interview protocol in qualitative research

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Interview protocol design

On this page you will find our recommendations for creating an interview protocol for both structured and semi-structured interviews. Your protocol can be viewed as a guide for the interview: what to say at the beginning of the interview to introduce yourself and the topic of the interview, how to collect participant consent, interview questions, and what to say when you end the interview. These tips have been adapted from  Jacob and Furgerson’s (2012) guide to writing interview protocols and conducting interviews for those new to qualitative research. Your protocol may have more questions if you are planning a structured interview. However, it may have fewer and more open-ended questions if you are planning a semi-structured interview, in order to allow more time for participants to elaborate on their responses and for you to ask follow-up questions.

Interview protocol design accordion widget

Use a script to open and close the interview.

This will allow you to share all of the relevant information about your study and critical details about informed consent before you begin the interview. It will also allow a space to close the interview and give the participant an opportunity to share additional thoughts that haven’t yet been discussed in the interview.

Collect informed consent

The most common (and encouraged) means of gaining informed consent is by giving the participant a participant information sheet as well as an informed consent form to read through and then sign before you begin the interview. You can find the template for participant information sheets  and informed consent form on the Imperial College London Education Ethics Review Process (EERP) webpage . Other resources for the EERP process can also be found on this website.

Start with the basics

To help build rapport and a comfortable space for the participant, start out with questions that ask for some basic background information. This could include asking their name, their course year, how they are doing, whether they have any interesting things happening at the moment, their likes and interests etc. (although be careful not to come across as inauthentic). This will help both you and the participant to have an open conversation throughout the interview.

Create open-ended questions

Open-ended questions enable more time and space for the participant to open up and share more detail about their experiences. Using phrases like “Tell me about…” rather than “Did you ever experience X?” will be less likely to elicit only “yes” or “no” answers, which do not provide rich data. If a participant does give a “yes” or “no” answer, but you would like to know more, you can ask, “Can you tell me why?” or “Could you please elaborate on that answer a bit more?” For example, if you are interviewing a student about their sense of belonging at Imperial, you could ask, “Can you tell me about a time when you felt a real sense that you belonged at Imperial College London?”

Ensure your questions are informed by existing research

Before creating your interview questions, conduct a thorough review of the literature about the topic you are investigating through interviews. For example, research on the topic of “students’ sense of belonging” has emphasised the importance of students feeling respected by other members of the university. Therefore, it would be a good idea to include a question about “respect” if you are interested in your students’ sense of belonging at Imperial or within their departments and study areas (e.g. the classroom). See our sense of belonging interview protocol for an idea.

Begin with questions that are easier to answer, then move to more difficult or abstract questions

Be aware that even if you have explained your topic to the participant, you should not assume that they have the same understanding of the topic as you. Resist the temptation to simply ask your research questions to your participants directly, particularly at the beginning of the interview, as these will often be too conceptual and abstract for them to answer easily. Asking abstract questions too early on can alienate your participant. By asking more concrete questions that participants can answer easily, you will build rapport and trust more quickly. Start by asking questions about concrete experiences, preferably ones that are very recent or ongoing. For example, if you are interested in students’ sense of belonging, do not start by asking whether a student “belongs” or how they perceive their “belonging.” Rather, try asking about how they have felt in recent modules to give them the opportunity to raise any positive or negative experiences themselves. Later, you can ask questions which specifically address concepts related to sense of belonging, for example whether they always feel “respected” (to follow on from our earlier example). Then, at the end of the interview, you could ask your participant to reflect more directly and generally on your topic. For example, it may be good to end an interview by asking the participant to summarise the extent to which they feel they ‘belong’ and what the main factors are. Note that this advice is particularly important if dealing with topics that may be difficult to form an opinion on, such as topics which require students to remember things from the distant past, or which deal with controversial topics.  

Use prompts

If you are asking open-ended questions, the intention is that the participant will use that as an opportunity to provide you with rich qualitative detail about their experiences and perceptions. However, participants sometimes need prompts to get them going. Try to anticipate what prompts you could give to help someone answer each of your open-ended questions (Jacob & Furgerson, 2012). For example, if you are investigating sense of belonging and the participant is struggling to respond to the question “What could someone see about you that would show them that you felt like you belonged?”, you might prompt them to think about their clothes or accessories (for example do they wear or carry anything with the Imperial College London logo) or their activities (for example membership in student groups), and what meaning they attach to these. 

Be prepared to revise your protocol during and after the interview

During the interview, you may notice that some additional questions might pop into your mind, or you might need to re-order the questions, depending on the response of the participant and the direction in which the interview is going. This is fine, as it probably means the interview is flowing like a natural conversation. You might even find that this new order of questions should be adopted for future interviews, and you can adjust the protocol accordingly.

Be mindful of how much time the interview will take

When designing the protocol, keep in mind that six to ten well-written questions may make for an interview lasting approximately one hour. Consider who you are interviewing, and remember that you are asking people to share their experiences and their time with you, so be mindful of how long you expect the interview to last.

Pilot test your questions with a colleague

Pilot testing your interview protocol will help you to assess whether your interview questions make sense. Pilot testing gives you the chance to familiarise yourself with the order and flow of the questions out loud, which will help you to feel more comfortable when you begin conducting the interviews for your data collection.

Jacob, S. A., & Furgerson, S. P. (2012). Writing Interview Protocols and Conducting Interviews: Tips for Students New to the Field of Qualitative Research. The Qualitative Report, 17 (2), 1-10.

Welch, C., & Piekkari, R. (2006). Crossing Language Boundaries:. Management International Review, 46 , 417-437. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs11575-006-0099-1.pdf

Prompts, Not Questions: Four Techniques for Crafting Better Interview Protocols

• Published: 05 June 2021
• Volume 44 , pages 507–528, ( 2021 )

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• Tomás R. Jiménez 1 &
• Marlene Orozco 2  

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A Correction to this article was published on 05 August 2023

This article has been updated

We offer effective ways to write interview protocol “prompts” that are generative of the most critical types of information researchers wish to learn from interview respondents: salience of events, attributes, and experiences; the structure of what is normal; perceptions of cause and effect; and views about sensitive topics. We offer tips for writing and putting into practice protocol prompts that we have found to be effective at obtaining each of these kinds of information. In doing so, we encourage researchers to think of an interview protocol as a series of prompts, rather than a list of questions, for respondents to talk about certain topics related to the main research question(s). We provide illustrative examples from our own research and that of our students and professional colleagues to show how generally minor tweaks to typical interview prompts result in richer interview data.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank our colleagues who supported this work and provided examples from their research: Emily Carian, Molly King, Tagart Sobotka, and Chloe Hart. Special thanks to Forrest Stuart for his input on several drafts. We would also like to thank the participants of the Migration, Ethnicity, Race and Nation workshop at Stanford for their comments on the manuscript.

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Jiménez, T.R., Orozco, M. Prompts, Not Questions: Four Techniques for Crafting Better Interview Protocols. Qual Sociol 44 , 507–528 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-021-09483-2

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Appendix: Qualitative Interview Design

Daniel W. Turner III and Nicole Hagstrom-Schmidt

Qualitative Interview Design: A Practical Guide for Novice Investigators

Qualitative research design can be complicated depending upon the level of experience a researcher may have with a particular type of methodology. As researchers, many aspire to grow and expand their knowledge and experiences with qualitative design in order to better utilize a variety of research paradigms. One of the more popular areas of interest in qualitative research design is that of the interview protocol. Interviews provide in-depth information pertaining to participants’ experiences and viewpoints of a particular topic. Oftentimes, interviews are coupled with other forms of data collection in order to provide the researcher with a well-rounded collection of information for analyses. This paper explores the effective ways to conduct in-depth, qualitative interviews for novice investigators by expanding upon the practical components of each interview design.

Categories of Qualitative Interview Design

As common with quantitative analyses, there are various forms of interview design that can be developed to obtain thick, rich data utilizing a qualitative investigational perspective. [1] For the purpose of this examination, there are three formats for interview design that will be explored which are summarized by Gall, Gall, and Borg:

• Informal conversational interview,
• General interview guide approach,
• Standardized open-ended interview. [2]

In addition, I will expand on some suggestions for conducting qualitative interviews which includes the construction of research questions as well as the analysis of interview data. These suggestions come from both my personal experiences with interviewing as well as the recommendations from the literature to assist novice interviewers.

Informal Conversational Interview

The informal conversational interview is outlined by Gall, Gall, and Borg for the purpose of relying “…entirely on the spontaneous generation of questions in a natural interaction, typically one that occurs as part of ongoing participant observation fieldwork.” [3] I am curious when it comes to other cultures or religions and I enjoy immersing myself in these environments as an active participant. I ask questions in order to learn more about these social settings without having a predetermined set of structured questions. Primarily the questions come from “in the moment experiences” as a means for further understanding or clarification of what I am witnessing or experiencing at a particular moment. With the informal conversational approach, the researcher does not ask any specific types of questions, but rather relies on the interaction with the participants to guide the interview process. [4] Think of this type of interview as an “off the top of your head” style of interview where you really construct questions as you move forward. Many consider this type of interview beneficial because of the lack of structure, which allows for flexibility in the nature of the interview. However, many researchers view this type of interview as unstable or unreliable because of the inconsistency in the interview questions, thus making it difficult to code data. [5] If you choose to conduct an informal conversational interview, it is critical to understand the need for flexibility and originality in the questioning as a key for success.

General Interview Guide Approach

The general interview guide approach is more structured than the informal conversational interview although there is still quite a bit of flexibility in its composition. [6] The ways that questions are potentially worded depend upon the researcher who is conducting the interview. Therefore, one of the obvious issues with this type of interview is the lack of consistency in the way research questions are posed because researchers can interchange the way he or she poses them. With that in mind, the respondents may not consistently answer the same question(s) based on how they were posed by the interviewer. [7] During research for my doctoral dissertation, I was able to interact with alumni participants in a relaxed and informal manner where I had the opportunity to learn more about the in-depth experiences of the participants through structured interviews. This informal environment allowed me the opportunity to develop rapport with the participants so that I was able to ask follow-up or probing questions based on their responses to pre-constructed questions. I found this quite useful in my interviews because I could ask questions or change questions based on participant responses to previous questions. The questions were structured, but adapting them allowed me to explore a more personal approach to each alumni interview.

According to McNamara, the strength of the general interview guide approach is the ability of the researcher “…to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting information from the interviewee.” [8] The researcher remains in the driver’s seat with this type of interview approach, but flexibility takes precedence based on perceived prompts from the participants.

You might ask, “What does this mean anyway?” The easiest way to answer that question is to think about your own personal experiences at a job interview. When you were invited to a job interview in the past, you might have prepared for all sorts of curve ball-style questions to come your way. You desired an answer for every potential question. If the interviewer were asking you questions using a general interview guide approach, he or she would ask questions using their own unique style, which might differ from the way the questions were originally created. You as the interviewee would then respond to those questions in the manner in which the interviewer asked which would dictate how the interview continued. Based on how the interviewer asked the question(s), you might have been able to answer more information or less information than that of other job candidates. Therefore, it is easy to see how this could positively or negatively influence a job candidate if the interviewer were using a general interview guide approach.

Standardized Open-Ended Interviews

The standardized open-ended interview is extremely structured in terms of the wording of the questions. Participants are always asked identical questions, but the questions are worded so that responses are open-ended. [9] This open-endedness allows the participants to contribute as much detailed information as they desire and it also allows the researcher to ask probing questions as a means of follow-up. Standardized open-ended interviews are likely the most popular form of interviewing utilized in research studies because of the nature of the open-ended questions, allowing the participants to fully express their viewpoints and experiences. If one were to identify weaknesses with open-ended interviewing, they would likely identify the difficulty with coding the data. [10] Since open-ended interviews in composition call for participants to fully express their responses in as much detail as desired, it can be quite difficult for researchers to extract similar themes or codes from the interview transcripts as they would with less open-ended responses. Although the data provided by participants are rich and thick with qualitative data, it can be a more cumbersome process for the researcher to sift through the narrative responses in order to fully and accurately reflect an overall perspective of all interview responses through the coding process. However, according to Gall, Gall, and Borg, this reduces researcher biases within the study, particularly when the interviewing process involves many participants. [11]

Suggestions for Conducting Qualitative Interviews

Now that we know a few of the more popular interview designs that are available to qualitative researchers, we can more closely examine various suggestions for conducting qualitative interviews based on the available research. These suggestions are designed to provide the researcher with the tools needed to conduct a well constructed, professional interview with their participants. Some of the most common information found within the literature relating to interviews, according to Creswell [12] :

• The preparation for the interview,
• The constructing effective research questions,
• The actual implementation of the interview(s). [13]

Preparation for the Interview

Probably the most helpful tip with the interview process is that of interview preparation. This process can help make or break the process and can either alleviate or exacerbate the problematic circumstances that could potentially occur once the research is implemented. McNamara suggests the importance of the preparation stage in order to maintain an unambiguous focus as to how the interviews will be erected in order to provide maximum benefit to the proposed research study. [14] Along these lines Chenail provides a number of pre-interview exercises researchers can use to improve their instrumentality and address potential biases. [15] McNamara applies eight principles to the preparation stage of interviewing which includes the following ingredients:

• Choose a setting with little distraction;
• Explain the purpose of the interview;
• Address terms of confidentiality;
• Explain the format of the interview;
• Indicate how long the interview usually takes;
• Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to;
• Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview;
• Don’t count on your memory to recall their answers. [16]

Selecting Participants

Creswell discusses the importance of selecting the appropriate candidates for interviews. He asserts that the researcher should utilize one of the various types of sampling strategies such as criterion based sampling or critical case sampling (among many others) in order to obtain qualified candidates that will provide the most credible information to the study. [17] Creswell also suggests the importance of acquiring participants who will be willing to openly and honestly share information or “their story.” [18] It might be easier to conduct the interviews with participants in a comfortable environment where the participants do not feel restricted or uncomfortable to share information.

Pilot Testing

Another important element to the interview preparation is the implementation of a pilot test. The pilot test will assist the research in determining if there are flaws, limitations, or other weaknesses within the interview design and will allow him or her to make necessary revisions prior to the implementation of the study. [19] A pilot test should be conducted with participants that have similar interests as those that will participate in the implemented study. The pilot test will also assist the researchers with the refinement of research questions, which will be discussed in the next section.

Constructing Effective Research Questions

Creating effective research questions for the interview process is one of the most crucial components to interview design. Researchers desiring to conduct such an investigation should be careful that each of the questions will allow the examiner to dig deep into the experiences and/or knowledge of the participants in order to gain maximum data from the interviews. McNamara suggests several recommendations for creating effective research questions for interviews which includes the following elements:

• Wording should be open-ended (respondents should be able to choose their own terms when answering questions);
• Questions should be as neutral as possible (avoid wording that might influence answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording);
• Questions should be asked one at a time;
• Questions should be worded clearly (this includes knowing any terms particular to the program or the respondents’ culture); and
• Be careful asking “why” questions. [20]

Examples of Useful and Not-So Useful Research Questions

To assist the novice interviewer with the preparation of research questions, I will propose a useful research question and a not so useful research question. Based on McNamara’s suggestion, it is important to ask an open-ended question. [21] So for the useful question, I will propose the following: “How have your experiences as a kindergarten teacher influenced or not influenced you in the decisions that you have made in raising your children”? As you can see, the question allows the respondent to discuss how his or her experiences as a kindergarten teacher have or have not affected their decision-making with their own children without making the assumption that the experience has influenced their decision-making. On the other hand, if you were to ask a similar question, but from a less than useful perspective, you might construct the same question in this manner: “How has your experiences as a kindergarten teacher affected you as a parent”? As you can see, the question is still open-ended, but it makes the assumption that the experiences have indeed affected them as a parent. We as the researcher cannot make this assumption in the wording of our questions.

Follow-Up Questions

Creswell also makes the suggestion of being flexible with research questions being constructed. [22] He makes the assertion that respondents in an interview will not necessarily answer the question being asked by the researcher and, in fact, may answer a question that is asked in another question later in the interview. Creswell believes that the researcher must construct questions in such a manner to keep participants on focus with their responses to the questions. In addition, the researcher must be prepared with follow-up questions or prompts in order to ensure that they obtain optimal responses from participants. When I was an Assistant Director for a large division at my University a couple of years ago, I was tasked with the responsibility of hiring student affairs coordinators at our off-campus educational centers. Throughout the interviewing process, I found that interviewees did indeed get off topic with certain questions because they either misunderstood the question(s) being asked or did not wish to answer the question(s) directly. I was able to utilize Creswell’s suggestion [23] by reconstructing questions so that they were clearly assembled in a manner to reduce misunderstanding and was able to erect effective follow-up prompts to further understanding. This alleviated many of the problems I had and assisted me in extracting the information I needed from the interview through my follow-up questioning.

Implementation of Interviews

As with other sections of interview design, McNamara makes some excellent recommendations for the implementation stage of the interview process. He includes the following tips for interview implementation:

• Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working;
• Ask one question at a time;
• Attempt to remain as neutral as possible (that is, don’t show strong emotional reactions to their responses;
• Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, “uh huh”s, etc.;
• Be careful about the appearance when note taking (that is, if you jump to take a note, it may appear as if you’re surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may influence answers to future questions);
• Provide transition between major topics, e.g., “we’ve been talking about (some topic) and now I’d like to move on to (another topic);”
• Don’t lose control of the interview (this can occur when respondents stray to another topic, take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking questions to the interviewer). [24]

Interpreting Data

The final constituent in the interview design process is that of interpreting the data that was gathered during the interview process. During this phase, the researcher must make “sense” out of what was just uncovered and compile the data into sections or groups of information, also known as themes or codes. [25] These themes or codes are consistent phrases, expressions, or ideas that were common among research participants. [26] How the researcher formulates themes or codes vary. Many researchers suggest the need to employ a third party consultant who can review codes or themes in order to determine the quality and effectiveness based on their evaluation of the interview transcripts. [27] This helps alleviate researcher biases or potentially eliminate where over-analyzing of data has occurred. Many researchers may choose to employ an iterative review process where a committee of nonparticipating researchers can provide constructive feedback and suggestions to the researcher(s) primarily involved with the study.

From choosing the appropriate type of interview design process through the interpretation of interview data, this guide for conducting qualitative research interviews proposes a practical way to perform an investigation based on the recommendations and experiences of qualified researchers in the field and through my own personal experiences. Although qualitative investigation provides a myriad of opportunities for conducting investigational research, interview design has remained one of the more popular forms of analyses. As the variety of qualitative research methods become more widely utilized across research institutions, we will continue to see more practical guides for protocol implementation outlined in peer reviewed journals across the world.

This text was derived from

Turner, Daniel W., III. “Qualitative Interview Design: A Practical Guide for Novice Investigators.” The Qualitative Report 15, no. 3 (2010): 754-760. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2010.1178 . Licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 International License .

It is edited and reformatted by Nicole Hagstrom-Schmidt.

• John W. Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches , 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007). ↵
• M.D. Gall, Walter R. Borg, and Joyce P. Gall, Educational Research: An Introduction , 7th ed. (Boston, MA: Pearson, 2003). ↵
• M.D. Gall, Walter R. Borg, and Joyce P. Gall, Educational Research: An Introduction , 7th ed (Boston, MA: Pearson, 2003), 239. ↵
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• Ronald J. Chenail, “Interviewing the Investigator: Strategies for Addressing Instrumentation and Researcher Bias Concerns in Qualitative Research,” The Qualitative Report 16, no. 1 (2011): 255–262, https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol16/iss1/16/ . ↵
• Carter McNamara, “General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews,” Free Management Library , “Preparation for Interview section,” para. 1, accessed January 11, 2010, https://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/interviews.htm . ↵
• John W. Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches , 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007), 133. ↵
• Steinar Kvale, Doing Interviews (London and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007) https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849208963 . ↵
• Carter McNamara, “General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews,” Free Management Library , “Wording of Questions” section, para. 1, accessed January 11, 2010, https://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/interviews.htm . ↵
• Carter McNamara, “General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews,” Free Management Library , “Conducting Interview” section, para 1, accessed January 11, 2010, https://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/interviews.htm . ↵
• Steinar Kvale, Doing Interviews (London and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007) https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849208963 ↵

Appendix: Qualitative Interview Design Copyright © 2022 by Daniel W. Turner III and Nicole Hagstrom-Schmidt is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing Interview Protocols and Conducting Interviews: Tips for Students New to the Field of Qualitative Research

• S. A. Jacob , S. Furgerson
• Published 2012
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Conducting interviews for qualitative research studies, qualitative interviewing.

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Piloting for interviews in qualitative research: operationalization and lessons learnt, an interviewer’s reflection of data collection in building an archive of language learner experiences, the process of qualitative interview: practical insights for novice researchers, the qualitative report the qualitative report, teaching requirements elicitation interviews: an empirical study of learning from mistakes, studying leadership: an eclectic approach to qualitative data collection and analysis, slowing down and digging deep: teaching students to examine interview interaction in depth, 10 references, qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five traditions., qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (2nd edition) [book review].

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• Types of Interviews
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• Interviews as a Method for Qualitative Research (video) This short video summarizes why interviews can serve as useful data in qualitative research.  
• InterViews by Steinar Kvale  Interviewing is an essential tool in qualitative research and this introduction to interviewing outlines both the theoretical underpinnings and the practical aspects of the process. After examining the role of the interview in the research process, Steinar Kvale considers some of the key philosophical issues relating to interviewing: the interview as conversation, hermeneutics, phenomenology, concerns about ethics as well as validity, and postmodernism. Having established this framework, the author then analyzes the seven stages of the interview process - from designing a study to writing it up.  
• Practical Evaluation by Michael Quinn Patton  Surveys different interviewing strategies, from, a) informal/conversational, to b) interview guide approach, to c) standardized and open-ended, to d) closed/quantitative. Also discusses strategies for wording questions that are open-ended, clear, sensitive, and neutral, while supporting the speaker. Provides suggestions for probing and maintaining control of the interview process, as well as suggestions for recording and transcription.  
• The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research by Amir B. Marvasti (Editor); James A. Holstein (Editor); Jaber F. Gubrium (Editor); Karyn D. McKinney (Editor)  The new edition of this landmark volume emphasizes the dynamic, interactional, and reflexive dimensions of the research interview. Contributors highlight the myriad dimensions of complexity that are emerging as researchers increasingly frame the interview as a communicative opportunity as much as a data-gathering format. The book begins with the history and conceptual transformations of the interview, which is followed by chapters that discuss the main components of interview practice. Taken together, the contributions to The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research: The Complexity of the Craft encourage readers simultaneously to learn the frameworks and technologies of interviewing and to reflect on the epistemological foundations of the interview craft.
• International Congress of Qualitative Inquiry They host an annual confrerence at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, which aims to facilitate the development of qualitative research methods across a wide variety of academic disciplines, among other initiatives.
• METHODSPACE An online home of the research methods community, where practicing researchers share how to make research easier.
• Social Research Association, UK The SRA is the membership organisation for social researchers in the UK and beyond. It supports researchers via training, guidance, publications, research ethics, events, branches, and careers.
• Social Science Research Council The SSRC administers fellowships and research grants that support the innovation and evaluation of new policy solutions. They convene researchers and stakeholders to share evidence-based policy solutions and incubate new research agendas, produce online knowledge platforms and technical reports that catalog research-based policy solutions, and support mentoring programs that broaden problem-solving research opportunities.
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Qualitative research method-interviewing and observation

Shazia jamshed.

Department of Pharmacy Practice, Kulliyyah of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan Campus, Pahang, Malaysia

Buckley and Chiang define research methodology as “a strategy or architectural design by which the researcher maps out an approach to problem-finding or problem-solving.”[ 1 ] According to Crotty, research methodology is a comprehensive strategy ‘that silhouettes our choice and use of specific methods relating them to the anticipated outcomes,[ 2 ] but the choice of research methodology is based upon the type and features of the research problem.[ 3 ] According to Johnson et al . mixed method research is “a class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, theories and or language into a single study.[ 4 ] In order to have diverse opinions and views, qualitative findings need to be supplemented with quantitative results.[ 5 ] Therefore, these research methodologies are considered to be complementary to each other rather than incompatible to each other.[ 6 ]

Qualitative research methodology is considered to be suitable when the researcher or the investigator either investigates new field of study or intends to ascertain and theorize prominent issues.[ 6 , 7 ] There are many qualitative methods which are developed to have an in depth and extensive understanding of the issues by means of their textual interpretation and the most common types are interviewing and observation.[ 7 ]

Interviewing

This is the most common format of data collection in qualitative research. According to Oakley, qualitative interview is a type of framework in which the practices and standards be not only recorded, but also achieved, challenged and as well as reinforced.[ 8 ] As no research interview lacks structure[ 9 ] most of the qualitative research interviews are either semi-structured, lightly structured or in-depth.[ 9 ] Unstructured interviews are generally suggested in conducting long-term field work and allow respondents to let them express in their own ways and pace, with minimal hold on respondents’ responses.[ 10 ]

Pioneers of ethnography developed the use of unstructured interviews with local key informants that is., by collecting the data through observation and record field notes as well as to involve themselves with study participants. To be precise, unstructured interview resembles a conversation more than an interview and is always thought to be a “controlled conversation,” which is skewed towards the interests of the interviewer.[ 11 ] Non-directive interviews, form of unstructured interviews are aimed to gather in-depth information and usually do not have pre-planned set of questions.[ 11 ] Another type of the unstructured interview is the focused interview in which the interviewer is well aware of the respondent and in times of deviating away from the main issue the interviewer generally refocuses the respondent towards key subject.[ 11 ] Another type of the unstructured interview is an informal, conversational interview, based on unplanned set of questions that are generated instantaneously during the interview.[ 11 ]

In contrast, semi-structured interviews are those in-depth interviews where the respondents have to answer preset open-ended questions and thus are widely employed by different healthcare professionals in their research. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews are utilized extensively as interviewing format possibly with an individual or sometimes even with a group.[ 6 ] These types of interviews are conducted once only, with an individual or with a group and generally cover the duration of 30 min to more than an hour.[ 12 ] Semi-structured interviews are based on semi-structured interview guide, which is a schematic presentation of questions or topics and need to be explored by the interviewer.[ 12 ] To achieve optimum use of interview time, interview guides serve the useful purpose of exploring many respondents more systematically and comprehensively as well as to keep the interview focused on the desired line of action.[ 12 ] The questions in the interview guide comprise of the core question and many associated questions related to the central question, which in turn, improve further through pilot testing of the interview guide.[ 7 ] In order to have the interview data captured more effectively, recording of the interviews is considered an appropriate choice but sometimes a matter of controversy among the researcher and the respondent. Hand written notes during the interview are relatively unreliable, and the researcher might miss some key points. The recording of the interview makes it easier for the researcher to focus on the interview content and the verbal prompts and thus enables the transcriptionist to generate “verbatim transcript” of the interview.

Similarly, in focus groups, invited groups of people are interviewed in a discussion setting in the presence of the session moderator and generally these discussions last for 90 min.[ 7 ] Like every research technique having its own merits and demerits, group discussions have some intrinsic worth of expressing the opinions openly by the participants. On the contrary in these types of discussion settings, limited issues can be focused, and this may lead to the generation of fewer initiatives and suggestions about research topic.

Observation

Observation is a type of qualitative research method which not only included participant's observation, but also covered ethnography and research work in the field. In the observational research design, multiple study sites are involved. Observational data can be integrated as auxiliary or confirmatory research.[ 11 ]

Research can be visualized and perceived as painstaking methodical efforts to examine, investigate as well as restructure the realities, theories and applications. Research methods reflect the approach to tackling the research problem. Depending upon the need, research method could be either an amalgam of both qualitative and quantitative or qualitative or quantitative independently. By adopting qualitative methodology, a prospective researcher is going to fine-tune the pre-conceived notions as well as extrapolate the thought process, analyzing and estimating the issues from an in-depth perspective. This could be carried out by one-to-one interviews or as issue-directed discussions. Observational methods are, sometimes, supplemental means for corroborating research findings.

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• Published: 05 October 2018

Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research: an update for the digital age

• P. Gill 1 &
• J. Baillie 2  

British Dental Journal volume  225 ,  pages 668–672 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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Highlights that qualitative research is used increasingly in dentistry. Interviews and focus groups remain the most common qualitative methods of data collection.

Suggests the advent of digital technologies has transformed how qualitative research can now be undertaken.

Suggests interviews and focus groups can offer significant, meaningful insight into participants' experiences, beliefs and perspectives, which can help to inform developments in dental practice.

Qualitative research is used increasingly in dentistry, due to its potential to provide meaningful, in-depth insights into participants' experiences, perspectives, beliefs and behaviours. These insights can subsequently help to inform developments in dental practice and further related research. The most common methods of data collection used in qualitative research are interviews and focus groups. While these are primarily conducted face-to-face, the ongoing evolution of digital technologies, such as video chat and online forums, has further transformed these methods of data collection. This paper therefore discusses interviews and focus groups in detail, outlines how they can be used in practice, how digital technologies can further inform the data collection process, and what these methods can offer dentistry.

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Interviews in the social sciences

Professionalism in dentistry: deconstructing common terminology

A review of technical and quality assessment considerations of audio-visual and web-conferencing focus groups in qualitative health research, introduction.

Traditionally, research in dentistry has primarily been quantitative in nature. 1 However, in recent years, there has been a growing interest in qualitative research within the profession, due to its potential to further inform developments in practice, policy, education and training. Consequently, in 2008, the British Dental Journal (BDJ) published a four paper qualitative research series, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 to help increase awareness and understanding of this particular methodological approach.

Since the papers were originally published, two scoping reviews have demonstrated the ongoing proliferation in the use of qualitative research within the field of oral healthcare. 1 , 6 To date, the original four paper series continue to be well cited and two of the main papers remain widely accessed among the BDJ readership. 2 , 3 The potential value of well-conducted qualitative research to evidence-based practice is now also widely recognised by service providers, policy makers, funding bodies and those who commission, support and use healthcare research.

Besides increasing standalone use, qualitative methods are now also routinely incorporated into larger mixed method study designs, such as clinical trials, as they can offer additional, meaningful insights into complex problems that simply could not be provided by quantitative methods alone. Qualitative methods can also be used to further facilitate in-depth understanding of important aspects of clinical trial processes, such as recruitment. For example, Ellis et al . investigated why edentulous older patients, dissatisfied with conventional dentures, decline implant treatment, despite its established efficacy, and frequently refuse to participate in related randomised clinical trials, even when financial constraints are removed. 7 Through the use of focus groups in Canada and the UK, the authors found that fears of pain and potential complications, along with perceived embarrassment, exacerbated by age, are common reasons why older patients typically refuse dental implants. 7

The last decade has also seen further developments in qualitative research, due to the ongoing evolution of digital technologies. These developments have transformed how researchers can access and share information, communicate and collaborate, recruit and engage participants, collect and analyse data and disseminate and translate research findings. 8 Where appropriate, such technologies are therefore capable of extending and enhancing how qualitative research is undertaken. 9 For example, it is now possible to collect qualitative data via instant messaging, email or online/video chat, using appropriate online platforms.

These innovative approaches to research are therefore cost-effective, convenient, reduce geographical constraints and are often useful for accessing 'hard to reach' participants (for example, those who are immobile or socially isolated). 8 , 9 However, digital technologies are still relatively new and constantly evolving and therefore present a variety of pragmatic and methodological challenges. Furthermore, given their very nature, their use in many qualitative studies and/or with certain participant groups may be inappropriate and should therefore always be carefully considered. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a detailed explication regarding the use of digital technologies in qualitative research, insight is provided into how such technologies can be used to facilitate the data collection process in interviews and focus groups.

In light of such developments, it is perhaps therefore timely to update the main paper 3 of the original BDJ series. As with the previous publications, this paper has been purposely written in an accessible style, to enhance readability, particularly for those who are new to qualitative research. While the focus remains on the most common qualitative methods of data collection – interviews and focus groups – appropriate revisions have been made to provide a novel perspective, and should therefore be helpful to those who would like to know more about qualitative research. This paper specifically focuses on undertaking qualitative research with adult participants only.

Overview of qualitative research

Qualitative research is an approach that focuses on people and their experiences, behaviours and opinions. 10 , 11 The qualitative researcher seeks to answer questions of 'how' and 'why', providing detailed insight and understanding, 11 which quantitative methods cannot reach. 12 Within qualitative research, there are distinct methodologies influencing how the researcher approaches the research question, data collection and data analysis. 13 For example, phenomenological studies focus on the lived experience of individuals, explored through their description of the phenomenon. Ethnographic studies explore the culture of a group and typically involve the use of multiple methods to uncover the issues. 14

While methodology is the 'thinking tool', the methods are the 'doing tools'; 13 the ways in which data are collected and analysed. There are multiple qualitative data collection methods, including interviews, focus groups, observations, documentary analysis, participant diaries, photography and videography. Two of the most commonly used qualitative methods are interviews and focus groups, which are explored in this article. The data generated through these methods can be analysed in one of many ways, according to the methodological approach chosen. A common approach is thematic data analysis, involving the identification of themes and subthemes across the data set. Further information on approaches to qualitative data analysis has been discussed elsewhere. 1

Qualitative research is an evolving and adaptable approach, used by different disciplines for different purposes. Traditionally, qualitative data, specifically interviews, focus groups and observations, have been collected face-to-face with participants. In more recent years, digital technologies have contributed to the ongoing evolution of qualitative research. Digital technologies offer researchers different ways of recruiting participants and collecting data, and offer participants opportunities to be involved in research that is not necessarily face-to-face.

Research interviews are a fundamental qualitative research method 15 and are utilised across methodological approaches. Interviews enable the researcher to learn in depth about the perspectives, experiences, beliefs and motivations of the participant. 3 , 16 Examples include, exploring patients' perspectives of fear/anxiety triggers in dental treatment, 17 patients' experiences of oral health and diabetes, 18 and dental students' motivations for their choice of career. 19

Interviews may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured, 3 according to the purpose of the study, with less structured interviews facilitating a more in depth and flexible interviewing approach. 20 Structured interviews are similar to verbal questionnaires and are used if the researcher requires clarification on a topic; however they produce less in-depth data about a participant's experience. 3 Unstructured interviews may be used when little is known about a topic and involves the researcher asking an opening question; 3 the participant then leads the discussion. 20 Semi-structured interviews are commonly used in healthcare research, enabling the researcher to ask predetermined questions, 20 while ensuring the participant discusses issues they feel are important.

Interviews can be undertaken face-to-face or using digital methods when the researcher and participant are in different locations. Audio-recording the interview, with the consent of the participant, is essential for all interviews regardless of the medium as it enables accurate transcription; the process of turning the audio file into a word-for-word transcript. This transcript is the data, which the researcher then analyses according to the chosen approach.

Types of interview

Qualitative studies often utilise one-to-one, face-to-face interviews with research participants. This involves arranging a mutually convenient time and place to meet the participant, signing a consent form and audio-recording the interview. However, digital technologies have expanded the potential for interviews in research, enabling individuals to participate in qualitative research regardless of location.

Telephone interviews can be a useful alternative to face-to-face interviews and are commonly used in qualitative research. They enable participants from different geographical areas to participate and may be less onerous for participants than meeting a researcher in person. 15 A qualitative study explored patients' perspectives of dental implants and utilised telephone interviews due to the quality of the data that could be yielded. 21 The researcher needs to consider how they will audio record the interview, which can be facilitated by purchasing a recorder that connects directly to the telephone. One potential disadvantage of telephone interviews is the inability of the interviewer and researcher to see each other. This is resolved using software for audio and video calls online – such as Skype – to conduct interviews with participants in qualitative studies. Advantages of this approach include being able to see the participant if video calls are used, enabling observation of non-verbal communication, and the software can be free to use. However, participants are required to have a device and internet connection, as well as being computer literate, potentially limiting who can participate in the study. One qualitative study explored the role of dental hygienists in reducing oral health disparities in Canada. 22 The researcher conducted interviews using Skype, which enabled dental hygienists from across Canada to be interviewed within the research budget, accommodating the participants' schedules. 22

A less commonly used approach to qualitative interviews is the use of social virtual worlds. A qualitative study accessed a social virtual world – Second Life – to explore the health literacy skills of individuals who use social virtual worlds to access health information. 23 The researcher created an avatar and interview room, and undertook interviews with participants using voice and text methods. 23 This approach to recruitment and data collection enables individuals from diverse geographical locations to participate, while remaining anonymous if they wish. Furthermore, for interviews conducted using text methods, transcription of the interview is not required as the researcher can save the written conversation with the participant, with the participant's consent. However, the researcher and participant need to be familiar with how the social virtual world works to engage in an interview this way.

Conducting an interview

Ensuring informed consent before any interview is a fundamental aspect of the research process. Participants in research must be afforded autonomy and respect; consent should be informed and voluntary. 24 Individuals should have the opportunity to read an information sheet about the study, ask questions, understand how their data will be stored and used, and know that they are free to withdraw at any point without reprisal. The qualitative researcher should take written consent before undertaking the interview. In a face-to-face interview, this is straightforward: the researcher and participant both sign copies of the consent form, keeping one each. However, this approach is less straightforward when the researcher and participant do not meet in person. A recent protocol paper outlined an approach for taking consent for telephone interviews, which involved: audio recording the participant agreeing to each point on the consent form; the researcher signing the consent form and keeping a copy; and posting a copy to the participant. 25 This process could be replicated in other interview studies using digital methods.

There are advantages and disadvantages of using face-to-face and digital methods for research interviews. Ultimately, for both approaches, the quality of the interview is determined by the researcher. 16 Appropriate training and preparation are thus required. Healthcare professionals can use their interpersonal communication skills when undertaking a research interview, particularly questioning, listening and conversing. 3 However, the purpose of an interview is to gain information about the study topic, 26 rather than offering help and advice. 3 The researcher therefore needs to listen attentively to participants, enabling them to describe their experience without interruption. 3 The use of active listening skills also help to facilitate the interview. 14 Spradley outlined elements and strategies for research interviews, 27 which are a useful guide for qualitative researchers:

Greeting and explaining the project/interview

Asking descriptive (broad), structural (explore response to descriptive) and contrast (difference between) questions

Asymmetry between the researcher and participant talking

Expressing interest and cultural ignorance

Repeating, restating and incorporating the participant's words when asking questions

Creating hypothetical situations

Asking friendly questions

Knowing when to leave.

For semi-structured interviews, a topic guide (also called an interview schedule) is used to guide the content of the interview – an example of a topic guide is outlined in Box 1 . The topic guide, usually based on the research questions, existing literature and, for healthcare professionals, their clinical experience, is developed by the research team. The topic guide should include open ended questions that elicit in-depth information, and offer participants the opportunity to talk about issues important to them. This is vital in qualitative research where the researcher is interested in exploring the experiences and perspectives of participants. It can be useful for qualitative researchers to pilot the topic guide with the first participants, 10 to ensure the questions are relevant and understandable, and amending the questions if required.

Regardless of the medium of interview, the researcher must consider the setting of the interview. For face-to-face interviews, this could be in the participant's home, in an office or another mutually convenient location. A quiet location is preferable to promote confidentiality, enable the researcher and participant to concentrate on the conversation, and to facilitate accurate audio-recording of the interview. For interviews using digital methods the same principles apply: a quiet, private space where the researcher and participant feel comfortable and confident to participate in an interview.

Box 1: Example of a topic guide

Study focus: Parents' experiences of brushing their child's (aged 0–5) teeth

1. Can you tell me about your experience of cleaning your child's teeth?

How old was your child when you started cleaning their teeth?

Why did you start cleaning their teeth at that point?

How often do you brush their teeth?

What do you use to brush their teeth and why?

2. Could you explain how you find cleaning your child's teeth?

Do you find anything difficult?

What makes cleaning their teeth easier for you?

3. How has your experience of cleaning your child's teeth changed over time?

Has it become easier or harder?

Have you changed how often and how you clean their teeth? If so, why?

4. Could you describe how your child finds having their teeth cleaned?

What do they enjoy about having their teeth cleaned?

Is there anything they find upsetting about having their teeth cleaned?

5. Where do you look for information/advice about cleaning your child's teeth?

What did your health visitor tell you about cleaning your child's teeth? (If anything)

What has the dentist told you about caring for your child's teeth? (If visited)

Have any family members given you advice about how to clean your child's teeth? If so, what did they tell you? Did you follow their advice?

6. Is there anything else you would like to discuss about this?

Focus groups

A focus group is a moderated group discussion on a pre-defined topic, for research purposes. 28 , 29 While not aligned to a particular qualitative methodology (for example, grounded theory or phenomenology) as such, focus groups are used increasingly in healthcare research, as they are useful for exploring collective perspectives, attitudes, behaviours and experiences. Consequently, they can yield rich, in-depth data and illuminate agreement and inconsistencies 28 within and, where appropriate, between groups. Examples include public perceptions of dental implants and subsequent impact on help-seeking and decision making, 30 and general dental practitioners' views on patient safety in dentistry. 31

Focus groups can be used alone or in conjunction with other methods, such as interviews or observations, and can therefore help to confirm, extend or enrich understanding and provide alternative insights. 28 The social interaction between participants often results in lively discussion and can therefore facilitate the collection of rich, meaningful data. However, they are complex to organise and manage, due to the number of participants, and may also be inappropriate for exploring particularly sensitive issues that many participants may feel uncomfortable about discussing in a group environment.

Focus groups are primarily undertaken face-to-face but can now also be undertaken online, using appropriate technologies such as email, bulletin boards, online research communities, chat rooms, discussion forums, social media and video conferencing. 32 Using such technologies, data collection can also be synchronous (for example, online discussions in 'real time') or, unlike traditional face-to-face focus groups, asynchronous (for example, online/email discussions in 'non-real time'). While many of the fundamental principles of focus group research are the same, regardless of how they are conducted, a number of subtle nuances are associated with the online medium. 32 Some of which are discussed further in the following sections.

Focus group considerations

Some key considerations associated with face-to-face focus groups are: how many participants are required; should participants within each group know each other (or not) and how many focus groups are needed within a single study? These issues are much debated and there is no definitive answer. However, the number of focus groups required will largely depend on the topic area, the depth and breadth of data needed, the desired level of participation required 29 and the necessity (or not) for data saturation.

The optimum group size is around six to eight participants (excluding researchers) but can work effectively with between three and 14 participants. 3 If the group is too small, it may limit discussion, but if it is too large, it may become disorganised and difficult to manage. It is, however, prudent to over-recruit for a focus group by approximately two to three participants, to allow for potential non-attenders. For many researchers, particularly novice researchers, group size may also be informed by pragmatic considerations, such as the type of study, resources available and moderator experience. 28 Similar size and mix considerations exist for online focus groups. Typically, synchronous online focus groups will have around three to eight participants but, as the discussion does not happen simultaneously, asynchronous groups may have as many as 10–30 participants. 33

The topic area and potential group interaction should guide group composition considerations. Pre-existing groups, where participants know each other (for example, work colleagues) may be easier to recruit, have shared experiences and may enjoy a familiarity, which facilitates discussion and/or the ability to challenge each other courteously. 3 However, if there is a potential power imbalance within the group or if existing group norms and hierarchies may adversely affect the ability of participants to speak freely, then 'stranger groups' (that is, where participants do not already know each other) may be more appropriate. 34 , 35

Focus group management

Face-to-face focus groups should normally be conducted by two researchers; a moderator and an observer. 28 The moderator facilitates group discussion, while the observer typically monitors group dynamics, behaviours, non-verbal cues, seating arrangements and speaking order, which is essential for transcription and analysis. The same principles of informed consent, as discussed in the interview section, also apply to focus groups, regardless of medium. However, the consent process for online discussions will probably be managed somewhat differently. For example, while an appropriate participant information leaflet (and consent form) would still be required, the process is likely to be managed electronically (for example, via email) and would need to specifically address issues relating to technology (for example, anonymity and use, storage and access to online data). 32

The venue in which a face to face focus group is conducted should be of a suitable size, private, quiet, free from distractions and in a collectively convenient location. It should also be conducted at a time appropriate for participants, 28 as this is likely to promote attendance. As with interviews, the same ethical considerations apply (as discussed earlier). However, online focus groups may present additional ethical challenges associated with issues such as informed consent, appropriate access and secure data storage. Further guidance can be found elsewhere. 8 , 32

Before the focus group commences, the researchers should establish rapport with participants, as this will help to put them at ease and result in a more meaningful discussion. Consequently, researchers should introduce themselves, provide further clarity about the study and how the process will work in practice and outline the 'ground rules'. Ground rules are designed to assist, not hinder, group discussion and typically include: 3 , 28 , 29

Discussions within the group are confidential to the group

Only one person can speak at a time

All participants should have sufficient opportunity to contribute

There should be no unnecessary interruptions while someone is speaking

Everyone can be expected to be listened to and their views respected

Challenging contrary opinions is appropriate, but ridiculing is not.

Moderating a focus group requires considered management and good interpersonal skills to help guide the discussion and, where appropriate, keep it sufficiently focused. Avoid, therefore, participating, leading, expressing personal opinions or correcting participants' knowledge 3 , 28 as this may bias the process. A relaxed, interested demeanour will also help participants to feel comfortable and promote candid discourse. Moderators should also prevent the discussion being dominated by any one person, ensure differences of opinions are discussed fairly and, if required, encourage reticent participants to contribute. 3 Asking open questions, reflecting on significant issues, inviting further debate, probing responses accordingly, and seeking further clarification, as and where appropriate, will help to obtain sufficient depth and insight into the topic area.

Moderating online focus groups requires comparable skills, particularly if the discussion is synchronous, as the discussion may be dominated by those who can type proficiently. 36 It is therefore important that sufficient time and respect is accorded to those who may not be able to type as quickly. Asynchronous discussions are usually less problematic in this respect, as interactions are less instant. However, moderating an asynchronous discussion presents additional challenges, particularly if participants are geographically dispersed, as they may be online at different times. Consequently, the moderator will not always be present and the discussion may therefore need to occur over several days, which can be difficult to manage and facilitate and invariably requires considerable flexibility. 32 It is also worth recognising that establishing rapport with participants via online medium is often more challenging than via face-to-face and may therefore require additional time, skills, effort and consideration.

As with research interviews, focus groups should be guided by an appropriate interview schedule, as discussed earlier in the paper. For example, the schedule will usually be informed by the review of the literature and study aims, and will merely provide a topic guide to help inform subsequent discussions. To provide a verbatim account of the discussion, focus groups must be recorded, using an audio-recorder with a good quality multi-directional microphone. While videotaping is possible, some participants may find it obtrusive, 3 which may adversely affect group dynamics. The use (or not) of a video recorder, should therefore be carefully considered.

At the end of the focus group, a few minutes should be spent rounding up and reflecting on the discussion. 28 Depending on the topic area, it is possible that some participants may have revealed deeply personal issues and may therefore require further help and support, such as a constructive debrief or possibly even referral on to a relevant third party. It is also possible that some participants may feel that the discussion did not adequately reflect their views and, consequently, may no longer wish to be associated with the study. 28 Such occurrences are likely to be uncommon, but should they arise, it is important to further discuss any concerns and, if appropriate, offer them the opportunity to withdraw (including any data relating to them) from the study. Immediately after the discussion, researchers should compile notes regarding thoughts and ideas about the focus group, which can assist with data analysis and, if appropriate, any further data collection.

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Gill, P., Baillie, J. Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research: an update for the digital age. Br Dent J 225 , 668–672 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2018.815

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Sample Interview Protocol Form Faculty interview protocol. Institutions: _____________________________________________________ Interviewee (Title and Name): ______________________________________ Interviewer: _____________________________________________________ Survey Section Used: _____ A: Interview Background _____ B: Institutional Perspective _____ C: Assessment _____ D: Department and Discipline _____ E: Teaching and Learning _____ F: Demographics (no specific questions) Other Topics Discussed:____________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ Documents Obtained: _____________________________________________ Post Interview Comments or Leads: Teaching, Learning, and Assessment Interviews Introductory Protocol To facilitate our note-taking, we would like to audio tape our conversations today. Please sign the release form. 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