research proposal sample for phd in pharmacy

How to prepare a proposal for pharmacy research

A research proposal is often necessary to secure the required funding or resources. Cathy Geeson explains what to consider when putting a proposal together.

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When writing a research proposal you are aiming to produce a concise, clear summary of a proposed research project. This may form part of your academic studies, but often it is written to obtain the funding or resources needed to undertake the research. The proposal will need to be tailored to your audience, who may be academic supervisors, an organisation or an external funding body, but many of the principles of writing a research proposal remain consistent.

Putting together a proposal can take a considerable amount of time (an average of 9–12 months), so you need to be able to justify investing your time and that of your research team. You should approach writing a research proposal in the same way you would tackle any important project — do your background preparation, get the right team around you, make a plan and, finally, maintain your enthusiasm and determination to succeed.

The research topic

The most important thing to consider when choosing a topic is whether it poses a worthwhile question that needs to be answered and will result in tangible benefits within a reasonable and defined period. You should be able to demonstrate that the project will fill a gap in current literature.

Ask your peers and employers whether they believe the topic is important. Additionally, you could speak to the research team at the Royal Pharmaceutical Society (RPS) and members of the public to get their opinions.

Early considerations

Think carefully about what you want to achieve, whether funding is required and, if so, what type of funding may be suitable. Initially, you will need to consider how much money you are looking for and whether you are seeking a personal award, leading to a Masters or doctoral qualification, or funding for a larger research team. If the latter, you will need to demonstrate that you have enough experience to apply as the lead applicant.

You need to ensure that your proposal is practical and deliverable. Most awards are time-limited, typically between one and five years with most limited to three years, which means you will need to be realistic about how long you believe your research will take. Additionally, most awards are for a set amount of money, so you need to ensure that this is likely to cover all necessary resources and costs.

Different funding bodies will back different types of research so you will need to apply to the most appropriate organisation. For example, in the UK, the Medical Research Council funds basic or invention research whereas the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) focuses on applied, evaluative and clinical research.

Ensure that the right infrastructure is in place within your organisation – this includes having appropriate management and support arrangements. Additionally, depending on the type of research, you may need to have access to sufficient patients and quality data. This may mean collecting your own data rather than trying to retrospectively assemble data that was not originally intended for research purposes.

Finally, you must be able to justify that your proposal is ethically acceptable. Although this does not mean preparing for ethics approval in detail at this stage, you should think about whether the benefits of undertaking the research outweigh the risks and burdens to potential participants.

Getting the right support

Your most important resource will be your research team. The members of your team will depend on your experience — for example, you may need an academic supervisor if the award is to support Masters or doctoral studies — and your research question and design; for example, you may require a statistician or a health economist. Decide who you require and try to obtain their support at an early stage. Be mindful of practical issues, such as the feasibility of arranging meetings. Support from your employer (and potential research site) is also crucial, particularly if you propose undertaking a secondment from your current role. At this stage you may also need to consider involvement from patients or the public or both (see ‘Patient and public involvement’).

It is also advisable to contact the research manager within your organisation and, depending on the research funder, you may also have access to design support. For example, the NIHR has a dedicated ‘research design service’ (RDS) to provide further guidance on the application process itself. The RDS also provides a number of training courses, together with ‘bid development’ advice, which can be valuable in helping hone your research proposal.

Try not to overlook other potential sources of help and advice. Researchers who have published work in the field may be willing to provide further advice on their methodology. My tip would be to seek as much advice and guidance as possible from a wide range of sources.

Once you have finalised your research methodology you can consider in depth what physical resources you will need, including access to patients, healthcare professionals and laboratory testing. The methodology will also inform the potential size and overall costs of your study. Talk to your finance department as early as you can — this can help ensure that your costs are thorough and realistic.

Writing your proposal

Research funding applications are generally highly structured and are split into sections that will vary by funder and funding stream. Each section will include clear instructions, usually including strict word limits. The funder is also likely to provide comprehensive guidance notes, plus an advice service should you need further clarification.

Remember that your proposal may be reviewed by panel members who do not work in your field, so avoid jargon and explain all abbreviations in full, ideally in each section (in case reviewers do not read your application in the order it was written). In terms of your writing style, aim for professional, clear and concise. Pay attention to detail, ask your research team to review your proposal and accept all offers to proofread your work.

Example of sections within the application form

Patient and public involvement (ppi).

Many funders are committed to the involvement of patients and the public so you may need to consider relevant activities as part of your application. These activities can involve patients and the public helping choose the research topic, assisting in the design, advising on the research project or actually helping carry out the research.

Plain English summary

You may be required to provide a brief summary of your research, written in language that members of the public should understand, so it is worth getting this reviewed as part of your PPI.

Scientific abstract

The scientific abstract is a more detailed summary that outlines the background to the research, the aims of the work, the plan of investigation and a synopsis of the potential benefits.

Background and rationale

You will then need to state your main hypothesis and research questions, and justify why the research is important and relevant to the funder. Think carefully about the benefits of your work — you will need to show the funder that your proposal is worth their investment. This section may also include your literature review, with details of gaps in current understanding of your topic, and how existing literature has informed your methodology. The funder will need evidence that you have carried out a thorough review, including any databases or citation indexes you have searched.

Research plan

In the research plan you should provide a structured protocol. It needs to be detailed enough to explain clearly how you intend to conduct the research but also succinct, because the word count is likely to be limited. You may also need to submit a ‘research timetable’ to highlight expected important milestones.

Expected outputs and dissemination

Additionally, you will need to assure the funder that the results of your research will deliver tangible benefits and that you will share these results widely.

Management and governance

You should be able to demonstrate that you will manage the award well, emphasising the results that you will deliver and how you will control the finances. This section may also include a review of ethical issues. Ensure that you are familiar with the ‘Research governance framework for health and social care’ from the Department of Health (England) and its implications for your work. Depending on the research methodology you may need to consider whether you will need informed consent from patients and other participants, and you will almost certainly have to address any confidentiality issues.

Intellectual property

Intellectual property (IP) provides the basis for protecting information, ideas and developments that your research may generate. The IP you generate will be retained by you and your organisation, but the funder will want to know that the IP will be protected (for example, with copyright or a patent) and used appropriately to ensure that the proposed research benefits can be delivered. Financial returns are an uncommon benefit of applied or clinical research but, where income generation is anticipated, you may need to enter into a commercialisation agreement with the funder to clarify how the revenue will be shared. This is an area where you may need to seek expert advice (for example, from ‘ NHS Innovation Hubs ’ ).

Making your proposal stand out

• Read the funder’s guidance notes carefully, and address each point thoroughly;
• Explain why yours is an important research question, with clear benefits;
• Be precise and succinct — could you describe clearly the main objective of your research in one or two sentences?
• Demonstrate that your proposal is well planned, feasible, cost-effective, and will yield high quality results with a positive impact;
• Justify everything fully, including your method, required resources and team members;
• Be consistent. For example, if you have said you need a PPI steering group, ensure this is included as a research cost and that meetings are built into your research timetable.

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PhD in Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research

Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research is a PhD program in the graduate program in Clinical Pharmacy. This program is housed in the Center for Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research (CePOR, SEE-por), a school-wide center in the Skaggs School of Pharmacy. Our doctoral curriculum is designed to provide competent and highly skilled researchers in the study of patient, provider, or population-level health care and health system interventions. We most often focus on economic, clinical, and humanistic outcomes such as clinical or cost effectiveness or safety. Areas of focus available to students undertaking this course of study include pharmacoeconomics, pharmacoepidemiology, health services research, and drug policy.​​​

Core faculty are methodological experts and provide collaborative linkage to clinical experts in all pharmacy, medicine, nursing, and public health. Programs of study are tailored to student interests in disease or drug areas, such as cardiology, psychiatry, neurology, and cancer. Opportunities exist to link to more basic science colleagues depending on your topic of interests. For example, students interested in drug safety might link with toxicology faculty, or in gene-environment interactions might link with pharmacogenomics faculty.

Applications for all doctoral programs are submitted electronically through the Graduate School of the University of Colorado Denver. After signing up for an account, select 'PhD' under the 'Academic Interests' menu and scroll down to 'Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences' and select "PhD in Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research."

Application requirements are:

• A completed Graduate School application and $50.00 application fee (Domestic) $75.00 application fee (International)
• A baccalaureate degree of arts or science from an accredited college or university with a minimum GPA of 3.0.** One (1) official transcript of all academic work completed to date with awarded baccalaureate degree. University transcripts from other countries must include a transcript evaluation from World Education Services ( WES ). Applicants who complete a transcript evaluation with WES will have their application fee waived automatically.
• All applicants for the program should complete a year of study in the following subjects: economics or statistics, calculus, and biology or chemistry. In addition, courses in the following subjects are highly recommended to supplement the student's background: public health, public policy, and computer science.
• Three (3) letters of recommendation from professors or research supervisors familiar with your aptitude for graduate study

Additionally:

• The GRE (Graduate Record Examination) is not required but is optional.
• The TOEFL is required of applicants for whom English is not their first language, Duolingo and IELTS also accepted (more information on this  here )
• Please use 4875 as the Institution Code so that the test results will be sent directly to our institution
• Under special circumstances, deficiencies in important areas may be made up within the first year after entrance into the program. Normally, admission to the program will be based on an undergraduate GPA of 3.0 or better. However, applicants' recommendations, research experience and additional individual accomplishments will also be considered in the admissions process.

Application opens September 1, 2024. Applications will not be reviewed until all required materials have been received. The application deadline for Fall 2025 admission is December 1, 2024 for all students.

Admission to the program may include financial support via a stipend awarded on a 12-month basis.

Although a priority of the School of Pharmacy is to provide financial support to its graduate students, payment of stipend, tuition and any fees by the School of Pharmacy or by grants, contracts or gifts to the School of Pharmacy faculty is contingent upon availability of funding, satisfactory academic progress (as defined by the UCD Graduate School, Graduate Student Handbook) and completion of required teaching duties, core courses, and examinations. The School of Pharmacy also reserves the right to review and adjust its funding policies at any time. All students are expected to work full-time toward program requirements for 12 months of the year.

Generally, the first year of financial support will be in the form of stipend support for working as a teaching assistant. Depending on availability, teaching assistantships may be offered beyond one year to students. Faculty may choose to offer research assistant scholarships to students as well. Other funding opportunities in the form of external student grants and awards also exist. Students are encouraged to talk to the faculty about funding and scholarship opportunities. Funds for travel to one meeting where students are presenting a poster or giving a podium presentation are limited to $500 per fiscal year.

Students who do not remain in good graduate standing (3.0 GPA or above) or maintain satisfactory academic progress are placed on academic probation. Probation and suspension policies are described in the UCD Graduate School, Graduate Student Handbook. Payment of stipend, tuition, insurance and fees for a student while on academic probation is at the discretion of the graduate program committee.​​

What does "pharmaceutical outcomes research" mean?

What kind of students should pursue a phd degree in pharmaceutical outcomes research why should you apply to this program.

We are looking for students who want to influence healthcare but do not want to be a provider. With the belief that the research done will allow for the application of new knowledge towards health improvement.

What makes the Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research PhD program at the University of Colorado different from other PhD programs?

The benefits of this program are multi-faceted. Housed on a major medical campus, students will be able to collaborate with the schools of pharmacy, medicine, nursing, and public health. Also the University of Colorado Hospital, Children's Hospital, and the Veterans Affairs Medical Center are located on campus.

By having a small group of graduate students, they are allowed more time with the faculty members. With two faculty members from each component, students will be able to have the support necessary to complete their degree.

What are the job prospects for a graduate with a PhD degree in the pharmaceutical sciences? What can you do with this career?

Graduates of the program will have many career options within these areas:

• Pharmaceutical industry
• Government agencies
• Contract research organization (CROs)
• Organized healthcare systems

There is a critical need for individuals who are able to conduct rigorous, credible, and relevant population and patient-based research within stringent ethical and regulatory guidelines; the demand for such researchers is expected to grow given the developing health care reform and the investment in federal development and expansion on comparative effectiveness research.

Past graduates have gone on to be an interim dean at a Regis University and the director of pharmacy at the University of Colorado Hospital

How are current students doing?

Our students often win awards at regional and national symposium (such as Julia Slejko at ISPOR or SMDM). One holds a prestigious pre-doctoral dissertation award in health outcomes from the PhRMA Foundation. Two have completed comprehensive exams are working on defending their dissertation proposals. All these more advanced students have published manuscripts in peer-reviewed journals as first authors with the mentorship of the CePOR faculty.

Faculty comments on the program.

Heather Anderson, PhD What's great about this campus is that we are able to collaborate with other schools such as public health, nursing, and medicine. While many Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research programs have a major focus on economics, we do that and more. Our program has a strong focus on epidemiology and policy too. I actually got my PhD in epidemiology from our School of Public health and can link up students with the best courses and advise on exciting local opportunities for research assistantships.

Kelly Anderson, PhD Training at a world-class medical campus allows PhD students in the Center for Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research to engage with faculty in the center with expertise in outcomes research, drug pricing, economics, epidemiology, and health policy, and also have the opportunity to learn from and collaborate with faculty throughout the Schools of Pharmacy, Public Health, Medicine, Dentistry, and Nursing. For anyone who loves big data, our faculty also work with numerous large data sets: Medicare claims, linked EHR-claims data, and all-payer data just to name a few. As a lot of my work is focused on payment policy, I welcome the opportunity to engage students as they think about the real-world implications of their research for policy makers, health insurers, patients, clinicians, and drug companies and disseminate their findings to these key stakeholders.

R. Brett McQueen, PhD Pharmaceutical outcomes research includes aspects of multiple disciplines including math, economics, and epidemiology. I joined the faculty at CU to contribute to comparative- and cost-effectiveness research and to education both for the PhD and the PharmD programs. Our PhD program emphasizes quality over quantity. We maintain a very favorable student to faculty ratio, we offer competitive student financial support, and we strive to graduate scientific leaders in the field of outcomes research.

Kavita V. Nair, PhD Our expectations for graduate students are high and we have structured the education and training requirements to help you meet these goals. I will require a lot of you as a student but will also be your strongest advocate!

Robert Valuck, PhD, RPh I believe that the strengths of our program are the skills and the diversity of the faculty, and size and connectedness of our program with others on campus and in the state and region. With a smaller number of graduate students in our program, they are able to spend more time with faculty members. Our program is well connected with others on the Anschutz campus, and students have opportunities to collaborate both across campus, and with state agencies, provider groups, and others that have an interest in outcomes research and its applications to patient care and policy.

Advance the science of pharmaceutical outcomes research by training scientists who generate and synthesize evidence to inform practice and policy.

The goal of the PhD n pharmaceutical outcomes research is to develop methodological experts. Graduates will have the knowledge and extensive skills necessary to conduct pharmacoeconomic, pharmacoepidemiologic, health services, and drug policy research. We train individuals who can contribute to T3-T4 clinical translational pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences, specifically on effective, population health, and policy studies. These contributions should ultimately benefit pharmacists and society with safe, effective, and efficient use of pharmaceutical care.​​

The Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research PhD program trains graduate students to become proficient and successful investigators who are able to:

• demonstrate an in-depth knowledge of central concepts in Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research, including the areas of pharmacoeconomics, pharmacoepidemiology, and/or drug policy.
• critically appraise existing literature and sources of information.
• formulate hypotheses based on current concepts in the field and accurately and correctly design, conduct, and interpret their own research projects.
• present research results in peer-reviewed publications and in a dissertation.
• perform research that adheres to the principles and guidelines of ethical conduct.
• communicate research results effectively through oral presentations at scientific seminars, conferences, and other venues

The program’s strengths in outcomes research are emphasized in 35 credits of several areas:

• Biostatistics
• Epidemiology
• Health Policy
• Research/Study Design
• Doctoral Thesis

The program has experience in accessing a multitude of data such as MEPS, PHARMetrics, University Health-System, Consortium and MarketScan. Students are encouraged to utilize these datasets as well as primary data collection. Students may enroll in courses not listed (e.g courses in downtown campuses and/or newly developed courses) by consulting with the program director.

Pharmacoepidemiology

Heather Anderson PhD

Robert Valuck PhD, RPh

Pharmacoeconomics.

Mike J. DiStefano PhD, MBE

Kelly Anderson PhD, MPP

R. Brett McQueen PhD

Pharmaceutical and drug related policy.

Kavita Nair PhD

Antal Zemplényi

Antal Zemplényi, PhD, is an Associate Professor at the Center for Health Technology Assessment at the University of Pécs and a senior researcher at the Syreon Research Institute, an international research corporation specializing in health policy, health economic modeling, and technology assessment. He has experience in value assessment, HTA, health economics and outcomes research, and real-world data analysis. He is the past president of the ISPOR Hungary Chapter. Antal is currently a Fulbright Scholar at the University of Colorado Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences working as a visiting research associate in the Pharmaceutical Value (pValue) initiative.

Monica Bianchini

Monica Bianchini is originally from Indianapolis, Indiana. She received a PharmD and MPH from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 2017. She subsequently completed a hospital pharmacy residency (PGY-1) and Infectious Diseases PGY-2 at Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit, Michigan. Monica joined CePOR in 2019 and currently works as a clinical inpatient pharmacist. Her dissertation will evaluate opportunities to decrease syphilis rates and improve syphilis care in Colorado. Outside of work, she enjoys reading, live music, cooking, and anything outside (running, hiking, backpacking, skiing). 

Sue is a fifth year PhD student at CePOR. Her dissertation focuses on characterizing the burden of MS and treatment strategies using real-world claims data. Prior to grad school, she studied Neuroscience in Pomona College. In her free time, Sue enjoys taking her puppies on adventures.

Mahesh Maiyani

Mahesh Maiyani was born and raised in India. He earned his Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm) from India in 2006 and then he came to the US to pursue his Master’s in Business administration. He completed his MBA from The University of Findlay in Ohio. He has work experience in clinical trials and heath care research. He joined the Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research PhD program in Fall-2021. His research interests are focused around cost effectiveness in real-world clinical settings. Mahesh enjoys hiking and spending time with family and friends.

Nick Mendola

Nick Mendola was born and raised in Buffalo, New York. He graduated from The University of Akron with a BS in Exercise Science in 2016. He then moved to Washington D.C. to attend The George Washington University Milken Institute School of Public Health, where he obtained his MPH in Epidemiology, in 2018. During this time, he worked researching the impact of the pharmaceutical industry’s marketing to healthcare professionals, and its influence on prescribing practices and population level drug utilization. Nick joined the Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research program in the fall of 2018. Nick’s current work with Dr. Robert Brett McQueen, explores the use of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) as a novel health technology value assessment tool. His work specifically explores MCDA in evaluating treatments for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), a rare neurological disorder.

Vanessa Paul Patterson

Vanessa Patterson is originally from Kansas City. She graduated from Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine with an MPH concentrating in Epidemiology and Maternal and Child Health in 2012. Vanessa went on to work as an applied epidemiologist for government public health agencies for six years. She joined the Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research program at CU in the fall of 2018. Working under the mentorship of Dr. Heather Anderson, Vanessa is currently a PhRMA Foundation Predoctoral Fellow and a PhD candidate. Her dissertation focuses on the utilization of cardioprotective medications among women with a history of breast cancer. In her free time, Vanessa enjoys making pottery and spending time outdoors with family and friends.

Nai-Chia (Sammi) Chen

Sammi is originally from Taiwan. She holds a bachelor’s degree in Pharmacy from Kaohsiung Medical University. After graduation, she had worked in pharmaceutical companies and clinical research organizations for several years before coming to the US. She completed her Master’s training at the University of Pittsburgh, Pharmaceutical Outcomes and Policy Research, in 2022. And then she joined Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research PhD program at CU Anschutz in Fall 2022. Her research interest lies in the intersection of pharmacoeconomics, real-world evidence, and pharmaceutical outcomes. Outside the schoolwork, she enjoys cooking, baking, and snowboarding/skiing in winter.

Mouna Dardouri

Mouna was born and raised in Tunisia. She graduated with a PharmD from the University of Pharmacy of Monastir in 2016. She then worked for two years at a consulting company focusing on pharmaceuticals’ Pricing, Reimbursement and Market Access (PRMA) in Europe. After that, she was awarded with the Fulbright Foreign student scholarship and moved to Colorado, where she obtained her MPH in Global Health Systems, management, and Policy in 2022. Mouna joined the Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research program in the fall of 2022. Her research interests include evaluating the use of Health Technology Assessment in the context of low- and middle- income countries and developing tools that permit equitable patients’ access to cost-effective technologies. In her free time, Mouna enjoys learning new languages, improv theatre and cooking. 

Why CU's Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research PhD Program?

“One key reason I chose to join CePOR at CU was the tight-knit group of faculty and students. Given the program is smaller, the faculty has a better opportunity to stay in touch with all the students and provide support for everyone's research, regardless if they're on the student's committee or not. The student group is also very close as we are together for weekly seminars and enjoy out-of-school gatherings when possible. Another draw of CU's POR program is the diverse expertise of our faculty and alumni. Our current faculty have a range of expertise including: pharmacoepidemiology using big data sources, pharmacoeconomics and drug pricing, rare diseases, opioid use disorder and treatment, and Medicare payment models. Recent alumni have found work in a variety of different fields from consulting to academia to the pharmaceutical industry and the public health department. The wide range of backgrounds and areas of expertise covered by our faculty and alumni provide so many resources for mentorship and future career planning. Finally, there are so many unique opportunities within CePOR to work with different data sources (e.g. electronic health records, national claims data, Medicaid claims data) and different methodology experts, so I am confident that our program could be a great fit for prospective PhD students of all backgrounds.” – Monica Bianchini, PharmD, MPH

“CU's Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research Program produces robust interdisciplinary research that spans from pharmacoepidemiology to pharmaceutical economics with a variety of collaborators, such as Institute for Clinical and Economic Review (ICER) and Colorado Department of Public Health & Environment (CDPHE).” – Sue Kwon, BA

“I joined the POR program because my previous research was focused on population drug utilization and the pharmaceutical industry’s impact on prescribing practices, and the POR program seemed like a natural fit for me to be able to keep learning about the areas of pharmacoepidemiology and drug related policy. What I like most about the program so far has been the core faculty in our program. They seem to truly care about student success and how we progress both academically and professionally. ” – Nick Mendola, MPH 

PhD Student Research Projects

• Comparative Effectiveness of Rare Disease Therapies Using Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis: Case Example in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder, a Rare Neurological Disorder
• Characterizing Real-world Burden of Multiple Sclerosis and Treatment Strategies in a Colorado-representative Population
• Utilization of Cardioprotective Medication Strategies Among Women with a History of Breast Cancer
• Opportunities to Improve Syphilis Care in Colorado

Mission: To educate, increase awareness and promote growth within the 'Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research' field in general and to increase the CU Denver presence among the international society ISPOR. To collaborate across different sciences on campus and different departments worldwide.

Description: Promote pharmacoeconomics and outcomes research education by holding regular seminars on current issues in the field and presenting research at least once a year at the annual meeting in the US-Canada region.

Membership requirements: We expect members to be passionate about the kind of research that is involved related to public health, epidemiology, pharmacoeconomics, and policy. Also, attending our regular educational seminars/webinars is highly encouraged.

Activities: Details will be emailed to members soon!

Benefits: The opportunity to present research, network and collaborate with faculty from different universities around the world, professionals from industry and research organizations at a global level.

Julia Slejko, PhD ('12) Associate Professor Practice, Sciences, and Health Outcomes Research University of Maryland School of Pharmacy

R. Brett McQueen, PhD ('13) Associate Professor Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus

William Padula, PhD ('13) Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutical and Health Economics, School of Pharmacy Fellow, Leonard D. Schaeffer Center for Health Policy & Economics University of Southern California

David Tabano, PhD ('18) Principal Health Economist Evidence for Access (E4A) | Public Affairs & Access Genentech, Inc.

Katie Sullivan, PhD ('18) Prescription Drug Epidemiologist Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment

Angela Czaja, MD, PhD ('19) Associate Professor Pediatrics-Critical Care Medicine Children’s Hospital Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus

Chong Kim, PhD ('20) Associate Director Global Value & Access | HEOR Gilead Sciences

Katia Hannah, PhD ('21) Lead HEOR Specialist Dexcom

Kimberly Deininger, PhD ('22) HEOR Manager Amgen

For questions regarding graduate school programs contact:

Isabella Jaramillo Email:  [email protected]     Phone:  303.724.7263 ​​​​​

Kelly Anderson, PHD, MPP

Assistant Professor; Director, Pharmaceutical Outcomes Research PhD Program Email: [email protected] Phone: 434-466-1990

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Aurora, CO 80045

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Research Proposal Example/Sample

Detailed Walkthrough + Free Proposal Template

If you’re getting started crafting your research proposal and are looking for a few examples of research proposals , you’ve come to the right place.

In this video, we walk you through two successful (approved) research proposals , one for a Master’s-level project, and one for a PhD-level dissertation. We also start off by unpacking our free research proposal template and discussing the four core sections of a research proposal, so that you have a clear understanding of the basics before diving into the actual proposals.

• Research proposal example/sample – Master’s-level (PDF/Word)
• Research proposal example/sample – PhD-level (PDF/Word)
• Proposal template (Fully editable) 

If you’re working on a research proposal for a dissertation or thesis, you may also find the following useful:

• Research Proposal Bootcamp : Learn how to write a research proposal as efficiently and effectively as possible
• 1:1 Proposal Coaching : Get hands-on help with your research proposal

PS – If you’re working on a dissertation, be sure to also check out our collection of dissertation and thesis examples here .

FAQ: Research Proposal Example

Research proposal example: frequently asked questions, are the sample proposals real.

Yes. The proposals are real and were approved by the respective universities.

Can I copy one of these proposals for my own research?

As we discuss in the video, every research proposal will be slightly different, depending on the university’s unique requirements, as well as the nature of the research itself. Therefore, you’ll need to tailor your research proposal to suit your specific context.

You can learn more about the basics of writing a research proposal here .

How do I get the research proposal template?

You can access our free proposal template here .

Is the proposal template really free?

Yes. There is no cost for the proposal template and you are free to use it as a foundation for your research proposal.

Where can I learn more about proposal writing?

For self-directed learners, our Research Proposal Bootcamp is a great starting point.

For students that want hands-on guidance, our private coaching service is recommended.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Research Proposal Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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Thesis proposal

Thesis proposal courses.

In Pharmacy, the MSc thesis proposal and the PhD thesis proposal are required courses.

• PHARM 601 is the MSc thesis proposal course; MSc students register for this course in term 2.
• PHARM 616A is the PhD thesis proposal course for students who have not ever completed PHARM 601; students register for this course in term 3
• PHARM 616B is the PhD thesis proposal course for students who have taken PHARM 601; students register for this course either in term 3 (if they completed their prior MSc) or in the term during which they begin their PhD after being approved for transfer. 

The objective is for students to learn how to use the literature to stimulate in-depth thinking about the basis of their thesis research project and to encourage the development of their scientific oral presentation skills, to best prepare and present their research objectives in written and oral form.

Thesis proposal course requirements

In addition to preparing a written and oral presentation of their proposed research, to receive course credit students must:

• Involves completing online modules as well as participation in an in-person session co-hosted by the Pharmacy Liaison Librarian and an Advisor from the Writing and Communication Center.
• Provides background on literature searching, citation and proper management of references as part of the preparation of the thesis proposal.  
• The workshop is offered once per term, as needed. 
• Students should attend in their first term, before they register in the thesis proposal course
• Workshop dates are communicated via email and/or Outlook calendar invitation.
• Attend a one-on-one appointment with the Pharmacy Liaison Librarian to discuss. research strategies and reinforce academic integrity.
• Attend two thesis proposals (or one thesis proposal and one thesis defence) by other students in Pharmacy, before their own thesis proposal examination.
• MSc students must hold the thesis proposal examination before the end of their second term.
• PhD students must hold their thesis proposal examination within their first year of the PhD program, before the end of term three.
• Any student requiring more time must request an extension, subject to the approval of the Graduate Officer.
• Prepare and submit for examination both a written proposal and oral presentation of the proposal.

The advisory committee appointment must be approved and the first meeting of the committee held before the proposal examination can take place.

Thesis proposal guidelines

The thesis proposal should outline the reasons for undertaking the project, concisely survey the relevant literature, present a detailed description of the methodology to be used, and outline any preliminary results.

• Generally, a report of 30-40 pages is required, not including figures, legends, or references. Excess pages may be removed or disregarded.
• Additional material including raw data may be included in appendices, if needed.
• The completed thesis proposal should be double-spaced with 1-inch margins and size twelve font.
• The style of the report should follow conventions familiar to the area of research of the student. At minimum, the written thesis proposal report should include the components indicated in the following table.

Scheduling the thesis proposal examination

Follow the steps below when you are ready for your proposal examination:  

• Refer to "what to expect at the thesis proposal" to determine how much time you should book for your proposal (two hours is generally enough time for an examining committee with three examiners; additional time may be required for deliberation).
• Select two possible dates and times and ask your committee to save those dates until the exam is confirmed.
• If you did not sign up for the appropriate course (Pharm 601 or Pharm 616A/B) during the course enrolment period, complete and submit the Graduate Studies course drop/add form at the same time as submitting the meeting request form. 
• arrange the examination chair
• send a calendar invitation to confirm the date and time
• prepare the examination report and distribute it to the chair and members of the examining committee, along with the grading sheet
• set up day of IT support (for in person and hybrid exams only).
• schedule a 15-30 minute IT training session/proposal practice ahead of the proposal exam, to ensure IT has the equipment/adapters necessary for the exam and not scrambling on the day of your exam.
• Your IT request should be sent no earlier than one week prior to the test/training date.
• Submit an electronic copy of the (written) thesis proposal to each member of the examination committee and cc the graduate coordinator at least 10 business days ahead of the proposal examination date.

Pharmacy blackout dates

Pharmacy has blackout dates for thesis proposals and comprehensive examinations. Blackout dates exist to allow maximum participation in the Pharmacy program and to minimize scheduling conflicts for examination chairs and committee members. Exceptions may be considered on a case-by-case basis. 

for hybrid and in person exams

Ready to schedule your exam?

What to expect at the thesis proposal examination.

The oral examination will take approximately 2 hours and should consist of a 25-30 minute PowerPoint presentation, followed by questions from the examination committee.  Due to time limitations for the oral examination, it may not be possible to cover all aspects of the proposal in the presentation.

The question period will involve a first round of questions from the committee lasting 10-15 minutes per committee member, followed by a second round of questions in the same format but usually only 5-10 minutes each. Questions may be taken from the audience and the student's response to questions from the audience may be considered in the evaluation of the student. 

Thesis proposal examinations are not ‘public’ in the same sense that thesis defences are and are not announced throughout the Faculty of Science.  The administrative coordinator will inform pharmacy graduate students of upcoming proposal presentations so they may attend toward fulfillment of the thesis proposal course requirements.  External friends and relatives are not permitted to attend. 

Following the oral examination, the audience and students are excused so the committee can deliberate. All examiners should be present for deliberation.  After deliberation, the student is invited back into the room to hear the results of their exam. Students will receive a summary of their final grading assessment once the report has received approval. 

Assessment of the thesis proposal

Assessment of the thesis proposal is twofold:

• The written proposal report and the oral presentation and discussion are each marked separately and independently by three or more committee members (the examining committee) following the grading scheme below. The final course grade is calculated by averaging the total scores of all examining committee members.
• The assessment of whether the student has met the standards for the proposal and for progress in their graduate program overall is recorded on the thesis proposal examination report. All members of the thesis proposal examination committee participate in grading and in the assessment of the student's overall progress.

Thesis proposal grading scheme

Students must complete all graduate courses with a final mark of 70% or greater, as noted in the Academic Calendar.

Thesis proposal examination report

The decision as to whether standards for the proposal and progress to date are met is made by the committee, recorded by the chair, and reported to the Faculty of Science usingthesis proposal examination report. Committee members assesses the student's position by indicating 'excellent', 'satisfactory', or 'unsatisfactory', in the following areas:

• Understanding of the material: Candidate shows adequate depth and scope of knowledge for the current stage of the project.
• Ability to handle discussion: Candidate is able to understand the pitfalls and interpretation of the project.
• Research progress: Student demonstrates a general level of progress considering the complexity of the work and practical difficulties.

Performance and standards of research concerning expectations for the degree level as well as they pertain to timely completion of the degree are indicated with a yes/no response.  Any questions, concerns, difficulties or corrective measures required by the student must be recorded in the comments sections of the report; the committee must specify an action plan outlining what the student is expected to do by a specified date. 

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10. The Project Proposal Plan

Research Methods in Pharmacy Practice Copyright © by Beverley Glass. All Rights Reserved.

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Research Proposal Guidelines

To satisfy the research requirement for the distance M.S. program in Pharmaceutical Chemistry, the aspiring student must define a research project and prepare a written proposal describing the nature and goals of the project.

It is suggested that the student in conjunction with their distance research mentor collaborate in the selection of and the definition of the proposed research. The proposal should consist of the following elements:

• Overall goal or hypotheses
• Statement of significance of the research
• Research plan consisting of several specific aims.

The following description serves to define expectations regarding proposal preparation.

Project Title

An appropriate title should be created that describes the overall research topic.

Overall Goal

Write a short statement that clearly defines the scope of the project.

Background and Significance

Become familiar with a published work that is related to your chosen research area. Provide a summary of the background in a manner that demonstrates a knowledge of the area and goes on to describe the significance of the proposed research in adding to and extending existing knowledge.

Specific Aims

The overall project should be envisioned as a series of sub-goals, which as they are individually accomplished, allows results in the achievement of the overall goal.  The specific aims should include a description of the experiments to be conducted. It should be clearly stated what is to be accomplished in each specific aim and how these results relate to the achievement of the overall research goal.

Bibliography

Appropriate literature citations should be provided in each section of the proposal, as justification for the proposed research, and to clearly indicate that the student has familiarized themselves with the research topic.

The M.S. research proposal should be limited to approximately four pages, excluding the bibliographic section.

The proposal preparation will satisfy one credit hour of the research requirement.

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Research Designs and Methodologies Related to Pharmacy Practice

The need for evidence to inform policy and practice in pharmacy is becoming increasingly important. In parallel, clinical pharmacy and practice research is evolving. Research evidence should be used to identify new areas for improved health service delivery and rigorously evaluate new services in pharmacy. The generation of such evidence through practice-based research should be predicated on appropriate use of robust and rigorous methodologies. In addition to the quantitative and qualitative approaches used in pharmacy practice research, mixed methods and other novel approaches are increasingly being applied in pharmacy practice research. Approaches such as discrete choice experiments, Delphi techniques, and simulated client technique are now commonly used in pharmacy practice research. Therefore, pharmacy practice researchers need to be competent in the selection, application, and interpretation of these methodological and analytical approaches. This chapter focuses on introducing traditional and novel study designs and methodologies that are particularly pertinent to contemporary clinical pharmacy and practice research. This chapter will introduce the fundamentals and structures of these methodologies, but more details regarding the different approaches may be found within the Encyclopedia.

Learning Objectives

• • Discuss the value of pharmacy practice research to evidence-based practice and policy.
• • Describe the classifications and types of study designs commonly used in pharmacy practice research.
• • Discuss the concepts and structure of common study designs used in pharmacy practice research including experimental, quasi-experimental, observational, qualitative, and mixed method designs.
• • Discuss the important considerations for conducting pharmacy practice research in terms of study design, data collection, data analyses, and ethical considerations.

Introduction to Research Methodologies Used in Pharmacy Practice

The mission of pharmacy profession and the role of pharmacists in healthcare have evolved toward patient-centered care in the last few decades. Pharmacists with their expertise in drug therapy and accessibility to the public have unprecedented opportunities to assume increasing responsibility for direct patient care ( Bond, 2006 ). New cognitive pharmaceutical services and new roles for pharmacists continue to emerge.

In the era of evidence-based practice and health services, it is not just adequate to propose those new pharmacy services or new roles without evidence of their benefit ( Awaisu and Alsalimy, 2015 , Bond, 2006 ). New pharmacy services and new roles must be proven to be feasible, acceptable, cost-effective, and increase health outcomes. Pharmacy practice research provides such evidence and can confirm the value of a new service, inform policy, and result in practice changes ( Bond, 2006 , Chen and Hughes, 2016 ). Research evidence should be used to identify new areas for improved health service delivery and rigorously evaluate new services. The research used to generate such evidence should be grounded in robust and rigorous methodologies ( Chen and Hughes, 2016 ). Traditionally, common quantitative and qualitative methods such as randomized controlled trials, cohort study, case control study, questionnaire-based surveys, and phenomenology using qualitative interviews have been used in pharmacy. However, in recent years, novel and more complex methods are being developed and utilized. Pharmacy practice researchers need to know how these old and new methodological approaches should be selected, applied, and interpreted in addressing research problems.

Various study designs, including, but not limited to experimental, quasi-experimental, observational, qualitative, and mixed method designs, have been used in pharmacy practice research. Furthermore, different classification systems (e.g., quantitative vs. qualitative, experimental vs. observational, descriptive vs. analytical study designs) have been used in the literature. The choice of a study design to answer a research question in pharmacy practice research is driven by several factors, including the type of the research question or the research hypothesis, expertise of the investigator, availability of data, and funding opportunities. Pharmacy practice researchers need to be competent in the selection, design, application, and interpretation of these methodological and analytical approaches. Today, many of the research methods used in pharmacy practice research have been adapted from fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, and other disciplines. This paradigm shift has led to a greater emphasis on the appropriate choice of a specific research design or method to answer a specific research question ( Chen and Hughes, 2016 ). Consequently, pharmacy practice researchers should place an emphasis on the reliability of the methods selected, the correct interpretation of their findings, the testing of a specific hypothesis, and the internal validity of their data, among other considerations. Novice and early career researchers should be familiar and have sound foundation in a variety of methods applied in pharmacy practice research, which will be covered in this chapter and other chapters in this Encyclopedia. We do believe that more experienced researchers should focus on certain methods in order to advance research in our discipline.

Core Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches Used in Pharmacy Practice Research

Traditionally, core quantitative approaches used in pharmacy practice research include nonexperiments, quasi-experimental designs, and true experimental designs such as prospective randomized controlled intervention trials. Nonexperiments also include observational study designs that are often described as pharmacoepidemiologic study designs such as case–control study, cohort study, nested case–control study, and cross-sectional study ( Etminan, 2004 , Etminan and Samii, 2004 ). In recent years, conventional qualitative approaches and their philosophical paradigms are increasingly been used in pharmacy. These include the five qualitative approaches to inquiry: narrative research, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study. These qualitative methods are often difficult for pharmacy practice researchers to comprehend, and researchers tend to describe the methods of data collection such as individual interviews and focus group discussions as qualitative methods of inquiry. These data collection methods are briefly described later in this chapter, among others. Furthermore, there is an increasing importance on the appropriate selection and use of mixed method approach ( Hadi et al., 2013 ; Hadi and Closs, 2016a , Hadi and Closs, 2016b ), which are often designed and applied wrongly. Finally, it is worthwhile to be familiar with novel research methodologies such as discrete choice experiments, Delphi techniques, simulated client technique, and nominal group techniques, which fall between quantitative and qualitative approaches, often with no clear differentiation on where they belong. Although called “novel” in the context of this chapter, these methods are not new in other relevant disciplines, but new and not commonly used in pharmacy practice research.

Research Question and Selection of Study Design

Pharmacy practice researchers begin by conception of a research idea or identifying a research question and defining a hypothesis based on the question. The researcher then selects a study design that will be suitable to answer the research question. The study design should be appropriately selected prior to initiation of any research investigation. Selecting an inappropriate study design may potentially undermine the validity of a study in its entirety. Investigators are encouraged to critically think about the possible study designs to ensure that the research question is adequately addressed and should be able to adequately justify their choice. These study designs have been variously classified and one common classification system is quantitative vs. qualitative study designs. Study designs play a major role in determining the scientific value of research studies. Inappropriate choice of a study design is impossible to correct after completion of the study. Therefore, thorough planning is required to avoid unconvincing results and invalid conclusions. Good understanding of basic study design concepts will aid researchers in conducting robust and rigorous practice-based research. This chapter introduces the structure and the fundamentals of common study designs used in pharmacy practice research and discusses the important considerations for conducting pharmacy practice research in terms of study design, data collection, data analyses, and ethical considerations.

Classification of Research Methodologies Used in Pharmacy Practice

Various classifications for research designs and methods used in pharmacy practice have been used in the literature. The following are some of the approaches for the classification of research designs:

Case example: Investigators were looking for the association between acute myocardial infarction and smoking status, type of tobacco, amount of smoke, etc. ( Teo et al., 2006 ). Another example of a case–control study from published literature is the study investigating the association between the use of phenylpropanolamine and the risk of hemorrhagic stroke ( Kernan et al., 2000 ).

Case example: Investigators were interested to determine the long-term effectiveness of influenza vaccines in elderly people; they recruited cohorts of vaccinated and unvaccinated community-dwelling elderly ( Nichol et al., 2007 ).

Case example: A case report was written by a physician who contracted Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) during an outbreak in Hong Kong ( Wu and Sung, 2003 ). Another example is an ecological study examining diet and sunlight as risks for prostate cancer mortality ( Colli and Colli, 2006 ). Chim et al. conducted a large population-based survey in Australia to determine what community members think about the factors that do and should influence government spending on prescribed medicines ( Chim et al., 2017 ).

Case example: A group of investigators carried out a study to establish an association between the use of traditional eye medicines (TEM) and corneal ulcers. In this case, both case–control and cohort study designs are applicable. In an example of a case control study, Archibugi et al. aimed to investigate the association between aspirin and statin exclusive and combined and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma occurrence ( Archibugi et al., 2017 ). Another example of a cohort study is a study carried out by Wei et al. in which they investigated whether or not acid-suppression medicines increased the risk of bacterial gastroenteritis ( Wei et al., 2017 ).

Case examples: Investigators conducted a study about the newer versus older antihypertensive agents in African hypertensive patients (NOAAH) trial (nct01030458) to compare the efficacy of single-pill combinations of newer versus older antihypertensive agents (i.e., a single-pill combination of newer drugs, not involving a diuretic, with a combination of older drugs including a diuretic) ( Odili et al., 2012 ). In a crossover design, a group of investigators evaluated the effect of spironolactone on nonresolving central serous chorioretinopathy ( Bousquet et al., 2015 ).

Case examples: Prashanth et al. aimed to understand if (and how) a package of interventions targeting primary health centers and community participation platforms affect utilization and access to generic medicines for people with noncommunicable diseases using quasi-experimental design approach ( Prashanth et al., 2016 ).

• c. Observational design—It involves only observation of natural phenomena and does not involve investigator intervention. Typically, this study design investigates associations and not causation. Examples include cohort study and case–control study. These studies can explore an association between a pharmacologic agent and a disease of interest. Case examples: Please see previous examples of these.

Case examples: Please see experimental studies, and case–control and cohort study designs.

Case examples: Investigators in Canada explored the lived experiences of youth who are prescribed antipsychotics by conducting interpretative phenomenology study ( Murphy et al., 2015 ).

Case examples: Shiyanbola et al. combined focus group discussion with a survey tool to investigate patients' perceived value and use of quality measures in evaluating and choosing community pharmacies ( Shiyanbola and Mort, 2015 ).

Below is a brief description of traditional and novel pharmacoepidemiologic study designs. Several examples of pharmacoepidemiologic study designs are provided above. Some descriptive studies including case reports, case series, and ecological studies will not be described in this chapter.

• a. Case–control studies—In this design, patients (those who develop the disease or outcome of interest) are identified and control patients (those who do not develop the disease or outcome of interest) are sampled at random from the original cohort that gives rise to the cases ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 , Newman et al., 2013 ). The distribution of exposure to certain risk factors between the cases and the controls is then explored, and an odds ratio (OR) is calculated.
• b. Cohort studies—This can be described as a study in which a group of exposed subjects and a group of unexposed subjects are followed over time and the incidence of the disease or outcome of interest in the exposed group is compared with that in the unexposed group ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 , Hulley et al., 2013 ).
• c. Case-crossover studies—The case-crossover may be considered comparable to a crossover randomized controlled trial in which the patients act as their own control ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 ). Pattern of exposure among the cases is compared between event time and control time. The between-patient confounding that occurs in a classic case-control study is circumvented in this design. Tubiana et al. evaluated the role of antibiotic prophylaxis and assessed the relation between invasive dental procedures and oral streptococcal infective endocarditis, using a nationwide population-based cohort and a case-crossover study design ( Tubiana et al., 2017 ).
• d. Case–time control studies—This design is an extension of the case-crossover design, but includes a control group ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 ). A group of researchers assessed medication-related hospitalization. They used the case–time control study design to investigate the associations between 12 high risk medication categories (e.g., antidiabetic agents, diuretics, benzodiazepine hypnotics) and unplanned hospitalizations ( Lin et al., 2017 ).
• e. Nested case–control studies—In this design, a cohort of individuals is followed during certain time periods until a certain outcome is reached and the analysis is conducted as a case–control study in which cases are matched to only a sample of control subjects ( Etminan, 2004 ). de Jong et al. examined the association between interferon-β (IFN-β) and potential adverse events using population-based health administrative data in Canada ( De Jong et al., 2017 ).
• f. Cross-sectional studies—In this type of study, the investigator measures the outcome of interest and the exposures among the study participants at the same time ( Hulley et al., 2013 , Setia, 2016b ). It provides a snapshot of a situation for a particular period.

Quantitative Research Designs in Pharmacy Practice

A wide range of quantitative methods are commonly applied in pharmacy practice research. These methods are widely used in published pharmacy practice literature to explore appropriateness of medicines use, appropriateness and quality of prescribing, and medication safety, through analyzing existing datasets, direct observation, or self-report ( Green and Norris, 2015 ). Pharmacy practice research questions also seek to determine the knowledge, behaviors, attitudes, and practices of pharmacists, other healthcare providers, patients, policy-makers, regulators, and the general public. Quantitative methods are also used in evaluating the effect of new pharmacy services and interventions to improve medicines use. These practice research projects provide valuable insights about how medicines are used, and how to maximize their benefits and minimize their harmful effects. In the context of this chapter, quantitative study designs will be broadly classified into three: (1) observational, (2) experimental and quasi experimental, and (3) other designs.

Observational Study Designs

Pharmacoepidemiology is a “relatively new science that explores drug efficacy or toxicity using large observational study designs” ( Etminan, 2004 , Etminan and Samii, 2004 ). These study designs explore drug use studies that usually cannot be answered using randomized controlled trials or other experimental designs. In several instances, experimental study designs may not be suitable or feasible; in such circumstances, observational study designs are applied ( Cummings et al., 2013 ). As the name implies, observational studies involve merely observing the subjects in a noncontrolled setting, without investigator intervention or manipulating other aspects of the study. Therefore, observational studies are nonexperimental. The observation of the variables of interest can be prospective, retrospective, or current depending on the type of the observational study.

In pharmacoepidemiology and other areas of pharmacy practice, researchers are often interested in measuring the relationships between exposure to a drug and its efficacy, toxicity, or other outcomes of interest using observational study designs. It is worthwhile to note that observational study designs investigate association, but, in most cases, not causation. Here, we provide descriptions of some commonly used study designs in pharmacoepidemiology and pharmacy practice research in general.

Case–Control Studies

Case–control study design is used to determine association between risk factors or exposures and outcomes. It is a useful design to study exposures in rare diseases or diseases that take long time to develop ( Newman et al., 2013 ). It investigates exposures in individuals with and those without the outcome of interest. Nevertheless, case–control studies can help to identify harmful or beneficial exposures. Furthermore, the outcome of interest can be undesirable (e.g., mortality) or desirable (e.g., microbiological cure). As the name suggests, in a case–control study design, there are two groups of subjects: (1) cases (individuals with the outcome of interest) and (2) controls (individuals without the outcome of interest) ( Newman et al., 2013 ). Cases are randomly selected based on prespecified eligibility criteria from a population of interest. Appropriate representative controls for the cases selected are then identified. The researchers then retrospectively investigate possible exposures to the risk factor. Fig. 1 represents a schematic diagram of a case–control study.

Case–control study design.

Case–control studies are relatively inexpensive, less time-consuming to conduct, allow investigation of several possible exposures or associations, and are suitable for rare diseases. Selection of the control group is a critical component of case–control studies. Case–control studies have several drawbacks: confounding must be controlled, subject to recall, observation, and selection biases.

OR is the measure of association used for the analysis of case–control studies. This is defined as the odds of exposure to a factor in those with a condition or disease compared with those who do not have the condition or disease.

Cohort Studies

Similar to case–control studies, cohort studies determine an association between exposures/factors and development of an outcome of interest. As previously described, a cohort study is a study in which a group of exposed subjects and a group of unexposed subjects are followed over time to measure and compare the rate of a disease or an outcome of interest in both groups ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 , Hulley et al., 2013 ). A cohort study can be prospective (most common) or retrospective. While a case–control study begins with patients with and those without the outcome of interest (e.g., diseased and nondiseased patients), a cohort study begins with exposed and unexposed patients (e.g., patients with and those without certain risk factor) ( Hulley et al., 2013 , Setia, 2016a ). In a cohort study, both the exposed and the unexposed subjects are members of a larger cohort in which subjects may enter and exit the cohort at different periods in time ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 , Hulley et al., 2013 ).

Typically, a cohort study should have a defined time zero, which is defined as the time of entry into the cohort ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 ). The cohort (a group of exposed and unexposed subjects, who are free of the outcome at time zero) is followed for a certain period until the outcome of interest occurs. In addition, information or data related to all potential confounders or covariates should also be collected as failure to account for these can bias the results and over- or underestimates the risk estimate. There are two types of cohort studies: retrospective cohort and prospective cohort studies.

Retrospective cohort study, also known as historical cohort study, begins and ends in the present, while looking backward to collect information about exposure that occurred in the past ( Fig. 2 ). Historical cohort studies are relatively less time-consuming and less expensive than prospective cohort studies ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 , Hulley et al., 2013 , Setia, 2016a ). In addition, there is no loss to follow-up and researchers can investigate issues not amenable to intervention study designs. However, these studies are only as good as the data available, the investigator has limited control of confounding variables, and it is prone to recall bias.

Retrospective (historical) cohort study design.

On the other hand, prospective cohort study, also known as longitudinal cohort study, begins in the present and progresses forward, collecting data from enrolled subjects whose outcomes fall in the future ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 , Hulley et al., 2013 , Setia, 2016a ) ( Fig. 3 ). Prospective cohort studies are easier to plan for data collection, have low recall bias, and the researcher has a better control of confounding factors. On the other hand, it is difficult to study rare conditions; they are more prone to selection bias, more time-consuming, expensive, and loss of subjects to follow-up is common.

Prospective (longitudinal) cohort study design.

Relative risk (RR) is the measure of association used for the analysis of a cohort study. This is defined as the risk of an event or development of an event relative to exposure (i.e., the risk of subjects developing a condition when exposed to a risk factor compared with subjects who have not been exposed to the risk factor).

Case-Crossover Studies

This is a relatively new design in the field of epidemiology in which the patients act as their own controls ( Maclure, 1991 ). In this design, there is a case and a control element both of which come from the same subject. In other words, each case serves as its own control. It can be considered equivalent to a crossover RCT with a washout period ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 ). Pattern of exposure to the risk factor is compared between the event time and the control time ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 ). Case-crossover study design is useful to investigate triggers within an individual. For instance, it is applicable when studying a transient exposure or risk factor. However, determination of the period of the control and case components is a crucial and challenging aspect of a case-crossover study design. Since the patients serve as their own controls, the interindividual variability that is inherent in classic case–control studies is eliminated. This is important in studies involving progressive disease states in which disease severity may differ between patients such as multiple sclerosis. OR is estimated using techniques such as Mantel–Haenszel statistics and logistic regression.

Cross-Sectional Studies

Cross-sectional studies also known as prevalence studies identify the prevalence or characteristics of a condition in a group of individuals. This design provides a snapshot of the prevalence or the characteristics of the study subjects in a single time point. The study investigator measures the outcomes and the exposures in the study subjects simultaneously ( Etminan and Samii, 2004 , Hulley et al., 2013 , Setia, 2016b ). Hence, cross-sectional studies do not follow up patients to observe outcomes or exposures of interest. Data are often collected through surveys. Cross-sectional design cannot provide cause and effect relationships between certain exposures and outcomes of interest.

Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Study Designs

In a typical experimental study design, the investigator assigns subjects to the intervention and control/comparison groups in an effort to determine the effects of the intervention ( Cummings et al., 2013 ). Since the investigator has the opportunity to control various aspects of the experiment, this allows the researcher to determine the causal link between exposure to the intervention and outcome of interest. The researcher either randomly or conveniently assigns the subjects to an experimental group and a control group. When the investigator performs randomization, the study is considered a true experiment (see Fig. 4 ). On the other hand, if subjects are assigned into groups without randomization, the study is considered a quasi-experiment (refer to Fig. 5 ). As with experimental designs, quasi-experimental designs also attempt to demonstrate a causal link between the intervention and the outcome of interest. Due to the challenges of conducting a true experimental design, the quasi-experimental study designs have been consistently used in pharmacist intervention research.

True experimental study design.

Quasi experimental study design.

RCTs are considered the gold standard of experimental study designs in pharmacy practice and evidence-based research ( Cummings et al., 2013 ). The investigator randomly assigns a representative sample of the study population into an experimental group and a control group ( Fig. 4 ). Randomization in RCT is to minimize confounding and selection bias; it enables attainment of similar experimental and control groups, thereby isolating the effect of the intervention. The experimental group receives the treatment or intervention (e.g., a new drug or pharmaceutical care for treatment of a certain disease), while the control group receives a placebo treatment, no treatment, or usual care treatment depending on the objective of the study ( Cummings et al., 2013 ). These groups are then followed prospectively over time to observe the outcomes of interest that are hypothesized to be affected by the treatment or intervention. The result of the study is considered to have high internal validity if significant changes on the outcome variable occur in the experimental group, but not the control group. The investigator can infer that the treatment or intervention is the most probable cause of the changes observed in the intervention group. The unit of randomization in RCTs is usually the patient, but can sometimes be clusters to circumvent the drawbacks of contamination.

RCTs are very challenging to undertake and pharmacy practice researchers should ensure design of robust experiments, while considering all essential elements and adhering to best practices. For instance, to determine the impact of a cognitive pharmaceutical service, the selection of a representative sample of the population is a prime consideration in an RCT. Moreover, RCTs are expensive, labor-intensive, and highly prone to attrition bias or loss to follow-up.

In pharmacy practice research, it is often difficult to comply with the stringent requirements of true experimental designs such as RCTs, due to logistic reasons and/or ethical considerations ( Grady et al., 2013 , Krass, 2016 ). Whenever true experimental models are not feasible to be applied in pharmacy practice research, the researcher should endeavor to use a more robust quasi-experimental design. For instance, when randomization is not feasible, the researcher can choose from a range of quasi-experimental designs that are non-randomized and often noncontrolled ( Grady et al., 2013 , Krass, 2016 ). Quasi-experimental studies used in pharmacy literature may be classified into five major categories: (1) quasi-experimental design without control groups (i.e., one group pre–posttest design); (2) quasi-experimental design that use control groups with no pretest; (3) quasi-experimental design that use control groups and pretests (i.e., nonequivalent control group design with dependent pretests and posttests) (see Fig. 5 ); (4) interrupted time series and; (5) stepped wedge designs ( Brown and Lilford, 2006 , Grady et al., 2013 , Harris et al., 2006 ).

The one group pretest posttest design and the nonequivalent control group design ( Fig. 5 ) are the most commonly applied quasi-experimental designs in practice-based research literature. These designs have been commonly used to evaluate the effect of pharmacist interventions in medications management in general and specific disease states management. The lack of randomization and/or the lack of control group is a major weakness and a threat to internal validity in quasi-experimental designs ( Grady et al., 2013 ). The observed changes could be due to some effects other than the treatment.

Other Quantitative Study Designs

In addition to the common observational, experimental, and quasi-experimental designs described above, there are other designs that are used in pharmacy. These research methods include, but are not limited to, simulated client technique, discrete choice experiments, and Delphi techniques. These methods, which are considered relatively new to pharmacy, are now commonly used in pharmacy practice research. In this chapter, we briefly describe these methods and their application in pharmacy. However, a more detailed description of their components and the nitty gritty of their application in pharmacy practice are available elsewhere within this textbook.

Simulated Client Method

The use of simulated client or simulated patient (mystery shopper) method to assess practices or behaviors in pharmacy practice has received much attention in recent times ( Watson et al., 2004 , Watson et al., 2006 ). “A simulated patient is an individual who is trained to visit a pharmacy (or drug store) to enact a scenario that tests a specific behavior of the pharmacist or pharmacy staff” ( Watson et al., 2006 ). A review by Watson et al. demonstrated the versatility and applicability of this method to pharmacy practice research in both developing and developed countries ( Watson et al., 2006 ). The investigators also identified some important characteristics that should be taken into consideration in designing studies that use this technique.

This method can be used to assess wide range of cognitive pharmacy services including counseling and advice provision, treatment of minor ailments, provision of nonprescription medicines, and public health pharmacy, among other things. This method can be a robust and rigorous method of assessing pharmacy practice if used appropriately ( Watson et al., 2006 , Xu et al., 2012 ). More recent developments have documented that the simulated patient methods have been used to provide formative feedback in addition to assessing practice behavior of pharmacists and their staff ( Xu et al., 2012 ).

In a case example, a group of investigators evaluated Qatari pharmacists' prescribing, labeling, dispensing, and counseling practices in response to acute community-acquired gastroenteritis ( Ibrahim et al., 2016 ). In another example, the investigators documented the state of insomnia management at community pharmacies in Pakistan ( Hussain et al., 2013 ).

Discrete Choice Experiments

Evidence in healthcare suggests that understanding consumers' preferences can help policy-makers to design services to match their views and preferences ( Ryan, 2004 ). Traditionally, studies to understand patients' and consumers' preferences for pharmaceutical services used opinion or satisfaction survey instruments. Nevertheless, such satisfaction surveys lack the ability to identify the drivers of satisfaction or the relative importance of the different characteristics of the service ( Vass et al., 2016 ). Discrete choice experiments are a novel survey-based method in pharmacy that are predicated on economic theories that allow systematic quantification of preferences to help identify which attributes of a good or service consumers like, the relative value of each attribute, and the balance between the different attributes ( Naik Panvelkar et al., 2010 , Ryan, 2004 , Vass et al., 2016 ). In-depth description of this method and its essential elements are described in another chapter in the Encyclopedia.

Qualitative Research Designs in Pharmacy Practice

Qualitative research methodology is applied to investigate a problem that has unmeasurable variables, to get a comprehensive understanding of the topic, through discussing it with the involved individuals, and to recognize the natural context in which the investigated issue takes place ( Creswell, 2013 ). The use of qualitative research methodology is becoming increasingly common across diverse health-related disciplines, including pharmacy practice. This is because of its ability to describe social processes and behaviors associated with patients or healthcare professionals, which strengthen the research impact ( McLaughlin et al., 2016 ). Therefore, pharmacy researchers and practitioners need to be better oriented to qualitative research methods ( Behar-Horenstein et al., 2018 ).

In the following section, interpretative frameworks and philosophical orientations, methodologies, data collection and analysis methods, approaches to ensure rigor, and ethical considerations in qualitative research are briefly discussed ( Cohen et al., 2013 , Creswell, 2013 ).

Interpretative Framework and Philosophical Assumptions of Qualitative Research

Interpretative frameworks.

Interpretative frameworks are the conceptual structures for comprehension, which form researcher's reasoning and views of truth and knowledge ( Babbie, 2015 ). Different scholars have categorized qualitative research paradigms or interpretative frameworks differently. The following are examples of interpretative framework categories that are used in health science research based on the categorization of Creswell (2013) : (1) social constructivism (interpretivism) framework; (2) post-positivism framework; (3) transformative, feminist, critical frameworks and disabilities theories; (4) postmodern frameworks; (5) pragmatism frameworks.

Philosophical Assumptions

Philosophical assumptions are theories and perspectives about ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology, which underpin the interpretative frameworks selected by qualitative researchers ( Cohen et al., 2013 ). As with interpretative framework, there are numerous means to categorize the philosophical assumptions that are folded within interpretative framework. The following are explanations of philosophical assumptions based on the categorization of Creswell (2013) :

• 1. Ontological assumptions, which define the nature of reality
• 2. Epistemological assumptions, which clarify means for knowing reality
• 3. Axiological assumptions, which explain the role and influence of researcher values
• 4. Methodological assumptions, which identify approaches to inquiry

It is important that a qualitative researcher understands how interpretative frameworks (e.g., social constructivism, post-positivism, and pragmatic interpretative frameworks) are differentiated because of their underpinning philosophical assumptions (i.e., ontological, epistemological, axiological, and methodological assumptions).

Approaches to Inquiry (Methodology)

It is important that qualitative researchers understand the differences between the characteristics of the five qualitative approaches to inquiry, in order to select an approach to inquiry and attain methodological congruence ( Creswell, 2013 ). The five approaches to qualitative research inquiry are:

• a. Narrative research: Describes participants' written and spoken stories about their experiences with a phenomenon being investigated, while considering the chronological connection of the phenomenon's series of events ( Anderson and Kirkpatrick, 2016 , Creswell, 2013 , Czarniawska, 2004 ).
• b. Phenomenological research: Describes the essence of participants' common experiences of a phenomenon, so that the description is a general essence rather than an individual experience ( Creswell, 2013 , Giorgi, 1997 , Moustakas, 1994 ).
• c. Grounded theory research: Aims to generate a theory grounded in participants' data that conceptually explain a social phenomenon, which could involve social processes, or actions or interactions ( Creswell, 2013 , Strauss and Corbin, 1990 , Woods et al., 2016 ).
• d. Ethnographic research: Involves describing the shared patterns of values, behaviors, and beliefs of culture-sharing participants ( Creswell, 2013 , Harris, 1968 , Rosenfeld et al., 2017 ).
• e. Case study research: Provides an in-depth examination of a real-life contemporary phenomenon that researchers cannot change over time, to illustrate the significance of another general topic ( Baker, 2011 , Creswell, 2013 , de León-Castañeda et al., 2018 , Mukhalalati, 2016 , Yin, 2014 ).

Data Collection and Analysis Methods in Qualitative Research

Data collection tools in qualitative research can be categorized into the following fundamental categories ( Creswell, 2013 ):

• a. Observation
• b. Documents
• c. Individual semi-structured interviews
• d. Focus groups (FGs)
• e. Audio-visual materials
• f. Emails chat rooms, weblogs, social media, and instant messaging.
• a. Topic guides: Topic guides guide the discussions in focus groups and individual interviews, and contain open-ended questions and probes, to enable the researcher to understand the complete picture, based on participant views and experiences. They are developed based on the literature review, aim and objectives, research questions, and propositions ( Kleiber, 2004 ).
• b. Audio recording of FGs and interviews: Audio recording of discussions that take place in interviews and FGs is essential for managing and analyzing data, and for increasing the accuracy of data collection and analysis, and ultimately enhancing the dependability and credibility of the research ( Rosenthal, 2016 , Tuckett, 2005 ).
• c. Transcription of FGs and interviews recording: Verbatim transcription refers to the word-for-word conversion of oral words from an audio-recorded format into a scripted text format. Transcribing data is considered as the first data reduction step because it generates texts that can be examined and rechecked ( Miles et al., 2014 , Grossoehme, 2014 ).

Data analysis comprises several fundamental steps, including reading the transcribed text, arranging data, coding data deductively based on prefigured themes or inductively to produce emergent themes, and then summarizing the codes into themes, and finally presenting the analyzed data as results ( Cohen et al., 2013 , Crabtree and Miller, 1999 , Pope et al., 2000 ).

The most commonly used data analysis methods in health science research are:

Thematic analysis is characterized by identifying, analyzing, and reporting themes that are available in the data ( Braun and Clarke, 2006 , Castleberry and Nolen, 2018 ).

Content analysis comprises systematic coding followed by quantification of the analyzed data in a logical and unbiased way ( Berelson, 1952 , Vaismoradi et al., 2013 ).

Discourse analysis emphasizes the core format and the structure of texts to examine the assumptions and concealed aspirations behind discourses ( Brown and Yule, 1983 , Gee, 2004 ).

Quality Perspectives in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research validation involves ensuring the rigor of the utilized data collection, management, and analysis methods, by utilizing approaches to ensure the quality. In pharmacy practice research, Hadi and Closs, 2016a , Hadi and Closs, 2016b argued that quality in qualitative research topic has not been discussed widely in the literature, and therefore Hadi and Closs, 2016a , Hadi and Closs, 2016b suggested using several trustworthiness criteria to ensure the rigor of qualitative study. The trustworthiness criteria for ensuring quality in qualitative research ( Lincoln and Guba, 1985 ) are:

This criterion aims to ensure that the results are true and increases the possibility that the conclusions are credible ( Cohen and Crabtree, 2008 ).

This criterion aims to indicate that the research results are repeatable and consistent, in order to support the conclusions of the research ( Cohen and Crabtree, 2008 ).

This criterion aims to confirm the neutrality in interpretation by ensuring that the perspectives of participants, not the bias of researchers, influence the results ( Krefting, 1991 ).

This criterion involves identifying the contexts to which the study results can be generalized, and indicating if the study conclusions can be applied in similar setting ( Yin, 2014 ).

Reflexivity implies revealing and evaluating the effect and biases that researchers can possibly bring to research process, by explaining the researcher's opinion, feelings, and experience with the phenomenon in question, and explaining the influence of this experience on research methods, findings, and write-ups ( Creswell, 2013 , Krefting, 1991 , Lincoln and Guba, 1985 ).

Ethical Considerations

Obtaining an ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) is required before conducting the qualitative research ( Creswell, 2013 ). The key ethical issues that need to be considered are:

Informed consent refers to the decision taken by a competent individual to voluntarily participate in a research, after adequately understanding the research. Participant information leaflet is usually distributed to participants before they consent to participate in the research to clarify them the voluntary nature of research participation, the aim and objectives of the research, the rights of the respondents and the potential risks and harms, the data collection, management and storage conditions, and the right of participants to withdraw from the research ( Jefford and Moore, 2008 ).

The anonymity is usually ensured by not disclosing names of participants and by utilizing a code system to identify them during data collection, management, analysis, and in the writing up of the research. The confidentiality of participants and data is ensured by using a code system to identify participants, and by storing all data in a locked cabinet and a password-protected computer for a specified period of time ( Creswell, 2013 ).

Power imbalance is caused by the fact that participants have the experience about the investigated phenomenon, and researchers need to obtain information about these experiences. The power imbalance is usually associated with interaction between the researcher and participants during recruitment stage, and during data collection, analysis, interpretation, and validation stages. Hence, researchers should take suitable measures at each stage to decrease the influence of possible power imbalance, and should enhance trust with participants ( Karnieli-Miller et al., 2009 , Yardley, 2000 ).

Mixed Methods in Pharmacy Practice Research

Research studies in pharmacy practice usually utilize single-method research designs. However, often these report numerous limitations and may not adequately answer the research question. Therefore, the combination of more than one research method to answer certain research questions has become increasingly common in pharmacy practice research ( Ryan et al., 2015 ). Mixed methods research design is now a popular and widely used research paradigm in pharmacy practice research fields ( Hadi et al., 2013 , Hadi et al., 2014 ; Hadi and Closs, 2016a , Hadi and Closs, 2016b , Ryan et al., 2015 ). Mixed methods research allows the expansion of the scope of research to offset the weaknesses of using either quantitative or qualitative approach alone ( Creswell et al., 2004 , Hadi et al., 2013 ; Hadi and Closs, 2016a , Hadi and Closs, 2016b , Pluye and Hong, 2014 ). Typically, qualitative and quantitative data are collected concurrently or sequentially in order to increase the validity and the comprehensiveness of the study findings ( Creswell et al., 2004 , Hadi et al., 2013 ; Hadi and Closs, 2016a , Hadi and Closs, 2016b , Pluye and Hong, 2014 , Ryan et al., 2015 ). The mixed method approach provides an expanded understanding of phenomenon under investigation through the comparison between qualitative and quantitative data ( Hadi et al., 2013 ; Hadi and Closs, 2016a , Hadi and Closs, 2016b , Pluye and Hong, 2014 ).

This section provides an overview and application of mixed method research in pharmacy practice. However, considerations in selecting, designing, and analyzing mixed methods research studies as well as the various typologies of mixed methods research are discussed elsewhere. Johnson et al. (2007) proposed the following definition for mixed methods research: “The type of research in which a researcher or team of researchers combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches (e.g., use of qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques) for the broad purpose of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration.”

Mixed methods design allows the viewpoints of participants to be reflected, enables methodological flexibility, and promotes multidisciplinary teamwork ( Ryan et al., 2015 ). Furthermore, the approach allows a more holistic understanding of the research question. However, its major limitations include: need for wide range of research expertise across the research team members, highly labor-intensive, and the complexity of data integration.

Scholars believe that it is challenging to provide researchers with a step-by-step guide on how to undertake a mixed methods study and that this is driven by the specific research question ( Ryan et al., 2015 ). Nevertheless, the investigator should precisely determine the type of qualitative and quantitative methods to be employed, the order of data collection to be undertaken, the data collection instruments to be used, and the method of data analysis ( Ryan et al., 2015 ). This approach encompasses a synthesis of findings from both quantitative and qualitative components, which is achieved through integration of the findings from each approach ( Hadi et al., 2013 ; Hadi and Closs, 2016a , Hadi and Closs, 2016b , Pluye and Hong, 2014 ).

Different models or typologies for mixed methods research have been described in the literature. The most common typologies used in pharmacy practice and health services research include: concurrent or convergent parallel design, exploratory sequential design, explanatory sequential design, and the embedded design ( Hadi et al., 2013 , Pluye and Hong, 2014 ). Scholars believe that there are several factors to consider when selecting the typology or model of mixed methods research to use. These factors include: the order of qualitative and quantitative data collection (concurrent vs. sequential); priority of data (i.e., which type of data has priority between quantitative and qualitative data); purpose of integration of the data (e.g., triangulation); and number of data strands ( Hadi et al., 2013 , Pluye and Hong, 2014 ). In mixed methods research, integration of qualitative and quantitative findings is critical, and this research approach does not simply involve the collection of these data ( Ryan et al., 2015 ).

Summary and Take-Home Messages

• • In the era of evidence-based practice, it is not sufficient to propose new pharmacy services or roles without evidence of their benefit.
• • New pharmacy services and new roles must be proven to be feasible, acceptable, beneficial, and cost-effective.
• • Practice-based research provides such evidence and can inform policy, confirm the value of the new service, and change practice.
• • Various study designs, including, but not limited to experimental, quasi-experimental, observational, qualitative, and mixed-methods designs, have been used in pharmacy practice research.
• • Pharmacy practice researchers need to be competent in the selection, design, application, and interpretation of these methodological and analytical approaches.
• • The choice of any study design in pharmacy practice research is driven by the expertise of the investigator, type of research question or hypothesis, data availability, time orientation, ethical issues, and availability of funding.

There is a great demand for innovation and quality in pharmacy practice. These can be achieved partly through robust and well-designed pharmacy practice research. Pharmacy students, practitioners, educators, and policy-makers are exposed to a variety of research designs and methods. We need to have the best evidence (e.g., in policy, regulation, practice) for making decisions about the optimal research design that ensures delivering an ultimate pharmacy practice and a quality patient care.

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A Practical Guide in Writing a Medicinal Chemistry Research Proposal for Students Entering Research

The aim is to give an overview summary of the research and discuss the merits and broader impacts of the research project. The quality of the research proposal depends not only on the quality of the research you proposed but also included the writing of your project. Research proposal help assist students in a different way to fulfill their academic goals. Some students that have lack of subject knowledge feel it challenging to feed the readers with sufficient information in the proposal, so there is a consultation PhD proposal writing service with the expert help supply all the central details on the project. The role of new researchers while writing a medical chemistry research proposal is to make the readers that the solution for the research question is practical and appropriate. Students find it challenging to write a quality PhD research proposal by considering the organization format. When you Order any reflective report at Tutors India, we promise you the following; Plagiarism free, Always on Time, Outstanding customer support, Written to Standard, Unlimited Revisions support, High-quality Subject Matter Experts. Contact: Website: www.tutorsindia.com Email: [email protected] United Kingdom: +44-1143520021 India: +91-4448137070 Whatsapp Number: +91-8754446690 Read more: https://bit.ly/32U6O8J

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How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates)

Table of Contents

Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.  

Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.  

This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.  

What is a Research Proposal ?  

A research proposal¹ ,²  can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.   

With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.  

Purpose of Research Proposals  

A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.  

Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³  

• To describe the importance of research in the specific topic  
• Address any potential challenges you may encounter  
• Showcase knowledge in the field and your ability to conduct a study  
• Apply for a role at a research institute  
• Convince a research supervisor or university that your research can satisfy the requirements of a degree program  
• Highlight the importance of your research to organizations that may sponsor your project  
• Identify implications of your project and how it can benefit the audience  

What Goes in a Research Proposal?    

Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.  

The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.  

The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.  

The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.   

Research Proposal Example  

Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.  

Structure of a Research Proposal  

If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹  

1. Introduction  

This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.  

2. Literature review  

This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.  

3. Objectives  

Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.  

4. Research design and methodology  

Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.  

5. Ethical considerations  

This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.  

6. Budget/funding  

Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.  

7. Appendices  

This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.  

8. Citations  

Important Tips for Writing a Research Proposal  

Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5  

The Planning Stage  

• Manage your time efficiently. Plan to have the draft version ready at least two weeks before your deadline and the final version at least two to three days before the deadline.
• What is the primary objective of your research?  
• Will your research address any existing gap?  
• What is the impact of your proposed research?  
• Do people outside your field find your research applicable in other areas?  
• If your research is unsuccessful, would there still be other useful research outcomes?  

  The Writing Stage  

• Create an outline with main section headings that are typically used.  
• Focus only on writing and getting your points across without worrying about the format of the research proposal , grammar, punctuation, etc. These can be fixed during the subsequent passes. Add details to each section heading you created in the beginning.   
• Ensure your sentences are concise and use plain language. A research proposal usually contains about 2,000 to 4,000 words or four to seven pages.  
• Don’t use too many technical terms and abbreviations assuming that the readers would know them. Define the abbreviations and technical terms.  
• Ensure that the entire content is readable. Avoid using long paragraphs because they affect the continuity in reading. Break them into shorter paragraphs and introduce some white space for readability.  
• Focus on only the major research issues and cite sources accordingly. Don’t include generic information or their sources in the literature review.  
• Proofread your final document to ensure there are no grammatical errors so readers can enjoy a seamless, uninterrupted read.  
• Use academic, scholarly language because it brings formality into a document.  
• Ensure that your title is created using the keywords in the document and is neither too long and specific nor too short and general.  
• Cite all sources appropriately to avoid plagiarism.  
• Make sure that you follow guidelines, if provided. This includes rules as simple as using a specific font or a hyphen or en dash between numerical ranges.  
• Ensure that you’ve answered all questions requested by the evaluating authority.  

Key Takeaways   

Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:  

• A research proposal is a document that outlines the details of a proposed study and is created by researchers to submit to evaluators who could be research institutions, universities, faculty, etc.  
• Research proposals are usually about 2,000-4,000 words long, but this depends on the evaluating authority’s guidelines.  
• A good research proposal ensures that you’ve done your background research and assessed the feasibility of the research.  
• Research proposals have the following main sections—introduction, literature review, objectives, methodology, ethical considerations, and budget.  

Frequently Asked Questions  

Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?  

A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6  

• Significance —Does the research address any important subject or issue, which may or may not be specific to the evaluator or university?  
• Content and design —Is the proposed methodology appropriate to answer the research question? Are the objectives clear and well aligned with the proposed methodology?  
• Sample size and selection —Is the target population or cohort size clearly mentioned? Is the sampling process used to select participants randomized, appropriate, and free of bias?  
• Timing —Are the proposed data collection dates mentioned clearly? Is the project feasible given the specified resources and timeline?  
• Data management and dissemination —Who will have access to the data? What is the plan for data analysis?  

Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?  

A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.  

Q3. How long should a research proposal be?  

A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.  

Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?  

A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7  

• No clear objectives: Objectives should be clear, specific, and measurable for the easy understanding among readers.  
• Incomplete or unconvincing background research: Background research usually includes a review of the current scenario of the particular industry and also a review of the previous literature on the subject. This helps readers understand your reasons for undertaking this research because you identified gaps in the existing research.  
• Overlooking project feasibility: The project scope and estimates should be realistic considering the resources and time available.   
• Neglecting the impact and significance of the study: In a research proposal , readers and evaluators look for the implications or significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing research. This information should always be included.  
• Unstructured format of a research proposal : A well-structured document gives confidence to evaluators that you have read the guidelines carefully and are well organized in your approach, consequently affirming that you will be able to undertake the research as mentioned in your proposal.  
• Ineffective writing style: The language used should be formal and grammatically correct. If required, editors could be consulted, including AI-based tools such as Paperpal , to refine the research proposal structure and language.  

Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.  

This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.  

References  

• Sudheesh K, Duggappa DR, Nethra SS. How to write a research proposal? Indian J Anaesth. 2016;60(9):631-634. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037942/  
• Writing research proposals. Harvard College Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships. Harvard University. Accessed July 14, 2024. https://uraf.harvard.edu/apply-opportunities/app-components/essays/research-proposals  
• What is a research proposal? Plus how to write one. Indeed website. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-proposal  
• Research proposal template. University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/MediaLibraries/URMCMedia/pediatrics/research/documents/Research-proposal-Template.pdf  
• Tips for successful proposal writing. Johns Hopkins University. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://research.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Tips-for-Successful-Proposal-Writing.pdf  
• Formal review of research proposals. Cornell University. Accessed July 18, 2024. https://irp.dpb.cornell.edu/surveys/survey-assessment-review-group/research-proposals  
• 7 Mistakes you must avoid in your research proposal. Aveksana (via LinkedIn). Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-mistakes-you-must-avoid-your-research-proposal-aveksana-cmtwf/  

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We have 133 Pharmacy PhD Projects, Programmes & Scholarships

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Pharmacy PhD Projects, Programmes & Scholarships

What is a phd in pharmacy.

• PhDs in Pharmacy are doctoral research degrees that allow students to deeply explore a particular aspect of pharmaceutical sciences.
• Specifics vary drastically between programmes, but may involve research into drug development, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and the impact of pharmaceuticals on human health.
• Entry requirements typically include an undergraduate degree in an appropriate subject such as Pharmacy, Chemistry, or Biology. A relevant Masters degree may also be required depending on the programme.

Why study a PhD in Pharmacy?

Develop skills and knowledge.

A PhD in Pharmacy allows you to not only develop your own knowledge of pharmaceutical sciences, but also to make a unique, original contribution to the subject as a whole. By doing so, you will hone a variety of transferable skills, such as:

• Research and Analytical Skills: Ability to design, conduct, and analyse complex research projects.
• Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving: Expertise in evaluating pharmaceutical theories and practices to address challenges.
• Communication and Presentation Skills: Proficiency in effectively conveying ideas and findings to diverse audiences.

Further Career Development

If you're hoping for a career in academia, a PhD is typically required. Other research-based careers may likewise require a PhD, and even when they don't, employers will value the research skills and knowledge developed during your degree. For more information, please visit our PhD employability guide .

After completing your PhD in Pharmacy, a potential career option might be employment as a Medical Researcher . According to UK salary data from Glassdoor , a Medical Researcher earns an average of £33,499 per year , dependent on factors such as experience, employer and employment location.

Improve Employability

Completing a PhD may also improve your employability. According to the UK government's LEO Graduate and Postgraduate Outcomes survey , 89% of Medicine PhD students were in further education or employment three years after graduation.

What do prospective Medicine PhD students think about study?

We host the Pulse postgraduate survey to understand the motivations, concerns and expectations of students just like you. For prospective Medicine PhD students in 2023:

• 75% were either positive or very positive about employment after graduation.
• 66% preferred on campus learning, 12% preferred online/distance learning, and 22% preferred a blended approach.
• 19% were interested in part-time study.
• Subject interest
• Career progress
• Skills development

If you'd like to make your voice heard, why not complete our survey? Your feedback will help us ensure our site is as helpful as possible for students like you!

Note: This guidance was produced with the assistance of AI. However, all data is derived from reliable, authoratitive sources, and all content has been reviewed by humans.

The Creation of Anti-Viral Plastic Nanobodies for Diagnostics and Therapeutics via Molecular Imprinting of Synthetic Polymers

Phd research project.

PhD Research Projects are advertised opportunities to examine a pre-defined topic or answer a stated research question. Some projects may also provide scope for you to propose your own ideas and approaches.

Self-Funded PhD Students Only

This project does not have funding attached. You will need to have your own means of paying fees and living costs and / or seek separate funding from student finance, charities or trusts.

Generation of human cytomegalovirus-pseudotyped particles and development of systems for the study of viral cell entry mechanisms, neutralizing antibody responses to infection and vaccination, and testing of potential novel therapeutics

Cross-talks of immune checkpoint pathways determine the abilities of human malignant tumours to suppress cytotoxic attacks and escape immune surveillance, circadian rhythms and ageing, on-demand regulation of the transcriptional activity of redox induced transcription factors in cancer using bioelectronics, identifying the causes and cellular effects of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (fsgs), understanding and curing genetic kidney disease, exploring the glioblastoma evolution and response to treatments using a dynamic 3d immunocompetent ipsc-brain organoid, funded phd project (uk students only).

This research project has funding attached. It is only available to UK citizens or those who have been resident in the UK for a period of 3 years or more. Some projects, which are funded by charities or by the universities themselves may have more stringent restrictions.

Using risk prediction tools to identify inpatients at risk of medication-related harm

The integration of routine pharmacogenomics testing into general practice in the norfolk coast healthcare setting (patelm_u25nnhcfmh), phd studies in mental health, substance use disorders, multimorbidity, health services research (nursing, pharmacy, allied or public health focus), funded phd programme (students worldwide).

Some or all of the PhD opportunities in this programme have funding attached. Applications for this programme are welcome from suitably qualified candidates worldwide. Funding may only be available to a limited set of nationalities and you should read the full programme details for further information.

PhD Research Programme

PhD Research Programmes present a range of research opportunities shaped by a university’s particular expertise, facilities and resources. You will usually identify a suitable topic for your PhD and propose your own project. Additional training and development opportunities may also be offered as part of your programme.

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