daniel goleman research on emotional intelligence

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With regard to emotional intelligence, Daniel Goleman was not the first to articulate the concept. However, in the double role of psychologist and journalist, Goleman made the elements of emotional intelligence accessible to broad segments of society. His best-selling books — beginning with “Emotional Intelligence”(1995) — have already changed how some businesses interact with clients and some managers recruit employees. His impact has been even more profound on education.

Thanks to Goleman, educators now recognize that emotional intelligence is every bit as important to learning as intellectual prowess or IQ. As a result, tens of thousands of schools throughout the world currently incorporate “social and emotional learning” in their curricula. In some schools, courses geared toward developing emotional intelligence are mandatory.

The history of emotional intelligence

For decades, researchers have studied the reasons why a high IQ does not necessarily guarantee success in the classroom or the boardroom. By the 1980s, psychologists and biologists, among others, were focusing on the important role other skill sets — needed to process emotional information — played in promoting worldly success, leadership, personal fulfillment and happy relationships.

In 1990, psychologists John Mayer (now at the University of New Hampshire) and Peter Salovey of Yale theorized that a unitary intelligence underlay those other skill sets. They coined the term, emotional intelligence, which they broke down into four “branches”:

• Identifying emotions on a nonverbal level
• Using emotions to guide cognitive thinking
• Understanding the information emotions convey and the actions emotions generate
• Regulating one’s own emotions, for personal benefit and for the common good

As a science reporter for the New York Times, Goleman was exposed to Mayer’s and Salovey’s work and took the concept of emotional intelligence a step further. In his eponymous book from 1995, he argued that existing definitions of intelligence needed to be reworked. IQ was still important, but intellect alone was no guarantee of adeptness in identifying one’s own emotions or the emotional expressions of others. It took a special kind of intelligence, Goleman said, to process emotional information and utilize it effectively — whether to facilitate good personal decisions, to resolve conflicts or to motivate oneself and others.

Goleman’s five domain components of emotional intelligence

Goleman broadened Mayer’s and Salovey’s four-branch system to incorporate five essential elements of emotional intelligence — or EQ, the shorthand he sometimes uses:

• Emotional self-awareness — knowing what one is feeling at any given time and understanding the impact those moods have on others
• Self-regulation — controlling or redirecting one’s emotions; anticipating consequences before acting on impulse
• Motivation — utilizing emotional factors to achieve goals, enjoy the learning process and persevere in the face of obstacles
• Empathy — sensing the emotions of others
• Social skills — managing relationships, inspiring others and inducing desired responses from them

Applications for educators

There are very practical reasons to promote social and emotional learning in schools, from kindergarten through college. According to Goleman, bullying, disciplinary problems, violence and drug abuse are reduced in schools with a high EQ. With a solid basis in emotional intelligence, academic performance — as well as behavior — improves. There is an obvious connection to Goleman’s third, motivational component: learning stimulates curiosity and promotes feelings of satisfaction, even joy, when students immerse themselves in the process of assimilating new information.

The EQ of children starts developing long before they ever enter a classroom. But EQ levels will vary widely, depending on each child’s home environment. Thus teachers must be able to recognize those children whose emotional literacy needs a boost. Teachers should be ready to talk about feelings in the classroom. The message is that no emotion is “wrong,” but certain ways of expressing those emotions or acting on them are indeed inappropriate.

In 2002, UNESCO launched an international campaign to promote emotional learning in the classroom. The U.N. body sent a statement of 10 basic EQ principles to education ministries throughout the world. Those principles drew heavily from Goleman’s exposition of emotional intelligence.

Rating emotional intelligence

PositivePsychology.com has created a guide to help people assess their own levels of emotional intelligence. Discover exercises ranging from classifying facial expressions, emotional articulation tools, and communication tasks among other activities. These are suitable for students and adults alike.

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Daniel Goleman

“By teaching people to tune in to their emotions with intelligence and to expand their circle of caring, we can transform organizations from the inside out and make a positive difference in our world.”

Psychologist and author of emotional intelligence, daniel goleman has transformed the way the world educates children, relates to family and friends, leads, and conducts business..

Working as a science journalist, I reported on the brain and behavioral sciences for The New York Times for many years. My 1995 book Emotional Intelligence (Bantam Books) was on The New York Times bestseller list for a year-and-a-half; it is available around the world in 40 languages, and has been a bestseller in many countries.

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My groundbreaking #1 bestseller emotional intelligence, revolutionized how we think about intelligence. in my upcoming book, i reveal practical methods for using these inner resources to more readily enter an optimal state of high performance and satisfaction while avoiding burnout..

“In the age of AI and machine intelligence, emotional intelligence is more important than ever for building a company culture that brings out the best in people and drives success. Anyone leading a team or organization should read Optimal — it will open your mind and show you the inner balance and skill set that we all need to face the future.”

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Emotional Intelligence as an Ability: Theory, Challenges, and New Directions

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• First Online: 14 July 2018

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• Ashley K. Vesely-Maillefer 6  

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• The original version of this chapter was revised. The correction to this chapter is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90633-1_17

About 25 years ago emotional intelligence (EI) was first introduced to the scientific community. In this chapter, we provide a general framework for understanding EI conceptualized as an ability. We start by identifying the origins of the construct rooted in the intelligence literature and the foundational four-branch model of ability EI, then describe the most commonly employed measures of EI as ability, and critically review predictive validity evidence. We further approach current challenges, including the difficulties of scoring answers as “correct” in the emotional sphere, and open a discussion on how to increase the incremental validity of ability EI. We finally suggest new directions by introducing a distinction between a crystallized component of EI, based on knowledge of emotions, and a fluid component, based on the processing of emotion information.

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Current Concepts in the Assessment of Emotional Intelligence

Rasch model analysis of the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding – brief in a large Portuguese sample

Working memory updating of emotional stimuli predicts emotional intelligence in females

• Emotional intelligence
• Crystallized EI
• Emotion information processing
• Emotion knowledge

Research in the domains of psychology, education, and organizational behavior in the past 30 years has been characterized by a resurgence of interest for emotions, opening the door to new conceptualizations of intelligence that point to the role of emotions in guiding intelligent thinking (e.g., Bower, 1981 ; Zajonc, 1980 ). Earlier work often raised concern surrounding the compatibility between logic and emotion, and the potential interference of emotion in rational behavior, as they were considered to be in “opposition” (e.g., Lloyd, 1979 ). Research shifted into the study of how cognition and emotional processes could interact to enhance thinking, in which context Salovey and Mayer first introduced the construct of emotional intelligence (EI). Their initial definition described EI as the “ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990 , p. 189).

The definition of EI was heavily influenced by early work focused on describing, defining, and assessing socially competent behavior such as social intelligence (Thorndike, 1920 ). The attempt to understand social intelligence led to further inquiries by theorists such as Gardner ( 1983 ) and Sternberg ( 1988 ), who proposed more inclusive approaches to understanding general intelligence. Gardner’s concepts of intrapersonal intelligence , namely, the ability to know one’s emotions, and interpersonal intelligence, which is the ability to understand other individuals’ emotions and intentions, aided in the development of later models in which EI was originally introduced as a subset of social intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990 ). Further prehistory to EI involved the investigation of the relation of social intelligence to alexithymia , a clinical construct defined by difficulties recognizing, understanding, and describing emotions (e.g., MacLean, 1949 ; Nemiah, Freyberger, & Sifneos, 1976 ), as well as research examining the ability to recognize facial emotions and expressions (Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980 ).

EI was popularized in the 1990s by Daniel Goleman’s ( 1995 ) best-selling book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ , as well as through a number of other popular books (e.g., Cooper & Sawaf, 1997 ). However, the lack of empirical evidence available at the time to support the “exciting” statements and claims about the importance of EI in understanding human behavior and individual differences (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998 ) prompted critiques and further investigation into the construct. Major psychological factors such as intelligence, temperament, personality, information processing, and emotional self-regulation have been considered in the conceptualization of EI, leading to a general consensus that EI may be multifaceted and could be studied from different perspectives (Austin, Saklofske, & Egan, 2005 ; Stough, Saklofske, & Parker, 2009 ; Zeidner, Roberts, & Matthews, 2008 ).

Two conceptually different approaches dominate the current study of EI: the trait and the ability approach (Petrides & Furnham, 2001 ). The trait approach conceives EI as dispositional tendencies, such as personality traits or self-efficacy beliefs (see Petrides, Sanchez-Ruiz, Siegling, Saklofske, & Mavroveli, Chap. 3 , this volume). This approach is often indicated in the literature as also including “mixed” models, although such models are conceptually distinct from conceptions of EI as personality because they consider EI as a mixture of traits, competences, and abilities (e.g., Bar-On, 2006 ; Goleman, 1998 ). Both the trait approach and the “mixed” models share the same measurement methods of EI, namely, self-report questionnaires. In contrast, the ability approach conceptualizes EI as a cognitive ability based on the processing of emotion information and assesses it with performance tests. The current chapter deals with the latter approach, where we first outline Mayer and Salovey’s ( 1997 ) foundational four-branch ability EI model, then describe commonly used and new measures of EI abilities, critically review evidence of EI’s predictive validity, and finally discuss outstanding challenges, suggesting new directions for the measurement and conceptualization of EI as an ability.

Although not the focus of the present contribution, it should be noted that some attempts to integrate both ability and trait EI perspectives exist in the literature, including the multi-level developmental investment model (Zeidner, Matthews, Roberts, & MacCann, 2003 ) and the tripartite model (Mikolajczak, 2009 ). For example, the tripartite model suggests three levels of EI: (1) knowledge about emotions, (2) ability to apply this knowledge in real-world situations, and (3) traits reflecting the propensity to behave in a certain way in emotional situations (typical behavior). Research and applications on this tripartite model are currently underway (e.g., Laborde, Mosley, Ackermann, Mrsic, & Dosseville, Chap. 11 , this volume; Maillefer, Udayar, Fiori, submitted ). More theory and research is needed to elucidate how the different EI approaches are related with each other. What all of these theoretical frameworks share in common is their conceptualization of EI as a distinct construct from traditional IQ and personality, which facilitates the potential for prediction of, and influence on, various real-life outcomes (Ciarrochi, Chan, & Caputi, 2000 ; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008 ; Petrides, Perez-Gonzalez, & Furnham, 2007 ).

The Four-Branch Ability EI Model

The main characteristic of the ability approach is that EI is conceived as a form of intelligence. It specifies that cognitive processing is implicated in emotions, is related to general intelligence, and therefore ought to be assessed through performance measures that require respondents to perform discrete tasks and solve specific problems (Freeland, Terry, & Rodgers, 2008 ; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2016 ; Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ). The mainstream model of EI as an ability is the four-branch model introduced by Mayer and Salovey ( 1997 ), which has received wide acknowledgment and use and has been foundational in the development of other EI models and measures. The four-branch model identifies EI as being comprised of a number of mental abilities that allow for the appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotion, as well the integration of these emotion processes with cognitive processes used to promote growth and achievement (Salovey & Grewal, 2005 ; Salovey & Mayer, 1990 ). The model is comprised of four hierarchically linked ability areas, or branches: perceiving emotions, facilitating thought using emotions, understanding emotions, and managing emotions (see Fig. 2.1 ).

The Mayer and Salovey ( 1997 ) four-branch model of emotional intelligence (EI) abilities

Perceiving emotions (Branch 1) refers to the ability to identify emotions accurately through the attendance, detection, and deciphering of emotional signals in faces, pictures, or voices (Papadogiannis, Logan, & Sitarenios, 2009 ). This ability involves identifying emotions in one’s own physical and psychological states, as well as an awareness of, and sensitivity to, the emotions of others (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999 ; Papadogiannis et al., 2009 ).

Facilitating thought using emotions (Branch 2) involves the integration of emotions to facilitate thought. This occurs through the analysis of, attendance to, or reflection on emotional information, which in turn assists higher-order cognitive activities such as reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and consideration of the perspectives of others (Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002 ; Papadogiannis et al., 2009 ). Individuals with a strong ability to use emotions would be able to select and prioritize cognitive activities that are most conducive to their current mood state, as well as change their mood to fit the given situation in a way that would foster better contextual adaptation.

Understanding emotions (Branch 3) comprises the ability to comprehend the connections between different emotions and how emotions change over time and situations (Rivers, Brackett, Salovey, & Mayer, 2007 ). This would involve knowledge of emotion language and its utilization to identify slight variations in emotion and describe different combinations of feelings. Individuals stronger in this domain understand the complex and transitional relationships between emotions and can recognize emotional cues learned from previous experiences, thus allowing them to predict expressions in others in the future (Papadogiannis et al., 2009 ). For example, an understanding that a colleague is getting frustrated, through subtle changes in tone or expression, can improve individuals’ communication in relationships and their personal and professional performances.

Finally, managing emotions (Branch 4) refers to the ability to regulate one’s own and others’ emotions successfully. Such ability would entail the capacity to maintain, shift, and cater emotional responses, either positive or negative, to a given situation (Rivers et al., 2007 ). This could be reflected in the maintenance of a positive mood in a challenging situation or curbing elation at a time in which an important decision must be made. Recovering quickly from being angry or generating motivation or encouragement for a friend prior to an important activity are illustrations of high-level emotion management (Papadogiannis et al., 2009 ).

The four EI branches are theorized to be hierarchically organized, with the last two abilities (understanding and management), which involve higher-order (strategic) cognitive processes, building on the first two abilities (perception and facilitation), which involve rapid (experiential) processing of emotion information (Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ; Salovey & Grewal, 2005 ). It should be noted that the proposed hierarchical structure of the model, as well as its four distinctive branches, have been contradicted. First, developmental evidence suggests that abilities in different EI domains (e.g., perceiving, managing) are acquired in parallel rather than sequentially, through a complex learning process involving a wide range of biological and environmental influences (Zeidner et al., 2003 ). Though this conceptualization supports the notion that lower-level competencies aid in the development of more sophisticated skills, it also identifies ways in which the four EI branches are sometimes developed simultaneously, with lower-level abilities of perceiving, facilitating, understanding, and managing emotions at the same time leading to their later improvement.

The four-branch model has also been challenged through factor analysis in several cases, which did not support a hierarchical model with one underlying global EI factor (Fiori & Antonakis, 2011 ; Rossen, Kranzler, & Algina, 2008 ). Moreover, facilitating thought using emotions (Branch 2) did not emerge as a separate factor and was found to be empirically redundant with the other branches (Fan, Jackson, Yang, Tang, & Zhang, 2010 ; Fiori et al., 2014 ; Fiori & Antonakis, 2011 ; Gignac, 2005 ; Palmer, Gignac, Manocha, & Stough, 2005 ), leading scholars to adopt a revised three-branch model of ability EI, comprised of emotion recognition, emotion understanding, and emotion management (Joseph & Newman, 2010 ; MacCann, Joseph, Newman, & Roberts, 2014 ). Nevertheless, the four branches remain the foundation for current ability EI models, and their description aids in the theoretical understanding of the content domains covered by ability-based perspectives on EI (Mayer et al., 2016 ).

Measurement of EI Abilities

How ability EI is measured is critically important to how the results are interpreted. The fact that ability EI is measured by maximum-performance tests, as is appropriate for a form of intelligence, instead of self-report questionnaires, as is the case for trait EI (see Petrides et al., Chap. 3 , this volume) can, in itself, lead to different results (Brackett, Rivers, Shiffman, Lerner, & Salovey, 2006 ). This is analogous to asking people to provide evidence of their intelligence by utilizing a performance IQ measure versus asking them how high they think their IQ is. Although most individuals have insight with regard to their own abilities, there are those who do not. There are, of course, others who over- or underestimate their intelligence unintentionally or for social desirability purposes, resulting in different scores depending on the format of measurement. Thus, it would be challenging to determine whether the results are attributable to the construct itself or to the assessment methods that are being used (MacCann & Roberts, 2008 ).

Though this example is referring to empirically acknowledged problems with self-report measures in general, reflected in vulnerability to faking, social desirability, and ecological validity (Grubb & McDaniel, 2007 ; Roberts, Zeidner, & Matthews, 2007 ), problems with performance measures of EI that may alter the response outcome also exist. For instance, typical ability EI items require individuals to demonstrate their “ability” to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions by responding to a variety of hypothetical scenarios and visual stimuli, thus deeming the incorrect/correct response format as a method of scoring. Although this may correlate with real-life outcomes, it may not be an accurate representation of EI in real-life social interactions (Vesely, 2011 ; Vesely-Maillefer, 2015 ).

With these considerations in mind , we provide below a short description of the most commonly used as well as some newly developed tests to measure EI abilities.

The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test

The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT; Mayer et al., 2002 ; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2003 ) is the corresponding measure of the dominant-to-date four-branch theoretical model of ability EI (Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ). This is a performance-based measure that provides a comprehensive coverage of ability EI by assessing how people perform emotion tasks and solve emotional problems. It assesses the four EI branches with 141 items distributed across eight tasks (two tasks per branch). Perceiving emotions (Branch 1) is assessed with two emotion perception tasks: (1) the faces task involves identifying emotions conveyed through expressions in photographs of people’s faces; and (2) the pictures task involves identifying emotions in pictures of landscapes and abstract art. For both tasks, respondents are asked to rate on a 5-point scale the degree to which five different emotions are expressed in each stimulus. Facilitating thought (Branch 2) is assessed with two tasks: (1) the facilitation task involves evaluating how different moods may facilitate specific cognitive activities; and (2) the sensations task involves comparing emotions to other sensations, such as color, light, and temperature. For both tasks, respondents are asked to indicate which of the different emotions best match the target activity/sensation. Understanding emotions (Branch 3) is assessed with two multiple-choice tests: (1) the changes test involves questions about how emotions connect to certain situations and how emotions may change and develop over time; and (2) the blends test involves questions about how different emotions combine and interact to form new emotions. For both tests, respondents are asked to choose the most appropriate of five possible response options. Managing emotions (Branch 4) is assessed with two situational judgment tests (SJTs) using a series of vignettes depicting real-life social and emotional situations: (1) the emotion management test involves judgments about strategies for regulating the protagonist’s own emotions in each situation; and (2) the emotional relations test involves judgments about strategies for managing emotions within the protagonist’s social relationships. For both tests, respondents are asked to rate the level of effectiveness of several different strategies, ranging from 1 = very ineffective to 5 = very effective.

The MSCEIT assessment yields a total EI score, four-branch scores, and two area scores for experiential EI (Branches 1 and 2 combined) and strategic EI (Branches 3 and 4 combined). Consistent with the view of EI as a cognitive ability , the scoring of item responses follows the correct/incorrect format of an ability-based IQ test while also requiring the individual to be attuned to social norms (Salovey & Grewal, 2005 ). The correctness of the MSCEIT responses can be determined in one of two ways: (a) based on congruence with the answers of emotion experts (expert scoring) or (b) based on the proportion of the sample that endorsed the same answer (general consensus scoring) (Mayer et al., 2003 ; Papadogiannis et al., 2009 ; Salovey & Grewal, 2005 ). Mayer et al. ( 2003 ) reported high agreement between the two scoring methods in terms of correct answers ( r  = 0.91) and test scores ( r  = 0.98). The test internal consistency reliability (split half) is r  = 0.91–0.93 for the total EI and r  = 0.76–0.91 for the four-branch scores, with expert scoring producing slightly higher reliability estimates (Mayer et al., 2003 ).

The MSCEIT has been the only test available to measure EI as an ability for a long time, and much of the existing validity evidence on ability EI, which we review in the next section, is based on the MSCEIT, introducing the risk of mono-method bias in research. Although there are other standardized tests that can be used to measure specific EI abilities (described below), the MSCEIT remains the only omnibus test to measure all four branches of the ability EI model in one standardized assessment. Another attractive feature of the MSCEIT is the availability of a matching youth research version (MSCEIT-YRV; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2005 ; Rivers et al., 2012 ), which assesses the same four EI branches using age-appropriate items for children and adolescents (ages 10–17). However, a major barrier to research uses of the MSCEIT and its derivatives is that these tests are sold commercially and scored off-site by the publisher, Multi-Health Systems Inc. Furthermore, the MSCEIT has several well-documented psychometric limitations (Fiori et al., 2014 ; Fiori & Antonakis, 2011 ; Maul, 2012 ; Rossen et al., 2008 ), which have prompted researchers to develop alternative instruments, to generalize findings across assessments , and to create non-commercial alternatives for research.

Tests of Emotion Understanding and Management

Recently, there has been an important advancement in ability EI measurement: the introduction of a second generation of ability EI tests, notably the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU) and the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM) introduced by MacCann and Roberts ( 2008 ). Both the STEU and the STEM follow the SJT format similar to that used for the managing emotions branch of the MSCEIT, where respondents are presented with short vignettes depicting real-life social and emotional situations (42 on the STEU and 44 on the STEM) and asked to select, among a list of five, which emotion best describes how the protagonist would feel in each situation (STEU) or which course of action would be most effective in managing emotions in each situation (STEM). Correct answers on the STEU are scored according to Roseman’s (2001) appraisal theory (theory-based scoring), and correct answers on the STEM are scored according to the judgments provided by emotion experts (expert scoring). The reliability of the two tests is reported to be between alpha = 0.71 and 0.72 for STEU and between alpha = 0.68 and 0.85 for STEM (Libbrecht & Lievens, 2012 ; MacCann & Roberts, 2008 ). Brief forms of both tests (18–19 items) have also been developed for research contexts where comprehensive assessment of EI is not required (Allen et al., 2015 ). There is also an 11-item youth version of the STEM (STEM-Y; MacCann, Wang, Matthews, & Roberts, 2010 ) adapted for young adolescents. The STEU and STEM items are available free of charge in the American Psychological Association PsycTESTS database (see also https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012746.supp ). These tests look promising, although they have been introduced recently and more research is needed to ascertain their construct and predictive validity (but see Burrus et al., 2012 ; Libbrecht & Lievens, 2012 ; Libbrecht, Lievens, Carette, & Côté, 2014 ).

The text-based format of the SJT items on the STEU, STEM, and MSCEIT raises concerns about their ecological validity, as real-life social encounters require judgments of verbal as well as nonverbal cues . To address this concern, MacCann, Lievens, Libbrecht, and Roberts ( 2016 ) recently developed a multimedia test of emotion management, the 28-item multimedia emotion management assessment (MEMA) , by transforming the original text-based scenarios and response options from the STEM into a video format. MacCann et al.’s ( 2016 ) comparisons of the MEMA with the text-based items from the MSCEIT managing emotions branch produced equivalent evidence of construct and predictive validity for the two tests.

Tests of Emotion Perception

There are several long-existing standardized measures of perceptual accuracy in recognizing emotions, many of which were introduced even before the construct of EI. Therefore, these were not presented as EI tests but do capture the perceiving emotions branch of EI and could be considered as viable alternatives to the MSCEIT. Among the most frequently used of these tests are the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy (DANVA ; Nowicki & Duke 1994 ), the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS ; Rosenthal, Hall, DiMatteo, Rogers, & Archer, 1979 ), and the Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART ; Matsumoto et al., 2000 ). Like the MSCEIT faces task, these tests involve viewing a series of stimuli portraying another person’s emotion, and the respondent’s task is to correctly identify the emotion expressed. However, unlike the rating-scale format of the MSCEIT faces items, these other tests use a multiple-choice format, where respondents must choose one emotion, from a list of several, that best matches the stimulus. This difference in response format could be one possible reason why performance on the MSCEIT perceiving branch shows weak convergence with these other emotion recognition tests (MacCann et al., 2016 ).

Different emotion recognition tests use different types of stimuli and modalities (e.g., photos of faces, audio recordings) and cover different numbers of target emotions. For example, the DANVA uses 24 photos of male and female facial expressions and 24 audio recordings of male and female vocal expressions of the same neutral sentence (“I am going out of the room now but I’ll be back later”), representing 1 of 4 emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, and fear) in 2 intensities, either weak or strong. The PONS is presented as a test assessing interpersonal sensitivity, or the accuracy in judging other people’s nonverbal cues and affective states. It includes 20 short audio and video segments of a woman for a total length of 47 minutes. The task is to identify which of two emotion situations best describes the woman’s expression. The JACBART uses 56 pictures of Japanese and Caucasian faces expressing 1 of 5 emotions (fear, happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, contempt, and disgust). The interesting feature of this test, in comparison to others, is that it employs a very brief presentation time (200 ms). Each expressive picture is preceded and followed by the neutral version of the same person expressing the emotion in the target picture, so as to reduce post effects of the pictures and get a more spontaneous evaluation of the perceived emotion.

Both the MSCEIT perceiving branch and the earlier emotion recognition tests have been critiqued for their focus on a single modality (i.e., still photos vs. audio recordings), as well as for their restricted range of target emotions (i.e., few basic emotions, only one of them positive), which limits their ecological validity and precludes assessing the ability to differentiate between more nuanced emotion states (Schlegel, Fontaine, & Scherer, 2017 ; Schlegel, Grandjean, & Scherer, 2014 ). The new wave of emotion recognition tests developed at the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences – the Multimodal Emotion Recognition Test (MERT ; Bänziger, Grandjean, & Scherer, 2009 ) and the Geneva Emotion Recognition Test (GERT ; Schlegel et al., 2014 ) – aim to rectify both problems by employing more ecologically valid stimuli, involving dynamic multimodal (vocal plus visual) portrayals of 10 (MERT) to 14 (GERT) different emotions, half of them positive. For example, the GERT consists of 83 videos (1–3 s long) of professional male and female actors expressing 14 emotions (joy, amusement, pride, pleasure, relief, interest, anger, fear, despair, irritation, anxiety, sadness, disgust, and surprise) through facial expressions, nonverbal gestural/postural behavior, and audible pseudo-linguistic phrases that resemble the tone of voice of the spoken language. A short version (GERT-S) is also available with 42 items only (Schlegel & Scherer, 2015 ). The reliability is 0.74 for the long version. The emerging evidence for the construct and predictive validity of the GERT looks promising (Schlegel et al., 2017 ).

Predictive Validity of Ability EI

Among the most researched and debated questions in the ability EI literature is whether ability EI can predict meaningful variance in life outcomes – does ability EI matter? (Antonakis, Ashkanasy, & Dasborough, 2009 ; Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, 2011 ; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008 ). Several studies have shown that ability EI predicts health-related outcomes, including higher satisfaction with life, lower depression, and fewer health issues (Fernández-Berrocal & Extremera, 2016 ; Martins, Ramalho, & Morin, 2010 ). Furthermore, high EI individuals tend to be perceived by others more positively because of their greater social-emotional skills (Fiori, 2015 ; Lopes, Cote, & Salovey, 2006 ) and thus enjoy better interpersonal functioning in the family (Brackett et al., 2005 ), at work (Côte & Miners, 2006 ), and in social relationships (Brackett et al., 2006 ). Ability EI has also been positively implicated in workplace performance and leadership (Côte, Lopes, Salovey, & Miners, 2010 ; O’Boyle, Humphrey, Pollack, Hawver, & Story, 2011 ).

Evidence for ability EI predicting academic success is mixed in post-secondary settings (see Parker, Taylor, Keefer, & Summerfeldt, Chap. 16 , this volume) but more consistent for secondary school outcomes, where ability EI measures have been associated with fewer teacher-rated behavioral and learning problems and higher academic grades (Ivcevic & Brackett, 2014 ; Rivers et al., 2012 ). There is also compelling evidence from over 200 controlled studies of school-based social and emotional learning (SEL) programs, showing that well-executed SEL programs reduce instances of behavioral and emotional problems and produce improvements in students’ academic engagement and grades (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011 ; see also Elias, Nayman, & Duffell, Chap. 12 , this volume). Hoffmann, Ivcevic, and Brackett (Chap. 7 , this volume) describe one notable example of such evidence-based SEL program, the RULER approach , which is directly grounded in the four-branch ability EI model.

Although these results are certainly encouraging regarding the importance of ability EI as a predictor of personal, social, and performance outcomes, there are several important caveats to this conclusion. First, ability EI measures may capture predominantly the knowledge aspects of EI, which can be distinct from the routine application of that knowledge in real-life social-emotional interaction. This disconnect between emotional knowledge and application of knowledge is also supported by the tripartite model of EI mentioned above (Mikolajczak, 2009 ), which separates the ability-based knowledge from trait-based applications within its theory. For example, it posits the possibility that a person with strong cognitive knowledge and verbal ability can describe which emotional expression would be useful in a given situation, but may not be able to select or even display the corresponding emotion in a particular social encounter. Indeed, many other factors, apart from intelligence, contribute to people’s actual behavior, including personality, motives, beliefs, and situational influences.

This leads to the second caveat: whether ability EI is distinct enough from other established constructs, such as personality and IQ, to predict incremental variance in outcomes beyond these well-known variables. Although the overlap of EI measures with known constructs is more evident for trait EI measures (Joseph, Jin, Newman, & O’Boyle, 2015 ), some studies have shown that a substantial amount of variance in ability EI tests, in particular the MSCEIT, was predicted by intelligence, but also by personality traits, especially the trait of agreeableness (Fiori & Antonakis, 2011 ). These results suggest that ability EI, as measured with the MSCEIT, pertains not only to the sphere of emotional abilities, as it was originally envisioned, but depends also on one’s personality characteristics, which conflicts with the idea that ability EI should be conceived (and measured) solely as a form of intelligence. Given these overlaps, the contribution of ability EI lowers once personality and IQ are accounted for. For example, the meta-analysis by Joseph and Newman ( 2010 ) showed that ability EI provided significant but rather limited incremental validity in predicting job performance over personality and IQ.

Of course, one may argue that even a small portion of incremental variance that is not accounted for by known constructs is worth the effort. Further and indeed, a more constructive reflection on the role of ability EI in predicting various outcomes refers to understanding why its contributions may have been limited so far. The outcomes predicted by ability EI should be emotion-specific, given that it is deemed to be a form of intelligence that pertains to the emotional sphere. There is no strong rationale for expecting ability EI to predict generic work outcomes such as job performance; for this type of outcome, we already know that IQ and personality account for the most variance. Instead, work-related outcomes that involve the regulation of emotions, such as emotional labor, would be more appropriate. This idea is corroborated by the meta-analytic evidence showing stronger incremental predictive validity of ability EI for jobs high in emotional labor, such as customer service positions (Joseph & Newman, 2010 ; Newman, Joseph, & MacCann, 2010 ).

Another reason why the incremental validity of ability EI measures appears to be rather small may be related to the limits of current EI measures. For example, the MSCEIT has shown to be best suited to discriminate individuals at the low end of the EI ability distribution (Fiori et al., 2014 ). For the other individuals (medium and high in EI), variation in the MSCEIT scores does not seem to reflect true variation in EI ability. Given that most of the evidence on ability EI to date is based on the MSCEIT, it is likely that some incremental validity of ability EI was “lost” due to the limitations of the test utilized to measure it.

Another caveat concerns making inferences about predictive validity of ability EI from the outcomes of EI and SEL programs. Here, the issue is in part complicated by the fact that terms such as “ability” and “competence” are often used interchangeably, but in fact reflect different characteristics, the latter being a trait-like solidification of the former through practice and experience. Many EI programs are in fact meant to build emotional competence, going beyond the mere acquisition of emotional knowledge and working toward the application of that knowledge across different contexts. As such, other processes and factors, apart from direct teaching and learning of EI abilities, likely contribute to positive program outcomes. For example, the most effective school-based SEL programs are those that also modify school and relational environments in ways that would model, reinforce, and provide opportunities for students to practice the newly acquired EI skills in everyday situations (see also Elias et al., Chap. 12 , this volume; Humphrey, Chap. 8 , this volume). Thus, it would be inappropriate to attribute the outcomes of such programs solely to increases in students’ EI abilities, without acknowledging the supportive social and contextual influences.

It is also important to better understand which processes mediate the role of ability EI in improving individuals’ emotional functioning. Social cognitive theories of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997 ) and self-concept (Marsh & Craven, 2006 ) can inform which types of processes might be involved in linking ability to behavioral change. Specifically, successful acquisition and repeated practice of EI skills can build individuals’ sense of confidence in using those skills (i.e., higher perceived EI self-efficacy), which would increase the likelihood of drawing upon those skills in future situations, in turn providing further opportunities to hone the skills and reinforce the sense of self-competence (Keefer, 2015 ). Research on self-efficacy beliefs in one’s ability to regulate emotions supports this view (Alessandri, Vecchione, & Caprara, 2015 ).

Mayer et al. ( 2016 ) cogently summarized the ambivalent nature of predictive validity evidence for ability EI: “the prediction from intelligence to individual instances of “smart” behavior is fraught with complications and weak in any single instance. At the same time, more emotionally intelligent people have outcomes that differ in important ways from those who are less emotionally intelligent” (p. 291). We concur with this conclusion but would treat it as tentative, given that there are several unresolved issues with the way ability EI has been measured and conceptualized, as discussed below. This opens the possibility that EI’s predictive validity would improve once these measurement and theoretical issues have been clarified.

Measurement and Conceptual Issues

Scoring of correct responses.

One of the greatest challenges of operationalizing EI as an ability has been (and still is) how to score a correct answer on an ability EI test. Indeed, in contrast to personality questionnaires in which answers depend on the unrestricted choice of the respondent and any answer is a valid one, ability test responses are deemed correct or wrong based on an external criterion of correctness. Among the most problematic aspects is the identification of such criterion; it is difficult to find the one best way across individuals who may differ with respect to how they feel and manage emotions effectively (Fiori et al., 2014 ). After all, the very essence of being intelligent implies finding the best solution to contextual adaptation given the resources one possesses. For example, one may be aware that, in principle, a good way to deal with a relational conflict is to talk with the other person to clarify the sources of conflict and/or misunderstanding. However, if one knows they and/or their partner are not good at managing interpersonal relationships , one may choose to avoid confrontation as a more effective strategy in the moment, given the personal characteristics of the individuals involved (Fiori et al., 2014 ).

This example evokes another issue that has not been addressed in the literature on ability EI, namely, the potential difference between what response would be more “intelligent” personally versus socially. One may argue that the solution should fill both needs; however, these may be in contradiction. For instance, suppression of one’s own feelings may help to avoid an interpersonal conflict, an action seen as socially adaptive ; however, this same strategy maybe personally unhealthy if the person does not manage their suppressed emotion in other constructive ways. In this case, a more socially unacceptable response that releases emotion may have been more “emotionally intelligent” as it relates to the self but less so as it relates to others. The problematic part is that current measurement tools do not take these nuances into account. This relates also to the lack of distinction in the literature on emotion skills related to the “self” versus “others,” a criticism discussed below.

In addition, “correctness” of an emotional reaction may depend on the time frame within which one intends to pursue a goal that has emotional implications. For example, if a person is focused on the short-term goal of getting one’s way after being treated unfairly by his or her supervisor, the most “effective” way to manage the situation would be to defend one’s position in front of the supervisor regardless of possible ramifications . In contrast, if one is aiming at a more long-term goal, such as to preserve a good relationship with the boss, the person may accept what is perceived as an unfair treatment and try to “let it go” (Fiori et al., 2014 ).

Scholars who have introduced ability EI measures have attempted to address these difficulties by implementing one of these three strategies to find a correct answer: (a) judge whether an answer is correct according to the extent to which it overlaps with the answer provided by the majority of respondents, also called the consensus scoring ; (b) identify correctness according to the choice provided by a pool of emotion experts, or expert scoring ; and (c) identify whether an answer is correct according to the principles of emotion theories, or theoretical scoring . The consensus scoring was introduced by Mayer et al. ( 1999 ) as a scoring option for the MSCEIT, based on the idea that emotions are genetically determined and shared by all human beings and that, for this reason, the answer chosen by the majority of people can be taken as the correct way to experience emotions. Unfortunately, this logic appears profoundly faulty once one realizes that answers chosen by the majority of people are by definition easy to endorse and that tests based on this logic are not challenging enough for individuals with average or above average EI (for a thorough explanation of this measurement issue, see Fiori et al., 2014 ).

Furthermore, what the majority of people say about emotions may simply reflect lay theories, which, although shared by most, can still be incorrect. The ability to spot a fake smile is a good example of this effect. This task is challenging for all but a restricted group of emotion experts (Maul, 2012 ). In this case, the “correct” answer should be modeled on the few that can spot fake emotions, not on the modal answer in the general population. In fact, the emotionally intelligent “prototype” should be among the very few that can spot fake emotions, rather than among the vast majority of people that get them wrong. Thus, from a conceptual point of view, it would make better sense to score test takers’ responses with respect to a group of emotion experts (high EI individuals ), as long as items reflect differences between typical individuals and those that are higher than the norm (Fiori et al., 2014 ). Items for which the opinion of experts is very close to that of common people should be discarded in testing EI abilities, because they would not be difficult enough to discriminate among individuals with different levels of EI.

Finally, scoring grounded in emotion theories offers a valuable alternative, as it allows setting item difficulties and response options in correspondence with theory-informed emotion processes (Schlegel, 2016 ). Some of the recently developed ability EI tests have utilized this approach. For example, response options on the STEM-B (Allen et al., 2015 ) and MEMA (MacCann et al., 2016 ) map onto the various emotion regulation strategies outlined in Gross’ ( 1998 ) process model of emotion regulation. Based on this theory, certain strategies (e.g., positive reappraisal, direct modification) would be more adaptive than others (e.g., emotion suppression, avoidance), and the correct responses on the ability EI items can be set accordingly. However, this too may appear to be a “subjective” criterion because of the differences among theories regarding what is deemed the adaptive way to experience, label, and regulate emotions. For example, suppression is regarded as a deleterious strategy to manage emotions because of its negative long-term effects (Gross, 1998 ). However, evidence suggests (Bonanno, Papa, Lalande, Westphal, & Coifman, 2004 ; Matsumoto et al., 2008 ) that the damaging effect of suppressing emotions may depend on how this strategy fits with the social and cultural contexts, as also discussed earlier in the example of the relational conflict. Moreover, there are systematic differences across cultures in how emotions are to be expressed, understood, and regulated “intelligently” (see Huynh, Oakes, & Grossman, Chap. 5 , this volume), which poses additional challenges for developing an unbiased scoring system for ability EI tests.

Self- vs. Other-Related EI Abilities

Another issue that has not received much attention in the literature and that might explain why ability EI contributions in predicting outcomes are limited refers to the fact that ability EI theorization, in particular Mayer and Salovey’s ( 1997 ) four-branch model, blurs the distinction between emotional abilities that refer to the self with those that refer to others (e.g., perceiving emotions in oneself vs. in others, understanding what one is feeling vs. someone else is feeling, etc.), as if using the abilities for perceiving/understanding/managing emotions in oneself would automatically entail using these abilities successfully with others. However, being good at understanding one’s own emotional reactions does not automatically entail being able to understand others’ emotional reactions (and vice versa). There is some intuitive evidence: some professionals (e.g., emotion experts, psychologists) may be very good at understanding their patients’ emotional reactions, but not as good at understanding their own emotional reactions. Further, scientific evidence also exists : knowledge about the self seems to be processed in a distinctive way compared to social knowledge. For example, brain imaging studies show that taking the self-perspective or the perspective of someone else activates partially different neural mechanisms and brain regions (David et al., 2006 ; Vogeley et al., 2001 ).

The most important implication of considering the two sets of abilities (e.g., employed for oneself or with respect to others) as distinct rather than equivalent is that each of them might predict different outcomes. Recent evidence comes from a program evaluation study of an EI training program for teachers investigating the mechanisms by which EI skills are learned (described in Vesely-Maillefer & Saklofske, Chap. 14 , this volume). Preliminary results showed differential perceived outcomes in self- versus other-related EI skills , dependent on which ones were taught and practiced. Specifically, practice of self-relevant EI skills was the primary focus of the program, and these were perceived to have increased by the program’s end more than the other-related EI skills (Vesely-Maillefer, 2015 ).

It is worth noting that some recently introduced measures of EI make the explicit distinction between the self- and other-oriented domains of abilities. For instance, the Profile of Emotional Competence (PEC; Brasseur, Grégoire, Bourdu, & Mikolajczak, 2013 ) is a trait EI questionnaire that distinguishes between intrapersonal and interpersonal EI competences, and the Genos emotional intelligence test (Gignac, 2008 ) measures awareness and management of emotions in both self and others separately. Additionally, a new ability EI test currently under development at the University of Geneva, the Geneva Emotional Competence Test (Mortillaro & Schlegel), distinguishes between emotion regulation in oneself (emotion regulation) and in others (emotion management). The adoption of these more precise operationalizations of self- and other-related EI abilities would allow collecting “cleaner” validity data for the ability EI construct.

Conscious vs. Automatic Processes

Among the most compelling theoretical challenges EI researchers need to address is to understand the extent to which ability EI depends on conscious versus automatic processes (Fiori, 2009 ). Most ability EI research, if not all, has dealt with the investigation of how individuals thoughtfully reason about their own and others’ emotional experience by consciously feeling, understanding, regulating, and recognizing emotions. However, a large portion of emotional behavior is, in fact, not conscious (Feldman Barrett, Niedenthal, & Winkielman, 2005 ). For example, individuals may process emotional signals, such as nonverbal emotional behavior, without having any hint of conscious perception (Tamietto & de Gelder, 2010 ). Applied to the domain of ability EI, this implies that individuals may be able to use emotions intelligently even without being aware of how they do it and/or without even realizing that they are doing it. Research on cognitive biases in emotional disorders supports this idea: systematic errors in the automatic processing of emotion information have been causally implicated in vulnerability for mood and anxiety disorders (Mathews & MacLeod, 2005 ).

EI scholars need to acknowledge the automaticity component of ability EI, first, because it is theoretically relevant and second, because it might explain additional variance in emotionally intelligent behavior due to subconscious or unconscious processes that have been ignored to date. Some contributions have provided conceptual models (Fiori, 2009 ) and raised theoretical issues (Ybarra, Kross, & Sanchez-Burks, 2014 ) that would help to move forward in this direction. Evidence-based research is the next step and would require scholars to employ experimental paradigms in which the level of emotional consciousness is manipulated in order to observe its effects on emotionally intelligent behavior.

New Developments and Future Directions

The domain of research on ability EI is in its early developmental stage, and there is still much to explore, both on the theoretical and the measurement side. The seminal four-branch model introduced by Mayer and Salovey ( 1997 ) needs to be further developed and refined on the basis of the most recent research findings. As mentioned above, the model of ability EI as composed of four hierarchically related branches underlying a latent global EI factor does not seem to be supported, at least in its original formulation (e.g., Fiori & Antonakis, 2011 ; Rossen et al., 2008 ). On the measurement side, it seems as if progress has been made in terms of introducing new tests to measure specific EI abilities. A further step is to clarify what exactly scores on these tests are measuring and what mechanisms account for test performance. For instance, in the past the possibility was raised that individuals high in EI might be overly sensitive to emotions felt by themselves and by others in a way that could in certain circumstances compromise their health (e.g., Ciarrochi et al., 2002 ) and social effectiveness (Antonakis et al., 2009 ). Recent empirical evidence (Fiori & Ortony, 2016 ) showed that indeed high EI individuals were more strongly affected by incidental anger in forming impressions of an ambiguous target (study 1) and that they amplified the importance of emotion information, which affected their social perception (study 2). This characteristic associated with being high in EI was called “hypersensitivity ,” and it was deemed to have either positive or negative effects depending on the context (Fiori & Ortony, 2016 ).

Further investigation should also clarify which aspects of ability EI may be missing in current measurement and theorization. Ability EI tests, including the second generation, show moderate correlations with measures of intelligence, a finding that supports the conceptualization of EI as a form of intelligence. Interestingly, the component of intelligence most strongly correlated with measures of EI abilities – particularly the strategic branches of understanding and managing – is crystallized intelligence , or g c (Farrelly & Austin, 2007 ; MacCann, 2010 ; Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2006 , 2008 ), which suggests that current tests represent especially the acquired knowledge about emotions people possess. Indeed, items of the STEU and the STEM (as well as most items of the MSCEIT) require respondents to identify the best strategy to cope with emotionally involving situations described in a short vignette or to understand the emotion one would feel in a hypothetical scenario. Individuals may correctly answer such items relying on what they know about emotions, leaving open the question of whether they would be able to apply that knowledge in novel situations. For instance, individuals with Asperger’s syndrome undertaking ability EI training improved their EI scores while still lacking fundamental interpersonal skills (Montgomery, McCrimmon, Schwean, & Saklosfke, 2010 ). All in all, it appears that the STEU and the STEM measure performance in hypothetical situations, rather than actual performance, the former being more dependent on the declarative knowledge individuals possess about emotions (Fiori, 2009 ; Fiori & Antonakis, 2012 ). Tests employed to measure emotion recognition ability (e.g., JACBART) are not based on hypothetical scenarios but on pictures or videos of individuals showing emotions. Although these tests require the use of perceptual skills – differently from the tests of strategic EI abilities – they still show a significant association with g c  although to a lesser extent (Roberts et al., 2006 ). Indeed, individuals may rely on the knowledge they possess of how emotions are expressed to correctly identify emotions.

At the same time, ability EI measures show little associations with emotion-processing tasks that are more strongly related to the fluid component of intelligence, or g f , such as inspection time and selective attention to emotional stimuli (Farrelly & Austin, 2007 ; Fiori & Antonakis, 2012 ). For example, Fiori and Antonakis ( 2012 ) examined predictors of performance on a selective attention task requiring participants to ignore distracting emotion information. Results showed that fluid intelligence and the personality trait of openness predicted faster correct answers on the attentional task. Interestingly, none of the ability EI test facets (as measured with the MSCEIT) predicted performance, suggesting that the MSCEIT taps into something different from emotion information processing . Austin ( 2010 ) examined the associations of the STEU and the STEM with inspection time on an emotion perception task and found no relations for the STEM. The STEU scores predicted inspection time only at intermediate and long stimulus durations, but not at very brief exposures requiring rapid processing of the stimuli, suggesting that the STEU captures conscious rather than preconscious emotion information processing. MacCann, Pearce, and Roberts ( 2011 ) looked at the associations of the strategic EI abilities (measured with the STEU and STEM), fluid and crystallized intelligence , and emotion recognition tasks based on processing of visual and auditory emotional stimuli. Their results revealed an ability EI factor distinct from g, but with some subcomponents more strongly related to g f (particularly those involving visual perception of emotional stimuli ) and others to g c (those concerning strategic abilities and the auditory perception of emotional stimuli). This study suggested the presence of potentially distinct subcomponents of fluid and crystallized ability EI, although the authors did not investigate this possibility (MacCann et al., 2011 ).

The association between current ability EI tests and emotion-information processing tasks has not been systematically addressed in the literature and deserves further investigation. In fact, it is expected that high-EI individuals would have wider emotion knowledge but also stronger emotion-processing abilities in dealing with emotional stimuli, both accounting for how individuals perform in emotionally charged situations and each predicting distinct portions of emotionally intelligent behavior. The identification of a component of ability EI that is not (fully) captured by current tests is important because it would reveal an aspect of EI that is not measured (and therefore omitted) in current research. Yet, such a component may be relevant to predicting emotionally intelligent behavior. For example, Ortony, Revelle, and Zinbarg ( 2008 ), in making the case as to why ability EI would need a fluid , experiential component, cite the case of intelligent machines, which, on the basis of algorithmic processes, would be able to perform well on the ability EI test even without being able to experience any emotion. This example highlights the importance of measuring factors associated with emotional experience and the processing of emotion information, beyond emotion knowledge, which would be better captured by bottom-up processes generated by the encoding and treatment of emotion information.

In sum, research suggests that within a broad conceptualization of ability EI as a unique construct, there might be two distinct components : one related to top-down, higher-order reasoning about emotions, depending more strongly on acquired and culture-bound knowledge about emotions, hereafter named the crystallized component of ability EI (EI c , or emotion knowledge ), and another based on bottom-up perceptual responses to emotion information, requiring fast processing and hereafter named the fluid component of ability EI (EI f , or emotion information processing ) (see Fig. 2.2 ).

Conceptualization of ability EI as composed of a fluid (EI f ) and crystallized (EI c ) component, both affected by conscious and automatic emotion processes

An additional way to look at the relationship between the two components underlying ability EI is by considering what might account for such differences, namely, the type of processing (conscious vs. automatic) necessary for ability EI tests. The role automatic processes might play in EI has been approached only recently (Fiori, 2009 ), and it is progressively gaining recognition and interest especially in organizational research (Walter, Cole, & Humphrey, 2011 ; Ybarra et al., 2014 ). With respect to the relationship between a crystallized and a fluid component of ability EI, it is plausible that answers to current ability EI tests strongly rely on conscious reasoning about emotions, whereas performance on emotional tasks, such as inspection time and fast categorization of emotional stimuli, for example, relies more on automatic processing. This may be the case as individuals in the latter tasks provide answers without being fully aware of what drives their responses. Thus, current ability EI tests and emotion information processing tasks may be tapping into different ways of processing emotion information (conscious vs. automatic; see also Fiori, 2009 ). The extent to which current ability EI tests depend on controlled processes and are affected by cognitive load is still unaddressed (Ybarra et al., 2014 ). Given that no task is process pure (Jacoby, 1991 ), both controlled and automatic processes are likely to account for responses in current ability EI tests. However, such tests require great effort and deep reasoning about emotions and thus likely tap mostly into controlled processes.

The most important implication of the engagement of two types of processing in ability EI is that each of them may predict a different type of emotional performance. More specifically, ability EI tests that rely more on emotion knowledge or the crystallized component of EI may be more suited to predict effortful and consciously accessible emotional behavior, whereas tasks meant to “catch the mind in action” (Robinson & Neighbors, 2006 ), such as those based on emotion information processing , may account mostly for spontaneous and unintentional behavior . If this is the case, then current ability EI tests may predict to a greater extent consciously accessible performance and to a lower extent emotionally intelligent behaviors that depend on spontaneous/automatic processing (Fiori, 2009 ; Fiori & Antonakis, 2012 ). The hypothesized relationship is illustrated in Fig. 2.3 .

Hypothesized effects of the fluid (EI f ) and crystallized (EI c ) ability EI components on emotional behavior

The next generation of ability EI tests will hopefully incorporate more recent theoretical advancements related to additional components of EI – such as sub- or unconscious processes or the fluid , emotion-information processing component of EI. Some may ask how the perfect measure would look like. Knowing that EI is a complex construct, it seems unlikely that “one perfect” measure that would capture all the different components of EI is in the near future. It may be more realistic to aim for “several good” measures of EI, each of them capturing key aspects of this construct with satisfactory reliability and validity. Despite some noted theoretical and practical gaps in the current literature on ability EI, the construct of EI is still in its developmental stages. With increasing interest in EI’s potential for real-world applications and its growing literature, this domain of research provides a challenging yet exciting opportunity for innovative researchers.

Change history

31 december 2019.

Chapter 2 of this book has been converted to open access and the copyright holder has been changed to ‘The Author(s)’.The book has also been updated with these changes.

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Fiori, M., Vesely-Maillefer, A.K. (2018). Emotional Intelligence as an Ability: Theory, Challenges, and New Directions. In: Keefer, K., Parker, J., Saklofske, D. (eds) Emotional Intelligence in Education. The Springer Series on Human Exceptionality. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90633-1_2

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Daniel Goleman

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Daniel Goleman brought the notion of "EI" to prominence as an alternative to more traditional measures of IQ with his 1995 mega-best-seller Emotional Intelligence . Since the publication of that book, conferences and academic institutes have sprung up dedicated to the idea. EI is taught in public schools, and corporate leaders have adopted it as a new way of thinking about success and leadership. EI, and one's "EIQ," can be an explanation of why some "average" people are incredibly successful, while "geniuses" sometimes fail to live up to their promise.

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Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Framework‍

• 1.1 The Importance of Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace
• 1.2 How Emotional Intelligence Impacts Organizational Behavior
• 1.3 Developing Emotional Intelligence in Leaders and Employees
• 1.4 Building Emotional Intelligence across the Organization
• 1.5 Emotional Intelligence and Teams

An Overview of Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence framework

Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence framework provides a comprehensive understanding of how emotions impact our behavior and interactions in the workplace.

It consists of five components that collectively contribute to emotional intelligence:

• self-awareness,
• self-regulation,
• motivation,
• empathy, and
• social skills.

Self-awareness is the foundation of emotional intelligence. It involves recognizing and understanding our own emotions, strengths, weaknesses, and motivations.

By developing self-awareness, individuals gain insight into how their emotions influence their behavior and decision-making processes. This understanding allows them to better manage their emotions and respond appropriately in various situations.

Self-regulation is the ability to control and manage one’s emotions effectively. It involves staying calm under pressure, managing stress, and adapting to changing circumstances.

Individuals with strong self-regulation skills are less likely to be overwhelmed by negative emotions and can maintain a positive and productive mindset even in challenging situations. They are also better equipped to handle conflicts and resolve them in a constructive manner.

Motivation is the driving force behind our actions and behaviors. Individuals with high levels of motivation are self-driven, goal-oriented, and resilient.

They are passionate about their work and are willing to put in the necessary effort to achieve their objectives. Motivated individuals are more likely to persevere in the face of obstacles and setbacks, inspiring others to do the same.

Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. It involves putting oneself in someone else’s shoes and seeing the world from their perspective.

Empathetic individuals are sensitive to the emotions and needs of others, which enables them to establish strong interpersonal connections. They are skilled at building rapport, resolving conflicts, and fostering a supportive and inclusive work environment.

Social skills refer to the ability to effectively navigate social interactions and build relationships. Individuals with strong social skills are adept at communication, collaboration, and teamwork.

They can influence and inspire others, negotiate and resolve conflicts, and create a positive and engaging work atmosphere. Social skills are especially crucial for leaders, as they enable them to motivate and guide their teams towards shared goals.

By understanding and developing each component of Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence framework, individuals can enhance their emotional intelligence and positively impact their organizational behavior .

Emotionally intelligent individuals are better equipped to manage their own emotions, understand and respond to the emotions of others, and build strong relationships. This ultimately leads to improved communication, collaboration, and overall productivity within the organization.

The Importance of Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace

Emotional intelligence has become increasingly vital for individual and organizational success. Organizations are recognizing the value of hiring and developing emotionally intelligent individuals who can effectively navigate the complexities of the modern workplace.

Emotional intelligence in the workplace has numerous benefits. Firstly, it enables individuals to handle stress and pressure more effectively. By being aware of their own emotions and having the ability to regulate them, employees can remain calm and composed in high-pressure situations.

This allows them to think clearly, make rational decisions, and perform at their best, even under challenging circumstances.

Emotional intelligence e nhances communication and interpersonal relationships within the workplace. By understanding their own emotions and those of others, employees can communicate more effectively, express themselves clearly, and respond empathetically to the needs of their colleagues.

This leads to improved collaboration, reduced conflicts, and a more positive and harmonious work environment.

Emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in leadership effectiveness . Leaders with high emotional intelligence are better equipped to inspire and motivate their teams. They can understand the needs and aspirations of their employees, provide constructive feedback, and create a supportive and inclusive work culture.

Emotionally intelligent leaders are also skilled at managing conflicts and resolving disputes , fostering a cohesive and productive team dynamic.

Additionally, emotional intelligence contributes to better decision-making. By considering their emotions and the emotions of others, individuals can make more informed and balanced decisions.

Emotional intelligence allows for a deeper understanding of the potential impact of decisions on team members, stakeholders, and the overall organization. This leads to more thoughtful and effective decision-making processes.

Overall, emotional intelligence is a critical factor in creating a positive and productive work environment . It empowers employees to manage their emotions, communicate effectively, build strong relationships, and make sound decisions.

By prioritizing emotional intelligence in the workplace, organizations can cultivate a culture of empathy, collaboration, and resilience, ultimately driving improved employee engagement, retention, and business outcomes.

How Emotional Intelligence Impacts Organizational Behavior

Emotional intelligence has a profound impact on organizational behavior, influencing how individuals interact, collaborate, and perform within the workplace. By understanding and harnessing emotional intelligence, organizations can create a culture that fosters positivity, productivity, and overall success.

One key way in which emotional intelligence impacts organizational behavior is through enhanced communication. Emotionally intelligent individuals are better equipped to express themselves clearly, listen actively, and understand the underlying emotions behind verbal and non-verbal cues.

This leads to improved communication, reduced misunderstandings, and stronger relationships between team members.

Emotional intelligence also plays a significant role in conflict resolution. Individuals with high emotional intelligence can navigate conflicts with empathy, understanding, and a focus on finding mutually beneficial solutions. They are able to manage their own emotions and respond rationally, which facilitates constructive dialogue and the resolution of conflicts in a way that preserves relationships and promotes collaboration.

Emotional intelligence influences employee engagement and motivation . Emotionally intelligent leaders understand the importance of recognizing and appreciating the contributions of their team members.

They are skilled at providing feedback and support in a way that inspires and motivates individuals to perform at their best. This leads to increased employee satisfaction, engagement, and productivity.

Emotional intelligence also contributes to effective decision-making within organizations. By considering the emotions and perspectives of others, individuals can make more informed and balanced decisions.

Emotionally intelligent leaders are skilled at gathering input, considering different viewpoints, and weighing the potential impact of decisions on individuals and teams. This leads to more thoughtful and effective decision-making processes, driving positive outcomes for the organization.

Developing Emotional Intelligence in Leaders and Employees

Developing emotional intelligence is a valuable endeavor for both leaders and employees within an organization. By investing in the development of emotional intelligence, individuals can enhance their self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and social skills, ultimately becoming more effective and successful in their roles .

One effective way to develop emotional intelligence is through self-reflection and introspection . Taking the time to understand one’s own emotions, strengths, weaknesses, and triggers is crucial in building self-awareness. This can be done through journaling, meditation, or seeking feedback from trusted colleagues or mentors. By developing self-awareness, individuals can better understand how their emotions impact their behavior and interactions with others.

Another important aspect of developing emotional intelligence is building self-regulation skills . This involves managing and controlling emotions effectively, particularly in high-stress situations. Techniques such as deep breathing, mindfulness, and stress management exercises can help individuals regulate their emotions and maintain a calm and composed demeanor.

Practicing self-care and maintaining a healthy work-life balance can contribute to emotional well-being and self-regulation.

Empathy, a key component of emotional intelligence, can also be developed through intentional efforts. Actively listening to others, seeking to understand their perspectives, and practicing empathy in everyday interactions can enhance empathy skills.

Engaging in activities that promote perspective-taking , such as volunteering or participating in diversity and inclusion training, can also contribute to the development of empathy.

Social skills, another crucial aspect of emotional intelligence, can be honed through practice and feedback. Actively seeking opportunities for collaboration, networking, and building relationships can enhance social skills. Seeking feedback from colleagues, mentors, or coaches can provide valuable insights and guidance for improving social skills and interpersonal interactions.

Leaders play a pivotal role in developing emotional intelligence within their organizations. By leading by example and prioritizing emotional intelligence, leaders can create a culture that values self-awareness, empathy, and effective communication.

Providing emotional intelligence training and workshops for employees can also contribute to its development at all levels within the organization.

Building Emotional Intelligence across the Organization

One effective strategy is to provide emotional intelligence training and workshops . These programs can help employees understand and develop the various components of emotional intelligence, such as self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and social skills.

Training sessions can include interactive exercises, role-playing, and discussions to facilitate learning and practical application of emotional intelligence skills.

Another strategy is to incorporate emotional intelligence assessments and feedback processes into performance evaluations. By including emotional intelligence as a competency, organizations can emphasize its importance and encourage employees to actively work on their emotional intelligence development.

Providing feedback and coaching based on emotional intelligence assessments can help employees identify areas for improvement and set personal development goals.

Creating a supportive and inclusive work environment is also crucial for enhancing emotional intelligence. Organizations can promote open communication, active listening, and empathy by encouraging teamwork, collaboration, and the sharing of diverse perspectives.  Leaders can model these behaviors and establish clear expectations for respectful and inclusive interactions.

Organizations can encourage self-reflection and personal development by providing resources such as books, articles, and podcasts on emotional intelligence . Creating opportunities for employees to engage in self-reflection exercises, journaling, or mindfulness practices can also contribute to the development of emotional intelligence.

Offering coaching or mentoring programs can provide individuals with guidance and support in their emotional intelligence journey.

Incorporating emotional intelligence into leadership development programs is another effective strategy. By providing leaders with the necessary skills and knowledge to be emotionally intelligent, organizations can create a culture that values and prioritizes emotional intelligence. Leadership development programs can include modules on self-awareness, empathy, effective communication, and conflict resolution.

Finally, organizations can reinforce the importance of emotional intelligence through recognition and rewards. Recognizing and rewarding individuals who demonstrate emotional intelligence in their interactions and behaviors can reinforce its value and encourage others to develop their emotional intelligence skills.

Emotional Intelligence and Teams

Emotional intelligence plays a critical role in fostering effective teamwork and collaboration within organizations. By understanding and applying emotional intelligence, individuals can build strong relationships, communicate effectively, and work together towards shared goals.

Emotionally intelligent team members are skilled at understanding and managing their own emotions, as well as recognizing and responding to the emotions of others. This enables them to establish trust, build rapport, and create a supportive and inclusive team environment. Emotionally intelligent individuals are also more likely to consider the needs and perspectives of others, making them valuable contributors to collaborative efforts.

Effective communication is a key component of successful teamwork and collaboration. Emotionally intelligent individuals are adept at expressing themselves clearly, actively listening, and empathetically responding to others.

They are skilled at navigating conflicts, resolving disputes, and maintaining open lines of communication. By fostering effective communication, emotional intelligence promotes understanding, cooperation, and the exchange of ideas within the team.

Emotional intelligence also contributes to conflict resolution within teams. Conflict is inevitable in any collaborative effort, but emotionally intelligent team members are equipped with the skills to manage conflicts constructively.

They are able to regulate their own emotions, understand the emotions of others, and find mutually beneficial solutions. Emotionally intelligent individuals are also skilled at de-escalating conflicts and promoting a positive and respectful team dynamic.

Emotional intelligence enhances teamwork by promoting empathy and perspective-taking. Emotionally intelligent team members are able to understand and appreciate the diverse perspectives and experiences of their colleagues.

This enables them to work effectively with individuals from different backgrounds and cultures, fostering a culture of inclusivity and diversity within the team. By valuing and respecting the contributions of each team member, emotional intelligence enhances collaboration and innovation.

What is Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Framework?

Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Framework outlines five key components of emotional intelligence: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. It emphasizes the importance of these skills in personal and professional success.

How does Goleman define emotional intelligence?

Goleman defines emotional intelligence as the ability to recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions and to recognize, understand, and influence the emotions of others.

Why is emotional intelligence important in the workplace?

In the workplace, emotional intelligence is crucial for effective leadership, teamwork, and communication. It helps in managing stress, resolving conflicts, and fostering a positive work environment.

Can emotional intelligence be developed or improved?

Yes, emotional intelligence can be developed and improved through self-reflection, mindfulness, effective communication training, and practical exercises that enhance empathy and emotional regulation.

How does self-awareness contribute to emotional intelligence?

Self-awareness, the understanding of one’s own emotions, strengths, weaknesses, and values, is foundational in emotional intelligence. It allows individuals to understand how their emotions affect their behavior and the impact on others.

What is the role of empathy in emotional intelligence?

Empathy, the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, is a key component of emotional intelligence. It enhances interpersonal relationships and is vital in leadership, customer relations, and team dynamics.

How does Goleman’s framework apply to leadership?

Goleman’s framework is particularly relevant to leadership as it underlines the importance of emotional intelligence in leading effectively, managing teams, inspiring employees, and adapting to change.

What is the difference between Goleman’s model and other EI models?

Goleman’s model is particularly focused on emotional intelligence in a workplace context, emphasizing its practical application in leadership and organizational behavior, while other models may focus more on psychological or developmental aspects.

How is emotional intelligence measured?

Emotional intelligence can be measured using various psychometric assessments and tools designed to evaluate the different components, such as self-awareness, empathy, and social skills.

What impact does emotional intelligence have on personal relationships?

In personal relationships, high emotional intelligence can lead to better communication, deeper understanding, and stronger bonds. It helps individuals navigate emotional complexities and conflicts more effectively.

About The Author

Geoff Fripp

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emotional intelligence , set of psychological faculties that enable individuals to perceive, understand, express, and control their emotions and to discern and respond appropriately to the emotions of others. Emotional intelligence facilitates thoughts and actions that take emotions into account—including the use of emotions to motivate oneself or others or to pursue long-term goals—and it underlies the successful exercise of social and communicative skills across a broad range of life experiences. Emotional intelligence may be regarded as a subset of the multiple species of human intelligence postulated in the 1980s by the American psychologist Howard Gardner , who held (in his work Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences [1983]) that human intelligence comprises several distinct cognitive skills or abilities, including the “interpersonal” ability to recognize and understand the feelings of others and the “intrapersonal” ability to understand one’s own feelings ( see multiple intelligences ).

An early theory of emotional intelligence was introduced in 1990 by the American social psychologists Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer, who defined it as “a subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.”

Emotional intelligence involves appraising and expressing emotions of both oneself and others. Accurate perception of one’s own emotions is necessary to appropriately respond to and communicate those emotions to others. Once recognized, one’s emotions can be expressed through language , facial expressions, and body language ( see emotion: The physical expression of emotion ). Identifying and responding to the emotions of others are also part of emotional intelligence. For example, a caring person uses emotional intelligence to perceive how and when to offer comfort to a troubled friend. These skills are central to empathy , the ability to recognize emotions in other persons and to experience them as if it they were one’s own. Empathy is key to healthy social relationships.

Emotional intelligence also encompasses emotional control or regulation, which is the ability to monitor and modify one’s mood. People control their moods by seeking out ways to create particular feelings, whether positive or negative. Experiencing art or music , for example, may elicit joy, sadness, or melancholy . Emotionally intelligent individuals also can purposefully affect others’ emotional reactions positively or negatively. For example, at a dinner party or a reception, people tend to behave in ways intended to create a good impression of themselves, including by eliciting positive emotions in other people. However, the ability to influence the emotional state of others may be used in harmful and cynical ways, such as in manipulation.

According to Salovey, Mayer, and other researchers, emotional intelligence encompasses the abilities to perceive emotions in oneself and others, to use emotions in thought and action, to understand emotions, and to manage or control emotions. In Emotional Intelligence (1995), a work that served to popularize the notion in the 1990s, the American psychologist Daniel Goleman described emotional intelligence as comprising five broadly understood components: self-awareness, self-control, self-motivation, empathy, and social skills. Self-awareness is the ability to recognize and understand one’s own emotions and reactions and how they affect one’s life experiences. People who are self-aware are able to identify their likes and dislikes and to establish life goals. Self-control involves consciously modifying one’s mood and its usual expressions. Self-motivation involves seeking out new, different, and challenging experiences and delaying gratification to achieve a worthwhile goal. Empathy is related to understanding the perspectives, needs, and wants of others, in addition to experiencing their emotions. Finally, social skills comprise the set of abilities used to communicate with, influence, and motivate others. Individuals with well-developed social skills are often popular and tend to gravitate toward leadership positions.

On the basis of such abilities-based models, researchers have devised tests of emotional intelligence similar to those used to measure a person’s IQ (intelligence quotient). Other models of emotional intelligence conceive of it in terms of personality traits, or dispositions to certain types of behaviour, and measure it by using tests similar to personality assessments . A third model combines abilities and traits with knowledge, understood as being an individual’s overall comprehension of emotional experiences and of how they can be managed. Under this conception emotional intelligence has been assessed on the basis of questionnaires and rating scales.

Emotional intelligence is a function of both age and learned abilities. As people mature, they become more adept at managing emotional information from both themselves and others. The parent-child bond is especially important in developing emotional maturity, because most social and emotional learning occurs in early childhood, usually between the ages of three and four.

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A New Layered Model on Emotional Intelligence

Athanasios s. drigas.

1 Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, National Centre for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, 15310 Agia Paraskevi, Greece

Chara Papoutsi

2 Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, NCSR Demokritos, 15310 Agia Paraskevi, Greece; [email protected]

Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been an important and controversial topic during the last few decades. Its significance and its correlation with many domains of life has made it the subject of expert study. EI is the rudder for feeling, thinking, learning, problem-solving, and decision-making. In this article, we present an emotional–cognitive based approach to the process of gaining emotional intelligence and thus, we suggest a nine-layer pyramid of emotional intelligence and the gradual development to reach the top of EI.

1. Introduction

Many people misinterpret their own emotional reactions, fail to control emotional outbursts, or act strangely under various pressures, resulting in harmful consequences to themselves, others, and society. Other people have a greater ability to perform sophisticated information processing about emotions and emotion-relevant stimuli and to use this information as a guide for their own thoughts and behaviors and for others, in general [ 1 ].

Emotional intelligence (EI) is of great interest to scientists and researchers. Studies, from the past till today, continue to be made about the nature of emotional intelligence, its measurement, its structure, its positive and negative effects, and its relationship to many research fields [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Its influence on daily life in the short and long-term is important as well.

Intellectual ability is significant to succeed in everyday life within many different sectors [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Intelligence is an important aspect of the mind that includes a lot of cognitive abilities such as one’s abilities in logic, planning, problem-solving, adaptation, abstract thinking, understanding of ideas, language use, and learning [ 13 , 14 ]. However, there are some other important components that contribute to the aforementioned success including social capabilities, emotional adaptation, emotional sensitivity, empathy, practical intelligence, and incentives [ 15 , 16 ]. EI also focuses on the character and aspects of self-control, such as the ability to delay pleasures, the tolerance to frustrations, and the regulation of impulses (ego strength) [ 17 ]. Emotional intelligence also speaks to many areas of the psychological sciences—for example, the neuroscience of emotion, the theory of self-regulation, and metacognition—as well as the search for human cognitive abilities beyond what is traditionally known as academic intelligence [ 18 , 19 ].

In this paper, we are going to present the most discussed theories of intelligence, of emotions, and of emotional intelligence. We then present the construction of a 9-layer model (pyramid) of emotional intelligence which aims to show the levels a human must pass in order to reach the upper level of EI—emotional unity. The stratification of the pyramid of emotional intelligence is in tune with the pyramid of the functions of general intelligence [ 20 ].

2. Research Findings

2.1. theories of intelligence.

The structure, nature, and characteristics of human intelligence have been discussed and have been the subject of debate since the time of Plato and Aristotle, at least a thousand years ago. Plato defined intelligence as a “learning tune” [ 21 , 22 ]. Under this concept, Plato and Aristotle put forth the three components of mind and soul: intellect, sentiment, and will [ 23 ]. The word “intelligence” comes from two Latin words: intellegentia and ingenium. The first word, considered in the way Cicero used the term, means “understanding” and “knowledge”. The second word means “natural predisposition” or “ability” [ 24 ].

At various points in recent history, researchers have proposed different definitions to explain the nature of intelligence [ 22 ]. The following are some of the most important theories of intelligence that have emerged over the last 100 years.

Charles Spearman [ 25 ] developed the theory of the two factors of intelligence using data factor analysis (a statistical method) to show that the positive correlations between mental examinations resulted from a common underlying agent. Spearman suggested that the two-factor theory had two components. The first was general intelligence, g , which affected one’s performance in all mental tasks and supported all intellectual tasks and intellectual abilities [ 25 , 26 ]. Spearman believed that the results in all trials correlated positively, underlying the importance of general intelligence [ 25 , 27 ]. The second agent Spearman found was the specific factor, s . The specific factor was associated with any unique capabilities that a particular test required, so it differed from test to test [ 25 , 26 ]. Regarding g , Spearman saw that individuals had more or less general intelligence, while s varied from person to person in a job [ 28 ]. Spearman and his followers gave much more importance to general intelligence than to the specific agent [ 25 , 29 ].

In 1938, American psychologist Louis L. Thurstone suggested that intelligence was not a general factor, but a small set of independent factors that were of equal importance. Thurstone formulated a model of intelligence that centered on “Primary Mental Abilities” (PMAs), which were independent groups of intelligence that different individuals possessed in varying degrees. To detect these abilities, Thurstone and his wife, Thelma, thought up of a total of 56 exams. They passed the test bundle to 240 students and analyzed the scores obtained from the tests with new methods of Thurstone’s method of analysis. Thurstone recognized seven primary cognitive abilities: (1) verbal understanding, the ability to understand the notions of words; (2) verbal flexibility, the speed with which verbal material is handled, such as in the production of rhymes; (3) number, the arithmetic capacity; (4) memory, the ability to remember words, letters, numbers, and images; (5) perceptual speed, the ability to quickly discern and distinguish visual details, and the ability to perceive the similarities and the differences between displayed objects; (6) inductive reasoning, the extraction of general ideas and rules from specific information; and (7) spatial visualization, the ability to visualize with the mind and handle objects in three dimensions [ 30 , 31 ].

Joy Paul Guilford extended Thurstone’s work and devoted his life to create the model for the structure of intelligence. SI (Structure of Intellect theory, 1955) contains three dimensions: thought functions, thought content, and thought products. Guilford described 120 different kinds of intelligence and 150 possible combinations. He also discovered the important distinction between convergent and divergent thought. The convergent ability results in how well one follows the instructions, adheres to rules, and tries. The divergent ability decreases depending on whether or not one follows the instructions or if one has a lot of questions, and it usually means that one is doing the standard tests badly [ 32 , 33 ].

The Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc and the Carroll Three-Stratum models are consensual psychometric models that help us understand the construction of human intelligence. They apply new methods of analysis and according to these analyses, there are two basic types of general intelligence: fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc). Fluid intelligence represents the biological basis of intelligence. How fast someone thinks and how well they remember are elements of fluid intelligence. These figures increase in adulthood but as we grow older they decrease. Fluid intelligence enables a person to think and act quickly, to solve new problems, and to encode short-term memories. Crystallized intelligence, on the other hand, is the knowledge and skills acquired through the learning process and through experience. Crystallized abilities come from learning and reading and are reflected in knowledge trials, general information, language use (vocabulary), and a wide variety of skills. As long as learning opportunities are available, crystallized intelligence may increase indefinitely during a person’s life [ 14 , 34 ].

In the 1980s, the American psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed an intelligence theory with which he tried to extend the traditional notion of intelligence. Sternberg observed that the mental tests that people are subjected to for various intelligence measurements are often inaccurate and sometimes inadequate to predict the actual performance or success. There are people who do well on the tests but not so well in real situations. Likewise, the opposite occurred as well. According to Sternberg’s triarchic (three-part) theory of intelligence, intelligence consists of three main parts: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. Analytical intelligence refers to problem-solving skills, creative intelligence includes the ability to handle new situations using past experiences and current skills, and practical intelligence refers to the ability to adapt to new situations and environments [ 35 , 36 ].

In 1983, psychologist Howard Gardner introduced his theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI), which, at that time, was a fundamental issue in education and a controversial topic among psychologists. According to Gardner, the notion of intelligence as defined through the various mental tests was limited and did not depict the real dimensions of intelligence nor all the areas in which a person can excel and succeed. Gardner argued that there is not only one kind of general intelligence, but rather that there are multiple intelligences and each one is part of an independent system in the brain. The theory outlines eight types of “smart”: Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”), Logical–mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”), Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”), Bodily–Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”), Musical intelligence (“music smart”), Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”), Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”), and Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”) [ 37 , 38 ].

2.2. Emotions

According to Darwin, all people, irrespective of their race or culture, express emotions using their face and body with a similar way as part of our evolutionary heritage [ 39 , 40 ]. Emotion is often defined as a complex feeling which results in physical and psychological changes affecting thought and behavior. Emotions include feeling, thought, nervous system activation, physiological changes, and behavioral changes such as facial expressions. Emotions seem to dominate many aspects of our lives as we have to recognize and to respond to important events related to survival and/or the maintenance of prosperity and, therefore, emotions serve various functions [ 41 ]. Emotions are also recognized as one of the three or four fundamental categories of mental operations. These categories include motivation, emotion, cognition, and consciousness [ 42 ]. Most major theories of emotion agree that cognitive processes are a very important source of emotions and that feelings comprise a powerful motivational system that significantly influences perception, cognition, confrontation, and creativity [ 43 ]. Researchers have been studying how and why people feel emotion for a long time so various theories have been proposed. These include evolutionary theories [ 44 , 45 ], the James-Lange Theory [ 46 , 47 ], the Cannon-Bard Theory [ 48 ], Schacter and Singer’s two-factor theory [ 49 , 50 ], and cognitive appraisal [ 51 ].

2.3. Emotional Intelligence

Anyone can become angry-that is easy. But to be angry with the right person, to the right degree, at the right time, for the right purpose, and in the right way-this is not easy. —Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics

Thorough research has indicated the important role that emotions play in our lives in many fields [ 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 ]. Researchers have found that Emotional Intelligence is equal to or sometimes much more important than I.Q [ 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ]. Emotion and intelligence are heavily linked [ 61 , 62 , 63 ]. If you are aware of your own and others’ feelings, this will help you manage behaviors and relationships and predict success in many sectors [ 64 , 65 , 66 ].

Emotional Intelligence is the ability to identify, understand, and use emotions positively to manage anxiety, communicate well, empathize, overcome issues, solve problems, and manage conflicts. According to the Ability EI model, it is the perception, evaluation, and management of emotions in yourself and others [ 67 ]. Emotional Intelligence (EI), or the ability to perceive, use, understand, and regulate emotions, is a relatively new concept that attempts to connect both emotion and cognition [ 68 ].

Emotional Intelligence first appeared in the concept of Thorndike’s “social intelligence” in 1920 and later from the psychologist Howard Gardner who, in 1983, recommended the theory of multiple intelligence, arguing that intelligence includes eight forms. American psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer, who together introduced the concept in 1990 [ 69 ], define emotional intelligence “as the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions”. People who have developed their emotional intelligence have the ability to use their emotions to direct thoughts and behavior and to understand their own feelings and others’ feelings accurately. Daniel Goleman, an American writer, psychologist, and science journalist, disclosed the EI concept in his book named “Emotional Intelligence” [ 58 , 59 , 60 ]. He extended the concept to include general social competence. Goleman suggested that EI is indispensable for the success of one’s life.

Mayer and Salovey suggested that EI is a cognitive ability, which is separate but also associated with general intelligence. Specifically, Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios [ 70 ] suggested that emotional intelligence consists of four skill dimensions: (1) perceiving emotion (i.e., the ability to detect emotions in faces, pictures, music, etc.); (2) facilitating thought with emotion (i.e., the ability to harness emotional information in one’s thinking); (3) understanding emotions (i.e., the ability to understand emotional information); and (4) managing emotions (i.e., the ability to manage emotions for personal and interpersonal development). These skills are arranged hierarchically so that the perceptual emotion has a key role facilitating thinking, understanding emotions, and managing emotions. These branches are arising from higher order basic skills, which are evolved as a person matures [ 67 , 71 ].

According to Bar-On emotional-social intelligence is composed of emotional and social abilities, skills and facilitators. All these elements are interrelated and work together. They play a key role in how effectively we understand ourselves and others, how easily we express ourselves, but also in how we deal with daily demands [ 72 ].

Daniel Goleman (1998) defines Emotional Intelligence/Quotient as the ability to recognize our own feelings and those of others, to motivate ourselves, and to handle our emotions well to have the best for ourselves and for our relationships. Emotional Intelligence describes capacities different from, but supplementary to, academic intelligence. The same author introduced the concept of emotional intelligence and pointed out that it is composed of twenty-five elements which were subsequently compiled into five clusters: Self Awareness, Self-Regulation, Motivation, Empathy, and Social Skills [ 61 , 73 ].

Petrides and Furnham (2001) developed the Trait Emotional Intelligence model which is a combination of emotionally-related self-perceived abilities and moods that are found at the lowest levels of personality hierarchy and are evaluated through questionnaires and rating scales [ 74 ]. The trait EI essentially concerns our perceptions of our inner emotional world. An alternative tag for the same construct is trait emotional self-efficacy. People with high EI rankings believe that they are “in touch” with their feelings and can regulate them in a way that promotes prosperity. These people may enjoy higher levels of happiness. The trait EI feature sampling domain aims to provide complete coverage of emotional aspects of personality. Trait EI rejects the idea that emotions can be artificially objectified in order to be graded accurately along the IQ lines [ 75 ]. The adult sampling domain of trait EI contains 15 facets: Adaptability, Assertiveness, Emotion perception (self and others), Emotion expression, Emotion management (others’), Emotion regulation, Impulsiveness (low), Relationships, Self-esteem, Self-motivation, Social awareness, Stress management, Trait empathy, Trait happiness, and Trait optimism [ 76 ].

Research on emotional intelligence has been divided into two distinct areas of perspectives in terms of conceptualizing emotional competencies and their measurements. There is the ability EI model [ 77 ] and the trait EI [ 74 ]. Research evidence has consistently supported this distinction by revealing low correlations between the two [ 64 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 ].

EI refers to a set of emotional abilities that are supposed to foretell success in the real world above and beyond general intelligence [ 82 , 83 ]. Some findings have shown that high EI leads to better social relationships for children [ 84 ], better social relations for adults [ 85 ], and more positive perception of individuals from others [ 85 ]. High EI appears to influence familial relationships, intimate relationships [ 86 ], and academic achievement positively [ 87 , 88 ]. Furthermore, EI consistently seems to predict better social relations during work performance and in negotiations [ 89 , 90 ] and a better psychological well-being [ 91 ].

3. The Pyramid of Emotional Intelligence: The Nine-Layer Model

Τaking into consideration all the theories of the past concerning pyramids and layer models dealing with EI, we analyze the levels of our pyramid step by step ( Figure 1 ), their characteristics, and the course of their development so as to conquer the upper levels, transcendence and emotional unity, as well as pointing out the significance of EI. Our model includes features from both constructions (the Ability EI and the Trait EI model) in a more hierarchical structure. The ability level refers to awareness (self and social) and to management. The level of trait refers to the mood associated with emotions and the tendency to behave in a certain way in emotional states considering other important elements that this construction includes as well. The EI pyramid is also based on the concepts of intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences of Gardner [ 92 , 93 ].

The emotional intelligence pyramid (9-layer model).

3.1. Emotional Stimuli

Every day we receive a lot of information-stimuli from our environment. We need to incorporate this information and the various stimuli into categories because they help us to understand the world and the people that surround us better [ 94 ]. The direct stimulus of emotions is the result of the sensorial stimulus processing by the cognitive mechanisms [ 95 , 96 , 97 ]. When an event occurs, sensorial stimuli are received by the agent. The cognitive mechanisms process this stimulus and produce the emotional stimuli for each of the emotions that will be affected [ 98 ]. Emotional stimuli are processed by a cognitive mechanism that determines what emotion to feel and subsequently produce an emotional reaction which may influence the occurrence of the behavior. Emotional stimuli are generally prioritized in perception, are detected more quickly, and gain access to conscious awareness [ 99 , 100 ]. The emotional stimuli constitute the base of the pyramid of emotional intelligence pointing to the upper levels of it.

3.2. Emotion Recognition

The next level of the pyramid after the emotional stimuli is the recognition of emotions simultaneously expressed at times. Accuracy is higher when emotions are both expressed and recognized. Emotion recognition includes the ability to accurately decode the expressions of others’ feelings, usually transmitted through non-verbal channels (i.e., the face, body, and voice). This ability is positively linked to social ability and interaction, as non-verbal behavior is a reliable source of information on the emotional states of others [ 101 ]. Elfenbein and Ambady commented that emotion recognition is the most “reliably validated component of emotional intelligence” linked to a variety of positive organizational outcomes [ 102 ]. The ability to express and recognize emotions in others is an important part of the daily human interaction and interpersonal relationships as it is a representation of a critical component of human socio-cognitive capacities [ 103 ].

3.3. Self-Awareness

Socrates mentions in his guiding principle, “know thyself”. Aristotle also mentioned “knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom”. These two ancient Greek aphorisms encompass the concept of self-awareness, a cognitive capacity, which is the following step in our pyramid after having conquered the previous two. Self-Awareness is having a clear perception of your personality, including your strengths, weaknesses, thoughts, beliefs, motives, and feelings [ 104 ]. As you develop self-awareness, you are able to change your thoughts which, in turn, allow you to change your emotions and eventually change your actions. Crisp and Turner [ 105 ] described self-awareness as a psychological situation in which people know their traits, feelings, and behaviors. Alternatively, it can be defined as the realization of oneself as an individual entity. Developing self-awareness is the first step to develop your EI. The lack of self-awareness in terms of understanding ourselves and having a sense of ourselves that has roots in our own values impedes our ability to self-manage and it is difficult, if not impossible, to know and to respond to the others’ feelings [ 61 ]. Daniel Goleman [ 106 , 107 ] recognized self-awareness as emotional consciousness, accurate self-esteem, and self-confidence. Knowing yourself means having the ability to understand your feelings, having an accurate self-assessment of your own strengths and weaknesses, and showing self-confidence. According to Goleman, self-awareness must be ahead of social awareness, self-management, and relationship management which are important factors of EI.

3.4. Self-Management

Once you have clarified your emotions and the way they can affect the situations and other people, you are ready to move to the EQ area of self-management. Self-management allows you to control your reactions so that you are not driven by impulsive behaviors and feelings. With self-management, you become more flexible, more extroverted, and receptive, and at the same time less critical on situations and less reactionary to people’s attitudes. Moreover, you know more about what to do. When you have recognized your feelings and have accepted them, you are then able to manage them much better. The more you learn on the way to manage your emotions, the greater your ability will be to articulate them in a productive way when need be [ 108 ]. This does not mean that you must crush your negative emotions, but if you realize them, you can amend your behavior and make small or big changes to the way you react and manage your feelings even if the latter is negative. The second emotional intelligence (EQ) quadrant of self-management consists of nine key components: (1) emotional self-control; (2) integrity; (3) innovation and creativity; (4) initiative and prejudice to action; (5) resilience; (6) achievement guide; (7) stress management; (8) realistic optimism and (9) intentionality [ 80 , 106 , 107 , 109 ].

3.5. Social Awareness—Empathy—The Discrimination of Emotions

Since you have cultivated the ability to understand and control your own emotions, you are ready to move on to the next step of recognizing and understanding the emotions of people around you. Self-Management is a prerequisite for Social-Awareness. It is an expansion of your emotional awareness. Social Awareness refers to the way people handle relationships and awareness of others’ feelings, needs, and concerns [ 110 ]. The Social Awareness cluster contains three competencies: Empathy, Organizational Awareness, Service Orientation [ 107 ]. Being socially aware means that you understand how you react to different social situations, and effectively modify your interactions with other people so that you achieve the best results. Empathy is the most important and essential EQ component of social awareness and is directly related to self-awareness. It is the ability to put oneself in another’s place (or “shoes”), to understand him as a person, to feel him and to take into account this perspective related to this person or with any person at a time. With empathy, we can understand the feelings and thoughts of others from their own perspective and have an active role in their concerns [ 111 ]. The net result of social awareness is the ongoing development of social skills and a personal continuous improvement process [ 107 , 112 , 113 ]. Discrimination of emotions belongs to that level of the pyramid because it is a rather intellectual ability that gives people the capacity to discriminate with accuracy between different emotions and label them appropriately. The latter in relation to the other cognitive functions contributes to guide thinking and behavior [ 77 ].

3.6. Social Skills—Expertise

After having developed social awareness, the next level in the pyramid of emotional intelligence that helps raising our EQ is that of social skills. In emotional intelligence, the term social skills refers to the skills needed to handle and influence other people’s emotions effectively to manage interactions successfully. These abilities range from being able to tune into another person’s feelings and understand how they feel and think about things, to be a great collaborator and team player, to expertise at emotions of others and at negotiations. It is all about the ability to get the best out of others, to inspire and to influence them, to communicate and to build bonds with them, and to help them change, grow, develop, and resolve conflict [ 114 , 115 , 116 ]. Social skills under the branch of emotional intelligence can include Influence, Leadership, Developing Others, Communication, Change Catalyst, Conflict Management, Building Bonds, Teamwork, and Collaboration [ 61 ]. Expertise in emotions could be characterized as the ability to increase sensitivity to emotional parameters and the ability not only to accurately determine the relevance of emotional dynamics to negotiation but also the ability to strategically expose the emotions of the individual and respond to emotions stemming from others [ 117 ].

3.7. Self-Actualization—Universality of Emotions

As soon as all six of these levels have been met, the individual has reached the top of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; Self-Actualization. Every person is capable and must have the will to move up to the level of self-actualization. Self-Actualization, according to Maslow [ 118 , 119 , 120 ], is the realization of personal potential, self-fulfillment, pursuing personal development and peak experiences. It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming, rather than a perfect state one reaches such as a ‘happy ever after” [ 121 ]. Carl Rogers [ 122 , 123 ] also created a theory that included a “growth potential” whose purpose was to incorporate in the same way the “real self” and the “ideal self”, thereby cultivating the appearance of the “fully functioning person”. Self-actualization is one of the most important EI skills. It is a measure of your sense that you have a substantial personal commitment to life and that you are offering the gifts to your world that are most important for you. Reuven Bar-On [ 124 ] illustrates the close relationship between emotional intelligence and self-actualization. His research led him to conclude that “you can actualize your potential capacity for personal growth only after you are socially and emotionally effective in meeting your needs and dealing with life in general”. Self-actualizers feel empathy and kinship towards humanity as a whole and therefore, that cultivates the universality of emotions, so that those they have emotional intelligence in one culture probably have emotional intelligence in another culture too and they have the ability to understand the difference of emotions and their meanings despite the fact that sometimes emotions are culturally dependent [ 125 , 126 ].

3.8. Transcendence

Maslow also proposed that people who have reached self-actualization will sometimes experience a state he referred to as “transcendence”. In the level of Transcendence, one helps others to self-actualize, find self-fulfillment, and realize their potential [ 127 , 128 ]. The emotional quotient is strong and those who have reached that level try to help other people understand and manage their own and others’ emotions too. Transcendence refers to the much higher and more comprehensive or holistic levels of human consciousness, by behaving and associating, as ends rather than as means, to ourselves, to important others, to human in general, to other species, to nature, and to the world [ 129 ]. Transcendence is strongly correlated with self-esteem, emotional well-being and global empathy. Self-transcendence is the experience of seeing yourself and the world in a way that is not impeded by the limits of one’s ego identity. It involves an increased sense of meaning and relevance to others and to the world [ 130 , 131 ]. In his perception of transcendence Plato affirmed the existence of absolute goodness that he characterized as something that cannot be described and it is only known through intuition. His ideas are divine objects that are transcendent of the world. Plato also speaks of gods, of God, of the cosmos, of the human soul, and of that which is real in material things as transcendental [ 132 ]. Self-transcendence can be expressed in various ways, behaviors and perspectives like the exchange of wisdom and emotions with others, the integration of physical/natural changes of aging, the acceptance of death as part of life, the interest in helping others and learning about the world, the ability to leave your losses behind, and the finding of spiritual significance in life [ 133 ].

3.9. Emotional Unity

Emotional unity is the final level in our pyramid of emotional intelligence. It is an intentionally positive oriented dynamic, in a sense that it aims towards reaching and keeping a dominance of emotions, which inform the subject that he or she is controlling the situation or the setting in an accepted shape. This reached level of emotional unity in the subject can be interpreted as an outcome of emotional intelligence [ 134 ]. The emotional unity is an internal harmony. In emotional unity one feels intense joy, peace, prosperity, and a consciousness of ultimate truth and the unity of all things. In a symbiotic world, what you do for yourself, you ultimately do for another. It all starts with our love for ourselves, so that we can then channel this important feeling to everything that exists around us [ 135 ]. Not only in human beings, but also in animals, plants, oceans, rocks, and so forth. All it takes is to see the spark of life and miracle in everything and be more optimistic. The point is that somehow, we are all interconnected, and the more we delve deeper our heart and follow it, the less likely it will be for us to do things that can harm others or the planet in general [ 136 ]. The others are not separate from us. Emotional unity emanates humility and empathy that bears with the imperfections of the other. Plato in Parmenides also talks about unity [ 137 ], Being, and One. As Parmenides writes: “Being is ungenerated and indestructible, whole, of one kind and unwavering, and complete. Nor was it, nor will it be, since now it is, all together, one, continuous…” [ 138 , 139 ].

4. Cognitive and Metacognitive Processes in the Emotional Intelligence Pyramid

Cognition encompasses processes such as attention, memory, evaluation, problem-solving language, and perception [ 140 , 141 ]. Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and generate new knowledge. Metacognition is defined as the ability to monitor and reflect upon one’s own performance and capabilities [ 142 , 143 ]. It is the ability of individuals to know their own cognitive functions in order to monitor and to control their learning process [ 144 , 145 ]. The idea of meta-cognition relies on the distinction between two types of cognitions: primary and secondary [ 146 ]. Metacognition includes a variety of elements and skills such as Metamemory, Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Self-Monitoring [ 144 , 147 ].

Metacognition in Emotional Intelligence means that an individual perceives his/her emotional skills [ 148 , 149 ]. Its processes involve emotional-cognitive strategies such as awareness, monitoring, and self-regulation [ 150 ]. Apart from the primary emotion, a person can experience direct thoughts that accompany this emotion as people may have additional cognitive functions that monitor a given emotional situation [ 151 ], they may evaluate the relationship between emotion and judgment [ 152 ], and they may try to manage their emotional reaction [ 153 ] for the improvement of their own personality and that will motivate them to help other people for better interpersonal interactions. Applying the meta-knowledge to socio-emotional contexts should lead to the opportunity to learn to correct one’s emotional errors and to promote the future possibility of a proper response to the situation while maintaining and cultivating the relationship [ 154 ].

In the pyramid of Emotional Intelligence, to move from one layer to another, cognitive and metacognitive processes are occurred ( Figure 2 ).

The cognitive and metacognitive processes to move from a layer to another.

5. Discussion & Conclusions

Emotional Intelligence is a very important concept that has come back to the fore in the last decades and has been the subject of serious discussions and studies by many experts. The importance of general intelligence is neither underestimated nor changed, and this has been proven through many surveys and studies.

On the other hand, however, we must also give emotional intelligence the place it deserves. The cultivation of emotional intelligence can contribute to and provide many positive benefits to people’s lives in accordance with studies, surveys, and with what has been already mentioned. When it comes to happiness and success in life, emotional intelligence (EQ) matters just as much as intellectual ability (IQ) [ 60 ]. Furthermore, it should be noted that despite the various discussions about emotional intelligence, studies have shown that emotional abilities that make up emotional intelligence are very important for the personal and social functioning of humans [ 83 ]. A core network of brain regions such as the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex is the key to a range of emotional abilities and plays a crucial role for human lesions [ 155 ]. Specific Emotional Intelligence components (Understanding Emotions and Managing Emotions) are directly related to the structural microarchitecture of major axial pathways [ 156 ].

With emotional intelligence you acknowledge, accept, and control your emotions and emotional reactions as well as those of other people. You learn about yourself and move on to the understanding of other people’s self. You learn to coexist better, which is very important since we are not alone in this world and because when we want to advance ourselves, and society as a whole, there must be cooperation and harmony. With emotional intelligence, you learn to insist, to control your impulses, to survive despite adversities and difficulties, to hope for and to have empathy. Emotional Intelligence provides you with a better inner world to cope with the outside world according to Trait EI [ 157 ]. It involves and engages higher cognitive functions such as attention, memory, regulation, reasoning, awareness, monitoring, and decision-making. The results show that negative mood and anticipated fear are two factors of the relationship between trait EI and risk-taking in decision-making processes among adults [ 158 ]. Research has also shown this positive correlation between emotional intelligence and cognitive processes and this demonstrates the important role that emotional intelligence plays with emotion and cognition, thus, empowering individuals and their personality and benefitting the whole society [ 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 164 ].

Αs we rise through the levels of the pyramid of emotional intelligence that we have presented, we step closer to its development to the fullest extent, to the universality of emotions, to emotional unity. The human being is good at trying to reach the last level of the pyramid because at each level he cultivates significant emotional, cognitive, and metacognitive skills that are important resources for the successes in one’s personal life, professional life, interpersonal relationships, and in life in general.

Emotional intelligence is a skill that can be learned and developed [ 165 , 166 ]. The model of emotional intelligence has been created with a better distinct classification. It is a more structured evaluation and intervention model with hierarchical levels to indicate each level of emotional intelligence that everyone is at and with operating procedures to contribute to the strengthening of that level and progressive development of the individual to the next levels of emotional intelligence. It is a methodology for the further development and evolution of the individual. This model can have practical applications as an evaluation, assessment, and training tool in any aspect of life such as interpersonal relationships, work, health, special education, general education, and academic success. Researchers claim that an emotional mind is important for a good life as much as an intelligent mind and, in certain cases, it matters more [ 167 ]. The ultimate goal should be to develop Emotional Intelligence, do further research on the benefits of such an important capacity and the correlations between the layered Emotional Intelligence model and other variables.

In this paper, we presented the pyramid of Emotional Intelligence as an attempt to create a new layer model based on emotional, cognitive, and metacognitive skills. In essence, each higher level of the pyramid is an improvement toward one’s personal growth and a higher state of self-regulation, self-organization, awareness, consciousness, attention, and motivation.

Author Contributions

A.S.D. and C.P. contributed equally in the conception, development, writing, editing, and analysis of this manuscript. The authors approved the final draft of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Welcome to our new montly podcast series where will interview members of the Emotional Intelligence Consortioum to explore the relevance of emotions and emotional intelligence research to the modern workplace. interviews and , the new Director of the Consortium. Listen to learn about the collection of thought leaders, members of the Consortium, and how their work, along with others led to the publication of , by and . You will also learn about the history and future vision of the Consortium. discusses issues and recent developments related to the measurement of emotional intelligence in the workplace. discusses performance based measures of emotional intelligence and how to best apply them in the workplace. discusses a model of emotions that corresponds to five discrete levels of analysis and provides examples of how understanding emotions at multiple levels can be helpful in understanding and improving organizational effectiveness. discusses the role that social and emotional intelligence plays in entrepreneurial leadership and how emerging theory and practice can be applied to help entrepreneurs. In this interview, we will delve into the topic of Team Emotional Intelligence with Emotional Intelligence Consortium Member and Team Emotional Intelligence expert . Optimal: How to Sustain Personal and Organizational Excellence Every Day and As co-chairs of Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence (CREIO) for 25 years we have been tracking research on emotional intelligence, a field that saw a critical mass of findings during this period. In we draw on that body of data to both review the evidence that supports the concept, and to add new implications.  CREIO members may find useful a study done at Harvard Business School on the subjective experience of workers’ “good days,” where they are more productive, creative, engaged, happy, and connected to co-workers – and the evidence tying such days to emotionally intelligent leadership. By now, we observe, the concepts of emotional intelligence have been absorbed by many organizations into their cultural DNA; EI may no longer be labelled as such, but rather couched in terms more compatible with the frameworks and language already in use in a given outfit. As consultant know, this means approaching an organization to give advice on EI may mean learning the language they use for this skill set. In we review the data for the importance of EI in organizations, including the several meta-analyses done by the research group that includes CREIO member Ron Humphrey. This data and other such findings yield quite positive results for the impact of EI, both in leaders and workers generally. For example, a meta-analysis of over 65,000 entrepreneurs finds that EI is twice as important in their success as is IQ. This finding corrects the general impression left by studies that follow students into their careers, that have found IQ more important – that will be true since IQ is a good predictor of what professions people can enter, with higher IQ predicting being able to complete advanced training like an MBA or MD. But once people are in a given profession, IQ fails to predict success, while EI correlates more strongly with becoming an outstanding performer or leader. The new names commonly given EI self-management abilities, like ‘agility’, ‘growth mindset’, and ‘resilience’. How EI can help prevent burnout The types of empathy and why they matter immensely in organizations, particularly in leaders What emotionally intelligent leadership looks like, and what such leaders actually do How EI looks at the team level, how to spot strengths and weaknesses, and how teams can go about strengthening their EI EI training that works Key steps in building an EI culture Finally, we speculate on the future of EI, and why it will need to work as a complement to other abilities like creativity and innovation, finding an inspiring sense of purpose, and systems thinking. These guidelines are based on an exhaustive review of the research literature in training and development, counseling and psychotherapy, and behavior change. The guidelines are additive and synergistic; to be effective, social and emotional learning experiences need not adhere to all of these guidelines, but the chances for success increase with each one that is followed. If you are interested in reading the full technical report on emotional intelligence in the workplace published by the Consortium on Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations, click to download your free copy. The following 19 points build a case for how emotional intelligence contributes to the bottom line in any work organization. Based on data from a variety of sources, it can be a valuable tool for HR practitioners and managers who need to make the case in their own organizations. The Consortium also invites submissions of other research for the Business Case. 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Click here for more information. Listen to Consortium member Chuck Wolfe interview some of the thought leaders in emotional intelligence. Harvard Alumni Panel - Why is interest in Emotional Intelligence Soaring? Consortium member Chuck Wolfe hosts a panel of world class leaders in the field of emotional intelligence (EI) to talk about why interest in EI is soaring. Panel members include EI Consortium members Dr. Richard Boyatzis , Dr. Cary Cherniss and Dr. Helen Riess . Click here to view the panel discussion. Interview with Dr. Cary Cherniss and Dr. Cornelia Roche Host, Chuck Wolfe interviews Drs. Cary Cherniss and Cornelia Roche about their new book Leading with Feeling: Nine Strategies of Emotionally Intelligent Leadership . The authors share powerful stories of cases involving outstanding leaders using strategies that can be learned that demonstrate effective use of emotional intelligence. Click here to see the interview. Interview with Dr. Rick Aberman See Chuck Wolfe interview Consortium member and sports psychologist Dr. Rick Aberman on peak performance and dealing with the pandemic. The interview is filled with insights, humorous anecdotes, and strategies for achieving peak performance in athletics and in life. Click here to see the interview. Interview with Dr. David Caruso Chuck Wolfe interviews Consortium member David Caruso talking about their work together, the ability model of emotional intelligence, and insights into how to use emotional intelligence to address staying emotionally and mentally healthy during times of crisis and uncertainty. Click  here   to listen to the interview. Interview with Dr. Richard Boyazis How can you help someone to change? Richard Boyatzis is an expert in multiple areas including emotional intelligence. Richard and his coauthors, Melvin Smith, and Ellen Van Oosten , have discovered that helping people connect to their positive vision of themselves or an inspiring dream or goal they've long held is key to creating changes that last. In their book Helping People Change the authors share real stories and research that shows choosing a compassionate over a compliance coaching approach is a far more engaging and successful way to Helping People Change. Click  here   to listen to the interview. Interview with Dr. Marc Brackett Marc Brackett , Director of the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, has written a wonderful book about feelings. I worked with Marc when he was first crafting his world class social and emotional learning program, RULER. Our interview highlights how Marc has achieved his own and his Uncle's vision for encouraging each of us to understand and manage our feelings. My conversation with Marc is inspiring, humorous, and engaging at times. Click here to listen to the interview. Interview with Dr. Helen Riess Helen Riess is a world class expert on empathy. She is an associate clinical professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School and director of the Empathy and Relational Science Program at Mass General Hospital. Helen discusses her new book and shares insights, learnings and techniques such as the powerful seven-step process for understanding and increasing empathy. She relates information and cases whereby she uses empathy to make a meaningful difference in areas such as parenting and leading. Click here to listen to the interview. Interview with Dr. Maurice Elias The show is about the Joys and Oys of Parenting , a book written by a respected colleague, Dr. Maurice Elias, an expert in parenting and emotional and social intelligence. Dr. Elias wrote a book tying Judaism and emotional intelligence together to help parents with the challenging, compelling task of raising emotionally healthy children. And while there are fascinating links to Judaism the book is really for everybody. Click here to listen to the interview. Interview with Geetu Bharwaney Challenges abound and life is stressful for many. So how do we cope? Chuck Wolfe interviews Geetu Bharwaney about her book, Emotional Resilience . Geetu offers research, insights, and most importantly practical tips for helping people bounce back from adversity. Click here to listen to the interview. Interview with Dr. Daniel Goleman Listen to an interview by with Dr. Goleman on his new book Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence . In the book Dan helps readers to understand the importance and power of the ability to focus one's attention, will power, and cognitive control in creating life success. Click here to listen to the interview. Interview with Dr. John Mayer How Personal Intelligence Shapes Our Lives: A Conversation with John D. Mayer. 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Download the free Kindle app and start reading Kindle books instantly on your smartphone, tablet, or computer - no Kindle device required . Read instantly on your browser with Kindle for Web. Using your mobile phone camera - scan the code below and download the Kindle app. Image Unavailable To view this video download Flash Player Follow the author Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ Hardcover – September 26, 2006 Print length 352 pages Language English Publisher Bantam Publication date September 26, 2006 Dimensions 6.3 x 1.2 x 9.6 inches ISBN-10 055380491X ISBN-13 978-0553804911 See all details What other items do customers buy after viewing this item? Editorial Reviews About the author, excerpt. © reprinted by permission. all rights reserved., product details. Publisher ‏ : ‎ Bantam; Revised edition (September 26, 2006) Language ‏ : ‎ English Hardcover ‏ : ‎ 352 pages ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 055380491X ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0553804911 Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 2.31 pounds Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 6.3 x 1.2 x 9.6 inches #17 in Emotional Mental Health #247 in Personal Transformation Self-Help #252 in Success Self-Help About the author Daniel goleman. DANIEL GOLEMAN is the author of the international bestsellers Emotional Intelligence, Working with Emotional Intelligence, and Social Intelligence, and the co-author of the acclaimed business bestseller Primal Leadership. His latest books are What Makes a Leader: Why Emotional Intelligence Matters and The Triple Focus: A New Approach to Education. He was a science reporter for the New York Times, was twice nominated for the Pulitzer Prize, and received the American Psychological Association's Lifetime Achievement Award for his media writing. He lives in Massachusetts. Customer reviews 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star 1 star 5 star 73% 16% 7% 2% 2% 73% 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star 1 star 4 star 73% 16% 7% 2% 2% 16% 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star 1 star 3 star 73% 16% 7% 2% 2% 7% 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star 1 star 2 star 73% 16% 7% 2% 2% 2% 5 star 4 star 3 star 2 star 1 star 1 star 73% 16% 7% 2% 2% 2% Customer Reviews, including Product Star Ratings help customers to learn more about the product and decide whether it is the right product for them. To calculate the overall star rating and percentage breakdown by star, we don’t use a simple average. Instead, our system considers things like how recent a review is and if the reviewer bought the item on Amazon. It also analyzed reviews to verify trustworthiness. Customers say Customers find the book provides wonderful insight into why we do the things we do. They also say it layouts complex concepts from neuroscience to psychology related to emotional. Opinions differ on readability, with some finding it easy to read and understandable, while others say the font makes it hard to read. AI-generated from the text of customer reviews Customers find the book's content wonderful, remarkable, and thoughtful. They say it's a great compliment to their career path, helping them be more informed parents. Readers also mention that the book has a significant impact on them, with thoughtful analysis of specific issues. Additionally, they appreciate the examples and scenarios that make them think. Overall, customers say the book does a good job convincing readers that emotional intelligence is crucial and important. "This book explained so much and was useful to me in counseling students .This is well written and easily understood. I highly recommend." Read more "...Likewise, I believe that this book would be extremely useful for emotional personalities who are affected by chronic anger, anxiety, or depression,..." Read more "... Emotional Intelligence is an insightful , enlightening look at how awareness of the emotions and their physiology can help us to manage them when..." Read more "...This is a thoughtful , sober, and careful analysis of specific issues related to character formation and the steady slide of young people in society..." Read more Customers are mixed about the readability. Some mention the scientific information is easy to read, self-explanatory, and progressive in writing. They also praise the author as excellent and brilliant with many original ideas. However, others say the book is technical and wordy, difficult to get through, impossible to write in, and the font is small. " This book explained so much and was useful to me in counseling students.This is well written and easily understood. I highly recommend." Read more "...The benefits far outweigh the cost. However it is still not clearly understood and has only been implemented on a very smalll scale...." Read more "...Very interesting information and still an easy read . Also recommend reading Social Intelligence by the same author." Read more "...Together, the paper and font make this publication very hard to read ...." Read more Reviews with images Sort reviews by Top reviews Most recent Top reviews Top reviews from the United States There was a problem filtering reviews right now. please try again later.. Top reviews from other countries About Amazon Investor Relations Amazon Devices Amazon Science Sell products on Amazon Sell on Amazon Business Sell apps on Amazon Become an Affiliate Advertise Your Products Self-Publish with Us Host an Amazon Hub › See More Make Money with Us Amazon Business Card Shop with Points Reload Your Balance Amazon Currency Converter Amazon and COVID-19 Your Account Your Orders Shipping Rates & Policies Returns & Replacements Manage Your Content and Devices Conditions of Use Privacy Notice Consumer Health Data Privacy Disclosure Your Ads Privacy Choices SUGGESTED TOPICS The Magazine Newsletters Managing Yourself Managing Teams Work-life Balance The Big Idea Data & Visuals Reading Lists Case Selections HBR Learning Topic Feeds Account Settings Email Preferences What People (Still) Get Wrong About Emotional Intelligence Daniel Goleman It’s not just about being nice. Many people assume that having emotional intelligence means being“nice.” But this perception obscures some fundamental benefits to developing one’s EI. For example, simply saying someone is nice can belie the fact that they’re only nice to some people and not others. Or, if you think that being nice simply means being a pushover, you might not take advantage of the EI framework’s capacity to teach you about productive conflict management. You might also fail to consider or check the dark side of your own EI — an ability to influence or manipulate someone without their interests in mind. By understanding how EI actually works, you can have powerful, productive conversations that build up your ability to influence and lead across all your relationships. In the 25 years since my book  Emotional Intelligence was published, one of the most persistent things I see people get wrong about the concept is that it equates to being “nice.” But it doesn’t,   and misunderstanding this can get people into trouble. DG Daniel Goleman , best known for his writing on emotional intelligence, is codirector of the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations at Rutgers University. His latest book is Building Blocks of Emotional Intelligence , a 12-primer set on each of the emotional intelligence competencies, and he offers training on the competencies through an online learning platform, Emotional Intelligence Training Programs . His other books include Primal Leadership: Unleashing the Power of Emotional Intelligence and Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body . Partner Center Information Author Services Initiatives You are accessing a machine-readable page. 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JSmol Viewer Developing emotional intelligence, 1. what is emotional intelligence, 2. can emotional intelligence be measured, 3. how to develop self-awareness, 3.1. developing self-awareness strategy 1: not treating emotions as binary, 3.2. developing self-awareness strategy 2: understanding the aftermath of acting on emotions, 3.3. developing self-awareness strategy 3: understanding triggers, 3.4. developing self-awareness strategy 4: endeavouring to always be objective, 3.5. developing self-awareness strategy 5: having clarity about morals and values, 3.6. developing self-awareness strategy 6: continually seeking feedback, 4. how to develop self-management, 4.1. developing self-management—internal strategy 1: regulate physical reactions, 4.2. developing self-management—internal strategy 2: proactively prepare the mind for situations, 4.3. developing self-management—internal strategy 3: ensure appropriate reflection and recovery, 4.4. developing self-management—external strategy 1: force accountability, 4.5. developing self-management—external strategy 2: seek to understand the perspectives of others, 4.6. developing self-management—external strategy 3: strive for clarity, 5. how to develop social awareness, 5.1. developing social awareness strategy 1: be mindful of nuanced changes, 5.2. developing social awareness strategy 2: understand the dynamics of social spaces, 5.3. developing social awareness strategy 3: seek input from others during reflection, 6. how to develop relationship management, 6.1. developing relationship management strategy 1: build trust, 6.2. developing relationship management strategy 2: be empathetic, 6.3. developing relationship management strategy 3: embrace challenging situations, 7. conclusions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest. 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Developing Emotional Intelligence. Encyclopedia 2024 , 4 , 583-599. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010037 Filice L, Weese WJ. Developing Emotional Intelligence. Encyclopedia . 2024; 4(1):583-599. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010037 Filice, Lucas, and W. James Weese. 2024. "Developing Emotional Intelligence" Encyclopedia 4, no. 1: 583-599. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4010037 Article Metrics Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi. Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals First Person Plural: EI & Beyond SUPERACIÓN PERSONAL First Person Plural: Emotional Intelligence & Beyond, brought to you by Key Step Media, is a podcast about us, the systems we’re a part of, and how we create an emotionally intelligent future. Co-hosted by New York Times best-selling author, Daniel Goleman, Hanuman Goleman, and Elizabeth Solomon this show will go beyond the theory of emotional intelligence, presenting an array of stories that illuminate how emotional intelligence is being put into action. Inspiring you to lead with more mindfulness and resilience, the show will bring you a new awareness of the systems we work, live, and create in. The Daniel Goleman Emotional Intelligence Courses Want to bridge the gap between emotional intelligence theory and real-world application? In this special episode, Dan breaks down the basics of his emotional intelligence (EI) model and how his flagship online courses help EI learners grow this specific skill set. Along with Daniel Goleman EI Course Facilitators Michael Stern and Patricia Figueroa, they discuss the four domains and 12 foundational and relational EI competencies, the learner experience, aha moments in the learner journey, what... We all have blind spots about ourselves. Today's story is about a group of siblings who shared a similar blind spot: their anonymous sperm donor. The ten of them grew up with questions that were hard to answer: What’s your dad like?Do you look more like your mom or your dad?Do you have siblings?Are you going to be gay because your parents are?After half-a-lifetime exploring, creating, falling down and getting up, they discovered each other through DNA registries. They were surprised by w... Richard Davidson: Stress and the Brain It seems like we're all under more stress than ever before. This week Daniel Goleman and Richard Davidson unpack Davidson's research about stress and the brain. They discuss our physiological reaction to stress and how meditation can help you develop lasting positive adaptations to these challenges.Daniel Goleman talks about his Emotional Intelligence Courses, available at danielgolemanemotionalintelligence.com Support the Show. Amy Gallo: How to Work with Anyone On today’s episode, Daniel Goleman and Amy Gallo discuss Gallo’s new book, Getting Along: How to Work with Anyone (Even Difficult People). This is a must listen for anyone who has ever had a job. Gallo identifies eight types of difficult people and shares how you might deal with insecure managers, passive aggressive people and other folks who keep us up at night. Daniel Goleman talks about his Emotional Intelligence Courses, available at danielgolemanemotionalintelligence.com Support the... NYT Reporter, Claire Cain Miller, on the Pandemic’s Effect on Children Today we're looking at emotional balance for young people. Liz Solomon spoke with New York Times reporter Claire Kane Miller about an eye opening survey of school counselors across the country. The survey described many students as developmentally frozen at their pre pandemic stage. We spoke with Gwen and Kim who work in elementary schools for first hand reports on the emotional state of children.Daniel Goleman talks about his Emotional Intelligence Courses, available at danielgolemanemo... George Kohlreiser, How Leaders can Overcome Conflict How many of us believe conflict should be avoided at all costs? Our guest, George Kohlreiser, shares how openly facing conflict helps us progress through our most difficult challenges.George Kohlrieser is an organizational and clinical psychologist, hostage negotiator, and international best-selling author. He is Distinguished Professor of Leadership and Organizational Behaviour at IMD Business School in Lausanne, Switzerland, and a consultant to a plethora of Fortune 500 companies around the... Karen Ziegler - Conflict and Leadership At the height of the AIDS epidemic, Karen Ziegler was senior pastor of an LGBTQ church in Greenwich Village. In this interview she shares how she led her congregation through a period of intense conflict.Karen led the church from 1978-1988 and then was a full-time organizer for several years in the AIDS community before becoming a nurse. Since retiring from work as a Nurse Practitioner 6 years ago she has been as a volunteer activist, serving as lead organizer for Democracy Out Loud Indivisib... Aaron Wolf: Transforming Conflict In this episode, Hanuman and our guest, Aaron Wolf discuss conflict management. He's a water resources geographer at Oregon State University and a trained mediator. Wolf facilitates dialogue between groups to help them find a shared vision around some big issues. Faith that gets to the core of our identity and water rights, which govern our very survival. First the hosts discuss Dan Goleman's own experience with conflict, sharing how he had to manage a conflict with his department at Har... First Person Plural: EI & Beyond Trailer Empathy. Positive mindset. An awareness of how our actions influence others. These are some of the traits that make us good partners, leaders, and community members. They are also key components of what is known as emotional intelligence (EI)—a term popularized by Dr. Daniel Goleman in the mid-’90s to describe our capacity for self and social awareness.On the cusp of the 25th anniversary of his New York Times best-selling book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, Daniel Go... Anfitriones e invitados Daniel goleman. Presentador(a) Hanuman Goleman Calificaciones y reseñas, chasing happiness pt 1. Douglas9999 I liked the way the show captures EI and happiness from research and personal persepctives. Daniel Goleman's story of working with acceptance in response to criticism of his first book is a great lesson. What a Gift Not a playa I discovered this Podcast when I was listening to the Dr. Goleman on Armchair Expert. What a gift this podcast is to the world! I’m currently a fifth grade teacher and SEL is the foundation for everything we do in my classroom and in our school. I’ve been in the field of education for over 25 years and have followed Dr. Goleman‘s research since the beginning. Emotional Intelligence is the key to a happy and healthy life and I am so very grateful for the inspiration and information shared here. I’ve listened to them several times! Don’t bother Here to help me grow. VeroIsAPanda Introduced by Armchair Expert. 🍒💕 Listening with open ears and a willing heart to grow and learn about my (and our) very complicated emotions with these episodes. So far, it’s great! Thank you so much for sharing your knowledge with us. Información Creador Key Step Media, Daniel Goleman, Hanuman Goleman, Elizabeth Solomon Años de actividad 2020 - 2024 Episodios 41 Clasificación Explícito Copyright © 2024 First Person Plural: EI & Beyond Mostrar sitio web First Person Plural: EI & Beyond También te podría interesar Dos veces a la semana Cada semana Para escuchar episodios explícitos, inicia sesión. Mantente al día con este programa Inicia sesión o regístrate para seguir programas, guardar episodios y enterarte de las últimas novedades. 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Components of emotional intelligence Emotional Intelligence: 25th Anniversary Edition: Daniel Goleman Daniel Goleman COMMENTS Emotional Intelligence Has 12 Elements. Which Do You Need to Work On? Daniel Goleman, best known for his writing on emotional intelligence, is codirector of the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations at Rutgers University.His latest book ... The Measurement of Emotional Intelligence: A Critical Review of the Boyatzis and Goleman include a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are not regarded as innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and can be developed to achieve outstanding performance. ... Emotional intelligence research in Australia: Past contributions and future ... Daniel Goleman's Emotional Intelligence Theory Explained According to Goleman, bullying, disciplinary problems, violence and drug abuse are reduced in schools with a high EQ. With a solid basis in emotional intelligence, academic performance — as well as behavior — improves. There is an obvious connection to Goleman's third, motivational component: learning stimulates curiosity and promotes ... Daniel Goleman Psychologist and author of Emotional Intelligence, Daniel Goleman has transformed the way the world educates children, relates to family and friends, leads, and conducts business. Working as a science journalist, I reported on the brain and behavioral sciences for The New York Times for many years. My 1995 book Emotional Intelligence (Bantam ... Emotional Intelligence as an Ability: Theory, Challenges, and New EI was popularized in the 1990s by Daniel Goleman's best-selling book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, as well as through a number of other popular books (e.g., Cooper & Sawaf, 1997).However, the lack of empirical evidence available at the time to support the "exciting" statements and claims about the importance of EI in understanding human behavior and individual ... Daniel Goleman Daniel Goleman brought the notion of "EI" to prominence as an alternative to more traditional measures of IQ with his 1995 mega-best-seller Emotional Intelligence. ... "Emotional Intelligence, Goleman's highly readable and wide-ranging exploration of the best research available by modern psychologists and educators, provides important ... EI Overview: The Four Domains and Twelve Competencies If you're new to the work of emotional intelligence (EI) or if you're in need of a refresher, this article will define emotional intelligence and break down the four domains and twelve competencies that make up Daniel Goleman's framework. ... Daniel Goleman and Richard Boyatzis analyzed the internal competency models of dozens of ... The Brain and Emotional Intelligence: New Insights Daniel Goleman illuminates the state of the art on the relationship between the brain and emotional intelligence, and highlights EI's practical applications in leadership roles, education, and creativity. Topics covered include: The brain's ethical radar. The neural dynamics of creativity. The brain circuitry for drive, persistence and ... What Makes a Leader: Why Emotional Intelligence Matters Daniel Goleman's ground-breaking, highly sought-after articles from the Harvard Business Review and other business journals in one volume. "This collection reflects the evolution of my thinking about emotional intelligence, tracking the latest neuroscientific research on the dynamics of relationships, and the latest data on the impact emotional intelligence has on an organization's ... Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence. Is IQ destiny? Not nearly as much as we think. Daniel Goleman's fascinating and persuasive book argues that our view of human intelligence is far too narrow, ignoring a crucial range of abilities that matter immensely in terms of how we do in life. Drawing on groundbreaking brain and behavioral research, Goleman shows ... Goleman's Emotional Intelligence Framework‍ Goleman's Emotional Intelligence framework provides a comprehensive understanding of how emotions impact our behavior and interactions in the workplace. It consists of five components that collectively contribute to emotional intelligence: social skills. Self-awareness is the foundation of emotional intelligence. PDF Emotional Intelligence: A Practical Review of Models, Measures, and Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. As summarized by Wolff (2005, p. 2), the Goleman model holds that: Emotional intelligence In Emotional Intelligence (1995), a work that served to popularize the notion in the 1990s, the American psychologist Daniel Goleman described emotional intelligence as comprising five broadly understood components: self-awareness, self-control, self-motivation, empathy, and social skills. Self-awareness is the ability to recognize and ... A New Layered Model on Emotional Intelligence Daniel Goleman, an American writer, psychologist, and science journalist, disclosed the EI concept in his book named "Emotional ... The ultimate goal should be to develop Emotional Intelligence, do further research on the benefits of such an important capacity and the correlations between the layered Emotional Intelligence model and other ... Change Leadership: The Role of Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is an important skill set in leading, hence leaders identified to be effective have an appreciable level of the skill set (Goleman, 2004, Table 1). Emotional intelligence distinguishes among leaders who are successful in organizations, where technical skills are less of a significant factor ( Goleman, 2004 ). Emotional Intelligence Consortium As co-chairs of Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence (CREIO) for 25 years we have been tracking research on emotional intelligence, a field that saw a critical mass of findings during this period. ... Interview with Dr. Daniel Goleman. Listen to an interview by with Dr. Goleman on his new book Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence ... Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ: Goleman, Daniel Daniel Goleman, PH.D. is also the author of the worldwide bestseller Working with Emotional Intelligence and is co-author of Primal Leadership: Learning to Lead with Emotional Intelligence, written with Richard Boyatzis and Annie McKee. Dr. Goleman received his Ph.D. from Harvard and reported on the brain and behavioral sciences for The New York Times for twelve years, where he was twice ... Daniel Goleman's Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ Reviews the book Emotional Intelligence by D. Goleman (1995). For all his defining and illustrations of EQ, Goleman fails to instruct us as to how EQ is or should be measured. Despite the plethora of tests in the non-cognitive domain and the personality dimensions central to the "Big Five", there does not appear to be an integration of the heterogeneity of traits or skills comprising EQ ... Emotional intelligence. Is IQ destiny? Not nearly as much as we think. Daniel Goleman's . . . book argues that our view of human intelligence is far too narrow, ignoring a crucial range of abilities that matter immensely in terms of how we do in life. Drawing on . . . brain and behavioral research, Goleman shows the factors at work when people of high IQ flounder and those of modest IQ do surprisingly well. These ... What People (Still) Get Wrong About Emotional Intelligence Daniel Goleman, best known for his writing on emotional intelligence, is codirector of the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations at Rutgers University.His latest book ... (PDF) EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE: AN OVERVIEW The term "Emotional intelligence" was popularized as a result of Daniel Goleman's (1995) work. ... own research in the area and eventually wrote Emotional Intelligence (1995), the ... Super Soul Special: Daniel Goleman: Emotional Intelligence 101 Psychologist, journalist and best-selling author Daniel Goleman discu. Original Air Date: December 31, 2018 Do you have a good sense of how others see the world? ... journalist and best-selling author Daniel Goleman discusses his ground-breaking research on emotional intelligence. Daniel explains how we can enhance and manage our emotions to ... Encyclopedia Daniel Goleman perceptively and accurately noted that emotional intelligence is critical to leadership success, claiming that emotional intelligence is far more important to leadership emergence and effectiveness than intellectual capacity. Goleman's research later confirmed an 85% relationship between emotional intelligence and leader effectiveness. It may be the most critical area for ... The Daniel Goleman Emotional Intelligence Courses Along with Daniel Goleman EI Course Facilitators Michael Stern and Patricia Figueroa, they discuss the four domains and 12 foundational and relational EI competencies, the learner experience, aha moments in the learner journey, what it takes to build a lifelong EI practice, and the future of emotional intelligence. Daniel Goleman talks about ... OPTIMAL LEADERSHIP AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Daniel Goleman is best known as the psychologist/author who brought the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) to a wider audience in the mid-1990s. His coauthor Cary Cherniss was a founding member of the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations (CREIO), where he served as its director and co-chair for 25 years. Daniel Goleman's research Daniel Goleman. Roger P. Weissberg. In her critique of emotional intelligence (EI) theory and research, Waterhouse (2006) makes several claims. First, she argues that there are "many conflicting ... The Daniel Goleman Emotional Intelligence Courses In this special episode, Dan breaks down the basics of his emotional intelligence (EI) model and how his flagship online courses help EI learners grow this specific skill set. Along with Daniel Goleman EI Course Facilitators Michael Stern and Patricia Figueroa, they discuss the four domains and 12 foundational and relational EI competencies ... Serie de podcast First Person Plural: EI & Beyond They are also key components of what is known as emotional intelligence (EI)—a term popularized by Dr. Daniel Goleman in the mid-'90s to describe our capacity for self and social awareness.On the cusp of the 25th anniversary of his New York Times best-selling book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, Daniel Go... essay homework paper phd project resume review speech study thesis