). [33] The National Research Act (1974) [34] also required that all institutions receiving federal support establish institutional review boards (IRBs) to protect the rights of human research subjects. Since that time, many organizations that do not receive federal support but where research is conducted have also established review boards to evaluate the ethics of the research that they conduct. IRBs are overseen by the federal Office of Human Research Protections .

The Belmont Report

As mentioned above, The Belmont Report is a federal document that outlines the foundational principles that guide the ethical practice of research in the United States. These ethical principles include: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Each of these terms has specific implications as they are applied to the practice of research. These three principles arose as a response to many of the mistreatment and abuses that have been previously discussed and provide important guidance as researchers consider how they will construct and conduct their research studies. As you are crafting your research proposal, makes sure you are mindful of these important ethical guidelines.

Respect for Persons

As social workers, our professional code of ethics requires that we recognize and respect the "inherent dignity and worth of the person." [35] This is very similar to the ethical research principle of r espect for persons . According to this principle, as researchers, we need to treat all research participants with respect, dignity and inherent autonomy. This is reflected by ensuring that participants have self-determination to make informed decisions about their participation in research, that they have a clear understanding of what they will be asked to do and any risks involved, and that their participation is voluntary and can be stopped at any time. Furthermore, for those persons who may have diminished autonomy (e.g. children, people who are incarcerated), extra protections must be built in to these research studies to ensure that respect for persons continues to be demonstrated towards these groups, as they may be especially vulnerable to exploitation and coercion through the research process. A critical tool in establishing respect for persons in your research is the informed consent process, which will be discussed in more detail below.

Beneficence

You may not be familiar with this word yet, but the concept is pretty straightforward. The main idea with beneficence is that the intent of research is to do good. As researchers, to accomplish this, we seek to maximize benefits and minimize risks. Benefits may be something good or advantageous directly received by the research participant, or they may represent a broader good to a wider group of people or the scientific community at large (such as increasing knowledge about the topic or social problem that you are studying). Risks are potential physical, social, or emotional harm that may come about as a response to participation in a study. These risks may be more immediate (e.g. risk of identifying information about a participant being shared, or a participant being upset or triggered by a particular question), or long-term (e.g. some aspect about the person could be shared that could lead to long-term stigmatization). As researchers, we need to think about risk that might be experienced by the individual, but also risks that might be directed towards the community or population(s) the individual may represent. For instance, if our study is specifically focused on surveying single parents, we need to consider how the sharing of our findings might impact this group and how they are perceived. It is a very rare study in which there is no risk to participants. However, a well-designed and ethically sound study will seek to minimize these risks, provide resources to anticipate and address them, and maximize the benefits that are gained through the study.

The final ethical principle we need to cover is justice. While you likely have some idea what justice is, for the purposes of research, justice is the idea that the benefits and the burdens of research are distributed fairly across populations and groups. To help illustrate the concept of justice in research, research in the area of mental health and psychology has historically been critiqued as failing to adequately represent women and people of diverse racial and ethnic groups in their samples (Cundiff, 2012). [36] This has created a body of knowledge that is overly representative of the white male experience, further reinforcing systems of power and privilege. In addition, consider the influence of language as it relates to research justice. If we create studies that only recruit participants fluent in English, which many studies do, we are often failing to satisfy the ethical principle of justice as it applies to people who don't speak English. It is unrealistic to think that we can represent all people in all studies. However, we do need to thoughtfully acknowledge voices that might not be reflected in our samples and attempt to recruit diverse and representative samples whenever possible.

These three principles provide the foundation for the oversight work that is carried out by Institutional Review Boards, our next topic.

Institutional review boards

Institutional review boards, or IRBs, are tasked with ensuring that the rights and welfare of human research subjects will be protected at all institutions, including universities, hospitals, nonprofit research institutions, and other organizations, that receive federal support for research. IRBs typically consist of members from a variety of disciplines, such as sociology, economics, education, social work, and communications (to name a few). Most IRBs also include representatives from the community in which they reside. For example, representatives from nearby prisons, hospitals, or treatment centers might sit on the IRBs of university campuses near them. The diversity of membership helps to ensure that the many and complex ethical issues that may arise from human subjects research will be considered fully and by a knowledgeable and experienced panel. Investigators conducting research on human subjects are required to submit proposals outlining their research plans to IRBs for review and approval prior to beginning their research. Even students who conduct research on human subjects must have their proposed work reviewed and approved by the IRB before beginning any research (though, on some campuses, exceptions are made for student projects that will not be shared outside of the classroom).

The IRB has three levels of review, defined in statute by the USDHHS.

Exempt review is the lowest level of review. Studies that are considered exempt expose participants to the least potential for harm and often involve little participation by human subjects. In social work, exempt studies often examine data that is publicly available or secondary data from another researcher that has been de-identified by the person who collected it.

Expedited review is the middle level of review. Studies considered under expedited review do not have to go before the full IRB board because they expose participants to minimal risk. However, the studies must be thoroughly reviewed by a member of the IRB committee. While there are many types of studies that qualify for expedited review, the most relevant to social workers include the use of existing medical records, recordings (such as interviews) gathered for research purposes, and research on individual group characteristics or behavior.

Finally, the highest level of review is called a full board review . A full board review will involve multiple members of the IRB evaluating your proposal. When researchers submit a proposal under full board review, the full IRB board will meet, discuss any questions or concerns with the study, invite the researcher to answer questions and defend their proposal, and vote to approve the study or send it back for revision. Full board proposals pose greater than minimal risk to participants. They may also involve the participation of vulnerable populations , or people who need additional protection from the IRB. Vulnerable populations include prisoners, children, people with cognitive impairments, people with physical disabilities, employees, and students. While some of these populations can fall under expedited review in some cases, they will often require the full IRB to approve their study.

It may surprise you to hear that IRBs are not always popular or appreciated by researchers. Who wouldn’t want to conduct ethical research, you ask? In some cases, the concern is that IRBs are most well-versed in reviewing biomedical and experimental research, neither of which is particularly common within social work. Much social work research, especially qualitative research, is open-ended in nature, a fact that can be problematic for IRBs. The members of IRBs often want to know in advance exactly who will be observed, where, when, and for how long, whether and how they will be approached, exactly what questions they will be asked, and what predictions the researcher has for their findings. Providing this level of detail for a year-long participant observation within an activist group of 200-plus members, for example, would be extraordinarily frustrating for the researcher in the best case and most likely would prove to be impossible. Of course, IRBs do not intend to have researchers avoid studying controversial topics or avoid using certain methodologically sound data collection techniques, but unfortunately, that is sometimes the result. The solution is not to eradicate review boards, which serve a necessary and important function, but instead to help educate IRB members about the variety of social scientific research methods and topics covered by social workers and other social scientists.

What we have provided here is only a short summary of federal regulations and international agreements that provide the boundaries between ethical and unethical research.

Here are a few more detailed guides for continued learning about research ethics and human research protections.

University of California, San Francisco: Levels of IRB Review
United States Department of Health and Human Services: The Belmont Report
NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences: What is Ethics in Research & Why is it important
NIH: Guiding Principles for Ethical Research
Council on Social Work Education: National Statement on Research Integrity in Social Work
Butler, I. (2002). A code of ethics for social work and social care research. British Journal of Social Work , 32 (2), 239-248
Research on human subjects presents a unique set of challenges and opportunities when it comes to conducting ethical research.
Research on human subjects has not always been regulated to the extent that it is today.
All institutions receiving federal support for research must have an IRB. Organizations that do not receive federal support but where research is conducted also often include IRBs as part of their organizational structure.
Researchers submit studies for IRB review at one of three different levels, depending on the level of harm the study may cause.
Recall whether your project will gather data from human subjects and sketch out what the data collection process might look like.
Identify which level of IRB review is most appropriate for your project.
For many students, your professors may have existing agreements with your university's IRB that allow students to conduct research projects outside the supervision of the IRB. Make sure that your project falls squarely within those parameters. If you feel you may be outside of such an agreement, consult with your professor to see if you will need to submit your study for IRB review before starting your project.

6.2 Specific ethical issues to consider

Define informed consent, and describe how it works
Identify the unique concerns related to the study of vulnerable populations
Differentiate between anonymity and confidentiality
Explain the ethical responsibilities of social workers conducting research

As should be clear by now, conducting research on humans presents a number of unique ethical considerations. Human research subjects must be given the opportunity to consent to their participation in research, and be fully informed of the study’s risks, benefits, and purpose. Further, subjects’ identities and the information they share should be protected by researchers. Of course, how consent and identity protection are defined may vary by individual researcher, institution, or academic discipline. In this section, we’ll take a look at a few specific topics that individual researchers must consider before embarking on research with human subjects.

Informed consent

An expectation of voluntary participation is presumed in all social work research projects. In other words, we cannot force anyone to participate in our research without that person’s knowledge or consent. Researchers must therefore design procedures to obtain subjects’ informed consent to participate in their research. This specifically relates back to the ethical principle of respect for persons outlined in The Belmont Report . Informed consent is defined as a subject’s voluntary agreement to participate in research based on a full understanding of the research and of the possible risks and benefits involved. Although it sounds simple, ensuring that one has actually obtained informed consent is a much more complex process than you might initially presume.

The first requirement is that, in giving their informed consent, subjects may neither waive nor even appear to waive any of their legal rights. Subjects also cannot release a researcher, her sponsor, or institution from any legal liability should something go wrong during the course of their participation in the research (USDHHS,2009). [37] Because social work research does not typically involve asking subjects to place themselves at risk of physical harm by, for example, taking untested drugs or consenting to new medical procedures, social work researchers do not often worry about potential liability associated with their research projects. However, their research may involve other types of risks.

For example, what if a social work researcher fails to sufficiently conceal the identity of a subject who admits to participating in a local swinger’s club? In this case, a violation of confidentiality may negatively affect the participant’s social standing, marriage, custody rights, or employment. Social work research may also involve asking about intimately personal topics that may be difficult for participants to discuss, such as trauma or suicide. Participants may re-experience traumatic events and symptoms when they participate in your study. Even if you are careful to fully inform your participants of all risks before they consent to the research process, I’m sure you can empathize with thinking you could bear talking about a difficult topic and then finding it too overwhelming once you start. In cases like these, it is important for a social work researcher to have a plan to provide supports. This may mean providing referrals to counseling supports in the community or even calling the police if the participant is an imminent danger to himself or others.

It is vital that social work researchers explain their mandatory reporting duties in the consent form and ensure participants understand them before they participate. Researchers should also emphasize to participants that they can stop the research process at any time or decide to withdraw from the research study for any reason. Importantly, it is not the job of the social work researcher to act as a clinician to the participant. While a supportive role is certainly appropriate for someone experiencing a mental health crisis, social workers must ethically avoid dual roles. Referring a participant in crisis to other mental health professionals who may be better able to help them is the expectation.

Beyond the legal issues, most IRBs require researchers to share some details about the purpose of the research, possible benefits of participation, and, most importantly, possible risks associated with participating in that research with their subjects. In addition, researchers must describe how they will protect subjects’ identities, how, where, and for how long any data collected will be stored, how findings may be shared, and whom to contact for additional information about the study or about subjects’ rights. All this information is typically shared in an informed consent form that researchers provide to subjects. In some cases, subjects are asked to sign the consent form indicating that they have read it and fully understand its contents. In other cases, subjects are simply provided a copy of the consent form and researchers are responsible for making sure that subjects have read and understand the form before proceeding with any kind of data collection. Your IRB will often provide guidance or even templates for what they expect to see included in an informed consent form. This is a document that they will inspect very closely. Table 6.1 outlines elements to include in your informed consent. While these offer a guideline for you, you should always visit your schools, IRB website to see what guidance they offer. They often provide a template that they prefer researchers to use. Using these templates ensures that you are using the language that the IRB reviewers expect to see and this can also save you time.

Table 6.1 Elements to include in your informed consent

Welcome	A greeting for your participants, a few words about who you/your team are, the aim of your study
Procedures	What your participants are being asked to do throughout the entire research process
Risks	Any potential risks associated with your study (this is very rarely none!); also, make sure to provide resources that address or mitigate the risks (e.g. counseling services, hotlines, EAP)
Benefits	Any potential benefits, either direct to participant or more broadly (indirect) to community or group; include any compensation here, as well
Privacy	Brief explanation of steps taken to protect privacy.; address confidentiality or anonymity (whichever applies); also address how the results of the study may be used/disseminated
Voluntary Nature	It is important to emphasize that participation is voluntary and can be stopped at any time
Contact Information	You will provide your contact information as the researcher and often the contact of the IRB that is providing approval for the study
Signatures	We will usually seek the signature and date of participant and researcher on these forms (unless otherwise specified and approved in your IRB application)

One last point to consider when preparing to obtain informed consent is that not all potential research subjects are considered equally competent or legally allowed to consent to participate in research. Subjects from vulnerable populations may be at risk of experiencing undue influence or coercion (USDHHS, 2009). [38] The rules for consent are more stringent for vulnerable populations. For example, minors must have the consent of a legal guardian in order to participate in research. In some cases, the minors themselves are also asked to participate in the consent process by signing special, age-appropriate assent forms designed specifically for them. Prisoners and parolees also qualify as vulnerable populations. Concern about the vulnerability of these subjects comes from the very real possibility that prisoners and parolees could perceive that they will receive some highly desired reward, such as early release, if they participate in research or that there could be punitive consequences if they choose not to participate. When a participant faces undue or excess pressure to participate by either favorable or unfavorable means, this is known as coercion and must be avoided by researchers.

Another potential concern regarding vulnerable populations is that they may be underrepresented or left out of research opportunities, specifically because of concerns about their ability to consent. So, on the one hand, researchers must take extra care to ensure that their procedures for obtaining consent from vulnerable populations are not coercive. The procedures for receiving approval to conduct research with these groups may be more rigorous than that for non-vulnerable populations. On the other hand, researchers must work to avoid excluding members of vulnerable populations from participation simply on the grounds that they are vulnerable or that obtaining their consent may be more complex. While there is no easy solution to this ethical research dilemma, an awareness of the potential concerns associated with research on vulnerable populations is important for identifying whatever solution is most appropriate for a specific case.

Protection of identities

As mentioned earlier, the informed consent process includes the requirement that researchers outline how they will protect the identities of subjects. This aspect of the research process, however, is one of the most commonly misunderstood. Furthermore, failing to protect identities is one of the greatest risks to participants in social work research studies.

In protecting subjects’ identities, researchers typically promise to maintain either the anonymity or confidentiality of their research subjects. These are two distinctly different terms and they are NOT interchangeable. Anonymity is the more stringent of the two and is very hard to guarantee in most research studies. When a researcher promises anonymity to participants, not even the researcher is able to link participants’ data with their identities. Anonymity may be impossible for some social work researchers to promise due to the modes of data collection many social workers employ. Face-to-face interviewing means that subjects will be visible to researchers and will hold a conversation, making anonymity impossible. In other cases, the researcher may have a signed consent form or obtain personal information on a survey and will therefore know the identities of their research participants. In these cases, a researcher should be able to at least promise confidentiality to participants.

Offering confidentiality means that some identifying information is known at some time by the research team, but only the research team has access to this identifying information and this information will not be linked with their data in any publicly accessible way. Confidentiality in research is quite similar to confidentiality in clinical practice. You know who your clients are, but others do not. You agree to keep their information and identity private. As you can see under the “Risks” section of the consent form in Figure 5.1, sometimes it is not even possible to promise that a subject’s confidentiality will be maintained. This is the case if data are collected in public or in the presence of other research participants in the course of a focus group, for example. Participants who social work researchers deem to be of imminent danger to self or others or those that disclose abuse of children and other vulnerable populations fall under a social worker’s duty to report. Researchers must then violate confidentiality to fulfill their legal obligations.

There are a number of steps that researchers can take to protect the identities of research participants. These include, but are not limited to:

Collecting data in private spaces
Not requesting information that will uniquely identify or "out" that person as a participant
Assigning study identification codes or pseudonyms
Keeping signed informed consent forms separate from other data provided by the participant
Making sure that physical data is kept in a locked and secured location, and the virtual data is encrypted or password-protected
Reporting data in aggregate (only discussing the data collectively, not by individual responses)

Protecting research participants’ identities is not always a simple prospect, especially for those conducting research on stigmatized groups or illegal behaviors. Sociologist Scott DeMuth learned that all too well when conducting his dissertation research on a group of animal rights activists. As a participant observer, DeMuth knew the identities of his research subjects. So when some of his research subjects vandalized facilities and removed animals from several research labs at the University of Iowa, a grand jury called on Mr. DeMuth to reveal the identities of the participants in the raid. When DeMuth refused to do so, he was jailed briefly and then charged with conspiracy to commit animal enterprise terrorism and cause damage to the animal enterprise (Jaschik, 2009). [39]

Publicly, DeMuth’s case raised many of the same questions as Laud Humphreys’ work 40 years earlier. What do social scientists owe the public? Is DeMuth, by protecting his research subjects, harming those whose labs were vandalized? Is he harming the taxpayers who funded those labs? Or is it more important that DeMuth emphasize what he owes his research subjects, who were told their identities would be protected? DeMuth’s case also sparked controversy among academics, some of whom thought that as an academic himself, DeMuth should have been more sympathetic to the plight of the faculty and students who lost years of research as a result of the attack on their labs. Many others stood by DeMuth, arguing that the personal and academic freedom of scholars must be protected whether we support their research topics and subjects or not. DeMuth’s academic adviser even created a new group, Scholars for Academic Justice , to support DeMuth and other academics who face persecution or prosecution as a result of the research they conduct. What do you think? Should DeMuth have revealed the identities of his research subjects? Why or why not?

Discipline-specific considerations

Often times, specific disciplines will provide their own set of guidelines for protecting research subjects and, more generally, for conducting ethical research. For social workers, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics section 5.02 describes the responsibilities of social workers in conducting research. Summarized below, these responsibilities are framed as part of a social worker’s responsibility to the profession. As representative of the social work profession, it is your responsibility to conduct and use research in an ethical manner.

A social worker should:

Monitor and evaluate policies, programs, and practice interventions
Contribute to the development of knowledge through research
Keep current with the best available research evidence to inform practice
Ensure voluntary and fully informed consent of all participants
Not engage in any deception in the research process
Allow participants to withdraw from the study at any time
Provide access to appropriate supportive services for participants
Protect research participants from harm
Maintain confidentiality
Report findings accurately
Disclose any conflicts of interest
Researchers must obtain the informed consent of research participants.
Social workers must take steps to minimize the harms that could arise during the research process.
If anonymity is promised, individual participants cannot be linked with their data.
If confidentiality is promised, the identities of research participants cannot be revealed, even if individual participants can be linked with their data.
The NASW Code of Ethics includes specific responsibilities for social work researchers.
Talk with your professor to see if an informed consent form is required for your research project. If documentation is required, customize the template provided by your professor or the IRB at your school, using the details of your study. If documentation on consent is not required, for example if consent is given verbally, use the templates as guides to create a guide for what you will say to participants regarding informed consent.
Identify whether your data will be confidential or anonymous. Describe the measures you will take to protect the identities of individuals in your study. How will you store the data? How will you ensure that no one can identify participants based on what you report in papers and presentations? Be sure to think carefully. People can be identified by characteristics such as age, gender, disability status, location, etc.

6.3 Benefits and harms of research across the ecosystem

Identify and distinguish between micro-, mezzo-, and macro-level considerations with respect to the ethical conduct of social scientific research

This chapter began with a long list of harmful acts that researchers engaged in while conducting studies on human subjects. Indeed, even the last section on informed consent and protection of confidential information can be seen in light of minimizing harm and maximizing benefits. The benefits of your study should be greater than the harms. But who benefits from your research study, and who might be harmed? The first person who benefits is, most clearly, you as the researcher. You need a project to complete, be it for a grade, a grant, an academic responsibility, etc. However you need to make sure that your benefit does not come at the expense of harming others. Furthermore, research requires resources, including resources from the communities we work with. Part of being good stewards of these resources as social work researchers means that we need to engage in research that benefits the people we serve in meaningful and relevant ways. We need to consider how others are impacted by our research.

Box with "benefits" written in it (to the right side of scale)

Micro-, mezzo-, and macro-level concerns

One useful way to think about the breadth of ethical questions that might arise out of any research project is to think about potential issues from the perspective of different analytical levels that are familiar to us as social workers. In Chapter 1 , you learned about the micro-, mezzo-, and macro-levels of inquiry and how a researcher’s specific point of focus might vary depending on her level of inquiry. Here we’ll apply this ecological framework to a discussion of research ethics. Within most research projects, there are specific questions that arise for researchers at each of these three levels.

At the micro-level, researchers must consider their own conduct and the impact on individual research participants. For example, did Stanley Milgram behave ethically when he allowed research participants to think that they were administering electric shocks to fellow participants? Did Laud Humphreys behave ethically when he deceived his research subjects about his own identity? Were the rights of individuals in these studies protected? How did these participants benefit themselves from the research that was conducted? While not social workers by trade, would the actions of these two researchers hold up against our professional NASW Code of Ethics? The questions posed here are the sort that you will want to ask yourself as a researcher when considering ethics at the micro-level.

At the mezzo-level, researchers should think about their duty to the community. How will the results of your study impact your target population? Ideally, your results will benefit your target population by identifying important areas for social workers to intervene and to better understand the experiences of the communities they serve. However, it is possible that your study may perpetuate negative stereotypes about your target population or damage its reputation. Indigenous people in particular have highlighted how historically social science has furthered marginalization of indigenous peoples (Smith, 2013). [40] Mezzo-level concerns should also address other groups or organizations that are connected to your target population. This may include the human service agencies with whom you've partnered for your study as well as the communities and peoples they serve. If your study reflected negatively on a particular housing project in your area, for example, will community members seek to remove it from their community? Or might it draw increased law enforcement presence that is unwanted by participants or community members? Research is a powerful tool and can be used for many purposes, not all of them altruistic. In addition, research findings can have many implications, intended and unintended. As responsible researchers, we need to do our best to thoughtfully anticipate these consequences.

Finally, at the macro-level, a researcher should consider duty to, and the expectations of, society. Perhaps the most high-profile case involving macro-level questions of research ethics comes from debates over whether to use data gathered by, or cite published studies based on data gathered from, the Nazis in the course of their unethical and horrendous experiments on humans during World War II (Moe, 1984). [41] Some argue that because the data were gathered in such an unquestionably unethical manner, they should never be used. The data, say these people, are neither valid nor reliable and should therefore not be used in any current scientific investigation (Berger, 1990). [42]

On the other hand, some people argue that data themselves are neutral; that “information gathered is independent of the ethics of the methods and that the two are not linked together” (Pozos, 1992, p. 104). [43] Others point out that not using the data could inadvertently strengthen the claims of those who deny that the Holocaust ever happened. In his striking statement in support of publishing the data, medical ethics professor Velvl Greene (1992) says,

Instead of banning the Nazi data or assigning it to some archivist or custodial committee, I maintain that it be exhumed, printed, and disseminated to every medical school in the world along with the details of methodology and the names of the doctors who did it, whether or not they were indicted, acquitted, or hanged.…Let the students and the residents and the young doctors know that this was not ancient history or an episode from a horror movie where the actors get up after filming and prepare for another role. It was real. It happened yesterday (p. 169–170). [44]

While debates about the use of data collected by the Nazis are typically centered on medical scientists’ use of them, there are conceivable circumstances under which these data might be used by social scientists. Perhaps, for example, a social scientist might wish to examine contemporary reactions to the experiments. Or perhaps the data could be used in a study of the sociology of science. What do you think? Should data gathered by the Nazis be used or cited today? What arguments can you make in support of your position, and how would you respond to those who disagree?

Additionally at the macro-level, you must also consider your responsibilities to the profession of social work. When you engage in social work research, you stand on the reputation the profession has built for over a century. Since research is public-facing, meaning that research findings are intended to be shared publicly, you are an ambassador for the profession. How you conduct yourself as a social work researcher has potential implications for how the public perceives both social work and research. As a social worker, you have a responsibility to work towards greater social, environmental, and economic justice and human rights. Your research should reflect this responsibility. Attending to research ethics helps to fulfill your responsibilities to the profession, in addition to your target population.

Table 6.2 summarizes the key questions that researchers might ask themselves about the ethics of their research at each level of inquiry.

Table 6.2 Key questions for researchers about the ethics of their research at each level of inquiry.

Micro-level	Individual	Does my research interfere with the individual’s right to privacy?
		Could my research offend subjects in any way, either the collection of data or the sharing of findings?
		Could my research cause emotional distress to any of my subjects? In what ways does my research benefit me? In what ways does my research benefit participants?
		Has my own conduct been ethical throughout the research process?
Mezzo-level	Group	How does my research portray my target population?
		Could my research positively or negatively impact various communities and the systems they are connected to? How do community members perceive my research?
		Have I met my duty to those who funded my research? What are potential ripple effects for my target population by conducting this research?
Macro-level	Society	Does my research meet the societal expectations of social research? What is the historical, political, social context of my research topic?
		Have I met my social responsibilities as a researcher and as a social worker? Does my research follow the ethical guidelines of my profession and discipline? How does my research advance social, environmental or economic justice and/or human rights? How does my research reinforce or challenge systems of power, control and structural oppression?

At the micro-level, researchers should consider their own conduct and the rights of individual research participants.
At the mezzo-level, researchers should consider the expectations of their profession, any organizations that may have funded their research, and the communities affected by their research.
At the macro-level, researchers should consider their duty to and the expectations of society with respect to social science research.
Summarize the benefits and harms at the micro-, mezzo-, and macro-level of inquiry. At which level of inquiry is your research project?
In a few sentences, identify whether the benefits of your study outweigh the potential harms.

6.4 Being an ethical researcher

Identify why researchers must provide a detailed description of methodology
Describe what it means to use science in an ethical way

Research ethics has to do with both how research is conducted and how findings from that research are used. In this section, we’ll consider research ethics from both angles.

Doing science the ethical way

As you should now be aware, researchers must consider their own personal ethical principles in addition to following those of their institution, their discipline, and their community. We’ve already considered many of the ways that social workers strive to ensure the ethical practice of research, such as informing and protecting subjects. But the practice of ethical research doesn’t end once subjects have been identified and data have been collected. Social workers must also fully disclose their research procedures and findings. This means being honest about how research subjects were identified and recruited, how exactly data were collected and analyzed, and ultimately, what findings were reached.

If researchers fully disclose how they conducted their research, then those who use their work to build research projects, create social policies, or make treatment decisions can have greater confidence in the work. By sharing how research was conducted, a researcher helps assure readers they have conducted legitimate research and didn’t simply come to whatever conclusions they wanted to find. A description or presentation of research findings that is not accompanied by information about research methodology is missing relevant information. Sometimes methodological details are left out because there isn’t time or space to share them. This is often the case with news reports of research findings. Other times, there may be a more insidious reason that important information is missing. This may be the case if sharing methodological details would call the legitimacy of a study into question. As researchers, it is our ethical responsibility to fully disclose our research procedures. As consumers of research, it is our ethical responsibility to pay attention to such details. We’ll discuss this more in the next section.

There’s a New Yorker cartoon that depicts a set of filing cabinets that aptly demonstrates what we don’t want to see happen with research. Each filing cabinet drawer in the cartoon is labeled differently. The labels include such headings as, “Our Facts,” “Their Facts,” “Neutral Facts,” “Disputable Facts,” “Absolute Facts,” “Bare Facts,” “Unsubstantiated Facts,” and “Indisputable Facts.” The implication of this cartoon is that one might just choose to open the file drawer of her choice and pick whichever facts one likes best. While this may occur if we use some of the unscientific ways of knowing described in Chapter 1 , it is fortunately not how the discovery of knowledge in social work, or in any other science for that matter, takes place. There actually is a method to this madness we call research. At its best, research reflects a systematic, transparent, informative process.

Honesty in research is facilitated by the scientific principle of replication . Ideally, this means that one scientist could repeat another’s study with relative ease. By replicating a study, we may become more (or less) confident in the original study’s findings. Replication is far more difficult (perhaps impossible) to achieve in the case of many qualitative studies, as our purpose is often a deep understanding of very specific circumstances, rather than the broad, generalizable knowledge we traditionally seek in quantitative studies. Nevertheless, transparency in the research process is an important standard for all social scientific researchers—that we provide as much detail as possible about the processes by which we reach our conclusions. This allows the quality of our research to be evaluated. Along with replication, peer review is another important principle of the scientific process. Peer review involves other knowledgeable researchers in our field of study to evaluate our research and to determine if it is of sufficient quality to share with the public. There are valid critiques of the peer review process: that it is biased towards studies with positive findings, that it may reinforce systemic barriers to oppressed groups accessing and leveraging knowledge, that it is far more subjective and/or unreliable than it claims to be. Despite these critiques, peer review remains a foundational concept for how scientific knowledge is generated.

Full disclosure also includes the need to be honest about a study’s strengths and weaknesses, both with oneself and with others. Being aware of the strengths and weaknesses of your own work can help a researcher make reasonable recommendations about the next steps other researchers might consider taking in their inquiries. Awareness and disclosure of a study’s strengths and weaknesses can also help highlight the theoretical or policy implications of one’s work. In addition, openness about strengths and weaknesses helps those reading the research better evaluate the work and decide for themselves how or whether to rely on its findings. Finally, openness about a study’s sponsors is crucial. How can we effectively evaluate research without knowing who paid the bills? This allows us to assess for potential conflicts of interest that may compromise the integrity of the research.

The standard of replicability, the peer-review process, and openness about a study’s strengths, weaknesses, and funding sources enables those who read the research to evaluate it fairly and completely. Knowledge of funding sources is often raised as an issue in medical research. Understandably, independent studies of new drugs may be more compelling to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) than studies touting the virtues of a new drug that happen to have been funded by the company who created that drug. But medical researchers aren’t the only ones who need to be honest about their funding. If we know, for example, that a political think tank with ties to a particular party has funded some research, we can take that knowledge into consideration when reviewing the study’s findings and stated policy implications. Lastly, and related to this point, we must consider how, by whom, and for what purpose research may be used.

Using science the ethical way

Science has many uses. By “use” I mean the ways that science is understood and applied (as opposed to the way it is conducted). Some use science to create laws and social policies; others use it to understand themselves and those around them. Some people rely on science to improve their life conditions or those of other people, while still others use it to improve their businesses or other undertakings. In each case, the most ethical way for us to use science is to educate ourselves about the design and purpose of any studies we may wish to use. This helps us to more adequately critique the value of this research, to recognize its strengths and limitations.

As part of my research course, students are asked to critique a research article. I often find in this assignment that students often have very lofty expectations for everything that 'should' be included in the journal article they are reviewing. While I appreciate the high standards, I often give them feedback that it is perhaps unrealistic (even unattainable) for a research study to be perfectly designed and described for public consumption. All research has limitations; this may be a consequence of limited resources, issues related to feasibility, and unanticipated roadblocks or problems as we are carrying out our research. Furthermore, the ways we disseminate or share our research often has restrictions on what and how we can share our findings. This doesn't mean that a study with limitations has no value—every study has limitations! However, as we are reviewing research, we should look for an open discussion about methodology , strengths, and weaknesses of the study that helps us to interpret what took place and in what ways it may be important.

For instance, this can be especially important to think about in terms of a study's sample. It can be challenging to recruit a diverse and representative sample for your study (however, that doesn't mean we shouldn't try!). The next time you are reading research studies that were used to help establish an evidence based practice (EBP), make sure to look at the description of the sample. We cannot assume that what works for one group of people will uniformly work with all groups of people with very different life experiences; however, historically much of our intervention repertoire has been both created by and evaluated on white men. If research studies don't obtain a diverse sample, for whatever reason, we would expect that the authors would identify this as a limitation and an area requiring further study. We need to challenge our profession to provide practices, strategies, models, interventions, and policies that have been evaluated and tested for their efficacy with the diverse range of people that we work with as social workers.

Social scientists who conduct research on behalf of organizations and agencies may face additional ethical questions about the use of their research, particularly when the organization for which a study is conducted controls the final report and the publicity it receives. There is a potential conflict of interest for evaluation researchers who are employees of the agency being evaluated. A similar conflict of interest might exist between independent researchers whose work is being funded by some government agency or private foundation.

So who decides what constitutes ethical conduct or use of research? Perhaps we all do. What qualifies as ethical research may shift over time and across cultures as individual researchers, disciplinary organizations, members of society, and regulatory entities, such as institutional review boards, courts, and lawmakers, all work to define the boundaries between ethical and unethical research.

Conducting research ethically requires that researchers be ethical not only in their data collection procedures but also in reporting their methods and findings.
The ethical use of research requires an effort to understand research, an awareness of your own limitations in terms of knowledge and understanding, and the honest application of research findings.
Think about your research hypothesis at this point. What would happen if your results revealed information that could harm the population you are studying? What are your ethical responsibilities as far as reporting about your research?
Ultimately, we cannot control how others will use the results of our research. What are the implications of this for how you report on your research?
Reading the results of empirical studies (16 minute read)
Annotating empirical journal articles (15 minute read)
Generalizability and transferability of empirical results (15 minute read)

Content warning: examples in this chapter contain references to domestic violence and details on types of abuse, drug use, poverty, mental health, sexual harassment and details on harassing behaviors, children’s mental health, LGBTQ+ oppression and suicide, obesity, anti-poverty stigma, and psychotic disorders.

5.1 Reading the results of empirical studies

Describe how statistical significance and confidence intervals demonstrate which results are most important
Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative results in an empirical journal article

If you recall from section 3.1 , empirical journal articles are those that report the results of quantitative or qualitative data analyzed by the author. They follow a set structure—introduction, methods, results, discussion/conclusions. This section is about reading the most challenging section: results.

I want to normalize not understanding statistics terms and symbols. However, a basic understanding of a results section goes a very long way to understanding the key results in an article. This will take you beyond the two or three sentences in the abstract that summarize the study's results and into the nitty-gritty of what they found for each concept they studied.

Read beyond the abstract

At this point, I have read hundreds of literature reviews written by students. One of the challenges I have noted is that students will report the results as summarized in the abstract, rather than the detailed findings laid out in the results section of the article. This poses a problem when you are writing a literature review because you need to provide specific and clear facts that support your reading of the literature. The abstract may say something like: “we found that poverty is associated with mental health status.” For your literature review, you want the details, not the summary. In the results section of the article, you may find a sentence that states: “children living in households experiencing poverty are three times more likely to have a mental health diagnosis.” This more specific statistical information provides a stronger basis on which to build the arguments in your literature review.

Using the summarized results in an abstract is an understandable mistake to make. The results section often contains figures and tables that may be challenging to understand. Often, without having completed more advanced coursework on statistical or qualitative analysis, some of the terminology, symbols, or diagrams may be difficult to comprehend. This section is all about how to read and interpret the results of an empirical (quantitative or qualitative) journal article. Our discussion here will be basic, and in parts three and four of the textbook, you will learn more about how to interpret results from statistical tests and qualitative data analysis.

Remember, this section only addresses empirical articles. Non-empirical articles (e.g., theoretical articles, literature reviews) don't have results. They cite the analysis of raw data completed by other authors, not the person writing the journal article who is merely summarizing others' work.

Quantitative results

Quantitative articles often contain tables, and scanning them is a good way to begin reading the results. A table usually provides a quick, condensed summary of the report’s key findings. Tables are a concise way to report large amounts of data. Some tables present descriptive information about a researcher’s sample (often the first table in a results section). These tables will likely contain frequencies (N) and percentages (%). For example, if gender happened to be an important variable for the researcher’s analysis, a descriptive table would show how many and what percent of all study participants are of a particular gender. Frequencies or “how many” will probably be listed as N, while the percent symbol (%) might be used to indicate percentages.

In a table presenting a causal relationship, two sets of variables are represented. The independent variable , or cause, and the dependent variable , the effect. We will discuss these further when we review quantitative conceptualization and measurement. Independent variable attributes are typically presented in the table’s columns, while dependent variable attributes are presented in rows. This allows the reader to scan a table’s rows to see how values on the dependent variable change as the independent variable values change (i.e., changes in the dependent variable depend on changes in the independent variable). Tables displaying results of quantitative analysis will also likely include some information about which relationships are significant or not. We will discuss the details of significance and p-values later in this section.

Let’s look at a specific example: Table 5.1. It presents the causal relationship between gender and experiencing harassing behaviors at work. In this example, gender is the independent variable (the cause) and the harassing behaviors listed are the dependent variables (the effects). [46] Therefore, we place gender in the table’s columns and harassing behaviors in the table’s rows.

Reading across the table’s top row, we see that 2.9% of women in the sample reported experiencing subtle or obvious threats to their safety at work, while 4.7% of men in the sample reported the same. We can read across each of the rows of the table in this way. Reading across the bottom row, we see that 9.4% of women in the sample reported experiencing staring or invasion of their personal space at work while just 2.3% of men in the sample reported having the same experience. We’ll discuss p values later in this section.

Table 5.1 Percentage reporting harassing behaviors at work

Subtle or obvious threats to your safety	2.9%	4.7%	0.623
Being hit, pushed, or grabbed	2.2%	4.7%	0.480
Comments or behaviors that demean your gender	6.5%	2.3%	0.184
Comments or behaviors that demean your age	13.8%	9.3%	0.407
Staring or invasion of your personal space	9.4%	2.3%	0.039
Note: Sample size was 138 for women and 43 for men.

While you can certainly scan tables for key results, they are often difficult to understand without reading the text of the article. The article and table were meant to complement each other, and the text should provide information on how the authors interpret their findings. The table is not redundant with the text of the results section. Additionally, the first table in most results sections is a summary of the study's sample, which provides more background information on the study than information about hypotheses and findings. It is also a good idea to look back at the methods section of the article as the data analysis plan the authors outline should walk you through the steps they took to analyze their data which will inform how they report them in the results section.

Statistical significance

The statistics reported in Table 5.1 represent what the researchers found in their sample. The purpose of statistical analysis is usually to generalize from a the small number of people in a study's sample to a larger population of people. Thus, the researchers intend to make causal arguments about harassing behaviors at workplaces beyond those covered in the sample.

Generalizing is key to understanding statistical significance . According to Cassidy and colleagues, (2019) [47] 89% of research methods textbooks in psychology define statistical significance incorrectly. This includes an early draft of this textbook which defined statistical significance as "the likelihood that the relationships we observe could be caused by something other than chance." If you have previously had a research methods class, this might sound familiar to you. It certainly did to me!

But statistical significance is less about "random chance" than more about the null hypothesis . Basically, at the beginning of a study a researcher develops a hypothesis about what they expect to find, usually that there is a statistical relationship between two or more variables . The null hypothesis is the opposite. It is the hypothesis that there is no relationship between the variables in a research study. Researchers then can hopefully reject the null hypothesis because they find a relationship between the variables.

For example, in Table 5.1 researchers were examining whether gender impacts harassment. Of course, researchers assumed that women were more likely to experience harassment than men. The null hypothesis, then, would be that gender has no impact on harassment. Once we conduct the study, our results will hopefully lead us to reject the null hypothesis because we find that gender impacts harassment. We would then generalize from our study's sample to the larger population of people in the workplace.

Statistical significance is calculated using a p-value which is obtained by comparing the statistical results with a hypothetical set of results if the researchers re-ran their study a large number of times. Keeping with our example, imagine we re-ran our study with different men and women from different workplaces hundreds and hundred of times and we assume that the null hypothesis is true that gender has no impact on harassment. If results like ours come up pretty often when the null hypothesis is true, our results probably don't mean much. "The smaller the p-value, the greater the statistical incompatibility with the null hypothesis" (Wasserstein & Lazar, 2016, p. 131). [48] Generally, researchers in the social sciences have used 0.05 as the value at which a result is significant (p is less than 0.05) or not significant (p is greater than 0.05). The p-value 0.05 refers to if 5% of those hypothetical results from re-running our study show the same or more extreme relationships when the null hypothesis is true. Researchers, however, may choose a stricter standard such as 0.01 in which only 1% of those hypothetical results are more extreme or a more lenient standard like 0.1 in which 10% of those hypothetical results are more extreme than what was found in the study.

Let's look back at Table 5.1. Which one of the relationships between gender and harassing behaviors is statistically significant? It's the last one in the table, "staring or invasion of personal space," whose p-value is 0.039 (under the p<0.05 standard to establish statistical significance). Again, this indicates that if we re-ran our study over and over again and gender did not impact staring/invasion of space (i.e., the null hypothesis was true), only 3.9% of the time would we find similar or more extreme differences between men and women than what we observed in our study. Thus, we conclude that for staring or invasion of space only , there is a statistically significant relationship.

For contrast, let's look at "being pushed, hit, or grabbed" and run through the same analysis to see if it is statistically significant. If we re-ran our study over and over again and the null hypothesis was true, 48% of the time (p=.48) we would find similar or more extreme differences between men and women. That means these results are not statistically significant.

This discussion should also highlight a point we discussed previously: that it is important to read the full results section, rather than simply relying on the summary in the abstract. If the abstract stated that most tests revealed no statistically significant relationships between gender and harassment, you would have missed the detail on which behaviors were and were not associated with gender. Read the full results section! And don't be afraid to ask for help from a professor in understanding what you are reading, as results sections are often not written to be easily understood.

Statistical significance and p-values have been critiqued recently for a number of reasons, including that they are misused and misinterpreted (Wasserstein & Lazar, 2016) [49] , that researchers deliberately manipulate their analyses to have significant results (Head et al., 2015) [50] , and factor into the difficulty scientists have today in reproducing many of the results of previous social science studies (Peng, 2015). [51] For this reason, we share these principles, adapted from those put forth by the American Statistical Association, [52] for understanding and using p-values in social science:

P-values provide evidence against a null hypothesis.
P-values do not indicate whether the results were produced by random chance alone or if the researcher's hypothesis is true, though both are common misconceptions.
Statistical significance can be detected in minuscule differences that have very little effect on the real world.
Nuance is needed to interpret scientific findings, as a conclusion does not become true or false when the p-value passes from p=0.051 to p=0.049.
Real-world decision-making must use more than reported p-values. It's easy to run analyses of large datasets and only report the significant findings.
Greater confidence can be placed in studies that pre-register their hypotheses and share their data and methods openly with the public.
"By itself, a p-value does not provide a good measure of evidence regarding a model or hypothesis. For example, a p-value near 0.05 taken by itself offers only weak evidence against the null hypothesis. Likewise, a relatively large p-value does not imply evidence in favor of the null hypothesis; many other hypotheses may be equally or more consistent with the observed data" (Wasserstein & Lazar, 2016, p. 132).

Confidence intervals

Because of the limitations of p-values, scientists can use other methods to determine whether their models of the world are true. One common approach is to use a confidence interval , or a range of values in which the true value is likely to be found. Confidence intervals are helpful because, as principal #5 above points out, p-values do not measure the size of an effect (Greenland et al., 2016). [53] Remember, something that has very little impact on the world can be statistically significant, and the values in a confidence interval would be helpful. In our example from Table 5.1, imagine our analysis produced a confidence interval that women are 1.2-3.4x more likely to experience "staring or invasion of personal space" than men. As with p-values, calculation for a confidence interval compares what was found in one study with a hypothetical set of results if we repeated the study over and over again. If we calculated 95% confidence intervals for all of the hypothetical set of hundreds and hundreds of studies, that would be our confidence interval.

Confidence intervals are pretty intuitive. As of this writing, my wife and are expecting our second child. The doctor told us our due date was December 11th. But the doctor also told us that December 11th was only their best estimate. They were actually 95% sure our baby might be born any time in the 30-day period between November 27th and December 25th. Confidence intervals are often listed with a percentage, like 90% or 95%, and a range of values, such as between November 27th and December 25th. You can read that as: "we are 95% sure your baby will be born between November 27th and December 25th because we've studied hundreds of thousands of fetuses and mothers, and we're 95% sure your baby will be within these two dates."

Notice that we're hedging our bets here by using words like "best estimate." When testing hypotheses, social scientists generally phrase their findings in a tentative way, talking about what results "indicate" or "support," rather than making bold statements about what their results "prove." Social scientists have humility because they understand the limitations of their knowledge. In a literature review, using a single study or fact to "prove" an argument right or wrong is often a signal to the person reading your literature review (usually your professor) that you may not have appreciated the limitations of that study or its place in the broader literature on the topic. Strong arguments in a literature review include multiple facts and ideas that span across multiple studies.

You can learn more about creating tables, reading tables, and tests of statistical significance in a class focused exclusively on statistical analysis. We provide links to many free and openly licensed resources on statistics in Chapter 16 . For now, we hope this brief introduction to reading tables will improve your confidence in reading and understanding the results sections in quantitative empirical articles.

Qualitative results

Quantitative articles will contain a lot of numbers and the results of statistical tests demonstrating associations between those numbers. Qualitative articles, on the other hand, will consist mostly of quotations from participants. For most qualitative articles, the authors want to put their results in the words of their participants, as they are the experts. Articles that lack quotations make it difficult to assess whether the researcher interpreted the data in a trustworthy, unbiased manner. These types of articles may also indicate how often particular themes or ideas came up in the data, potentially reflective of how important they were to participants.

Authors often organize qualitative results by themes and subthemes. For example, see this snippet from the results section in Bonanno and Veselak (2019) [54] discussion parents' attitudes towards child mental health information sources.

Data analysis revealed four themes related to participants’ abilities to access mental health help and information for their children, and parents’ levels of trust in these sources. These themes are: others’ firsthand experiences family and friends with professional experience, protecting privacy, and uncertainty about schools as information sources. Trust emerged as an overarching and unifying concept for all of these themes. Others’ firsthand experiences. Several participants reported seeking information from other parents who had experienced mental health struggles similar to their own children. They often referenced friends or family members who had been or would be good sources of information due to their own personal experiences. The following quote from Adrienne demonstrates the importance of firsthand experience: [I would only feel comfortable sharing concerns or asking for advice] if I knew that they had been in the same situation. (Adrienne) Similarly, Michelle said: And I talked to a friend of mine who has kids who have IEPs in the district to see, kind of, how did she go about it. (Michelle) ... Friends/family with professional experience . Several respondents referred to friends or family members who had professional experience with or knowledge of child mental health and suggested that these individuals would be good sources of information. For example, Hannah said: Well, what happened with me was I have an uncle who’s a psychiatrist. Sometimes if he’s up in (a city to the north), he’s retired, I can call him sometimes and get information. (Hannah) Michelle, who was in nursing school, echoed this sentiment: At this point, [if my child’s behavioral difficulties continued], I would probably call one of my [nursing] professors. That’s what I’ve done in the past when I’ve needed help with certain things...I have a professor who I would probably consider a friend who I would probably talk to first. She has a big adolescent practice. (Michelle) (p. 402-403)

The terms in bold above refer to the key themes (i.e., qualitative results) that were present in the data. Researchers will state the process by which they interpret each theme, providing a definition and usually some quotations from research participants. Researchers will also draw connections between themes, note consensus or conflict over themes, and situate the themes within the study context.

Qualitative results are specific to the time, place, and culture in which they arise, so you will have to use your best judgment to determine whether these results are relevant to your study. For example, students in my class at Radford University in Southwest Virginia may be studying rural populations. Would a study on group homes in a large urban city transfer well to group homes in a rural area?

Maybe. But even if you were using data from a qualitative study in another rural area, are all rural areas the same? How is the client population and sociocultural context in the article similar or different to the one in your study? Qualitative studies have tremendous depth, but researchers must be intentional about drawing conclusions about one context based on a study in another context. To make conclusions about how a study applies in another context, researchers need to examine each component of an empirical journal article--they need to annotate!

The results section of empirical articles are often the most difficult to understand.
To understand a quantitative results section, look for results that were statistically significant and examine the confidence interval, if provided.
To understand a qualitative results section, look for definitions of themes or codes and use the quotations provided to understand the participants’ perspective.

Select a quantitative empirical article related to your topic.

Write down the results the authors identify as statistically significant in the results section.
How do the authors interpret their results in the discussion section?
Do the authors provide enough information in the introduction for you to understand their results?

Select a qualitative empirical article relevant to your topic.

Write down the key themes the authors identify and how they were defined by the participants.

5.2 Annotating empirical journal articles

Define annotation and describe how to use it to identify, extract, and reflect on the information you need from an article

Annotation refers to the process of writing notes on an article. There are many ways to do this. The most basic technique is to print out the article and build a binder related to your topic. Raul Pacheco-Vega's excellent blog has a post on his approach to taking physical notes. Honestly, while you are there, browse around that website. It is full of amazing tips for students conducting a literature review and graduate research projects. I see a lot of benefits to the paper, pen, and highlighter approach to annotating articles. Personally though, I prefer to use a computer to write notes on an article because my handwriting is terrible and typing notes allows me search for keywords. For other students, electronic notes work best because they cannot afford to print every article that they will use in their paper. No matter what you use, the point is that you need to write notes when you're reading. Reading is research!

There are a number of free software tools you can use to help you annotate a journal article. Most PDF readers like Adobe Acrobat have a commenting and highlighting feature, though the PDF readers included with internet browsers like Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, and Safari do not have this feature. The best approach may be to use a citation manager like Zotero. Using a citation manager, you can build a library of articles, save your annotations, and link annotations across PDFs using keywords. They also provide integration with word processing programs to help with citations in a reference list

Of course, I don't follow this advice because I have a system that works well for me. I have a PDF open in one computer window and a Word document open in a window next to it. I type notes and copy quotes, listing the page number for each note I take. It's a bit low-tech, but it does make my notes searchable. This way, when I am looking for a concept or quote, I can simply search my notes using the Find feature in Word and get to the information I need.

Annotation and reviewing literature does not have to be a solo project. If are working in a group, you can use the Hypothes.is web browser extension to annotate articles collaboratively. You can also use Google Docs to collaboratively annotate a shared PDF using the commenting feature and write collaborative notes in a shared document. By sharing your highlights and comments, you can split the work of getting the most out of each article you read and build off one another's ideas.

Common annotations

In this section, we present common annotations people make when reading journal articles. These annotations are adapted from Craig Whippo and Raul Pacheco-Vega . If you are annotating on paper, I suggest using different color highlighters for each type of annotation listed below. If you are annotating electronically, you can use the names below as tags to easily find information later. For example, if you are searching for definitions of key concepts, you can either click on the tag for [definitions] in your PDF reader or thumb through a printed copy of article for whatever color or tag you used to indicate definitions of key terms. Most of all, you want to avoid reading through all of your sources again just to find that one thing you know you read somewhere . Time is a graduate student's most valuable resource, so our goal here is to help you spend your time reading the literature wisely.

Personal reflections

Personal reflections are all about you. What do you think? Are there any areas you are confused about? Any new ideas or reflections come to mind while you're reading? Treat these annotations as a means of capturing your first reflections about an article. Write down any questions or thoughts that come to mind as you read. If you think the author says something inaccurate or unsubstantiated, write that down. If you don't understand something, make a note about it and ask your professor. Don't feel bad! Journal articles are hard to understand sometimes, even for professors. Your goal is to critically read the literature, so write down what you think while reading! Table 4.2 contains some questions that might stimulate your thoughts.

Table 5.2 Questions worth asking while reading research reports

Abstract	What are the key findings? How were those findings reached? How does the author frame their study?
Acknowledgments	Who are this study’s major stakeholders? Who provided feedback? Who provided support in the form of funding or other resources?
Problem statement (introduction)	How does the author frame the research focus? What other possible ways of framing the problem exist? Why might the author have chosen this particular way of framing the problem?
Literature review (introduction)	What are the major themes the author identifies in the literature? Are there any gaps in the literature? Does the author address challenges or limitations to the studies they cite? Is there enough literature to frame the rest of the article or do you have unanswered questions? Does the author provide conceptual definitions for important ideas or use a theoretical perspective to inform their analysis?
Sample (methods)	Where was the data collected? Did the researchers provide enough information about the sample and sampling process for you to assess its quality? Did the researchers collect their own data or use someone else’s data? What population is the study trying to make claims about, and does the sample represent that population well? What are the sample’s major strengths and major weaknesses?
Data collection (methods)	How were the data collected? What do you know about the relative strengths and weaknesses of the methods employed? What other methods of data collection might have been employed, and why was this particular method employed? What do you know about the data collection strategy and instruments (e.g., questions asked, locations observed)? What you know about the data collection strategy and instruments? Look for appendixes and supplementary documents that provide details on measures.
Data analysis (methods)	How were the data analyzed? Is there enough information provided for you to feel confident that the proper analytic procedures were employed accurately? How open are the data? Can you access the data in an open repository? Did the researchers register their hypotheses and methods prior to data collection? Is there a data disclosure statement available?
Results	What are the study’s major findings? Are findings linked back to previously described research questions, objectives, hypotheses, and literature? Are sufficient amounts of data (e.g., quotes and observations in qualitative work, statistics in quantitative work) provided to support conclusions? Are tables readable?
Discussion/conclusion	Does the author generalize to some population beyond the sample? How are these claims presented? Are claims supported by data provided in the results section (e.g., supporting quotes, statistical significance)? Have limitations of the study been fully disclosed and adequately addressed? Are implications sufficiently explored?

Definitions

Note definitions of key terms for your topic. At minimum, you should include a scholarly definition for the concepts represented in your working question. If your working question asks about the process of leaving a relationship with domestic violence, your research proposal will have to explain how you define domestic violence, as well as how you define "leaving" an abusive relationship. While you may already know what you mean by domestic violence, the person reading your research proposal does not.

Annotating definitions also helps you engage with the scholarly debate around your topic. Definitions are often contested among scholars. Some definitions of domestic violence will be more comprehensive, including things such economic abuse or forcing the victim to problematically use substances. Other definitions will be less comprehensive, covering only physical, verbal, and sexual abuse. Often, how someone defines something conceptually is highly related to how they measure it in their study. Since you will have to do both of these things, find a definition that feels right to you or create your own, noting the ways in which it is similar or different from those in the literature.

Definitions are also an important way of dealing with jargon. Becoming familiar with a new content area involves learning the jargon experts use. For example, in the last paragraph I used the term economic abuse, but that's probably not a term you've heard before. If you were conducting a literature review on domestic violence, you would want to search for keywords like economic abuse if they are relevant to your working question. You will also want to know what they mean so you can use them appropriately in designing your study and writing your literature review.

Theoretical perspective

Noting the theoretical perspective of the article can help you interpret the data in the same manner as the author. For example, articles on supervised injection facilities for people who use intravenous drugs most likely come from a harm reduction perspective, and understanding the theory behind harm reduction is important to make sense of empirical results. Articles should be grounded in a theoretical perspective that helps the author conceptualize and understand the data. As we discussed in Chapter 3 , some journal articles are entirely theoretical and help you understand the theories or conceptual models related to your topic. We will help you determine a theoretical perspective for your project in Chapter 7 . For now, it's a good idea to note what theories authors mention when talking about your topic area. Some articles are better about this than others, and many authors make it a bit challenging to find theory (if mentioned at all). In other articles, it may help to note which social work theories are missing from the literature. For example, a study's findings might address issues of oppression and discrimination, but the authors may not use critical theory to make sense of what happened.

Background knowledge

It's a good idea to note any relevant information the author relies on for background. When an author cites facts or opinions from others, you are subsequently able to get information from multiple articles simultaneously. For example, if we were looking at this meta-analysis about domestic violence , in the introduction section, the authors provide facts from many other sources. These facts will likely be relevant to your inquiry on domestic violence, as well.

As you are looking at background information, you should also note any subtopics or concepts about which there is controversy or consensus. The author may present one viewpoint and then an opposing viewpoint, something you may do in your literature review as well. Similarly, they may present facts that scholars in the field have come to consensus on and describe the ways in which different sources support these conclusions.

Sources of interest

Note any relevant sources the author cites. If there is any background information you plan to use, note the original source of that information. When you write your literature review, cite the original source of a piece of information you are using, which may not be where you initially read it . Remember that you should read and refer to the primary source . If you are reading Article A and the author cites a fact from Article B, you should note Article B in your annotations and use Article B when you cite the fact in your paper. You should also make sure Article A interpreted Article B correctly and scan Article B for any other useful facts.

Research question/Purpose

Authors should be clear about the purpose of their article. Charitable authors will give you a sentence that starts with something like this:

"The purpose of this research project was..."
"Our research question was..."
"The research project was designed to test the following hypothesis..."

Unfortunately, not all authors are so clear, and you may to hunt around for the research question or hypothesis. Generally, in an empirical article, the research question or hypothesis is at the end of the introduction. In non-empirical articles, the author will likely discuss the purpose of the article in the abstract or introduction.

We will discuss in greater detail how to read the results of empirical articles in Chapter 5 . For now, just know that you should highlight any of the key findings of an article. They will be described very briefly in the abstract, and in much more detail in the article itself. In an empirical article, you should look at both the 'Results' and 'Discussion' sections. For a non-empirical article, the key findings will likely be in the conclusion. You can also find them in the topic or concluding sentences in a paragraph within the body of the article.

How do researchers know something when they see it? Found in the 'Methods' section of empirical articles, the measures section is where researchers spell out the tools, or measures, they used to gather data. For quantitative studies, you will want to get familiar with the questions researchers typically use to measure key variables. For example, to measure domestic violence, researchers often use the Conflict Tactics Scale . The more frequently used and cited a measure is, the more we know about how well it works (or not). Qualitative studies will often provide at least some of the interview or focus group questions they used with research participants. They will also include information about how their inquiry and hypotheses may have evolved over time. Keep in mind however, sometimes important information is cut out of an article during editing. If you need more information, consider reaching out to the author directly. Before you do so, check if the author provided an appendix with the information you need or if the article links to a their data and measures as part open data sharing practices.

Who exactly were the study participants and how were they recruited? In quantitative studies, you will want to pay attention to the sample size. Generally, the larger the sample, the greater the study's explanatory power. Additionally, randomly drawn samples are desirable because they leave any variation up to chance. Samples that are conducted out of convenience can be biased and non-representative of the larger population. In qualitative studies, non-random sampling is appropriate but consider this: how well does what we find for this group of people transfer to the people who will be in your study? For qualitative studies and quantitative studies, look for how well the sample is described and whether there are important characteristics missing from the article that you would need to determine the quality of the sample.

Limitations

Honest authors will include these at the end of each article. But you should also note any additional limitations you find with their work as well.

Your annotations

These are just a few suggested annotations, but you can come up with your own. For example, maybe there are annotations you would use for different assignments or for the problem statement in your research proposal. If you have an argument or idea that keeps coming to mind when you read, consider creating an annotation for it so you can remember which part of each article supports your ideas. Whatever works for you. The goal with annotation is to extract as much information from each article while reading, so you don't have to go back through everything again. It's useless to read an article and forget most of what you read. Annotate!

Begin your search by reading thorough and cohesive literature reviews. Review articles are great sources of information to get a broad perspective of your topic.
Don’t read an article just to say you’ve read it. Annotate and take notes so you don’t have to re-read it later.
Use software or paper-and-pencil approaches to write notes on articles.
Annotation is best used when closely reading an empirical study highly similar to your research project.
Select an empirical article highly related to the study you would like to conduct.
Annotate the article using the aforementioned annotations and create some of your own.
Create the first draft of a summary table with key information from this empirical study that you would like to compare to other empirical studies you closely read.

5.3 Generalizability and transferability of empirical results

Define generalizability and transferability.
Assess the generalizability and transferability to how researchers use the results from empirical research studies to make arguments about what is objectively true.
Relate both concepts to the hierarchy of evidence and the types of articles in the scholarly literature

Now that you have read an empirical article in detail, it's important to put its results in conversation with the broader literature on your topic. In this chapter we discuss two important concepts-- generalizability and transferability --and the interrelationship between the two. We also explain how these two properties of empirical data impact your literature review and evidence-based practice.

Generalizability

The figure below provides a common approach to assessing empirical evidence. As you move up the pyramid below, you can be more sure that the data contained in those studies generalizes to all people who experience the issue.

An evidence pyramid with case studies on bottom and systematic reviews on top. It reviews how each stage builds on top of the next in improving quality of evidence

As we reviewed in Chapter 1, objective truth is true for everyone, regardless of context. In other words, objective truths generalize beyond the sample of people from whom data were collected to the larger population of people who experience the issue under examination. You can be much more sure that information from a systematic review or meta-analysis will generalize than something from a case study of a single person, pilot projects, and other studies that do not seek to establish generalizability.

The type of article listed here is also related to the types of research methods the authors used. While we cover many of these approaches in this textbook, some of them (like cohort studies) are somewhat less common in social work. Additionally, there is one important research method, survey design, that does not appear in this diagram. Finally, social work research uses many different types of qualitative research--some of which generates more generalizable data than others.

For a refresher on the different types of evidence available in each type of article, refer back to section 4.1. You'll recall the hierarchy of evidence as described by McNeese & Thyer (2004) [55]

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses
Randomized controlled trials
Quasi-experimental studies
Case-control and cohort studies
Pre-experimental (or non-experimental) group studies
Qualitative studies

Because there is further variation in the types of studies used by social work researchers, I expanded the hierarchy of evidence to cover a greater breadth of research methods in Figure 5.3.

Refined information from multiple sources

The top of the hierarchy represents refined scientific information or meta-research . Meta-research uses the scientific method to analyze and improve the scientific production of knowledge. For example, meta-analyses pull together samples of people from all high-quality studies on a given topic area creating a super-study with far more people than any single researcher could feasibly collect data from. Because scientists (and clinical experts) refine data across multiple studies, these represent the most generalizable research findings.

Of course, not all meta-analyses or systematic reviews are of good quality. As a peer reviewer for a scholarly journal, I have seen poor quality systematic reviews that make methodological mistakes—like not including relevant keywords—that lead to incorrect conclusions. Unfortunately, not all errors are caught in the peer review process, and not all limitations are acknowledged by the authors. Just because you are looking at a systematic review does not mean you are looking at THE OBJECTIVE TRUTH. Nevertheless, you can be pretty sure that results from these studies are generalizable to the population in the study’s research question.

A good way to visualize the process of sampling is by examining the procedure used for systematic reviews and meta-analyses to scientifically search for articles. In Figure 5.4 below, you can see how researchers conducting a systematic review identified a large pool of potentially relevant articles, downloaded and analyzed them for relevance, and in the end, analyzed only 71 articles in their systematic review out of a total of 1,589 potentially relevant articles. Because systematic reviews or meta-analyses are intended to make strong, generalizable conclusions, they often exclude studies that still contain good information.

In the process of selecting articles for a meta-analysis and systematic review, researchers may exclude articles with important information for a number of good reasons. No study is perfect, and all research methods decisions come with limitations--including meta-research. Authors conducting a meta-analysis cannot include a study unless researchers provide data for the authors to include in their meta-analysis, and many empirical journal articles do not make their data available. Additionally, a study’s intervention or measures may be a bit different than what researchers want to make conclusions about. This is a key truth applicable across all articles you read—who or what gets selected for analysis in a research project determines how well the project’s results generalize to everyone.

We will talk about this in future chapters as sampling, and in those chapters, we will learn which sampling approaches are intended to support generalizability and which are used for other purposes. For example, availability or convenience sampling is often used to get quick information while random sampling approaches are intended to support generalizability. It is impossible to know everything about your article right now, but by the end of this course, you will have the information you need to critically examine the generalizability of a sample.

Primary sources (empirical studies)

Because refined sources like systematic reviews exclude good studies, they are only a first step in getting to know a topic area. You will need to examine primary sources--the reports of researchers who conducted empirical studies--to make evidence-based conclusions about your topic. Figure 5.3 describes three different types of data and ranks them vertically based on how well you can be sure the information generalizes.

As we will discuss further in our chapter on causal explanations, a key factor in scientifically assessing what happened first. Researchers conducting intervention studies are causing change by providing therapy, housing, or whatever the intervention is and measuring the outcomes of that intervention after they happen. This is unlike survey researchers, who do not introduce an intervention but ask people to self-report information on a questionnaire. Longitudinal surveys are particularly helpful because they can provide a clearer picture of whether the cause came before the effect in a causal relationship, but because they are expensive and time-consuming to conduct, longitudinal studies are relatively rare in the literature and most surveys measure people at only one point in time. Thus, because researchers cannot tightly control the causal variable (an intervention, an experience of abuse, etc.) we can be somewhat less certain of the conclusions of surveys than experiments. At the same time, because surveys measure people in their naturalistic environment rather than in a laboratory or artificial setting, they may do a better job at reducing the potential for the researcher to influence the data a participant provides. Surveys also provide descriptive information--like the number of people with a diagnosis or risk factor--that experiments cannot provide.

Surveys and experiments are commonly used in social work, and we will describe the methods they use in future chapters. When assessing the generalizability of a given survey or experiment, you are looking at whether the methods used by the researchers improve generalizability (or, at least that those methods are intended to improve generalizability). Specifically, there are sampling, measurement, and design decisions that researchers make that can improve generalizability. And once the study is conducted, whether those methods worked as intended also impact generalizability.

We address sampling, measurement, and design in the coming chapters, and you will need more in-depth knowledge of research methods to assess the generalizability of the results you are reading. In the meantime, Figure 5.3 is organized by design, and this is a good starting point for your inquiry since it only requires you to identify the design in each empirical article--which should be included in the abstract and described in detail in the methods section. For more information on how to conduct sampling, measurement, and design in a way that maximizes generalizability, read Part 2 of this textbook.

When searching for design of a study, look for specific keywords that indicate the researcher used methods that do not generalize well like pilot study, pre-experiment, non-experiment, convenience sample, availability sample, and exploratory study. When researchers are seeking to perform a pilot study, they are optimizing for time, not generalizability. Their results may still be useful to you! But, you should not generalize from their study to all people with the issue under analysis without a lot of caution and additional supporting evidence. Instead, you should see whether the lessons from this study might transfer to the context in which you are researching--our next topic.

Qualitative studies use sampling, measures, and designs that do not try to optimize generalizability. Thus, if the results of a qualitative study indicate 10 out of 50 students who participated in the focus group found the mandatory training on harassment to be unhelpful, does that mean 20% of all college students at this university find it unhelpful? Because focus groups and interviews (and other qualitative methods we will discuss) use qualitative methods, they are not concerned with generalizability. It would not make sense to generalize from focus groups to all people in a population. Instead, focus groups methods optimize for trustworthy and authentic research projects that make sure, for example, all themes and quotes in the researcher's report are traceable to quotes from focus group participants. Instead of providing what is generally true, qualitative research provides a thick description of people's experiences so you can understand them. S ubjective inquiry is less generalizable but provides greater depth in understanding people's feelings, beliefs, and decision-making processes within their context.

In Figure 5.3, you will note that some qualitative studies are ranked higher than others in terms of generalizability. Meta-syntheses are ranked highest because they are meta-research, pooling together the themes and raw data from multiple qualitative studies into a super-study. A meta-synthesis is the qualitative equivalent of a meta-analysis, which analyzes quantitative data. Because the researchers conducting the meta-syntheses aim to make more broad generalizations across research studies, even though generalizability is not strictly the goal. In a similar way, grounded theory studies (a type of qualitative design) aim to produce a testable hypothesis that could generalize. At the bottom of the hierarchy are individual case studies, which report what happens with a single person, organization, or event. It's best not to think too long about the generalizability of qualitative results. When examining qualitative articles, you should be examining their transferability, our topic for the next subsection.

Transferability

Generalizability asks one question: How well does the sample of people in this study represent everyone with this issue? If you read in a study that 50% of people in the sample experienced depression, does that mean 50% of everyone experiences depression? We previewed future discussions in this textbook that will discuss the specific quantitative research methods used to optimize the generalizability of results. By adhering strictly to best practices in sampling, measurement, and design, researchers can provide you with good evidence for the generalizability of their study's results.

Of course, generalizability is not the only question worth asking. Just because a study's sample represents a broader population does not mean it is helpful for making conclusions about your working question. In assessing a study's transferability, you are making a weaker but compelling argument that the conclusions of one study can be applied to understanding the people in your working question and research project. Generalizable results may be applicable because they are broadly transferable across situations, and you can be confident in that when they follow the best practices in this textbook for improving generalizability. However, there may be aspects of a study that make its results difficult to transfer to your topic area.

When evaluating the transferability of a research result to your working question, consider the sample, measures, and design. That is, how data was collected from individuals, who those individuals are, and what researchers did with them. You may find that the samples in generalizable studies do not talk about the specific ethnic, cultural, or geographic group that is in your working question. Similarly, studies that measure the outcomes of substance use treatment by measuring sobriety may not match your working question on moderation, medication adherence, or substitution as an outcome in substance use treatment. Evaluating the transferability of designs may help you identify whether the methods the authors used would be similar to those you might use if you were to conduct a study gathering and collecting your own raw data.

Assessing transferability is more subjective. You are using your knowledge of your topic area and research methods (which are always improving!) to make a reasonable argument about why a given piece of evidence from a primary source helps you understand something. Look back at Table 5.2, your annotations, and the researchers' sampling, data analysis, results, and design. Using your critical thinking (and the knowledge you can in Part 2 and Part 3 of this textbook) you will need to make a reasonable argument that these results transfer to the people, places, and culture that you are talking about in your working question.

In the final chapter of Part 1, we will discuss how to assemble the facts you have taken from journal articles into a literature review that represents what you think about the topic.

Developing your theoretical framework
Conceptual definitions
Inductive & deductive reasoning

Nomothetic causal explanations

Content warning: examples in this chapter include references to sexual harassment, domestic violence, gender-based violence, the child welfare system, substance use disorders, neonatal abstinence syndrome, child abuse, racism, and sexism.

11.1 Developing your theoretical framework

Differentiate between theories that explain specific parts of the social world versus those that are more broad and sweeping in their conclusions
Identify the theoretical perspectives that are relevant to your project and inform your thinking about it
Define key concepts in your working question and develop a theoretical framework for how you understand your topic.

Theories provide a way of looking at the world and of understanding human interaction. Paradigms are grounded in big assumptions about the world—what is real, how do we create knowledge—whereas theories describe more specific phenomena. Well, we are still oversimplifying a bit. Some theories try to explain the whole world, while others only try to explain a small part. Some theories can be grouped together based on common ideas but retain their own individual and unique features. Our goal is to help you find a theoretical framework that helps you understand your topic more deeply and answer your working question.

Theories: Big and small

In your human behavior and the social environment (HBSE) class, you were introduced to the major theoretical perspectives that are commonly used in social work. These are what we like to call big-T 'T'heories. When you read about systems theory, you are actually reading a synthesis of decades of distinct, overlapping, and conflicting theories that can be broadly classified within systems theory. For example, within systems theory, some approaches focus more on family systems while others focus on environmental systems, though the core concepts remain similar.

Different theorists define concepts in their own way, and as a result, their theories may explore different relationships with those concepts. For example, Deci and Ryan's (1985) [56] self-determination theory discusses motivation and establishes that it is contingent on meeting one's needs for autonomy, competency, and relatedness. By contrast, ecological self-determination theory, as written by Abery & Stancliffe (1996), [57] argues that self-determination is the amount of control exercised by an individual over aspects of their lives they deem important across the micro, meso, and macro levels. If self-determination were an important concept in your study, you would need to figure out which of the many theories related to self-determination helps you address your working question.

Theories can provide a broad perspective on the key concepts and relationships in the world or more specific and applied concepts and perspectives. Table 7.2 summarizes two commonly used lists of big-T Theoretical perspectives in social work. See if you can locate some of the theories that might inform your project.

Table 7.2: Broad theoretical perspectives in social work

Psychodynamic	Systems
Crisis and task-centered	Conflict
Cognitive-behavioral	Exchange and choice
Systems/ecological	Social constructionist
Macro practice/social development/social pedagogy	Psychodynamic
Strengths/solution/narrative	Developmental
Humanistic/existential/spiritual	Social behavioral
Critical	Humanistic
Feminist
Anti-discriminatory/multi-cultural sensitivity

Competing theoretical explanations

Within each area of specialization in social work, there are many other theories that aim to explain more specific types of interactions. For example, within the study of sexual harassment, different theories posit different explanations for why harassment occurs.

One theory, first developed by criminologists, is called routine activities theory. It posits that sexual harassment is most likely to occur when a workplace lacks unified groups and when potentially vulnerable targets and motivated offenders are both present (DeCoster, Estes, & Mueller, 1999). [60]

Other theories of sexual harassment, called relational theories, suggest that one's existing relationships are the key to understanding why and how workplace sexual harassment occurs and how people will respond when it does occur (Morgan, 1999). [61] Relational theories focus on the power that different social relationships provide (e.g., married people who have supportive partners at home might be more likely than those who lack support at home to report sexual harassment when it occurs).

Finally, feminist theories of sexual harassment take a different stance. These theories posit that the organization of our current gender system, wherein those who are the most masculine have the most power, best explains the occurrence of workplace sexual harassment (MacKinnon, 1979). [62] As you might imagine, which theory a researcher uses to examine the topic of sexual harassment will shape the questions asked about harassment. It will also shape the explanations the researcher provides for why harassment occurs.

For a graduate student beginning their study of a new topic, it may be intimidating to learn that there are so many theories beyond what you’ve learned in your theory classes. What’s worse is that there is no central database of theories on your topic. However, as you review the literature in your area, you will learn more about the theories scientists have created to explain how your topic works in the real world. There are other good sources for theories, in addition to journal articles. Books often contain works of theoretical and philosophical importance that are beyond the scope of an academic journal. Do a search in your university library for books on your topic, and you are likely to find theorists talking about how to make sense of your topic. You don't necessarily have to agree with the prevailing theories about your topic, but you do need to be aware of them so you can apply theoretical ideas to your project.

Applying big-T theories to your topic

The key to applying theories to your topic is learning the key concepts associated with that theory and the relationships between those concepts, or propositions . Again, your HBSE class should have prepared you with some of the most important concepts from the theoretical perspectives listed in Table 7.2. For example, the conflict perspective sees the world as divided into dominant and oppressed groups who engage in conflict over resources. If you were applying these theoretical ideas to your project, you would need to identify which groups in your project are considered dominant or oppressed groups, and which resources they were struggling over. This is a very general example. Challenge yourself to find small-t theories about your topic that will help you understand it in much greater detail and specificity. If you have chosen a topic that is relevant to your life and future practice, you will be doing valuable work shaping your ideas towards social work practice.

Integrating theory into your project can be easy, or it can take a bit more effort. Some people have a strong and explicit theoretical perspective that they carry with them at all times. For me, you'll probably see my work drawing from exchange and choice, social constructionist, and critical theory. Maybe you have theoretical perspectives you naturally employ, like Afrocentric theory or person-centered practice. If so, that's a great place to start since you might already be using that theory (even subconsciously) to inform your understanding of your topic. But if you aren't aware of whether you are using a theoretical perspective when you think about your topic, try writing a paragraph off the top of your head or talking with a friend explaining what you think about that topic. Try matching it with some of the ideas from the broad theoretical perspectives from Table 7.2. This can ground you as you search for more specific theories. Some studies are designed to test whether theories apply the real world while others are designed to create new theories or variations on existing theories. Consider which feels more appropriate for your project and what you want to know.

Another way to easily identify the theories associated with your topic is to look at the concepts in your working question. Are these concepts commonly found in any of the theoretical perspectives in Table 7.2? Take a look at the Payne and Hutchison texts and see if any of those look like the concepts and relationships in your working question or if any of them match with how you think about your topic. Even if they don't possess the exact same wording, similar theories can help serve as a starting point to finding other theories that can inform your project. Remember, HBSE textbooks will give you not only the broad statements of theories but also sources from specific theorists and sub-theories that might be more applicable to your topic. Skim the references and suggestions for further reading once you find something that applies well.

Choose a theoretical perspective from Hutchison, Payne, or another theory textbook that is relevant to your project. Using their textbooks or other reputable sources, identify :

At least five important concepts from the theory
What relationships the theory establishes between these important concepts (e.g., as x increases, the y decreases)
How you can use this theory to better understand the concepts and variables in your project?

Developing your own theoretical framework

Hutchison's and Payne's frameworks are helpful for surveying the whole body of literature relevant to social work, which is why they are so widely used. They are one framework, or way of thinking, about all of the theories social workers will encounter that are relevant to practice. Social work researchers should delve further and develop a theoretical or conceptual framework of their own based on their reading of the literature. In Chapter 8 , we will develop your theoretical framework further, identifying the cause-and-effect relationships that answer your working question. Developing a theoretical framework is also instructive for revising and clarifying your working question and identifying concepts that serve as keywords for additional literature searching. The greater clarity you have with your theoretical perspective, the easier each subsequent step in the research process will be.

Getting acquainted with the important theoretical concepts in a new area can be challenging. While social work education provides a broad overview of social theory, you will find much greater fulfillment out of reading about the theories related to your topic area. We discussed some strategies for finding theoretical information in Chapter 3 as part of literature searching. To extend that conversation a bit, some strategies for searching for theories in the literature include:

Consider searching for these keywords in the title or abstract, specifically
Looking at the references and cited by links within theoretical articles and textbooks
Looking at books, edited volumes, and textbooks that discuss theory
Talking with a scholar on your topic, or asking a professor if they can help connect you to someone
Nice authors are clear about how they use theory to inform their research project, usually in the introduction and discussion section.
For example, from the broad umbrella of systems theory, you might pick out family systems theory if you want to understand the effectiveness of a family counseling program.

It's important to remember that knowledge arises within disciplines, and that disciplines have different theoretical frameworks for explaining the same topic. While it is certainly important for the social work perspective to be a part of your analysis, social workers benefit from searching across disciplines to come to a more comprehensive understanding of the topic. Reaching across disciplines can provide uncommon insights during conceptualization, and once the study is completed, a multidisciplinary researcher will be able to share results in a way that speaks to a variety of audiences. A study by An and colleagues (2015) [63] uses game theory from the discipline of economics to understand problems in the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program. In order to receive TANF benefits, mothers must cooperate with paternity and child support requirements unless they have "good cause," as in cases of domestic violence, in which providing that information would put the mother at greater risk of violence. Game theory can help us understand how TANF recipients and caseworkers respond to the incentives in their environment, and highlight why the design of the "good cause" waiver program may not achieve its intended outcome of increasing access to benefits for survivors of family abuse.

Of course, there are natural limits on the depth with which student researchers can and should engage in a search for theory about their topic. At minimum, you should be able to draw connections across studies and be able to assess the relative importance of each theory within the literature. Just because you found one article applying your theory (like game theory, in our example above) does not mean it is important or often used in the domestic violence literature. Indeed, it would be much more common in the family violence literature to find psychological theories of trauma, feminist theories of power and control, and similar theoretical perspectives used to inform research projects rather than game theory, which is equally applicable to survivors of family violence as workers and bosses at a corporation. Consider using the Cited By feature to identify articles, books, and other sources of theoretical information that are seminal or well-cited in the literature. Similarly, by using the name of a theory in the keywords of a search query (along with keywords related to your topic), you can get a sense of how often the theory is used in your topic area. You should have a sense of what theories are commonly used to analyze your topic, even if you end up choosing a different one to inform your project.

Theories that are not cited or used as often are still immensely valuable. As we saw before with TANF and "good cause" waivers, using theories from other disciplines can produce uncommon insights and help you make a new contribution to the social work literature. Given the privileged position that the social work curriculum places on theories developed by white men, students may want to explore Afrocentricity as a social work practice theory (Pellebon, 2007) [64] or abolitionist social work (Jacobs et al., 2021) [65] when deciding on a theoretical framework for their research project that addresses concepts of racial justice. Start with your working question, and explain how each theory helps you answer your question. Some explanations are going to feel right, and some concepts will feel more salient to you than others. Keep in mind that this is an iterative process. Your theoretical framework will likely change as you continue to conceptualize your research project, revise your research question, and design your study.

By trying on many different theoretical explanations for your topic area, you can better clarify your own theoretical framework. Some of you may be fortunate enough to find theories that match perfectly with how you think about your topic, are used often in the literature, and are therefore relatively straightforward to apply. However, many of you may find that a combination of theoretical perspectives is most helpful for you to investigate your project. For example, maybe the group counseling program for which you are evaluating client outcomes draws from both motivational interviewing and cognitive behavioral therapy. In order to understand the change happening in the client population, you would need to know each theory separately as well as how they work in tandem with one another. Because theoretical explanations and even the definitions of concepts are debated by scientists, it may be helpful to find a specific social scientist or group of scientists whose perspective on the topic you find matches with your understanding of the topic. Of course, it is also perfectly acceptable to develop your own theoretical framework, though you should be able to articulate how your framework fills a gap within the literature.

If you are adapting theoretical perspectives in your study, it is important to clarify the original authors' definitions of each concept. Jabareen (2009) [66] offers that conceptual frameworks are not merely collections of concepts but, rather, constructs in which each concept plays an integral role. [67] A conceptual framework is a network of linked concepts that together provide a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon. Each concept in a conceptual framework plays an ontological or epistemological role in the framework, and it is important to assess whether the concepts and relationships in your framework make sense together. As your framework takes shape, you will find yourself integrating and grouping together concepts, thinking about the most important or least important concepts, and how each concept is causally related to others.

Much like paradigm, theory plays a supporting role for the conceptualization of your research project. Recall the ice float from Figure 7.1. Theoretical explanations support the design and methods you use to answer your research question. In student projects that lack a theoretical framework, I often see the biases and errors in reasoning that we discussed in Chapter 1 that get in the way of good social science. That's because theories mark which concepts are important, provide a framework for understanding them, and measure their interrelationships. If you are missing this foundation, you will operate on informal observation, messages from authority, and other forms of unsystematic and unscientific thinking we reviewed in Chapter 1 .

Theory-informed inquiry is incredibly helpful for identifying key concepts and how to measure them in your research project, but there is a risk in aligning research too closely with theory. The theory-ladenness of facts and observations produced by social science research means that we may be making our ideas real through research. This is a potential source of confirmation bias in social science. Moreover, as Tan (2016) [68] demonstrates, social science often proceeds by adopting as true the perspective of Western and Global North countries, and cross-cultural research is often when ethnocentric and biased ideas are most visible . In her example, a researcher from the West studying teacher-centric classrooms in China that rely partially on rote memorization may view them as less advanced than student-centered classrooms developed in a Western country simply because of Western philosophical assumptions about the importance of individualism and self-determination. Developing a clear theoretical framework is a way to guard against biased research, and it will establish a firm foundation on which you will develop the design and methods for your study.

Just as empirical evidence is important for conceptualizing a research project, so too are the key concepts and relationships identified by social work theory.
Using theory your theory textbook will provide you with a sense of the broad theoretical perspectives in social work that might be relevant to your project.
Try to find small-t theories that are more specific to your topic area and relevant to your working question.
In Chapter 2 , you developed a concept map for your proposal. Take a moment to revisit your concept map now as your theoretical framework is taking shape. Make any updates to the key concepts and relationships in your concept map. . If you need a refresher, we have embedded a short how-to video from the University of Guelph Library (CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0) that we also used in Chapter 2 .

11.2 Conceptual definitions

Define measurement and conceptualization
Apply Kaplan’s three categories to determine the complexity of measuring a given variable
Identify the role previous research and theory play in defining concepts
Distinguish between unidimensional and multidimensional concepts
Critically apply reification to how you conceptualize the key variables in your research project

In social science, when we use the term measurement , we mean the process by which we describe and ascribe meaning to the key facts, concepts, or other phenomena that we are investigating. At its core, measurement is about defining one’s terms in as clear and precise a way as possible. Of course, measurement in social science isn’t quite as simple as using a measuring cup or spoon, but there are some basic tenets on which most social scientists agree when it comes to measurement. We’ll explore those, as well as some of the ways that measurement might vary depending on your unique approach to the study of your topic.

An important point here is that measurement does not require any particular instruments or procedures. What it does require is a systematic procedure for assigning scores, meanings, and descriptions to individuals or objects so that those scores represent the characteristic of interest. You can measure phenomena in many different ways, but you must be sure that how you choose to measure gives you information and data that lets you answer your research question. If you're looking for information about a person's income, but your main points of measurement have to do with the money they have in the bank, you're not really going to find the information you're looking for!

The question of what social scientists measure can be answered by asking yourself what social scientists study. Think about the topics you’ve learned about in other social work classes you’ve taken or the topics you’ve considered investigating yourself. Let’s consider Melissa Milkie and Catharine Warner’s study (2011) [69] of first graders’ mental health. In order to conduct that study, Milkie and Warner needed to have some idea about how they were going to measure mental health. What does mental health mean, exactly? And how do we know when we’re observing someone whose mental health is good and when we see someone whose mental health is compromised? Understanding how measurement works in research methods helps us answer these sorts of questions.

As you might have guessed, social scientists will measure just about anything that they have an interest in investigating. For example, those who are interested in learning something about the correlation between social class and levels of happiness must develop some way to measure both social class and happiness. Those who wish to understand how well immigrants cope in their new locations must measure immigrant status and coping. Those who wish to understand how a person’s gender shapes their workplace experiences must measure gender and workplace experiences (and get more specific about which experiences are under examination). You get the idea. Social scientists can and do measure just about anything you can imagine observing or wanting to study. Of course, some things are easier to observe or measure than others.

Observing your variables

In 1964, philosopher Abraham Kaplan (1964) [70] wrote The Conduct of Inquiry, which has since become a classic work in research methodology (Babbie, 2010). [71] In his text, Kaplan describes different categories of things that behavioral scientists observe. One of those categories, which Kaplan called “observational terms,” is probably the simplest to measure in social science. Observational terms are the sorts of things that we can see with the naked eye simply by looking at them. Kaplan roughly defines them as conditions that are easy to identify and verify through direct observation. If, for example, we wanted to know how the conditions of playgrounds differ across different neighborhoods, we could directly observe the variety, amount, and condition of equipment at various playgrounds.

Indirect observables , on the other hand, are less straightforward to assess. In Kaplan's framework, they are conditions that are subtle and complex that we must use existing knowledge and intuition to define. If we conducted a study for which we wished to know a person’s income, we’d probably have to ask them their income, perhaps in an interview or a survey. Thus, we have observed income, even if it has only been observed indirectly. Birthplace might be another indirect observable. We can ask study participants where they were born, but chances are good we won’t have directly observed any of those people being born in the locations they report.

Sometimes the measures that we are interested in are more complex and more abstract than observational terms or indirect observables. Think about some of the concepts you’ve learned about in other social work classes—for example, ethnocentrism. What is ethnocentrism? Well, from completing an introduction to social work class you might know that it has something to do with the way a person judges another’s culture. But how would you measure it? Here’s another construct: bureaucracy. We know this term has something to do with organizations and how they operate but measuring such a construct is trickier than measuring something like a person’s income. The theoretical concepts of ethnocentrism and bureaucracy represent ideas whose meanings we have come to agree on. Though we may not be able to observe these abstractions directly, we can observe their components.

Kaplan referred to these more abstract things that behavioral scientists measure as constructs. Constructs are “not observational either directly or indirectly” (Kaplan, 1964, p. 55), [72] but they can be defined based on observables. For example, the construct of bureaucracy could be measured by counting the number of supervisors that need to approve routine spending by public administrators. The greater the number of administrators that must sign off on routine matters, the greater the degree of bureaucracy. Similarly, we might be able to ask a person the degree to which they trust people from different cultures around the world and then assess the ethnocentrism inherent in their answers. We can measure constructs like bureaucracy and ethnocentrism by defining them in terms of what we can observe. [73]

The idea of coming up with your own measurement tool might sound pretty intimidating at this point. The good news is that if you find something in the literature that works for you, you can use it (with proper attribution, of course). If there are only pieces of it that you like, you can reuse those pieces (with proper attribution and describing/justifying any changes). You don't always have to start from scratch!

Look at the variables in your research question.

Classify them as direct observables, indirect observables, or constructs.
Do you think measuring them will be easy or hard?
What are your first thoughts about how to measure each variable? No wrong answers here, just write down a thought about each variable.

Measurement starts with conceptualization

In order to measure the concepts in your research question, we first have to understand what we think about them. As an aside, the word concept has come up quite a bit, and it is important to be sure we have a shared understanding of that term. A concept is the notion or image that we conjure up when we think of some cluster of related observations or ideas. For example, masculinity is a concept. What do you think of when you hear that word? Presumably, you imagine some set of behaviors and perhaps even a particular style of self-presentation. Of course, we can’t necessarily assume that everyone conjures up the same set of ideas or images when they hear the word masculinity . While there are many possible ways to define the term and some may be more common or have more support than others, there is no universal definition of masculinity. What counts as masculine may shift over time, from culture to culture, and even from individual to individual (Kimmel, 2008). This is why defining our concepts is so important.\

Not all researchers clearly explain their theoretical or conceptual framework for their study, but they should! Without understanding how a researcher has defined their key concepts, it would be nearly impossible to understand the meaning of that researcher’s findings and conclusions. Back in Chapter 7 , you developed a theoretical framework for your study based on a survey of the theoretical literature in your topic area. If you haven't done that yet, consider flipping back to that section to familiarize yourself with some of the techniques for finding and using theories relevant to your research question. Continuing with our example on masculinity, we would need to survey the literature on theories of masculinity. After a few queries on masculinity, I found a wonderful article by Wong (2010) [74] that analyzed eight years of the journal Psychology of Men & Masculinity and analyzed how often different theories of masculinity were used . Not only can I get a sense of which theories are more accepted and which are more marginal in the social science on masculinity, I am able to identify a range of options from which I can find the theory or theories that will inform my project.

Identify a specific theory (or more than one theory) and how it helps you understand...

Your independent variable(s).
Your dependent variable(s).
The relationship between your independent and dependent variables.

Rather than completing this exercise from scratch, build from your theoretical or conceptual framework developed in previous chapters.

In quantitative methods, conceptualization involves writing out clear, concise definitions for our key concepts. These are the kind of definitions you are used to, like the ones in a dictionary. A conceptual definition involves defining a concept in terms of other concepts, usually by making reference to how other social scientists and theorists have defined those concepts in the past. Of course, new conceptual definitions are created all the time because our conceptual understanding of the world is always evolving.

Conceptualization is deceptively challenging—spelling out exactly what the concepts in your research question mean to you. Following along with our example, think about what comes to mind when you read the term masculinity. How do you know masculinity when you see it? Does it have something to do with men or with social norms? If so, perhaps we could define masculinity as the social norms that men are expected to follow. That seems like a reasonable start, and at this early stage of conceptualization, brainstorming about the images conjured up by concepts and playing around with possible definitions is appropriate. However, this is just the first step. At this point, you should be beyond brainstorming for your key variables because you have read a good amount of research about them

In addition, we should consult previous research and theory to understand the definitions that other scholars have already given for the concepts we are interested in. This doesn’t mean we must use their definitions, but understanding how concepts have been defined in the past will help us to compare our conceptualizations with how other scholars define and relate concepts. Understanding prior definitions of our key concepts will also help us decide whether we plan to challenge those conceptualizations or rely on them for our own work. Finally, working on conceptualization is likely to help in the process of refining your research question to one that is specific and clear in what it asks. Conceptualization and operationalization (next section) are where "the rubber meets the road," so to speak, and you have to specify what you mean by the question you are asking. As your conceptualization deepens, you will often find that your research question becomes more specific and clear.

If we turn to the literature on masculinity, we will surely come across work by Michael Kimmel , one of the preeminent masculinity scholars in the United States. After consulting Kimmel’s prior work (2000; 2008), [75] we might tweak our initial definition of masculinity. Rather than defining masculinity as “the social norms that men are expected to follow,” perhaps instead we’ll define it as “the social roles, behaviors, and meanings prescribed for men in any given society at any one time” (Kimmel & Aronson, 2004, p. 503). [76] Our revised definition is more precise and complex because it goes beyond addressing one aspect of men’s lives (norms), and addresses three aspects: roles, behaviors, and meanings. It also implies that roles, behaviors, and meanings may vary across societies and over time. Using definitions developed by theorists and scholars is a good idea, though you may find that you want to define things your own way.

As you can see, conceptualization isn’t as simple as applying any random definition that we come up with to a term. Defining our terms may involve some brainstorming at the very beginning. But conceptualization must go beyond that, to engage with or critique existing definitions and conceptualizations in the literature. Once we’ve brainstormed about the images associated with a particular word, we should also consult prior work to understand how others define the term in question. After we’ve identified a clear definition that we’re happy with, we should make sure that every term used in our definition will make sense to others. Are there terms used within our definition that also need to be defined? If so, our conceptualization is not yet complete. Our definition includes the concept of "social roles," so we should have a definition for what those mean and become familiar with role theory to help us with our conceptualization. If we don't know what roles are, how can we study them?

Let's say we do all of that. We have a clear definition of the term masculinity with reference to previous literature and we also have a good understanding of the terms in our conceptual definition...then we're done, right? Not so fast. You’ve likely met more than one man in your life, and you’ve probably noticed that they are not the same, even if they live in the same society during the same historical time period. This could mean there are dimensions of masculinity. In terms of social scientific measurement, concepts can be said to have multiple dimensions when there are multiple elements that make up a single concept. With respect to the term masculinity , dimensions could based on gender identity, gender performance, sexual orientation, etc.. In any of these cases, the concept of masculinity would be considered to have multiple dimensions.

While you do not need to spell out every possible dimension of the concepts you wish to measure, it is important to identify whether your concepts are unidimensional (and therefore relatively easy to define and measure) or multidimensional (and therefore require multi-part definitions and measures). In this way, how you conceptualize your variables determines how you will measure them in your study. Unidimensional concepts are those that are expected to have a single underlying dimension. These concepts can be measured using a single measure or test. Examples include simple concepts such as a person’s weight, time spent sleeping, and so forth.

One frustrating this is that there is no clear demarcation between concepts that are inherently unidimensional or multidimensional. Even something as simple as age could be broken down into multiple dimensions including mental age and chronological age, so where does conceptualization stop? How far down the dimensional rabbit hole do we have to go? Researchers should consider two things. First, how important is this variable in your study? If age is not important in your study (maybe it is a control variable), it seems like a waste of time to do a lot of work drawing from developmental theory to conceptualize this variable. A unidimensional measure from zero to dead is all the detail we need. On the other hand, if we were measuring the impact of age on masculinity, conceptualizing our independent variable (age) as multidimensional may provide a richer understanding of its impact on masculinity. Finally, your conceptualization will lead directly to your operationalization of the variable, and once your operationalization is complete, make sure someone reading your study could follow how your conceptual definitions informed the measures you chose for your variables.

Write a conceptual definition for your independent and dependent variables.

Cite and attribute definitions to other scholars, if you use their words.
Describe how your definitions are informed by your theoretical framework.
Place your definition in conversation with other theories and conceptual definitions commonly used in the literature.
Are there multiple dimensions of your variables?
Are any of these dimensions important for you to measure?

Do researchers actually know what we're talking about?

Conceptualization proceeds differently in qualitative research compared to quantitative research. Since qualitative researchers are interested in the understandings and experiences of their participants, it is less important for them to find one fixed definition for a concept before starting to interview or interact with participants. The researcher’s job is to accurately and completely represent how their participants understand a concept, not to test their own definition of that concept.

If you were conducting qualitative research on masculinity, you would likely consult previous literature like Kimmel’s work mentioned above. From your literature review, you may come up with a working definition for the terms you plan to use in your study, which can change over the course of the investigation. However, the definition that matters is the definition that your participants share during data collection. A working definition is merely a place to start, and researchers should take care not to think it is the only or best definition out there.

In qualitative inquiry, your participants are the experts (sound familiar, social workers?) on the concepts that arise during the research study. Your job as the researcher is to accurately and reliably collect and interpret their understanding of the concepts they describe while answering your questions. Conceptualization of concepts is likely to change over the course of qualitative inquiry, as you learn more information from your participants. Indeed, getting participants to comment on, extend, or challenge the definitions and understandings of other participants is a hallmark of qualitative research. This is the opposite of quantitative research, in which definitions must be completely set in stone before the inquiry can begin.

The contrast between qualitative and quantitative conceptualization is instructive for understanding how quantitative methods (and positivist research in general) privilege the knowledge of the researcher over the knowledge of study participants and community members. Positivism holds that the researcher is the "expert," and can define concepts based on their expert knowledge of the scientific literature. This knowledge is in contrast to the lived experience that participants possess from experiencing the topic under examination day-in, day-out. For this reason, it would be wise to remind ourselves not to take our definitions too seriously and be critical about the limitations of our knowledge.

Conceptualization must be open to revisions, even radical revisions, as scientific knowledge progresses. While I’ve suggested consulting prior scholarly definitions of our concepts, you should not assume that prior, scholarly definitions are more real than the definitions we create. Likewise, we should not think that our own made-up definitions are any more real than any other definition. It would also be wrong to assume that just because definitions exist for some concept that the concept itself exists beyond some abstract idea in our heads. Building on the paradigmatic ideas behind interpretivism and the critical paradigm, researchers call the assumption that our abstract concepts exist in some concrete, tangible way is known as reification . It explores the power dynamics behind how we can create reality by how we define it.

Returning again to our example of masculinity. Think about our how our notions of masculinity have developed over the past few decades, and how different and yet so similar they are to patriarchal definitions throughout history. Conceptual definitions become more or less popular based on the power arrangements inside of social science the broader world. Western knowledge systems are privileged, while others are viewed as unscientific and marginal. The historical domination of social science by white men from WEIRD countries meant that definitions of masculinity were imbued their cultural biases and were designed explicitly and implicitly to preserve their power. This has inspired movements for cognitive justice as we seek to use social science to achieve global development.

Measurement is the process by which we describe and ascribe meaning to the key facts, concepts, or other phenomena that we are investigating.
Kaplan identified three categories of things that social scientists measure including observational terms, indirect observables, and constructs.
Some concepts have multiple elements or dimensions.
Researchers often use measures previously developed and studied by other researchers.
Conceptualization is a process that involves coming up with clear, concise definitions.
Conceptual definitions are based on the theoretical framework you are using for your study (and the paradigmatic assumptions underlying those theories).
Whether your conceptual definitions come from your own ideas or the literature, you should be able to situate them in terms of other commonly used conceptual definitions.
Researchers should acknowledge the limited explanatory power of their definitions for concepts and how oppression can shape what explanations are considered true or scientific.

Think historically about the variables in your research question.

How has our conceptual definition of your topic changed over time?
What scholars or social forces were responsible for this change?

Take a critical look at your conceptual definitions.

How participants might define terms for themselves differently, in terms of their daily experience?
On what cultural assumptions are your conceptual definitions based?
Are your conceptual definitions applicable across all cultures that will be represented in your sample?

11.3 Inductive and deductive reasoning

Describe inductive and deductive reasoning and provide examples of each
Identify how inductive and deductive reasoning are complementary

Congratulations! You survived the chapter on theories and paradigms. My experience has been that many students have a difficult time thinking about theories and paradigms because they perceive them as "intangible" and thereby hard to connect to social work research. I even had one student who said she got frustrated just reading the word "philosophy."

Rest assured, you do not need to become a theorist or philosopher to be an effective social worker or researcher. However, you should have a good sense of what theory or theories will be relevant to your project, as well as how this theory, along with your working question, fit within the three broad research paradigms we reviewed. If you don't have a good idea about those at this point, it may be a good opportunity to pause and read more about the theories related to your topic area.

Theories structure and inform social work research. The converse is also true: research can structure and inform theory. The reciprocal relationship between theory and research often becomes evident to students when they consider the relationships between theory and research in inductive and deductive approaches to research. In both cases, theory is crucial. But the relationship between theory and research differs for each approach.

While inductive and deductive approaches to research are quite different, they can also be complementary. Let’s start by looking at each one and how they differ from one another. Then we’ll move on to thinking about how they complement one another.

Inductive reasoning

A researcher using inductive reasoning begins by collecting data that is relevant to their topic of interest. Once a substantial amount of data have been collected, the researcher will then step back from data collection to get a bird’s eye view of their data. At this stage, the researcher looks for patterns in the data, working to develop a theory that could explain those patterns. Thus, when researchers take an inductive approach, they start with a particular set of observations and move to a more general set of propositions about those experiences. In other words, they move from data to theory, or from the specific to the general. Figure 8.1 outlines the steps involved with an inductive approach to research.

A researcher moving from a more particular focus on data to a more general focus on theory by looking for patterns

There are many good examples of inductive research, but we’ll look at just a few here. One fascinating study in which the researchers took an inductive approach is Katherine Allen, Christine Kaestle, and Abbie Goldberg’s (2011) [77] study of how boys and young men learn about menstruation. To understand this process, Allen and her colleagues analyzed the written narratives of 23 young cisgender men in which the men described how they learned about menstruation, what they thought of it when they first learned about it, and what they think of it now. By looking for patterns across all 23 cisgender men’s narratives, the researchers were able to develop a general theory of how boys and young men learn about this aspect of girls’ and women’s biology. They conclude that sisters play an important role in boys’ early understanding of menstruation, that menstruation makes boys feel somewhat separated from girls, and that as they enter young adulthood and form romantic relationships, young men develop more mature attitudes about menstruation. Note how this study began with the data—men’s narratives of learning about menstruation—and worked to develop a theory.

In another inductive study, Kristin Ferguson and colleagues (Ferguson, Kim, & McCoy, 2011) [78] analyzed empirical data to better understand how to meet the needs of young people who are homeless. The authors analyzed focus group data from 20 youth at a homeless shelter. From these data they developed a set of recommendations for those interested in applied interventions that serve homeless youth. The researchers also developed hypotheses for others who might wish to conduct further investigation of the topic. Though Ferguson and her colleagues did not test their hypotheses, their study ends where most deductive investigations begin: with a theory and a hypothesis derived from that theory. Section 8.4 discusses the use of mixed methods research as a way for researchers to test hypotheses created in a previous component of the same research project.

You will notice from both of these examples that inductive reasoning is most commonly found in studies using qualitative methods, such as focus groups and interviews. Because inductive reasoning involves the creation of a new theory, researchers need very nuanced data on how the key concepts in their working question operate in the real world. Qualitative data is often drawn from lengthy interactions and observations with the individuals and phenomena under examination. For this reason, inductive reasoning is most often associated with qualitative methods, though it is used in both quantitative and qualitative research.

Deductive reasoning

If inductive reasoning is about creating theories from raw data, deductive reasoning is about testing theories using data. Researchers using deductive reasoning take the steps described earlier for inductive research and reverse their order. They start with a compelling social theory, create a hypothesis about how the world should work, collect raw data, and analyze whether their hypothesis was confirmed or not. That is, deductive approaches move from a more general level (theory) to a more specific (data); whereas inductive approaches move from the specific (data) to general (theory).

A deductive approach to research is the one that people typically associate with scientific investigation. Students in English-dominant countries that may be confused by inductive vs. deductive research can rest part of the blame on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, creator of the Sherlock Holmes character. As Craig Vasey points out in his breezy introduction to logic book chapter , Sherlock Holmes more often used inductive rather than deductive reasoning (despite claiming to use the powers of deduction to solve crimes). By noticing subtle details in how people act, behave, and dress, Holmes finds patterns that others miss. Using those patterns, he creates a theory of how the crime occurred, dramatically revealed to the authorities just in time to arrest the suspect. Indeed, it is these flashes of insight into the patterns of data that make Holmes such a keen inductive reasoner. In social work practice, rather than detective work, inductive reasoning is supported by the intuitions and practice wisdom of social workers, just as Holmes' reasoning is sharpened by his experience as a detective.

So, if deductive reasoning isn't Sherlock Holmes' observation and pattern-finding, how does it work? It starts with what you have already done in Chapters 3 and 4, reading and evaluating what others have done to study your topic. It continued with Chapter 5, discovering what theories already try to explain how the concepts in your working question operate in the real world. Tapping into this foundation of knowledge on their topic, the researcher studies what others have done, reads existing theories of whatever phenomenon they are studying, and then tests hypotheses that emerge from those theories. Figure 8.2 outlines the steps involved with a deductive approach to research.

Moving from general to specific using deductive reasoning

While not all researchers follow a deductive approach, many do. We’ll now take a look at a couple excellent recent examples of deductive research.

In a study of US law enforcement responses to hate crimes, Ryan King and colleagues (King, Messner, & Baller, 2009) [79] hypothesized that law enforcement’s response would be less vigorous in areas of the country that had a stronger history of racial violence. The authors developed their hypothesis from prior research and theories on the topic. They tested the hypothesis by analyzing data on states’ lynching histories and hate crime responses. Overall, the authors found support for their hypothesis and illustrated an important application of critical race theory.

In another recent deductive study, Melissa Milkie and Catharine Warner (2011) [80] studied the effects of different classroom environments on first graders’ mental health. Based on prior research and theory, Milkie and Warner hypothesized that negative classroom features, such as a lack of basic supplies and heat, would be associated with emotional and behavioral problems in children. One might associate this research with Maslow's hierarchy of needs or systems theory. The researchers found support for their hypothesis, demonstrating that policymakers should be paying more attention to the mental health outcomes of children’s school experiences, just as they track academic outcomes (American Sociological Association, 2011). [81]

Complementary approaches

While inductive and deductive approaches to research seem quite different, they can actually be rather complementary. In some cases, researchers will plan for their study to include multiple components, one inductive and the other deductive. In other cases, a researcher might begin a study with the plan to conduct either inductive or deductive research, but then discovers along the way that the other approach is needed to help illuminate findings. Here is an example of each such case.

Dr. Amy Blackstone (n.d.), author of Principles of sociological inquiry: Qualitative and quantitative methods , relates a story about her mixed methods research on sexual harassment.

We began the study knowing that we would like to take both a deductive and an inductive approach in our work. We therefore administered a quantitative survey, the responses to which we could analyze in order to test hypotheses, and also conducted qualitative interviews with a number of the survey participants. The survey data were well suited to a deductive approach; we could analyze those data to test hypotheses that were generated based on theories of harassment. The interview data were well suited to an inductive approach; we looked for patterns across the interviews and then tried to make sense of those patterns by theorizing about them. For one paper (Uggen & Blackstone, 2004) [82] , we began with a prominent feminist theory of the sexual harassment of adult women and developed a set of hypotheses outlining how we expected the theory to apply in the case of younger women’s and men’s harassment experiences. We then tested our hypotheses by analyzing the survey data. In general, we found support for the theory that posited that the current gender system, in which heteronormative men wield the most power in the workplace, explained workplace sexual harassment—not just of adult women but of younger women and men as well. In a more recent paper (Blackstone, Houle, & Uggen, 2006), [83] we did not hypothesize about what we might find but instead inductively analyzed interview data, looking for patterns that might tell us something about how or whether workers’ perceptions of harassment change as they age and gain workplace experience. From this analysis, we determined that workers’ perceptions of harassment did indeed shift as they gained experience and that their later definitions of harassment were more stringent than those they held during adolescence. Overall, our desire to understand young workers’ harassment experiences fully—in terms of their objective workplace experiences, their perceptions of those experiences, and their stories of their experiences—led us to adopt both deductive and inductive approaches in the work. (Blackstone, n.d., p. 21) [84]

Researchers may not always set out to employ both approaches in their work but sometimes find that their use of one approach leads them to the other. One such example is described eloquently in Russell Schutt’s Investigating the Social World (2006). [85] As Schutt describes, researchers Sherman and Berk (1984) [86] conducted an experiment to test two competing theories of the effects of punishment on deterring deviance (in this case, domestic violence).Specifically, Sherman and Berk hypothesized that deterrence theory (see Williams, 2005 [87] for more information on that theory) would provide a better explanation of the effects of arresting accused batterers than labeling theory . Deterrence theory predicts that arresting an accused spouse batterer will reduce future incidents of violence. Conversely, labeling theory predicts that arresting accused spouse batterers will increase future incidents (see Policastro & Payne, 2013 [88] for more information on that theory). Figure 8.3 summarizes the two competing theories and the hypotheses Sherman and Berk set out to test.

Deterrence theory predicts arrests lead to lower violence while labeling theory predicts higher violence

Research from these follow-up studies were mixed. In some cases, arrest deterred future incidents of violence. In other cases, it did not. This left the researchers with new data that they needed to explain. The researchers therefore took an inductive approach in an effort to make sense of their latest empirical observations. The new studies revealed that arrest seemed to have a deterrent effect for those who were married and employed, but that it led to increased offenses for those who were unmarried and unemployed. Researchers thus turned to control theory, which posits that having some stake in conformity through the social ties provided by marriage and employment, as the better explanation (see Davis et al., 2000 [90] for more information on this theory).

Predictions of control theory on incidents of domestic violence

What the original Sherman and Berk study, along with the follow-up studies, show us is that we might start with a deductive approach to research, but then, if confronted by new data we must make sense of, we may move to an inductive approach. We will expand on these possibilities in section 8.4 when we discuss mixed methods research.

Ethical and critical considerations

Deductive and inductive reasoning, just like other components of the research process comes with ethical and cultural considerations for researchers. Specifically, deductive research is limited by existing theory. Because scientific inquiry has been shaped by oppressive forces such as sexism, racism, and colonialism, what is considered theory is largely based in Western, white-male-dominant culture. Thus, researchers doing deductive research may artificially limit themselves to ideas that were derived from this context. Non-Western researchers, international social workers, and practitioners working with non-dominant groups may find deductive reasoning of limited help if theories do not adequately describe other cultures.

While these flaws in deductive research may make inductive reasoning seem more appealing, on closer inspection you'll find similar issues apply. A researcher using inductive reasoning applies their intuition and lived experience when analyzing participant data. They will take note of particular themes, conceptualize their definition, and frame the project using their unique psychology. Since everyone's internal world is shaped by their cultural and environmental context, inductive reasoning conducted by Western researchers may unintentionally reinforcing lines of inquiry that derive from cultural oppression.

Inductive reasoning is also shaped by those invited to provide the data to be analyzed. For example, I recently worked with a student who wanted to understand the impact of child welfare supervision on children born dependent on opiates and methamphetamine. Due to the potential harm that could come from interviewing families and children who are in foster care or under child welfare supervision, the researcher decided to use inductive reasoning and to only interview child welfare workers.

Talking to practitioners is a good idea for feasibility, as they are less vulnerable than clients. However, any theory that emerges out of these observations will be substantially limited, as it would be devoid of the perspectives of parents, children, and other community members who could provide a more comprehensive picture of the impact of child welfare involvement on children. Notice that each of these groups has less power than child welfare workers in the service relationship. Attending to which groups were used to inform the creation of a theory and the power of those groups is an important critical consideration for social work researchers.

As you can see, when researchers apply theory to research they must wrestle with the history and hierarchy around knowledge creation in that area. In deductive studies, the researcher is positioned as the expert, similar to the positivist paradigm presented in Chapter 5. We've discussed a few of the limitations on the knowledge of researchers in this subsection, but the position of the "researcher as expert" is inherently problematic. However, it should also not be taken to an extreme. A researcher who approaches inductive inquiry as a naïve learner is also inherently problematic. Just as competence in social work practice requires a baseline of knowledge prior to entering practice, so does competence in social work research. Because a truly naïve intellectual position is impossible—we all have preexisting ways we view the world and are not fully aware of how they may impact our thoughts—researchers should be well-read in the topic area of their research study but humble enough to know that there is always much more to learn.

Inductive reasoning begins with a set of empirical observations, seeking patterns in those observations, and then theorizing about those patterns.
Deductive reasoning begins with a theory, developing hypotheses from that theory, and then collecting and analyzing data to test the truth of those hypotheses.
Inductive and deductive reasoning can be employed together for a more complete understanding of the research topic.
Though researchers don’t always set out to use both inductive and deductive reasoning in their work, they sometimes find that new questions arise in the course of an investigation that can best be answered by employing both approaches.
Identify one theory and how it helps you understand your topic and working question.

I encourage you to find a specific theory from your topic area, rather than relying only on the broad theoretical perspectives like systems theory or the strengths perspective. Those broad theoretical perspectives are okay...but I promise that searching for theories about your topic will help you conceptualize and design your research project.

Using the theory you identified, describe what you expect the answer to be to your working question.
Define and provide an example of idiographic causal relationships
Describe the role of causality in quantitative research as compared to qualitative research
Identify, define, and describe each of the main criteria for nomothetic causal relationships
Describe the difference between and provide examples of independent, dependent, and control variables
Define hypothesis, state a clear hypothesis, and discuss the respective roles of quantitative and qualitative research when it comes to hypotheses

Causality refers to the idea that one event, behavior, or belief will result in the occurrence of another, subsequent event, behavior, or belief. In other words, it is about cause and effect. It seems simple, but you may be surprised to learn there is more than one way to explain how one thing causes another. How can that be? How could there be many ways to understand causality?

Think back to our discussion in Section 5.3 on paradigms [insert chapter link plus link to section 1.2]. You’ll remember the positivist paradigm as the one that believes in objectivity. Positivists look for causal explanations that are universally true for everyone, everywhere because they seek objective truth. Interpretivists, on the other hand, look for causal explanations that are true for individuals or groups in a specific time and place because they seek subjective truths. Remember that for interpretivists, there is not one singular truth that is true for everyone, but many truths created and shared by others.

"Are you trying to generalize or nah?"

One of my favorite classroom moments occurred in the early days of my teaching career. Students were providing peer feedback on their working questions. I overheard one group who was helping someone rephrase their research question. A student asked, “Are you trying to generalize or nah?” Teaching is full of fun moments like that one. Answering that one question can help you understand how to conceptualize and design your research project.

Nomothetic causal explanations are incredibly powerful. They allow scientists to make predictions about what will happen in the future, with a certain margin of error. Moreover, they allow scientists to generalize —that is, make claims about a large population based on a smaller sample of people or items. Generalizing is important. We clearly do not have time to ask everyone their opinion on a topic or test a new intervention on every person. We need a type of causal explanation that helps us predict and estimate truth in all situations.

Generally, nomothetic causal relationships work best for explanatory research projects [INSERT SECTION LINK]. They also tend to use quantitative research: by boiling things down to numbers, one can use the universal language of mathematics to use statistics to explore those relationships. On the other hand, descriptive and exploratory projects often fit better with idiographic causality. These projects do not usually try to generalize, but instead investigate what is true for individuals, small groups, or communities at a specific point in time. You will learn about this type of causality in the next section. Here, we will assume you have an explanatory working question. For example, you may want to know about the risk and protective factors for a specific diagnosis or how a specific therapy impacts client outcomes.

What do nomothetic causal explanations look like?

Nomothetic causal explanations express relationships between variables . The term variable has a scientific definition. This one from Gillespie & Wagner (2018) "a logical grouping of attributes that can be observed and measured and is expected to vary from person to person in a population" (p. 9). [91] More practically, variables are the key concepts in your working question. You know, the things you plan to observe when you actually do your research project, conduct your surveys, complete your interviews, etc. These things have two key properties. First, they vary , as in they do not remain constant. "Age" varies by number. "Gender" varies by category. But they both vary. Second, they have attributes . So the variable "health professions" has attributes or categories, such as social worker, nurse, counselor, etc.

It's also worth reviewing what is not a variable. Well, things that don't change (or vary) aren't variables. If you planned to do a study on how gender impacts earnings but your study only contained women, that concept would not vary . Instead, it would be a constant . Another common mistake I see in students' explanatory questions is mistaking an attribute for a variable. "Men" is not a variable. "Gender" is a variable. "Virginia" is not a variable. The variable is the "state or territory" in which someone or something is physically located.

When one variable causes another, we have what researchers call independent and dependent variables. For example, in a study investigating the impact of spanking on aggressive behavior, spanking would be the independent variable and aggressive behavior would be the dependent variable. An independent variable is the cause, and a dependent variable is the effect. Why are they called that? Dependent variables depend on independent variables. If all of that gets confusing, just remember the graphical relationship in Figure 8.5.

The letters IV on the left side with an arrow pointing to the letters DV on the right

Write out your working question, as it exists now. As we said previously in the subsection, we assume you have an explanatory research question for learning this section.

Write out a diagram similar to Figure 8.5.
Put your independent variable on the left and the dependent variable on the right.
Can your variables vary?
Do they have different attributes or categories that vary from person to person?
How does the theory you identified in section 8.1 help you understand this causal relationship?

If the theory you've identified isn't much help to you or seems unrelated, it's a good indication that you need to read more literature about the theories related to your topic.

For some students, your working question may not be specific enough to list an independent or dependent variable clearly. You may have "risk factors" in place of an independent variable, for example. Or "effects" as a dependent variable. If that applies to your research question, get specific for a minute even if you have to revise this later. Think about which specific risk factors or effects you are interested in. Consider a few options for your independent and dependent variable and create diagrams similar to Figure 8.5.

Finally, you are likely to revisit your working question so you may have to come back to this exercise to clarify the causal relationship you want to investigate.

For a ten-cent word like "nomothetic," these causal relationships should look pretty basic to you. They should look like "x causes y." Indeed, you may be looking at your causal explanation and thinking, "wow, there are so many other things I'm missing in here." In fact, maybe my dependent variable sometimes causes changes in my independent variable! For example, a working question asking about poverty and education might ask how poverty makes it more difficult to graduate college or how high college debt impacts income inequality after graduation. Nomothetic causal relationships are slices of reality. They boil things down to two (or often more) key variables and assert a one-way causal explanation between them. This is by design, as they are trying to generalize across all people to all situations. The more complicated, circular, and often contradictory causal explanations are idiographic, which we will cover in the next section of this chapter.

Developing a hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement describing a researcher’s expectation regarding what they anticipate finding. Hypotheses in quantitative research are a nomothetic causal relationship that the researcher expects to determine is true or false. A hypothesis is written to describe the expected relationship between the independent and dependent variables. In other words, write the answer to your working question using your variables. That's your hypothesis! Make sure you haven't introduced new variables into your hypothesis that are not in your research question. If you have, write out your hypothesis as in Figure 8.5.

A good hypothesis should be testable using social science research methods. That is, you can use a social science research project (like a survey or experiment) to test whether it is true or not. A good hypothesis is also specific about the relationship it explores. For example, a student project that hypothesizes, "families involved with child welfare agencies will benefit from Early Intervention programs," is not specific about what benefits it plans to investigate. For this student, I advised her to take a look at the empirical literature and theory about Early Intervention and see what outcomes are associated with these programs. This way, she could more clearly state the dependent variable in her hypothesis, perhaps looking at reunification, attachment, or developmental milestone achievement in children and families under child welfare supervision.

Your hypothesis should be an informed prediction based on a theory or model of the social world. For example, you may hypothesize that treating mental health clients with warmth and positive regard is likely to help them achieve their therapeutic goals. That hypothesis would be based on the humanistic practice models of Carl Rogers. Using previous theories to generate hypotheses is an example of deductive research. If Rogers’ theory of unconditional positive regard is accurate, a study comparing clinicians who used it versus those who did not would show more favorable treatment outcomes for clients receiving unconditional positive regard.

Let’s consider a couple of examples. In research on sexual harassment (Uggen & Blackstone, 2004), [92] one might hypothesize, based on feminist theories of sexual harassment, that more females than males will experience specific sexually harassing behaviors. What is the causal relationship being predicted here? Which is the independent and which is the dependent variable? In this case, researchers hypothesized that a person’s sex (independent variable) would predict their likelihood to experience sexual harassment (dependent variable).

Hypothesis describing a causal relationship between sex and sexual harassment

Sometimes researchers will hypothesize that a relationship will take a specific direction. As a result, an increase or decrease in one area might be said to cause an increase or decrease in another. For example, you might choose to study the relationship between age and support for legalization of marijuana. Perhaps you’ve taken a sociology class and, based on the theories you’ve read, you hypothesize that age is negatively related to support for marijuana legalization. [93] What have you just hypothesized?

You have hypothesized that as people get older, the likelihood of their supporting marijuana legalization decreases. Thus, as age (your independent variable) moves in one direction (up), support for marijuana legalization (your dependent variable) moves in another direction (down). So, a direct relationship (or positive correlation) involve two variables going in the same direction and an inverse relationship (or negative correlation) involve two variables going in opposite directions. If writing hypotheses feels tricky, it is sometimes helpful to draw them out and depict each of the two hypotheses we have just discussed.

As age increases, support for marijuana legalization decreases

It’s important to note that once a study starts, it is unethical to change your hypothesis to match the data you find. For example, what happens if you conduct a study to test the hypothesis from Figure 8.7 on support for marijuana legalization, but you find no relationship between age and support for legalization? It means that your hypothesis was incorrect, but that’s still valuable information. It would challenge what the existing literature says on your topic, demonstrating that more research needs to be done to figure out the factors that impact support for marijuana legalization. Don’t be embarrassed by negative results, and definitely don’t change your hypothesis to make it appear correct all along!

Criteria for establishing a nomothetic causal relationship

Let’s say you conduct your study and you find evidence that supports your hypothesis, as age increases, support for marijuana legalization decreases. Success! Causal explanation complete, right? Not quite.

You’ve only established one of the criteria for causality. The criteria for causality must include all of the following: covariation, plausibility, temporality, and nonspuriousness. In our example from Figure 8.7, we have established only one criteria—covariation. When variables covary , they vary together. Both age and support for marijuana legalization vary in our study. Our sample contains people of varying ages and varying levels of support for marijuana legalization. If, for example, we only included 16-year-olds in our study, age would be a constant , not a variable.

Just because there might be some correlation between two variables does not mean that a causal relationship between the two is really plausible. Plausibility means that in order to make the claim that one event, behavior, or belief causes another, the claim has to make sense. It makes sense that people from previous generations would have different attitudes towards marijuana than younger generations. People who grew up in the time of Reefer Madness or the hippies may hold different views than those raised in an era of legalized medicinal and recreational use of marijuana. Plausibility is of course helped by basing your causal explanation in existing theoretical and empirical findings.

Once we’ve established that there is a plausible relationship between the two variables, we also need to establish whether the cause occurred before the effect, the criterion of temporality . A person’s age is a quality that appears long before any opinions on drug policy, so temporally the cause comes before the effect. It wouldn’t make any sense to say that support for marijuana legalization makes a person’s age increase. Even if you could predict someone’s age based on their support for marijuana legalization, you couldn’t say someone’s age was caused by their support for legalization of marijuana.

Finally, scientists must establish nonspuriousness. A spurious relationship is one in which an association between two variables appears to be causal but can in fact be explained by some third variable. This third variable is often called a confound or confounding variable because it clouds and confuses the relationship between your independent and dependent variable, making it difficult to discern the true causal relationship is.

Continuing with our example, we could point to the fact that older adults are less likely to have used marijuana recreationally. Maybe it is actually recreational use of marijuana that leads people to be more open to legalization, not their age. In this case, our confounding variable would be recreational marijuana use. Perhaps the relationship between age and attitudes towards legalization is a spurious relationship that is accounted for by previous use. This is also referred to as the third variable problem , where a seemingly true causal relationship is actually caused by a third variable not in the hypothesis. In this example, the relationship between age and support for legalization could be more about having tried marijuana than the age of the person.

Quantitative researchers are sensitive to the effects of potentially spurious relationships. As a result, they will often measure these third variables in their study, so they can control for their effects in their statistical analysis. These are called control variables , and they refer to potentially confounding variables whose effects are controlled for mathematically in the data analysis process. Control variables can be a bit confusing, and we will discuss them more in Chapter 10, but think about it as an argument between you, the researcher, and a critic.

Researcher: “The older a person is, the less likely they are to support marijuana legalization.” Critic: “Actually, it’s more about whether a person has used marijuana before. That is what truly determines whether someone supports marijuana legalization.” Researcher: “Well, I measured previous marijuana use in my study and mathematically controlled for its effects in my analysis. Age explains most of the variation in attitudes towards marijuana legalization.”

Let’s consider a few additional, real-world examples of spuriousness. Did you know, for example, that high rates of ice cream sales have been shown to cause drowning? Of course, that’s not really true, but there is a positive relationship between the two. In this case, the third variable that causes both high ice cream sales and increased deaths by drowning is time of year, as the summer season sees increases in both (Babbie, 2010). [94]

Here’s another good one: it is true that as the salaries of Presbyterian ministers in Massachusetts rise, so too does the price of rum in Havana, Cuba. Well, duh, you might be saying to yourself. Everyone knows how much ministers in Massachusetts love their rum, right? Not so fast. Both salaries and rum prices have increased, true, but so has the price of just about everything else (Huff & Geis, 1993). [95]

Finally, research shows that the more firefighters present at a fire, the more damage is done at the scene. What this statement leaves out, of course, is that as the size of a fire increases so too does the amount of damage caused as does the number of firefighters called on to help (Frankfort-Nachmias & Leon-Guerrero, 2011). [96] In each of these examples, it is the presence of a confounding variable that explains the apparent relationship between the two original variables.

In sum, the following criteria must be met for a nomothetic causal relationship:

The two variables must vary together.
The relationship must be plausible.
The cause must precede the effect in time.
The relationship must be nonspurious (not due to a confounding variable).

The hypothetico-dedutive method

The primary way that researchers in the positivist paradigm use theories is sometimes called the hypothetico-deductive method (although this term is much more likely to be used by philosophers of science than by scientists themselves). Researchers choose an existing theory. Then, they make a prediction about some new phenomenon that should be observed if the theory is correct. Again, this prediction is called a hypothesis. The researchers then conduct an empirical study to test the hypothesis. Finally, they reevaluate the theory in light of the new results and revise it if necessary.

This process is usually conceptualized as a cycle because the researchers can then derive a new hypothesis from the revised theory, conduct a new empirical study to test the hypothesis, and so on. As Figure 8.8 shows, this approach meshes nicely with the process of conducting a research project—creating a more detailed model of “theoretically motivated” or “theory-driven” research. Together, they form a model of theoretically motivated research.

Keep in mind the hypothetico-deductive method is only one way of using social theory to inform social science research. It starts with describing one or more existing theories, deriving a hypothesis from one of those theories, testing your hypothesis in a new study, and finally reevaluating the theory based on the results data analyses. This format works well when there is an existing theory that addresses the research question—especially if the resulting hypothesis is surprising or conflicts with a hypothesis derived from a different theory.

But what if your research question is more interpretive? What if it is less about theory-testing and more about theory-building? This is what our next chapters will cover: the process of inductively deriving theory from people's stories and experiences. This process looks different than that depicted in Figure 8.8. It still starts with your research question and answering that question by conducting a research study. But instead of testing a hypothesis you created based on a theory, you will create a theory of your own that explain the data you collected. This format works well for qualitative research questions and for research questions that existing theories do not address.

In positivist and quantitative studies, the goal is often to understand the more general causes of some phenomenon rather than the idiosyncrasies of one particular instance, as in an idiographic causal relationship.
Nomothetic causal explanations focus on objectivity, prediction, and generalization.
Criteria for nomothetic causal relationships require the relationship be plausible and nonspurious; and that the cause must precede the effect in time.
In a nomothetic causal relationship, the independent variable causes changes in the dependent variable.
Hypotheses are statements, drawn from theory, which describe a researcher’s expectation about a relationship between two or more variables.
Write out your working question and hypothesis.
Defend your hypothesis in a short paragraph, using arguments based on the theory you identified in section 8.1.
Review the criteria for a nomothetic causal relationship. Critique your short paragraph about your hypothesis using these criteria.
Are there potentially confounding variables, issues with time order, or other problems you can identify in your reasoning?

Inductive & deductive (deductive focus)

9. Writing your research question Copyright © 2020 by Matthew DeCarlo is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Elementary Education Research Paper Topics

This comprehensive guide to elementary education research paper topics is designed to assist students and researchers in the field of education. The guide provides a wide array of topics divided into ten categories, each with ten unique topics, offering a diverse range of areas to explore in the field of elementary education. Additionally, the guide offers expert advice on how to choose a research topic and how to write an elementary education research paper. The final sections of the guide introduce iResearchNet’s professional writing services and encourage students to take advantage of these services for their research needs.

100 Elementary Education Research Paper Topics

Elementary education is a broad field with numerous areas to explore. Whether you’re interested in teaching methods, curriculum development, educational technology, or the social aspects of elementary education, there’s a research topic for you. Here, we present a comprehensive list of elementary education research paper topics, divided into ten categories. Each category contains ten unique topics, offering a diverse range of areas to explore in your research.

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1. Teaching Methods and Strategies

The effectiveness of Montessori methods in elementary education.
The role of play in learning in the early years.
The impact of differentiated instruction on student achievement.
The benefits and challenges of cooperative learning in the elementary classroom.
The role of feedback in promoting student learning.
The impact of teaching strategies on students’ motivation.
The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning in science education.
The role of storytelling in teaching literacy skills.
The impact of technology on teaching and learning in the elementary classroom.
The role of creativity in teaching and learning.

2. Curriculum and Instruction

The impact of curriculum design on student learning.
The role of interdisciplinary teaching in elementary education.
The effectiveness of project-based learning in teaching science.
The role of cultural relevance in curriculum design.
The impact of standardized testing on curriculum and instruction.
The role of critical thinking in the elementary curriculum.
The effectiveness of integrating arts in the curriculum.
The impact of curriculum alignment on student achievement.
The role of experiential learning in the elementary curriculum.
The challenges of teaching social studies in the elementary classroom.

3. Educational Technology

The impact of digital technology on student learning.
The role of educational games in teaching math.
The effectiveness of using iPads in the classroom.
The role of virtual reality in teaching science.
The impact of technology on student engagement.
The challenges of integrating technology in the classroom.
The role of technology in promoting collaborative learning.
The effectiveness of using technology in teaching reading skills.
The impact of technology on teacher-student communication.
The role of technology in personalized learning.

4. Social Aspects of Elementary Education

The impact of classroom climate on student learning.
The role of social-emotional learning in elementary education.
The effectiveness of character education programs.
The role of peer relationships in student learning.
The impact of school culture on student achievement.
The challenges of teaching diversity and inclusion in the elementary classroom.
The role of student-teacher relationships in student learning.
The effectiveness of anti-bullying programs in elementary schools.
The impact of parental involvement on student achievement.
The role of community partnerships in promoting student learning.

5. Special Education

The effectiveness of inclusive education in the elementary classroom.
The role of individualized education programs in supporting students with special needs.
The impact of teacher training on the success of inclusive education.
The challenges of teaching students with learning disabilities.
The role of assistive technology in supporting students with special needs.
The effectiveness of earlyintervention programs for students with special needs.
The impact of classroom accommodations on the academic success of students with special needs.
The role of collaboration between general and special education teachers.
The effectiveness of behavior management strategies for students with emotional and behavioral disorders.
The impact of special education policies on student outcomes.

6. Early Childhood Education

The impact of early childhood education on academic success.
The role of play in early childhood education.
The effectiveness of early literacy programs.
The role of parental involvement in early childhood education.
The impact of early childhood education on social skills development.
The challenges of teaching math in early childhood education.
The role of creativity in early childhood education.
The effectiveness of early intervention programs.
The impact of early childhood education on cognitive development.
The role of teacher-child relationships in early childhood education.

7. Educational Policies and Reforms

The impact of No Child Left Behind on elementary education.
The role of Common Core State Standards in curriculum development.
The effectiveness of school choice policies.
The role of educational policies in promoting equity in education.
The impact of teacher evaluation policies on teaching and learning.
The challenges of implementing educational reforms in elementary schools.
The role of educational policies in promoting teacher quality.
The effectiveness of policies aimed at reducing the achievement gap.
The impact of educational funding policies on student achievement.
The role of educational policies in promoting parental involvement.

8. Teacher Education and Professional Development

The impact of teacher education programs on teacher effectiveness.
The role of ongoing professional development in promoting teacher quality.
The effectiveness of mentorship programs for novice teachers.
The role of reflective practice in teacher professional development.
The impact of teacher beliefs on teaching practices.
The challenges of teaching in high-needs schools.
The role of teacher collaboration in professional development.
The effectiveness of teacher induction programs.
The impact of teacher leadership on school improvement.
The role of teacher autonomy in promoting job satisfaction.

9. Classroom Management

The impact of classroom management strategies on student behavior.
The role of positive reinforcement in promoting appropriate behavior.
The effectiveness of classroom rules and procedures.
The role of teacher-student relationships in classroom management.
The impact of classroom environment on student learning.
The challenges of managing disruptive behavior.
The role of behavior management strategies in promoting a positive classroom climate.
The effectiveness of conflict resolution strategies in the classroom.
The impact of classroom management on student engagement.
The role of classroom routines in promoting student responsibility.

10. Assessment and Evaluation

The impact of formative assessment on student learning.
The role of feedback in student assessment.
The effectiveness of performance-based assessment.
The role of self-assessment in promoting student learning.
The impact of standardized testing on teaching and learning.
The challenges of assessing student learning in diverse classrooms.
The role of assessment in curriculum planning.
The effectiveness of portfolio assessment.
The impact of grading policies on student motivation.
The role of assessment in identifying students at risk of academic failure.

This comprehensive list of elementary education research paper topics provides a wide range of areas to explore. Whether you’re interested in teaching methods, curriculum development, educational technology, or the social aspects of elementary education, there’s a research topic for you. Remember, the best research topic is one that you’re genuinely interested in and passionate about.

Elementary Education Research Guide

Elementary education, also known as primary education, is a crucial stage in the educational journey of a child. It is during these formative years that children acquire foundational skills in areas such as reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies. Additionally, they develop critical thinking skills, creativity, and social competencies that are essential for their overall growth and development.

Elementary education serves as the building block for all future learning. The experiences and knowledge gained during these years can significantly influence a child’s attitude towards learning, their academic success, and their lifelong learning habits. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that children receive quality education during these years.

Research in elementary education is of paramount importance. It helps educators, policymakers, and stakeholders understand the best practices, methodologies, and strategies to enhance learning outcomes in primary education. It also provides insights into the challenges faced in elementary education and how to address them effectively.

Elementary education research paper topics can span a wide range of areas, including teaching methods, learning styles, the impact of technology on learning, educational policies, classroom management, and many more. Choosing a research topic in this field requires careful consideration of various factors, including your interests, the relevance of the topic, and the availability of resources.

In the following sections, we provide a comprehensive list of elementary education research paper topics, expert advice on choosing a topic and writing a research paper, and information about iResearchNet’s professional writing services. Whether you are a student embarking on your first research project or a seasoned researcher looking for new areas to explore, this guide is designed to assist you in your research journey.

Choosing Elementary Education Research Paper Topics

Choosing a research topic is a critical step in the research process. The topic you select will guide your study, influence the complexity and relevance of your work, and determine how engaged you are throughout the process. In the field of elementary education, there are numerous intriguing topics that can be explored. Here are some expert tips to assist you in this process:

Understanding Your Interests: The first step in choosing a research topic is to understand your interests. What areas of elementary education fascinate you the most? Are you interested in how teaching methods influence student learning, or are you more intrigued by the role of technology in the classroom? Reflecting on these questions can help you narrow down your options and choose a topic that truly engages you. Remember, research is a time-consuming process, and your interest in the topic will keep you motivated.
Evaluating the Scope of the Topic: Once you have identified your areas of interest, the next step is to evaluate the scope of potential elementary education research paper topics. A good research topic should be neither too broad nor too narrow. If it’s too broad, you may struggle to cover all aspects of the topic effectively. If it’s too narrow, you may have difficulty finding enough information to support your research. Try to choose a topic that is specific enough to be manageable but broad enough to have sufficient resources.
Assessing Available Resources and Data: Before finalizing a topic, it’s important to assess the available resources and data. Are there enough academic sources, such as books, journal articles, and reports, that you can use for your research? Is there accessible data that you can analyze if your research requires it? A preliminary review of literature and data can save you from choosing a topic with limited resources.
Considering the Relevance and Applicability of the Topic: Another important factor to consider is the relevance and applicability of the topic. Is the topic relevant to current issues in elementary education? Can the findings of your research be applied in real-world settings? Choosing a relevant and applicable topic can increase the impact of your research and make it more interesting for your audience.
Seeking Advice: Don’t hesitate to seek advice from your professors, peers, or other experts in the field. They can provide valuable insights, suggest resources, and help you refine your topic. Discussing your ideas with others can also help you see different perspectives and identify potential issues that you may not have considered.
Flexibility: Finally, be flexible. Research is a dynamic process, and it’s okay to modify your topic as you delve deeper into your study. You may discover new aspects of the topic that are more interesting or find that some aspects are too challenging to explore due to constraints. Being flexible allows you to adapt your research to these changes and ensure that your study is both feasible and engaging.

Remember, choosing a research topic is not a decision to be taken lightly. It requires careful consideration and planning. However, with these expert tips, you can navigate this process more effectively and choose an elementary education research paper topic that not only meets your academic requirements but also fuels your passion for learning.

How to Write an Elementary Education Research Paper

Writing a research paper is a significant academic task that requires careful planning, thorough research, and meticulous writing. In the field of elementary education, this process can be particularly challenging due to the complexity and diversity of the field. However, with the right approach and strategies, you can write a compelling and insightful research paper. Here are some expert tips to guide you through this process:

Understanding the Structure of a Research Paper: A typical research paper includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. The introduction presents your research question and its significance. The literature review provides an overview of existing research related to your topic. The methodology explains how you conducted your research. The results section presents your findings, and the discussion interprets these findings in the context of your research question. Finally, the conclusion summarizes your research and suggests areas for future research.
Developing a Strong Thesis Statement: Your thesis statement is the central argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise, and debatable. A strong thesis statement guides your research and helps your readers understand the purpose of your paper.
Conducting Thorough Research: Before you start writing, conduct a thorough review of the literature related to your topic. This will help you understand the current state of research in your area, identify gaps in the literature, and position your research within this context. Use academic databases to find relevant books, journal articles, and other resources. Remember to evaluate the credibility of your sources and take detailed notes to help you when writing.
Writing and Revising Drafts: Start writing your research paper by creating an outline based on the structure of a research paper. This will help you organize your thoughts and ensure that you cover all necessary sections. Write a first draft without worrying too much about perfection. Focus on getting your ideas down first. Then, revise your draft to improve clarity, coherence, and argumentation. Make sure each paragraph has a clear topic sentence and supports your thesis statement.
Proper Citation and Avoiding Plagiarism: Always cite your sources properly to give credit to the authors whose work you are building upon and to avoid plagiarism. Familiarize yourself with the citation style required by your institution or discipline, such as APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, or Harvard. There are many citation tools available online that can help you with this.
Seeking Feedback: Don’t hesitate to seek feedback on your drafts from your professors, peers, or writing centers at your institution. They can provide valuable insights and help you improve your paper.
Proofreading: Finally, proofread your paper to check for any grammatical errors, typos, or inconsistencies in formatting. A well-written, error-free paper makes a good impression on your readers and enhances the credibility of your research.
Incorporating Elementary Education Concepts: When writing an elementary education research paper, it’s crucial to accurately incorporate elementary education concepts. Make sure you understand these concepts thoroughly and can explain them clearly in your paper. Use examples where appropriate to illustrate these concepts.
Analyzing and Interpreting Data: If your research involves data analysis, be sure to explain your analysis process and interpret the results in a way that is understandable to your readers. Discuss the implications of your findings for the broader field of elementary education.
Discussing Real-World Applications: Elementary education is a practical field with many real-world applications. Discuss how your research relates to these applications. This can make your research more interesting and relevant to your readers.

Remember, writing a research paper is a process that requires time, effort, and patience. Don’t rush through it.Take the time to plan your research, conduct thorough research, write carefully, and revise your work. With these expert tips, you can write an elementary education research paper that is insightful, well-structured, and contributes to the field of elementary education.

Custom Research Paper Writing Services

Writing a research paper is a significant undertaking that requires a deep understanding of the topic, strong writing skills, and the ability to conduct thorough research. At iResearchNet, we understand the challenges that students face when writing a research paper, and we are here to help. We offer a range of professional writing services designed to support students in their academic journey.

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Developing a Research Question

When you need to develop a research question, you want to ask yourself: what do you want to know about a topic? Additionally, you'll want to determine:

WHO you are researching,
WHAT you are researching,
WHEN your research topic takes place,
WHERE your research topic takes place, and
WHY you are researching this topic.

Try these steps to formulate a research question:

1. Start with your topic (Online learning in K-12) 2. Focus your topic (Ask who, what, where, when, why?) 3. Formulate a question to ask about your topic (How might online learning be implemented in middle school?) 4. Narrow your question if possible (Has VLACS been successful with middle schoolers in New Hampshire?)

Check out these links and the video below for more information:

How to Write a Research Question
Writing a Good Research Question

Have Questions? Browse all our FAQs or ask a librarian by chat or email at [email protected] !

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415 Research Question Examples Across 15 Disciplines

A research question is a clearly formulated query that delineates the scope and direction of an investigation. It serves as the guiding light for scholars, helping them to dissect, analyze, and comprehend complex phenomena. Beyond merely seeking answers, a well-crafted research question ensures that the exploration remains focused and goal-oriented.

The significance of framing a clear, concise, and researchable question cannot be overstated. A well-defined question not only clarifies the objective of the research but also determines the methodologies and tools a researcher will employ. A concise question ensures precision, eliminating the potential for ambiguity or misinterpretation. Furthermore, the question must be researchable—posing a question that is too broad, too subjective, or unanswerable can lead to inconclusive results or an endless loop of investigation. In essence, the foundation of any meaningful academic endeavor rests on the articulation of a compelling and achievable research question.

Research questions can be categorized based on their intent and the nature of the information they seek. Recognizing the different types is essential for crafting an effective inquiry and guiding the research process. Let's delve into the various categories:

Descriptive Research Questions: These types of questions aim to outline and characterize specific phenomena or attributes. They seek to provide a clear picture of a situation or context without necessarily diving into causal relationships. For instance, a question like "What are the main symptoms of the flu?" is descriptive as it seeks to list the symptoms.
Explanatory (or Causal) Research Questions: Explanatory questions delve deeper, trying to uncover the reasons or causes behind certain phenomena. They are particularly common in experimental research where researchers are attempting to establish cause-and-effect relationships. An example might be, "Does smoking increase the risk of lung cancer?"
Exploratory Research Questions: As the name suggests, these questions are used when researchers are entering uncharted territories. They are designed to gather preliminary information on topics that haven't been studied extensively. A question like "How do emerging technologies impact remote tribal communities?" can be seen as exploratory if there's limited existing research on the topic.
Comparative Research Questions: These questions are formulated when the objective is to compare two or more groups, conditions, or variables. Comparative questions might look like "How do test scores differ between students who study regularly and those who cram?"
Predictive Research Questions: The goal here is to forecast or predict potential outcomes based on certain variables or conditions. Predictive research might pose questions such as "Based on current climate trends, how will average global temperatures change by 2050?"

Here are examples of research questions across various disciplines, shedding light on queries that stimulate intellectual curiosity and advancement. In this post, we will delve into disciplines ranging from the Natural Sciences, such as Physics and Biology, to the Social Sciences, including Sociology and Anthropology, as well as the Humanities, like Literature and Philosophy. We'll also explore questions from fields as varied as Health Sciences, Engineering, Business, Environmental Sciences, Mathematics, Education, Law, Agriculture, Arts, Computer Science, Architecture, and Languages. This comprehensive overview aims to illustrate the breadth and depth of inquiries that shape our world of knowledge.

Agriculture and forestry examples

Architecture and planning examples, arts and design examples, business and finance examples, computer science and informatics examples, education examples, engineering and technology examples, environmental sciences examples, health sciences examples, humanities examples, languages and linguistics examples, law examples, mathematics and statistics examples, natural sciences examples, social sciences examples.

Descriptive: What are the primary factors that influence crop yield in temperate climates?
Explanatory: Why do certain soil types yield higher grain production than others?
Exploratory: How might new organic farming techniques influence soil health over a decade?
Comparative: How do the growth rates differ between genetically modified and traditional corn crops?
Predictive: Based on current climate models, how will changing rain patterns impact wheat production in the next 20 years?

Animal science

Descriptive: What are the common behavioral traits of domesticated cattle in grass-fed conditions?
Explanatory: Why do certain breeds of chickens have a higher egg production rate?
Exploratory: What potential benefits could arise from integrating tech wearables in livestock management?
Comparative: How does the milk yield differ between Holstein and Jersey cows when given the same diet?
Predictive: How might increasing global temperatures influence the reproductive cycles of swine?

Aquaculture

Descriptive: What are the most commonly farmed fish species in Southeast Asia?
Explanatory: Why do shrimp farms have a higher disease outbreak rate compared to fish farms?
Exploratory: How might innovative recirculating aquaculture systems revolutionize the industry's environmental impact?
Comparative: How do growth rates of salmon differ between open-net pens and land-based tanks?
Predictive: What will be the impact of ocean acidification on mollusk farming over the next three decades?
Descriptive: What tree species dominate the temperate rainforests of North America?
Explanatory: Why are certain tree species more resistant to pest infestations?
Exploratory: What are the potential benefits of integrating drone technology in forest health monitoring?
Comparative: How do deforestation rates compare between legally protected and unprotected areas in the Amazon?
Predictive: Given increasing global demand for timber, how might tree populations in Siberia change in the next half-century?

Horticulture

Descriptive: What are the common characteristics of plants suitable for urban vertical farming?
Explanatory: Why do roses require specific pH levels in the soil for optimal growth?
Exploratory: What potential methods might promote year-round vegetable farming in colder regions?
Comparative: How does fruit yield differ between traditionally planted orchards and high-density planting systems?
Predictive: How might changing global temperatures affect wine grape production in traditional regions?

Soil science

Descriptive: What are the main components of loamy soil?
Explanatory: Why does clay-rich soil retain more water compared to sandy soil?
Exploratory: How might biochar applications transform nutrient availability in degraded soils?
Comparative: How do nutrient levels vary between soils managed with organic versus inorganic fertilizers?
Predictive: Based on current farming practices, how will soil quality in the Midwest U.S. evolve over the next 30 years?

Architectural design

Descriptive: What are the dominant architectural styles of public buildings constructed in the 21st century?
Explanatory: Why do certain architectural elements from classical periods continue to influence modern designs?
Exploratory: How might sustainable materials revolutionize the future of architectural design?
Comparative: How do energy consumption levels differ between buildings with passive design elements and those without?
Predictive: Based on urbanization trends, how will the design of residential buildings evolve in the next two decades?

Landscape architecture

Descriptive: What are the primary components of a successful urban park design?
Explanatory: Why do certain types of vegetation promote greater biodiversity in urban settings?
Exploratory: What innovative techniques can be employed to restore and integrate wetlands into urban landscapes?
Comparative: How does visitor satisfaction vary between nature-inspired landscapes and more structured, geometric designs?
Predictive: With the effects of climate change, how might coastal landscape architecture adapt to rising sea levels over the coming century?

Urban planning

Descriptive: What are the main components of a pedestrian-friendly city center?
Explanatory: Why do certain urban layouts promote more efficient traffic flow than others?
Exploratory: How might the integration of vertical farming impact urban food security and cityscape aesthetics?
Comparative: How do the air quality levels differ between cities with green belts and those without?
Predictive: Based on increasing telecommuting trends, how will urban planning strategies adjust to potentially reduced daily commutes in the future?

Graphic design

Descriptive: What are the prevailing typography trends in modern branding?
Explanatory: Why do certain color schemes evoke specific emotions or perceptions in consumers?
Exploratory: How is augmented reality reshaping the landscape of interactive graphic design?
Comparative: How do print and digital designs differ in terms of elements and principles when targeting a young adult audience?
Predictive: Based on evolving digital platforms, what are potential future trends in web design aesthetics?

Industrial design

Descriptive: What characterizes the ergonomic features of leading office chairs in the market?
Explanatory: Why have minimalist designs become more prevalent in consumer electronics over the past decade?
Exploratory: How might bio-inspired design influence the future of transportation vehicles?
Comparative: How does user satisfaction differ between traditional versus modular product designs?
Predictive: Given the push towards sustainability, how will material selection evolve in the next decade of product design?

Multimedia arts

Descriptive: What techniques define the most popular virtual reality (VR) experiences currently available?
Explanatory: Why do certain sound designs enhance immersion in video games more effectively than others?
Exploratory: How might holographic technologies revolutionize stage performances or public installations in the future?
Comparative: How do user engagement levels differ between 2D animations and 3D animations in educational platforms?
Predictive: With the rise of augmented reality (AR) wearables, what might be the next frontier in multimedia art installations?

Performing arts

Descriptive: What styles of dance are currently predominant in global theater productions?
Explanatory: Why do certain rhythms or beats universally resonate with audiences across cultures?
Exploratory: How might digital avatars or AI entities play roles in future theatrical performances?
Comparative: How does audience reception differ between traditional plays and experimental, interactive performances?
Predictive: Considering global digitalization, how might virtual theaters redefine the experience of live performances in the future?

Visual arts

Descriptive: What themes are prevalent in contemporary art exhibitions worldwide?
Explanatory: Why have mixed media installations gained prominence in the 21st-century art scene?
Exploratory: How is the intersection of technology and art opening new mediums or platforms for artists?
Comparative: How do traditional painting techniques, such as oil and watercolor, contrast in terms of texture and luminosity?
Predictive: With the evolution of digital art platforms, how might the definition and appreciation of "original" artworks change in the coming years?

Entrepreneurship

Descriptive: What are the main challenges faced by startups in the tech industry?
Explanatory: Why do some entrepreneurial ventures succeed while others fail within their first five years?
Exploratory: How are emerging digital platforms reshaping the entrepreneurial landscape?
Comparative: How do funding opportunities for entrepreneurs differ between North America and Europe?
Predictive: What sectors are predicted to see the most startup growth in the next decade?
Descriptive: What are the primary sources of external funding for large corporations?
Explanatory: Why did the stock market experience a significant drop in Q4 2022?
Exploratory: How might blockchain technology revolutionize the future of banking?
Comparative: How do the financial markets in developing countries compare to those in developed countries?
Predictive: Based on current economic indicators, what is the forecasted health of the global economy for the next five years?

Human resources

Descriptive: What are the most sought-after employee benefits in the tech industry?
Explanatory: Why is there a high turnover rate in the retail sector?
Exploratory: How might the rise of remote work affect HR practices in the next decade?
Comparative: How do HR practices in multinational corporations differ from those in local companies?
Predictive: What skills will be in highest demand in the workforce by 2030?
Descriptive: What are the core responsibilities of middle management in large manufacturing firms?
Explanatory: Why do some management strategies fail in diverse cultural environments?
Exploratory: How are companies adapting their management structures in response to the gig economy?
Comparative: How does management style in Eastern companies compare with Western businesses?
Predictive: How might artificial intelligence reshape management practices in the next decade?
Descriptive: What are the most effective digital marketing channels for e-commerce businesses?
Explanatory: Why did a particular viral marketing campaign succeed in reaching a global audience?
Exploratory: How might virtual reality change the landscape of product advertising?
Comparative: How do marketing strategies differ between B2B and B2C sectors?
Predictive: What consumer behaviors are forecasted to dominate online shopping trends in the next five years?

Operations research

Descriptive: What are the primary optimization techniques used in supply chain management?
Explanatory: Why do certain optimization algorithms perform better in specific industries?
Exploratory: How can quantum computing impact the future of operations research?
Comparative: How does operations strategy differ between service and manufacturing industries?
Predictive: Based on current technological advancements, how might automation reshape supply chain strategies by 2035?

Artificial intelligence

Descriptive: What are the primary algorithms used in deep learning?
Explanatory: Why do certain neural network architectures outperform others in image recognition tasks?
Exploratory: How might quantum computing influence the development of AI models?
Comparative: How do reinforcement learning methods compare to supervised learning in game playing scenarios?
Predictive: Based on current trends, how will AI impact the job market over the next decade?

Cybersecurity

Descriptive: What are the most common types of cyberattacks reported in 2022?
Explanatory: Why are certain industries more vulnerable to ransomware attacks?
Exploratory: How might advances in quantum computing challenge existing encryption methods?
Comparative: How do open-source software vulnerabilities compare to those in proprietary systems?
Predictive: Given emerging technologies, what types of cyber threats will likely dominate in the next five years?

Data science

Descriptive: What are the main tools used by data scientists in large-scale data analysis?
Explanatory: Why does algorithm X yield more accurate predictions than algorithm Y for certain datasets?
Exploratory: How can machine learning models improve real-time data processing in IoT devices?
Comparative: How does the performance of traditional statistical models compare to machine learning models in predicting stock prices?
Predictive: Based on current data trends, what industries will likely benefit the most from data analytics advancements in the coming decade?

Information systems

Descriptive: What are the core components of a modern enterprise resource planning (ERP) system?
Explanatory: Why have cloud-based information systems seen a rapid adoption rate in recent years?
Exploratory: How might the integration of blockchain technology revolutionize supply chain information systems?
Comparative: How do information system strategies differ between e-commerce and brick-and-mortar retailers?
Predictive: Given the rise of remote work, how will information systems evolve to support decentralized teams in the future?

Software engineering

Descriptive: What are the standard practices in agile software development?
Explanatory: Why do some software projects face significant delays despite rigorous planning?
Exploratory: How are emerging programming languages shaping the future of software development?
Comparative: How does the software development lifecycle in startup environments compare to that in large corporations?
Predictive: Based on current development trends, which software platforms are forecasted to dominate market share by 2030?

Adult education

Descriptive: What are the primary motivations behind adults seeking further education later in life?
Explanatory: Why do some adult education programs have a higher success rate compared to others?
Exploratory: How might online learning platforms revolutionize adult education in the next decade?
Comparative: How do adult education methodologies differ from traditional collegiate teaching techniques?
Predictive: Given current trends, how will the demand for adult education courses change in the upcoming years?

Curriculum studies

Descriptive: What are the core components of a modern high school curriculum in the United States?
Explanatory: Why have certain subjects, like financial literacy, become more emphasized in recent curriculum updates?
Exploratory: How can interdisciplinary studies be better incorporated into traditional curricula?
Comparative: How does the math curriculum in the US compare to that in other developed countries?
Predictive: Based on pedagogical research, what subjects are forecasted to gain prominence in curricula over the next decade?

Educational administration

Descriptive: What are the main responsibilities of a school principal in large urban schools?
Explanatory: Why do some schools consistently perform better in standardized testing than others, despite similar resources?
Exploratory: How might emerging technologies shape the administrative tasks of educational institutions in the future?
Comparative: How does school administration differ between private and public educational institutions?
Predictive: Given the rise of online education, how will the role of educational administrators evolve in the coming years?

Educational psychology

Descriptive: What cognitive strategies are commonly used by students to enhance memory retention during studies?
Explanatory: Why do certain teaching methodologies resonate better with students having specific learning styles?
Exploratory: How can insights from behavioral psychology improve student engagement in virtual classrooms?
Comparative: How does the motivation level of students differ between self-paced versus instructor-led courses?
Predictive: With the increasing integration of technology in education, how will student learning behaviors change in the next decade?

Special education

Descriptive: What interventions are commonly used to support students with autism spectrum disorders in inclusive classrooms?
Explanatory: Why do some special education programs yield better academic outcomes for students with specific learning disabilities?
Exploratory: How can augmented reality technologies be utilized to enhance learning for students with visual impairments?
Comparative: How does special education support differ between urban and rural school districts?
Predictive: Based on advancements in assistive technologies, how will the landscape of special education transform in the near future?

Aerospace engineering

Descriptive: What are the key materials and technologies utilized in modern spacecraft design?
Explanatory: Why are certain alloys preferred in high-temperature aerospace applications?
Exploratory: How might advances in propulsion technologies revolutionize space travel in the next decade?
Comparative: How do commercial aircraft designs differ from military aircraft designs in terms of aerodynamics?
Predictive: Given current research trends, how will the efficiency of jet engines change in the upcoming years?

Biomedical engineering

Descriptive: What are the foundational principles behind the design of modern prosthetic limbs?
Explanatory: Why have bio-compatible materials like titanium become crucial in implantable medical devices?
Exploratory: How can nanotechnology be leveraged to improve drug delivery systems in the future?
Comparative: How do MRI machines differ from CT scanners in terms of their underlying technology and application?
Predictive: Based on emerging trends, how will wearable health monitors evolve in the next decade?

Chemical engineering

Descriptive: What processes are involved in the large-scale production of ethylene?
Explanatory: Why is distillation the most common separation method in the petroleum industry?
Exploratory: How might green chemistry principles transform traditional chemical manufacturing processes?
Comparative: How does the production of biofuels compare to traditional fossil fuels in terms of yield and environmental impact?
Predictive: Given global sustainability goals, how will the chemical industry's reliance on fossil resources shift in the future?

Civil engineering

Descriptive: What are the primary considerations in the structural design of skyscrapers in earthquake-prone regions?
Explanatory: Why are steel-reinforced concrete beams commonly used in bridge construction?
Exploratory: How can smart city concepts influence the infrastructure planning of urban centers in the future?
Comparative: How do tunneling methods differ between soft soil and hard rock terrains?
Predictive: With the increasing threat of climate change, how will coastal infrastructure design criteria change to account for rising sea levels?

Computer engineering

Descriptive: What are the main components of a modern central processing unit (CPU) and their functions?
Explanatory: Why is silicon predominantly used in semiconductor manufacturing?
Exploratory: How might quantum computing redefine the landscape of traditional computing architectures?
Comparative: How do solid-state drives (SSDs) compare to traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) in terms of performance and longevity?
Predictive: Given advancements in chip miniaturization, how will the form factor of consumer electronics evolve in the coming years?

Electrical engineering

Descriptive: What are the standard stages involved in the transmission and distribution of electrical power?
Explanatory: Why are transformers essential in the power distribution network?
Exploratory: How can emerging smart grid technologies improve the efficiency and reliability of electrical distribution systems?
Comparative: How do AC and DC transmission methods differ in terms of efficiency and infrastructure requirements?
Predictive: With the rise of renewable energy sources, how will power grid management complexities change in the next decade?

Mechanical engineering

Descriptive: What are the fundamental principles behind the operation of a four-stroke internal combustion engine?
Explanatory: Why are certain polymers used as vibration dampeners in machinery?
Exploratory: How might advancements in materials science impact the design of future automotive systems?
Comparative: How do hydraulic systems compare to pneumatic systems in terms of energy efficiency and application?
Predictive: With the push towards sustainability, how will traditional manufacturing methods evolve to reduce their carbon footprint?

Climatology

Descriptive: What are the primary factors that influence the El Niño and La Niña phenomena?
Explanatory: Why have certain regions experienced more intense and frequent heatwaves in the past decade?
Exploratory: How might changing atmospheric CO2 concentrations impact global wind patterns in the future?
Comparative: How do urban areas differ from rural areas in terms of microclimate conditions?
Predictive: Given current greenhouse gas emission trends, what will be the average global temperature increase by the end of the century?

Conservation science

Descriptive: What are the primary threats faced by tropical rainforests around the world?
Explanatory: Why are certain species more vulnerable to habitat fragmentation than others?
Exploratory: How can community involvement enhance conservation efforts in protected areas?
Comparative: How does the effectiveness of in-situ conservation compare to ex-situ conservation for endangered species?
Predictive: If current deforestation rates continue, how many species are predicted to go extinct in the next 50 years?
Descriptive: What are the dominant flora and fauna in a temperate deciduous forest biome?
Explanatory: Why do certain ecosystems, like wetlands, have higher biodiversity than others?
Exploratory: How might the spread of invasive species alter nutrient cycling in freshwater lakes?
Comparative: How do the trophic dynamics of grassland ecosystems differ from those of desert ecosystems?
Predictive: How will global ecosystems change if bee populations continue to decline at current rates?

Environmental health

Descriptive: What are the major pollutants found in urban air?
Explanatory: Why do certain pollutants cause respiratory diseases in humans?
Exploratory: How might green building designs reduce the health risks associated with indoor air pollutants?
Comparative: How do the health impacts of living near coal-fired power plants compare to living near nuclear power plants?
Predictive: Given increasing urbanization trends, how will air quality in major cities change over the next two decades?

Marine biology

Descriptive: What are the primary species that comprise a coral reef ecosystem?
Explanatory: Why are coral reefs particularly sensitive to changes in sea temperature?
Exploratory: How might deep-sea exploration reveal unknown marine species and their adaptations?
Comparative: How do the feeding strategies of pelagic fish differ from benthic fish in oceanic ecosystems?
Predictive: If ocean acidification trends continue, what will be the impact on shell-forming marine organisms in the next 30 years?
Descriptive: What are the most common oral health issues faced by elderly individuals?
Explanatory: Why do sugary foods lead to a higher prevalence of cavities?
Exploratory: How might emerging technologies revolutionize dental procedures in the coming decade?
Comparative: How do the effects of electric toothbrushes compare to manual ones in reducing plaque?
Predictive: Given current trends, how might the prevalence of gum diseases change in populations with increased sugar consumption over the next decade?

Kinesiology

Descriptive: What are the primary physiological changes that occur during aerobic exercise?
Explanatory: Why do some athletes experience muscle cramps during extensive physical activity?
Exploratory: How might different stretching routines impact athletic performance?
Comparative: How do the biomechanics of running on a treadmill differ from running outdoors?
Predictive: If sedentary lifestyles continue to rise, what could be the potential impact on musculoskeletal health in the next 20 years?
Descriptive: What are the main symptoms associated with the early stages of Parkinson's disease?
Explanatory: Why are some viruses, like the flu, more prevalent in colder months?
Exploratory: How might genetic editing technologies, like CRISPR, be utilized to treat hereditary diseases in the future?
Comparative: How does the efficacy of traditional chemotherapy compare to targeted therapy in treating certain cancers?
Predictive: Given advances in telemedicine, how might patient-doctor interactions evolve over the next decade?
Descriptive: What are the primary responsibilities of nurses in intensive care units?
Explanatory: Why is there a higher burnout rate among nurses compared to other healthcare professionals?
Exploratory: How can training programs be improved to better equip nurses for challenges in emergency situations?
Comparative: How does the patient recovery rate differ when cared for by specialized nurses versus general ward nurses?
Predictive: How will the role of nurses change with the integration of more AI-based diagnostic tools in hospitals?
Descriptive: What are the main nutritional components of a Mediterranean diet?
Explanatory: Why does a diet high in processed sugars lead to increased risks of type 2 diabetes?
Exploratory: How might gut microbiota be influenced by various diets and what are the potential health implications?
Comparative: How does the nutritional profile of plant-based proteins compare to animal-based proteins?
Predictive: If global meat consumption trends continue, what could be the implications for population-wide nutritional health in 30 years?
Descriptive: What are the primary active ingredients in over-the-counter pain relievers?
Explanatory: Why do certain medications cause drowsiness as a side effect?
Exploratory: How might nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems enhance the efficacy of certain treatments?
Comparative: How do the effects of generic drugs compare to their brand-name counterparts?
Predictive: Given the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, how might pharmaceutical approaches to bacterial infections change in the future?

Public health

Descriptive: What are the main factors contributing to public health disparities in urban vs rural areas?
Explanatory: Why did certain regions have higher transmission rates during the COVID-19 pandemic?
Exploratory: How can community engagement strategies be optimized for more effective health campaigns?
Comparative: How do vaccination rates and outcomes differ between countries with public vs private healthcare systems?
Predictive: Based on current trends, how will global public health challenges evolve over the next 50 years?

Art history

Descriptive: What are the primary artistic styles observed in the Renaissance era?
Explanatory: Why did the Baroque art movement emerge after the Renaissance?
Exploratory: How might newly discovered ancient art pieces reshape our understanding of prehistoric artistic practices?
Comparative: How does European Romantic art differ from Asian Romantic art of the same period?
Predictive: Given current trends, how might digital art impact traditional art gallery setups in the next decade?
Descriptive: What are the primary themes in Homer's "Odyssey"?
Explanatory: Why did Greek tragedies place a strong emphasis on the concept of fate?
Exploratory: Are there undiscovered works that might provide more insight into daily life in ancient Rome?
Comparative: How do Roman epics compare to their Greek counterparts in terms of character development?
Predictive: How will emerging technologies like virtual reality affect the study of ancient ruins?

Cultural studies

Descriptive: How is the concept of family portrayed in contemporary American media?
Explanatory: Why has the influence of Western culture grown in certain Eastern countries over the last century?
Exploratory: What are the emerging subcultures in the digital age and how do they communicate?
Comparative: How does the representation of masculinity vary between Eastern and Western films?
Predictive: In what ways might globalization affect cultural identities in the next two decades?
Descriptive: What events led to the fall of the Berlin Wall?
Explanatory: Why did the Industrial Revolution begin in Britain?
Exploratory: Are there undocumented civilizational interactions in ancient times that new archaeological findings might reveal?
Comparative: How did the responses to the Black Plague differ between European and Asian nations?
Predictive: Given historical patterns, how might major global powers react to dwindling natural resources in the future?
Descriptive: What are the main narrative techniques used in James Joyce's "Ulysses"?
Explanatory: Why did the Gothic novel become popular in 19th-century England?
Exploratory: How might translations of ancient texts reveal different interpretations based on the translator's cultural background?
Comparative: How does the portrayal of war differ between post-WWII American and French literature?
Predictive: How might the rise of AI-authored literature change the publishing industry?
Descriptive: What are the core principles of existentialism as described by Jean-Paul Sartre?
Explanatory: Why did the philosophy of existentialism gain prominence post-WWII?
Exploratory: How might ancient Eastern philosophies provide insights into modern ethical dilemmas surrounding technology?
Comparative: How does Nietzsche's concept of the "Ubermensch" compare to Aristotle's "virtuous person"?
Predictive: As AI becomes more prevalent, how might philosophical discussions around consciousness evolve?

Religious studies

Descriptive: What are the Five Pillars of Islam?
Explanatory: Why did Protestantism emerge within Christianity during the 16th century?
Exploratory: Are there common motifs in creation myths across various religions?
Comparative: How do concepts of the afterlife compare between Christianity, Buddhism, and Ancient Egyptian beliefs?
Predictive: How might interfaith dialogue shape religious practices in multi-faith societies over the next decade?

Classic languages

Descriptive: What are the primary grammatical structures in Ancient Greek?
Explanatory: Why did Latin play a foundational role in the development of many modern European languages?
Exploratory: Are there yet-to-be-deciphered scripts from ancient civilizations that might provide insight into lost languages?
Comparative: How do the verb conjugation patterns in Latin compare to those in Sanskrit?
Predictive: Given the ongoing research in classical studies, how might our understanding of certain ancient texts change in the next decade?

Comparative literature

Descriptive: What are the main themes in Japanese Haiku and English Sonnets?
Explanatory: Why do certain folklore tales appear with variations across different cultures?
Exploratory: How might newly translated works from lesser-known languages reshape the world literature canon?
Comparative: How does the role of the tragic hero in French literature differ from its portrayal in Russian literature?
Predictive: As global communication becomes more interconnected, how might the study of world literature evolve in universities?

Modern languages

Descriptive: What are the primary tonal patterns observed in Mandarin Chinese?
Explanatory: Why has English become a dominant lingua franca in international business and diplomacy?
Exploratory: Which lesser-studied languages might become more prominent due to socio-political changes in their regions?
Comparative: How do the grammatical complexities of Russian compare to those of German?
Predictive: Given current global trends, which languages are predicted to become more widely spoken in the next two decades?
Descriptive: What are the primary articulatory features of plosive sounds?
Explanatory: Why do certain accents develop specific pitch fluctuations and intonations?
Exploratory: How do various environmental factors affect vocal cord vibrations and sound production?
Comparative: How does the pronunciation of fricatives differ between Spanish and Portuguese speakers?
Predictive: How might advancements in voice recognition technology influence phonetics research in the next decade?
Descriptive: What are the primary signs and symbols used in American road signage?
Explanatory: Why do red roses universally symbolize love or passion in many cultures?
Exploratory: Are there emerging symbols in digital communication that could become universally recognized signs in the future?
Comparative: How do the semiotic structures in print advertisements differ between Western and Eastern cultures?
Predictive: As emoji usage becomes more widespread, how might they impact written language semantics in the coming years?
Descriptive: What are the key statutes governing tenant rights in residential leases?
Explanatory: Why do personal injury claims vary significantly in settlement amounts even under similar circumstances?
Exploratory: How might alternative dispute resolution mechanisms evolve in civil law contexts over the next decade?
Comparative: How do defamation laws differ between jurisdictions that adopt the British common law system versus the Napoleonic code?
Predictive: How might the rise of online transactions affect the volume and nature of civil law cases related to contract disputes?

Constitutional law

Descriptive: What are the main principles enshrined in the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution?
Explanatory: Why have some constitutional rights been subject to varying interpretations over time?
Exploratory: Are there emerging debates around digital rights and freedoms that might reshape constitutional interpretations in the future?
Comparative: How does the protection of freedom of speech differ between the U.S. Constitution and the German Basic Law?
Predictive: Given global socio-political trends, how might constitutional democracies adjust their foundational texts in the next two decades?

Corporate law

Descriptive: What are the primary duties and liabilities of a board of directors in a publicly traded company?
Explanatory: Why do mergers and acquisitions often involve extensive due diligence processes?
Exploratory: How might the rise of digital currencies impact the regulatory landscape for corporations in the finance sector?
Comparative: How does the legal framework for shareholder rights in the U.S. compare to that of Japan?
Predictive: How might changing global trade dynamics influence corporate structuring and international partnerships?

Criminal law

Descriptive: What constitutes first-degree murder in the majority of jurisdictions?
Explanatory: Why are certain offenses classified as misdemeanors while others are felonies?
Exploratory: Are there emerging patterns in cybercrime that suggest new areas of legal vulnerability?
Comparative: How does the treatment of juvenile offenders differ between Scandinavian countries and the U.S.?
Predictive: Given advancements in technology, how might criminal law evolve to address potential misuses of artificial intelligence?

International law

Descriptive: What are the foundational principles of the Geneva Conventions?
Explanatory: Why have some nations refused to recognize or be bound by certain international treaties?
Exploratory: How might global climate change reshape international agreements and treaties in the coming years?
Comparative: How do regional trade agreements in Africa compare to those in Southeast Asia in terms of provisions and enforcement mechanisms?
Predictive: How might geopolitical shifts influence the role and effectiveness of international courts in resolving state disputes?

Applied mathematics

Descriptive: What are the primary mathematical models used to predict the spread of infectious diseases?
Explanatory: Why does the Navier–Stokes equation play a pivotal role in fluid dynamics?
Exploratory: How might new computational methods enhance the efficiency of existing algorithms in applied mathematics?
Comparative: How do optimization techniques in operations research differ from those in machine learning applications?
Predictive: Given the rapid growth of quantum computing, how might it reshape the landscape of applied mathematical problems in the next decade?

Applied statistics

Descriptive: What are the standard procedures for handling missing data in a large-scale survey?
Explanatory: Why do statisticians use bootstrapping techniques in hypothesis testing?
Exploratory: How might emerging data sources, like wearables and IoT devices, introduce new challenges and opportunities in applied statistics?
Comparative: How does the performance of Bayesian methods compare to frequentist methods in complex hierarchical models?
Predictive: With the increasing availability of big data, how might the role of applied statisticians evolve in the next five years?

Pure mathematics

Descriptive: What are the axioms underpinning Euclidean geometry?
Explanatory: Why is Gödel's incompleteness theorem considered a foundational result in the philosophy of mathematics?
Exploratory: Are there newly emerging areas of study within number theory due to advancements in computational mathematics?
Comparative: How do algebraic structures differ between rings and fields?
Predictive: Considering current research trends, what areas of pure mathematics are poised for significant breakthroughs in the next decade?

Theoretical statistics

Descriptive: What foundational principles underlie the Central Limit Theorem?
Explanatory: Why is the concept of sufficiency crucial in the design of statistical tests?
Exploratory: How might advances in artificial intelligence influence theoretical developments in statistical inference?
Comparative: How do likelihood-based inference methods compare to Bayesian methods in terms of theoretical underpinnings?
Predictive: As data generation mechanisms evolve, how might the theoretical foundations of statistics need to adapt in the future?
Descriptive: What are the key features and behaviors of black holes?
Explanatory: Why does the expansion of the universe appear to be accelerating?
Exploratory: What potential insights might the study of exoplanets provide about the conditions necessary for life?
Comparative: How do the properties of spiral galaxies differ from those of elliptical galaxies?
Predictive: Based on current data, what are the projected future behaviors of our sun as it ages?
Descriptive: What are the primary functions and structures of ribosomes in a cell?
Explanatory: Why does DNA replication occur semi-conservatively?
Exploratory: How might emerging technologies like CRISPR redefine our understanding of genetic engineering?
Comparative: How do the metabolic processes of prokaryotic cells differ from those of eukaryotic cells?
Predictive: Given the current trajectory of climate change, how might the biodiversity in tropical rainforests be affected over the next century?
Descriptive: What are the key properties and uses of the noble gases?
Explanatory: Why do exothermic reactions release heat?
Exploratory: How might advances in nanochemistry influence drug delivery systems?
Comparative: How do ionic bonds differ in strength and characteristics from covalent bonds?
Predictive: Considering the rise in antibiotic-resistant bacteria, how might the field of medicinal chemistry adapt to produce effective treatments in the future?

Earth science

Descriptive: What are the primary layers of Earth's atmosphere and their respective characteristics?
Explanatory: Why do certain regions experience more seismic activity than others?
Exploratory: How might the study of ancient ice cores provide insights into past climate conditions?
Comparative: How do the processes of weathering differ between arid and humid climates?
Predictive: Given current data on deforestation, what could be its impact on global soil quality and erosion patterns over the next 50 years?
Descriptive: What are the fundamental principles underlying quantum mechanics?
Explanatory: Why does the speed of light in a vacuum remain constant regardless of the observer's frame of reference?
Exploratory: How might studies in string theory reshape our understanding of the universe at the smallest scales?
Comparative: How do the effects of general relativity contrast with predictions from Newtonian physics under extreme gravitational conditions?
Predictive: With advancements in particle physics, what potential new particles or phenomena might be discovered in the next decade?

Anthropology

Descriptive: What are the primary rituals and customs of the indigenous tribes of the Amazon?
Explanatory: Why did the ancient Mayan civilization collapse?
Exploratory: How might modern urbanization impact the preservation of ancient burial sites?
Comparative: How do hunter-gatherer societies differ from agricultural societies in terms of social structures?
Predictive: Given global trends, how might indigenous cultures evolve over the next century?

Communication

Descriptive: What are the main modes of communication used by millennials compared to baby boomers?
Explanatory: Why has the usage of social media platforms surged in the last two decades?
Exploratory: How might advancements in virtual reality reshape interpersonal communication in the future?
Comparative: How do written communication skills differ between those educated in traditional schools versus online schools?
Predictive: How might the nature of journalism change with the rise of automated content generation?
Descriptive: What are the primary components of a nation's gross domestic product (GDP)?
Explanatory: Why did the economic recession of 2008 occur?
Exploratory: How might the concept of universal basic income impact labor market dynamics?
Comparative: How do free market economies differ from command economies in terms of resource allocation?
Predictive: Based on current global economic trends, which industries are predicted to boom in the next decade?
Descriptive: What are the geographical features of the Himalayan mountain range?
Explanatory: Why do desert regions exist on the western coasts of continents, such as the Atacama in South America?
Exploratory: How might rising sea levels reshape the world's coastlines over the next century?
Comparative: How does urban planning in European cities differ from that in American cities?
Predictive: Given current urbanization rates, which cities are poised to become megacities by 2050?

Political science

Descriptive: What are the foundational principles of a parliamentary democracy?
Explanatory: Why do certain nations adopt federal systems while others prefer unitary systems?
Exploratory: How might the rise of populism influence global diplomatic relations in the 21st century?
Comparative: How do the rights of citizens in liberal democracies differ from those in authoritarian regimes?
Predictive: Based on current political trends, which nations might see significant shifts in governance models over the next two decades?
Descriptive: What are the primary stages of cognitive development in children according to Piaget?
Explanatory: Why do certain individuals develop phobias?
Exploratory: How might emerging neuroscientific tools, like fMRI, alter our understanding of human emotions?
Comparative: How do coping mechanisms differ between individuals with high resilience versus those with low resilience?
Predictive: Given the rise in digital communication, how might human attention spans evolve in future generations?

Social work

Descriptive: What are the core principles and practices in child protective services?
Explanatory: Why do certain communities have higher rates of child neglect and abuse?
Exploratory: How might the integration of artificial intelligence in social work affect decision-making in child welfare cases?
Comparative: How do intervention strategies for substance abuse differ between urban and rural settings?
Predictive: Based on current societal trends, what challenges might social workers face in the next decade?
Descriptive: What are the defining characteristics of Generation Z as a social cohort?
Explanatory: Why have nuclear families become less prevalent in Western societies?
Exploratory: How might the widespread adoption of virtual realities impact social interactions and community structures in the future?
Comparative: How do the roles and perceptions of elderly individuals differ between Eastern and Western societies?
Predictive: Given the rise in remote work, how might urban and suburban living patterns change over the next three decades?

In synthesizing the vast range of research questions posed across diverse disciplines, it becomes clear that every academic field, from the humanities to the social sciences, offers unique perspectives and methodologies to uncover and understand various facets of our world. These questions, whether descriptive, explanatory, exploratory, comparative, or predictive, serve as guiding lights, driving scholarship and innovation. As academia continues to evolve and adapt, these inquiries not only define the boundaries of current knowledge but also pave the way for future discoveries and insights, emphasizing the invaluable role of continuous inquiry in the ever-evolving tapestry of human understanding.

Header image by Zetong Li .

Our Mission

An illustration of a figure examining data

The 10 Most Significant Education Studies of 2020

We reviewed hundreds of educational studies in 2020 and then highlighted 10 of the most significant—covering topics from virtual learning to the reading wars and the decline of standardized tests.

In the month of March of 2020, the year suddenly became a whirlwind. With a pandemic disrupting life across the entire globe, teachers scrambled to transform their physical classrooms into virtual—or even hybrid—ones, and researchers slowly began to collect insights into what works, and what doesn’t, in online learning environments around the world.

Meanwhile, neuroscientists made a convincing case for keeping handwriting in schools, and after the closure of several coal-fired power plants in Chicago, researchers reported a drop in pediatric emergency room visits and fewer absences in schools, reminding us that questions of educational equity do not begin and end at the schoolhouse door.

1. To Teach Vocabulary, Let Kids Be Thespians

When students are learning a new language, ask them to act out vocabulary words. It’s fun to unleash a child’s inner thespian, of course, but a 2020 study concluded that it also nearly doubles their ability to remember the words months later.

Researchers asked 8-year-old students to listen to words in another language and then use their hands and bodies to mimic the words—spreading their arms and pretending to fly, for example, when learning the German word flugzeug , which means “airplane.” After two months, these young actors were a remarkable 73 percent more likely to remember the new words than students who had listened without accompanying gestures. Researchers discovered similar, if slightly less dramatic, results when students looked at pictures while listening to the corresponding vocabulary.

It’s a simple reminder that if you want students to remember something, encourage them to learn it in a variety of ways—by drawing it , acting it out, or pairing it with relevant images , for example.

2. Neuroscientists Defend the Value of Teaching Handwriting—Again

For most kids, typing just doesn’t cut it. In 2012, brain scans of preliterate children revealed crucial reading circuitry flickering to life when kids hand-printed letters and then tried to read them. The effect largely disappeared when the letters were typed or traced.

More recently, in 2020, a team of researchers studied older children—seventh graders—while they handwrote, drew, and typed words, and concluded that handwriting and drawing produced telltale neural tracings indicative of deeper learning.

“Whenever self-generated movements are included as a learning strategy, more of the brain gets stimulated,” the researchers explain, before echoing the 2012 study: “It also appears that the movements related to keyboard typing do not activate these networks the same way that drawing and handwriting do.”

It would be a mistake to replace typing with handwriting, though. All kids need to develop digital skills, and there’s evidence that technology helps children with dyslexia to overcome obstacles like note taking or illegible handwriting, ultimately freeing them to “use their time for all the things in which they are gifted,” says the Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity.

3. The ACT Test Just Got a Negative Score (Face Palm)

A 2020 study found that ACT test scores, which are often a key factor in college admissions, showed a weak—or even negative —relationship when it came to predicting how successful students would be in college. “There is little evidence that students will have more college success if they work to improve their ACT score,” the researchers explain, and students with very high ACT scores—but indifferent high school grades—often flamed out in college, overmatched by the rigors of a university’s academic schedule.

Just last year, the SAT—cousin to the ACT—had a similarly dubious public showing. In a major 2019 study of nearly 50,000 students led by researcher Brian Galla, and including Angela Duckworth, researchers found that high school grades were stronger predictors of four-year-college graduation than SAT scores.

The reason? Four-year high school grades, the researchers asserted, are a better indicator of crucial skills like perseverance, time management, and the ability to avoid distractions. It’s most likely those skills, in the end, that keep kids in college.

4. A Rubric Reduces Racial Grading Bias

A simple step might help undercut the pernicious effect of grading bias, a new study found: Articulate your standards clearly before you begin grading, and refer to the standards regularly during the assessment process.

In 2020, more than 1,500 teachers were recruited and asked to grade a writing sample from a fictional second-grade student. All of the sample stories were identical—but in one set, the student mentions a family member named Dashawn, while the other set references a sibling named Connor.

Teachers were 13 percent more likely to give the Connor papers a passing grade, revealing the invisible advantages that many students unknowingly benefit from. When grading criteria are vague, implicit stereotypes can insidiously “fill in the blanks,” explains the study’s author. But when teachers have an explicit set of criteria to evaluate the writing—asking whether the student “provides a well-elaborated recount of an event,” for example—the difference in grades is nearly eliminated.

5. What Do Coal-Fired Power Plants Have to Do With Learning? Plenty

When three coal-fired plants closed in the Chicago area, student absences in nearby schools dropped by 7 percent, a change largely driven by fewer emergency room visits for asthma-related problems. The stunning finding, published in a 2020 study from Duke and Penn State, underscores the role that often-overlooked environmental factors—like air quality, neighborhood crime, and noise pollution—have in keeping our children healthy and ready to learn.

At scale, the opportunity cost is staggering: About 2.3 million children in the United States still attend a public elementary or middle school located within 10 kilometers of a coal-fired plant.

The study builds on a growing body of research that reminds us that questions of educational equity do not begin and end at the schoolhouse door. What we call an achievement gap is often an equity gap, one that “takes root in the earliest years of children’s lives,” according to a 2017 study . We won’t have equal opportunity in our schools, the researchers admonish, until we are diligent about confronting inequality in our cities, our neighborhoods—and ultimately our own backyards.

6. Students Who Generate Good Questions Are Better Learners

Some of the most popular study strategies—highlighting passages, rereading notes, and underlining key sentences—are also among the least effective. A 2020 study highlighted a powerful alternative: Get students to generate questions about their learning, and gradually press them to ask more probing questions.

In the study, students who studied a topic and then generated their own questions scored an average of 14 percentage points higher on a test than students who used passive strategies like studying their notes and rereading classroom material. Creating questions, the researchers found, not only encouraged students to think more deeply about the topic but also strengthened their ability to remember what they were studying.

There are many engaging ways to have students create highly productive questions : When creating a test, you can ask students to submit their own questions, or you can use the Jeopardy! game as a platform for student-created questions.

7. Did a 2020 Study Just End the ‘Reading Wars’?

One of the most widely used reading programs was dealt a severe blow when a panel of reading experts concluded that it “would be unlikely to lead to literacy success for all of America’s public schoolchildren.”

In the 2020 study , the experts found that the controversial program—called “Units of Study” and developed over the course of four decades by Lucy Calkins at the Teachers College Reading and Writing Project—failed to explicitly and systematically teach young readers how to decode and encode written words, and was thus “in direct opposition to an enormous body of settled research.”

The study sounded the death knell for practices that de-emphasize phonics in favor of having children use multiple sources of information—like story events or illustrations—to predict the meaning of unfamiliar words, an approach often associated with “balanced literacy.” In an internal memo obtained by publisher APM, Calkins seemed to concede the point, writing that “aspects of balanced literacy need some ‘rebalancing.’”

8. A Secret to High-Performing Virtual Classrooms

In 2020, a team at Georgia State University compiled a report on virtual learning best practices. While evidence in the field is "sparse" and "inconsistent," the report noted that logistical issues like accessing materials—and not content-specific problems like failures of comprehension—were often among the most significant obstacles to online learning. It wasn’t that students didn’t understand photosynthesis in a virtual setting, in other words—it was that they didn’t find (or simply didn't access) the lesson on photosynthesis at all.

That basic insight echoed a 2019 study that highlighted the crucial need to organize virtual classrooms even more intentionally than physical ones. Remote teachers should use a single, dedicated hub for important documents like assignments; simplify communications and reminders by using one channel like email or text; and reduce visual clutter like hard-to-read fonts and unnecessary decorations throughout their virtual spaces.

Because the tools are new to everyone, regular feedback on topics like accessibility and ease of use is crucial. Teachers should post simple surveys asking questions like “Have you encountered any technical issues?” and “Can you easily locate your assignments?” to ensure that students experience a smooth-running virtual learning space.

9. Love to Learn Languages? Surprisingly, Coding May Be Right for You

Learning how to code more closely resembles learning a language such as Chinese or Spanish than learning math, a 2020 study found—upending the conventional wisdom about what makes a good programmer.

In the study, young adults with no programming experience were asked to learn Python, a popular programming language; they then took a series of tests assessing their problem-solving, math, and language skills. The researchers discovered that mathematical skill accounted for only 2 percent of a person’s ability to learn how to code, while language skills were almost nine times more predictive, accounting for 17 percent of learning ability.

That’s an important insight because all too often, programming classes require that students pass advanced math courses—a hurdle that needlessly excludes students with untapped promise, the researchers claim.

10. Researchers Cast Doubt on Reading Tasks Like ‘Finding the Main Idea’

“Content is comprehension,” declared a 2020 Fordham Institute study , sounding a note of defiance as it staked out a position in the ongoing debate over the teaching of intrinsic reading skills versus the teaching of content knowledge.

While elementary students spend an enormous amount of time working on skills like “finding the main idea” and “summarizing”—tasks born of the belief that reading is a discrete and trainable ability that transfers seamlessly across content areas—these young readers aren’t experiencing “the additional reading gains that well-intentioned educators hoped for,” the study concluded.

So what works? The researchers looked at data from more than 18,000 K–5 students, focusing on the time spent in subject areas like math, social studies, and ELA, and found that “social studies is the only subject with a clear, positive, and statistically significant effect on reading improvement.” In effect, exposing kids to rich content in civics, history, and law appeared to teach reading more effectively than our current methods of teaching reading. Perhaps defiance is no longer needed: Fordham’s conclusions are rapidly becoming conventional wisdom—and they extend beyond the limited claim of reading social studies texts. According to Natalie Wexler, the author of the well-received 2019 book The Knowledge Gap , content knowledge and reading are intertwined. “Students with more [background] knowledge have a better chance of understanding whatever text they encounter. They’re able to retrieve more information about the topic from long-term memory, leaving more space in working memory for comprehension,” she recently told Edutopia .

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A qualitative-content-analytical approach to the quality of primary students’ questions: testing a competence level model and exploring selected influencing factors.

1. Introduction

1.1. students’ questions: importance in educational contexts and research findings, 1.2. classification systems for assessing the quality of (students’) questions, 1.3. brinkmann’s competence level model for analyzing the level of abstraction of student’s questions, 1.4. aim of the study, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. research design and sample, 2.2. instruments and data analysis.

Prior knowledge [characteristics: not visible | visible]: Does the question reveal any prior knowledge that goes beyond everyday knowledge?
Focus of attention [characteristics: narrow | broad]: Is the focus of attention narrow or broad in terms of the expected response? Does the question relate to a specific detail (narrow focus of attention) or is it necessary to explore many partial aspects to answer it (broad focus of attention)?
Intention of conceptual understanding [characteristics: not visible | visible]: Does the question express the intention to fathom causes, discover connections, or understand modes of operation?
Philosophical horizon [characteristics: not visible | visible]: Is there a clear answer for this question? Does it touch on topics whose answers cannot be obtained from largely established bodies of knowledge? Do we have to struggle for our interpretative reality?

3.1. To What Extent Is Brinkmann’s Competence Level Model [ 26 ] Suitable for Analyzing Questions from a Different Sample? What Modifications Are Necessary? (RQ 1)

3.2. are there any indications of connections between the identified competence levels of the questions and the students’ grade level (rq 2).

Grade level 1 = 72 questions
Grade level 2 = 53 questions
Grade level 3 = 151 questions
Grade level 4 = 158 questions

3.3. Are There Any Indications of Connections between the Identified Competence Levels of the Questions and the Subject Matter? (RQ 3)

data set “Space_4-a” | grade level 4 | 0 questions
data set “Space_4-b” | grade level 4 | 33 questions
data set “Space_3” | grade level 3 | 67 questions
Brinkmann’s data set [ 26 ] | grade level 3 | 137 questions

4. Discussion

4.1. to what extent is brinkmann’s competence level model [ 26 ] suitable for analyzing questions from a different sample what modifications are necessary (rq 1), 4.2. are there any indications of connections between the identified competence levels of the questions and the students’ grade level (rq 2), 4.3. are there any indications of connections between the identified competence levels of the questions and the subject matter (rq 3), 4.4. further aspects of research design and methods, 4.5. implications, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

Data Set	Subject Matter	Grade Level	Designation of the Data Set [*]	Number of Questions
1	Space	4	Space_4-a	0
2	Human senses	3	Human senses_3	5
3	Human skeleton	3	Human skeleton_3	6
4	Water	4	Water_4	8
5	Stick insects	2	Stick insects_2	11
6	Hedgehogs	1	Hedgehogs_1-b	13
7	Christmas	3	Christmas_3	14
8	Animals	2	Animals_2	14
9	Birds	2	Birds_2	18
10	Fire	3	Fire_3	23
11	Animals	3	Animals_3	23
12	Volcanoes	4	Volcanoes_4	25
13	Bats	3	Bats_3	26
14	Mobility	2	Mobility_2	28
15	Hedgehogs	1	Hedgehogs_1-a	28
16	Rome	4	Rome_4	28
17	Electricity	4	Electricity_4-b	31
18	Animals	1	Animals_1	33
19	Space	4	Space_4-b	33
20	Electricity	4	Electricity_4-a	43
21	Space	3	Space_3	67

Nr.	Prior Knowledge	Focus of Attention	Intention of Conceptual Understanding	Philosophical Horizon
1.1	Quartet questions to capture the diversity of the world in a certain system of order (e.g., “How big is the earth?“)
1.1	not visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
1.2	Record questions to capture dimensions (superlatives) (e.g., “Which planet is the largest in the entire universe?”)
1.2	not visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
1.3	Questions about the geographical classification or spatial differentiation of one’s personal living environment (e.g., “Where are the airports in North Rhine-Westphalia?”)
1.3	not visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
1.4	Verification questions (e.g., “Is it possible to land on the sun?”)
1.4	not visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
1.5	Questions about names or linguistic derivations to expand knowledge of the world (e.g., “Why is the water called water?”)
1.5	not visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
1.6 *	Questions on the reconstruction of foreign or historical living environments based on categories of one’s personal living environment (e.g., “How did the Romans live?”)
1.6 *	not visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
1.7 *	Questions about (historical) events, personalities, facts or origins (e.g., “When was the war?”)
1.7 *	not visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
1.8 *	Questions with the intention of being able to (visually) imagine a concept or phenomenon (e.g., “What does a volcano look like?”)
1.8 *	not visible	narrow	not visible	not visible

Nr.	Prior Knowledge	Focus of Attention	Intention of Conceptual Understanding	Philosophical Horizon
2.1	Quartet questions for advanced learners (e.g., “How big are sunspots?”)
2.1	visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
2.2	Expert record questions (e.g., “What is the second most poisonous animal after the poison dart frog?”)
2.2	visible	broad	not visible	not visible
2.3	Verification questions (e.g., “Does Uranus has a ring?”)
2.3	visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
2.4	Comparison questions to differentiate prior knowledge by comparing two elements (e.g., “Is the sun further away from our earth than the moon?”)
2.4	visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
2.5	Decision questions to differentiate prior knowledge against the background of possible cases/scenarios (e.g., “Is the moon light or dark?”)
2.5	visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
2.6	Definition questions to understand terms (e.g., “What exactly is a sickle?”)
2.6	visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
2.7	Time-and-space questions to further develop the ability to orient oneself in time (e.g., “When did the Middle Ages begin?”)
2.7	visible	narrow	not visible	not visible
2.8	Collection questions to gather the most diverse and comprehensive information possible on an aspect (e.g., “What are all the rivers in North Rhine-Westphalia called?”)
2.8	not visible	broad	not visible	not visible
2.9 *	Question about (historical) events, personalities, facts, or origins (e.g., “How was Caesar killed?”)
2.9 *	visible	narrow	not visible	not visible

Nr.	Prior Knowledge	Focus of Attention	Intention of Conceptual Understanding	Philosophical Horizon
3.1	Why questions that have a generalizing character and are aimed at regularities (e.g., “Why does the moon always look different?”)
3.1	not visible	broad	visible	not visible
3.2	How questions to break down modalities and modes of operation (e.g., “How did the sun come into being and how did the moon and the earth come into being?”)
3.2	not visible	broad	visible	not visible
3.3	Questions about the nature of things (e.g., “What is the moon made of?”)
3.3	not visible	broad	visible	not visible
3.4	Question about consequences (e.g., “What is the gravitational pull like when you fly over a planet?”)
3.4	not visible	broad	visible	not visible
3.5	Verification questions (e.g., “Did the moon and the sun look different in the past?”)
3.5	not visible	broad	visible	not visible
3.6	Time-and-space questions to expand orientation knowledge (e.g., “What have people traded with in the past?”)
3.6	not visible	broad	visible	not visible

Nr.	Prior Knowledge	Focus of Attention	Intention of Conceptual Understanding	Philosophical Horizon
4.1	Why questions that have a generalizing character (e.g., “Why does the earth revolve around itself?”)
4.1	visible	broad	visible	not visible
4.2	Questions to break down modalities and modes of operation (e.g., “How did the urexplosion go?”)
4.2	visible	broad	visible	not visible
4.3	Decision questions (e.g., “Where is the moon? Behind or in front of the earth?”)
4.3	visible	broad	visible	not visible
4.4	Expert verification questions (e.g., “Is one half dark because the sun doesn’t shine on it?”)
4.4	visible	broad	visible	not visible
4.5	Expert definition questions to understand complex terms or phenomena (e.g., “What does light years mean?”)
4.5	visible	broad	visible	not visible
4.6	Time-and-space questions regarding a complex phenomenon in connection with a temporal structure (e.g., “When is there always a new moon?”)
4.6	visible	broad	visible	not visible
4.7	Consequence questions for advanced learners to better understand the course of a particular scenario (e.g., “If the sun ever explodes, how will it explode?”)
4.7	visible	broad	visible	not visible

Nr.	Prior Knowledge	Focus of Attention	Intention of Conceptual Understanding	Philosophical Horizon
5.1	Questions based on understood technical terms requiring a complex conclusion to answer (e.g., “Why is oxygen only on Earth?”)
5.1	visible	broad	visible	not visible
5.2	Questions about the meaning of the nature of the living environment that focus on the “why” of a phenomenon (e.g., “Why does a planet exist if you can’t stand on it?”)
5.2	visible	broad	visible	visible
5.3	Questions from a particular perspective (future significance, evaluations, etc.) that seek clarity about connections or patterns of interpretation in order to understand and categorize processes (e.g., “What happens if the rainforest is destroyed?”)
5.3	visible	broad	visible	not visible
5.4	Questions about the whence and whither of humankind or of a philosophical nature (e.g., “Will people live on the other planets in the future?”)
5.4	not visible	broad	visible	visible

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Click here to enlarge figure

Question	“How Many Spines Do Hedgehogs Get?”
Distinguishing Criteria	Characteristic
Prior knowledge	☒ not visible			☐ visible
Focus of attention	☒ narrow			☐ broad
Intention of conceptual understanding	☒ not visible			☐ visible
Philosophical horizon	☒ not visible			☐ visible
Competence level	☐ 0	☒ 1	☐ 2	☐ 3	☐ 4	☐ 5
Question type	1.1: Quartet questions to capture the diversity of the world in a certain system of order

Question	“What Is a Faraday Cage?”
Distinguishing Criteria	Characteristic
Prior knowledge	☐ not visible			☒ visible
Focus of attention	☐ narrow			☒ broad
Intention of conceptual understanding	☐ not visible			☒ visible
Philosophical horizon	☒ not visible			☐ visible
Competence level	☐ 0	☐ 1	☐ 2	☐ 3	☒ 4	☐ 5
Question type	4.5: Expert definition questions to understand complex terms or phenomena

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Schilling, Y.; Hillebrand, L.; Kuckuck, M. A Qualitative-Content-Analytical Approach to the Quality of Primary Students’ Questions: Testing a Competence Level Model and Exploring Selected Influencing Factors. Educ. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 1003. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14091003

Schilling Y, Hillebrand L, Kuckuck M. A Qualitative-Content-Analytical Approach to the Quality of Primary Students’ Questions: Testing a Competence Level Model and Exploring Selected Influencing Factors. Education Sciences . 2024; 14(9):1003. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14091003

Schilling, Yannick, Leonie Hillebrand, and Miriam Kuckuck. 2024. "A Qualitative-Content-Analytical Approach to the Quality of Primary Students’ Questions: Testing a Competence Level Model and Exploring Selected Influencing Factors" Education Sciences 14, no. 9: 1003. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14091003

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10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project
The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is not focused or researchable. The second question is a clearer comparative question, but note that it may not be practically feasible. For a smaller research project or thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two countries.
170+ Research Topics In Education (+ Free Webinar)
The use of student data to inform instruction. The role of parental involvement in education. The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom. The use of technology in the classroom. The role of critical thinking in education. The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom.
110+ Strong Education Research Topics & Ideas In 2023
Some of such research topics in education include: The relationship between poor education and increased academic fees. Creating a social link between homeschool and traditional schoolgoers. The relationship between teacher satisfaction and student performance. The divide between public and private school performance.
Research Question Examples & Ideas: The ULTIMATE List
Research Question Examples 🧑🏻‍🏫. 25+ Practical Examples & Ideas To Help You Get Started. By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | October 2023. A well-crafted research question (or set of questions) sets the stage for a robust study and meaningful insights. But, if you're new to research, it's not always clear what exactly constitutes a good ...
100+ Education Research Topics & Ideas for Your Paper
Here is a list of topics for your inspiration: Impact of Online Learning on Student Engagement and Academic Performance. Effectiveness of Project-Based Learning in Promoting Critical Thinking Skills. Socioeconomic Status and Access to Quality Education. Virtual and Augmented Reality in Enhancing the Learning Experience.
71 Best Education Dissertation Topic Ideas
Technology Integration in Elementary Classrooms: Investigating the impact of integrating technology such as interactive whiteboards and educational software on student engagement and learning outcomes. Differentiated Instruction Strategies: Evaluating the effectiveness of differentiated instruction in meeting the diverse learning needs of ...
500+ Educational Research Topics
Education is a fundamental human right that plays a vital role in shaping the future of individuals, communities, and societies. In order to improve the effectiveness of education, it is crucial to engage in rigorous educational research that seeks to understand how people learn, what factors influence their learning outcomes, and how educational systems can be designed to promote equitable ...
Writing Strong Research Questions
A good research question is essential to guide your research paper, dissertation, or thesis. All research questions should be: Focused on a single problem or issue. Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources. Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints. Specific enough to answer thoroughly.
How to Craft a Strong Research Question (With Research Question Examples)
Assess your chosen research question using the FINER criteria that helps you evaluate whether the research is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant. 1. Formulate the final research question, while ensuring it is clear, well-written, and addresses all the key elements of a strong research question.
Develop a Research Question
We focus on high-quality research to answer the question "what works in education?" ... Sample Research Questions. A good research question is clear, focused, and has an appropriate level of complexity. Developing a strong question is a process, so you will likely refine your question as you continue to research and to develop your ideas. ...
40 Education Research Paper Topics
List of 40 Hot Topics in Education. The development of critical thinking as the primary goal of the educational process. The evolution of approaches to education throughout history. Education and modern technologies, their positive and negative impact. Virtual reality worlds and education.
How to Write a Good Research Question (w/ Examples)
It can be difficult to come up with a good research question, but there are a few steps you can follow to make it a bit easier. 1. Start with an interesting and relevant topic. Choose a research topic that is interesting but also relevant and aligned with your own country's culture or your university's capabilities.
#6 Developing Successful Research Questions
Course Learning Outcome: Develop ability to synthesize and express complex ideas; demonstrate information literacy and be able to work with evidence Goal: Develop students' ability to recognize and create successful research questions Specifically, students will be able to. identify the components of a successful research question. create a viable research question.
How to Write a Research Question: Types and Examples
Choose a broad topic, such as "learner support" or "social media influence" for your study. Select topics of interest to make research more enjoyable and stay motivated. Preliminary research. The goal is to refine and focus your research question. The following strategies can help: Skim various scholarly articles.
1000+ Research Topics & Research Title Examples For Students
A strong research topic comprises three important qualities: originality, value and feasibility.. Originality - a good topic explores an original area or takes a novel angle on an existing area of study.; Value - a strong research topic provides value and makes a contribution, either academically or practically.; Feasibility - a good research topic needs to be practical and manageable ...
Example Research Questions
Example Research Questions; Topic Subtopic Issue or Problem Research Question; High School Education: Drop-outs: Socio-cultural impacts on high school completion: What are the socio-cultural influences on high school completion and how might these be addressed? Higher Education: Access:
Examples of Good and Bad Research Questions
If your research feels similar to existing articles, make sure to drive home the differences. 5. Complex. Whether it's developed for a thesis or another assignment, a good research topic question should be complex enough to let you expand on it within the scope of your paper.
9.2 Characteristics of a good research question
Chapter Outline. Empirical vs. ethical questions (4 minute read); Characteristics of a good research question (4 minute read); Quantitative research questions (7 minute read); Qualitative research questions (3 minute read); Evaluating and updating your research questions (4 minute read); Content warning: examples in this chapter include references to sexual violence, sexism, substance use ...
Elementary Education Research Paper Topics
Elementary education research paper topics can span a wide range of areas, including teaching methods, learning styles, the impact of technology on learning, educational policies, classroom management, and many more. Choosing a research topic in this field requires careful consideration of various factors, including your interests, the ...
Developing a Research Question
When you need to develop a research question, you want to ask yourself: what do you want to know about a topic? Additionally, you'll want to determine: WHO you are researching, WHAT you are researching, WHEN your research topic takes place, WHERE your research topic takes place, and; WHY you are researching this topic.
415 Research Question Examples Across 15 Disciplines
A research question is a clearly formulated query that delineates the scope and direction of an investigation. It serves as the guiding light for scholars, helping them to dissect, analyze, and comprehend complex phenomena. Beyond merely seeking answers, a well-crafted research question ensures that the exploration remains focused and goal-oriented. The significance of framing a clear, concise ...
The 10 Most Significant Education Studies of 2021
3. The Surprising Power of Pretesting. Asking students to take a practice test before they've even encountered the material may seem like a waste of time—after all, they'd just be guessing. But new research concludes that the approach, called pretesting, is actually more effective than other typical study strategies.
The 10 Most Significant Education Studies of 2020
1. To Teach Vocabulary, Let Kids Be Thespians. When students are learning a new language, ask them to act out vocabulary words. It's fun to unleash a child's inner thespian, of course, but a 2020 study concluded that it also nearly doubles their ability to remember the words months later. Researchers asked 8-year-old students to listen to ...
Education Sciences
There is a consensus on the importance of students' questions in educational contexts due to diverse potentials to promote learning. Engaging with students' questions in primary school is highly relevant as it fosters critical thinking skills, encourages curiosity, and cultivates a deeper understanding of subject matter. At the same time, research findings agree that students' questions ...

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71 Best Education Dissertation Topic Ideas

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Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

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Using your research problem to develop your research question

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Adapted from: George Mason University Writing Center. (2018). How to write a research question. Retrieved from https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/writing-resources/research-based-writing/how-to-write-a-research-question

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