essay topics on constitution of india

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Essay on Indian Constitution in 100, 250, and 350 words

• Updated on  
• Jan 3, 2024

The constitution of India was written and adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26th November 1949 but it became effective on 26th January 1950. It is a set of rules and regulations that guide the administration of the country. It is the backbone of every democratic and secular fabric of the nation. The Indian Constitution is the longest in the world and describes the framework for political principles, procedures and powers of the government. This is just a brief paragraph on the Indian constitution, we have provided samples of essay on Indian Constitution. Let’s explore them!

Table of Contents

• 1 Essay on Indian Constitution in 100 words
• 2 Essay on Indian Constitution in 250 words
• 3 Essay on Indian Constitution in 350 words
• 4 Indian Constitution Defines the Fundamental Rights and Duties of Indian Citizens
• 5 The Constitution Defines the Structure and Working of the Government
• 6 Conclusion

Learn more about the Making of Indian Constitution

Essay on Indian Constitution in 100 words

The Indian Constitution became effective on the 26th of January 1950 although the Constituent Assembly adopted it on the 26th of November 1949. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar headed the drafting committee that wrote it. Hence, it was the longest-written constitution of India and provides a detailed account of the fundamental rights and duties of the citizens of India. The original constitution of India is the lengthiest in the world and is hand-written and calligraphed. It is the supreme law of India that is drafted by the Constituent Assembly which is even superior to the Parliament. After the constitution came into effect, the status of India changed from “Dominion of India” to “Republic of India”. Hence, 26th January is celebrated as The Republic Day of India.

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Essay on Indian Constitution in 250 words

The Indian Constitution was drafted under the chairmanship of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar who is known as the ‘Father of Indian Constitution’. It took almost 3 years to draft the same. Various aspects of the society such as economic, socio-political, etc were taken into consideration while drafting the constitution. While drafting the Indian Constitution, the drafting committee took into consideration various constitutions of other countries such as France, Japan and Britain to seek valuable insights. 

The Fundamental Rights and Duties of the Indian Citizens, the Directive Principles of State Policy and the Federal Structure of the Government of India, all were included in the Indian Constitution. Every policy, duty and right has been explained at length in the Indian Constitution hence making it the lengthiest written constitution in the world. 

There were more than 2000 amendments that had to be made to the Indian Constitution to get it approved. The same was adopted on November 26th, 1949 and was enforced on January 26th, 1950. From that day onwards, the status of India changed from “Dominion of India” to “Republic of India”. And that is why since then, 26th January is celebrated as the Republic Day. On this occasion, the National Flag of India is hoisted at various places across the nation and the National Anthem is sung to rejoice the day. There is a special day that is dedicated to the Indian Constitution known as the ‘National Constitution Day’ that came into existence in 2015. 

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Essay on Indian Constitution in 350 words

The Indian Constitution is the supreme document that gives a very detailed account of what the citizens of India can and also cannot do. It has been set up as a standard that needs to be followed to ensure law and order in society and also to help it develop and prosper.

Indian Constitution Defines the Fundamental Rights and Duties of Indian Citizens

The duties and the Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens have been clearly stated and defined in the Constitution of India. The Fundamental Rights include:

• The Right to Equality
• The Right to Freedom
• The Right to Freedom of Religion
• Cultural and Educational Rights
• Right Against Exploitation
• Right to Constitutional Remedies

These are the basic rights and all the citizens across the country are entitled to the same irrespective of their colour, caste, creed, or religion.

Fundamental Duties of the Indian CItizens that are included in the Indian Constitution are:-

• Respecting the Constitution of India
• To always honour the National Anthem and the National Flag
• To protect the unity
• Preserving the heritage of the county
• Protecting the integrity and sovereignty of India
• Promoting the spirit of brotherhood
• To have compassion for living creatures
• To strive for excellence 
• To protect public property and contribute your bit to maintaining peace

These are also mentioned in detail in the Indian Constitution. 

The Constitution Defines the Structure and Working of the Government

The working of the Government as well as its structure is also mentioned in detail in the Indian Constitution.  The Indian Constitution mentions that India has a parliamentary system of government that is present at the centre as well as in states. The power to take major decisions lies with the Prime Minister and the Union Council of Ministers. The president of India on the other hand, has nominal powers.

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The Constitution of India was approved after several amendments by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar who, along with his team of six members, was a part of the drafting committee that came up with the Indian Constitution.

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Ans: The Indian Constitution became effective on the 26th of January 1950 although the Constituent Assembly adopted it on the 26th of November 1949. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar headed the drafting committee that wrote it. Hence, it was the longest-written constitution of India and provides a detailed account of the fundamental rights and duties of the citizens of India. The original constitution of India is the lengthiest in the world and is hand-written and calligraphed. It is the supreme law of India that is drafted by the Constituent Assembly which is even superior to the Parliament. After the constitution came into effect, the status of India changed from “Dominion of India” to “Republic of India”. Hence, 26th January is celebrated as The Republic Day of India.

Ans: The constitution of India was written and adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26th November 1949 but it became effective on 26th January 1950. It is a set of rules and regulations that guide the administration of the country. It is the backbone of every democratic and secular fabric of the nation. The Indian Constitution is the longest in the world. And describes the framework for political principles, procedures and powers of the government.

Ans: The Indian Constitution is the supreme document that gives a very detailed account of what the citizens of India can and also cannot do. It has been set up as a standard that needs to be followed to ensure law and order in society and also to help it develop and prosper.

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Constitution of India: Meaning, Structure, Enactment, Features & Significance

The Constitution of India , as the fundamental law of the land , embodies the values, principles, and governance framework of our country. It serves as the supreme law, guiding the state’s functioning and ensuring citizen’s rights and responsibilities. With its roots grounded in historical struggles, philosophical ideals, and societal aspirations, it reflects the nation’s collective journey toward democracy, justice, and equality. This article of NEXT IAS aims to explain the meaning, structure, salient features, significance, and other aspects of the Constitution of India.

What is the Meaning of Constitution?

A Constitution of a state is a fundamental set of principles or established precedents according to which the state is governed. It outlines the organization, powers, and limits of government institutions, as well as the rights and duties of citizens. It serves as the supreme law of the land , providing a framework for the functioning of the government, the protection of individual liberties, and the maintenance of social order.

What is Constitution of India?

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the Republic of India. It lays down the framework for the country’s political system, defining the powers and responsibilities of government institutions, safeguarding fundamental rights, and outlining the principles of governance. It is a set of rules and regulations guiding the administration of a country.

Structure of the Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution is one of the longest and most detailed written constitutions in the world. Various components of the structure of the Indian Constitution can be seen as follows:

• A “Part” of the Constitution refers to a division within the Constitution that groups together Articles on similar subjects or themes.
• The Indian Constitution is structured into various Parts, each dealing with a specific aspect of the country’s legal, administrative, or governmental framework.
• Originally, there were 22 parts in the Constitution of India. As of now, there are 25 parts of the Indian Constitution.
• An “Article” refers to a specific provision or clause within the Constitution that details various aspects of the country’s legal and governmental framework.
• Each part of the constitution contains several articles numbered sequentially.
• Originally, there were 395 articles in the Constitution of India. As of now, the Indian Constitution contains 448 articles .
• A “Schedule” refers to a list or a table attached to the Constitution that details certain additional information or guidelines relevant to the constitutional provisions.
• They provide clarity and supplementary details, making the Constitution more comprehensive and functional.
• Originally, there were 8 schedules in the Constitution of India. As of now, there are 12 schedules in the Indian Constitution.

Enactment and Adoption of the Indian Constitution

• The Constitution of India was framed by a Constituent Assembly which was established in 1946. The President of the Constituent Assembly was Dr. Rajendra Prasad .
• On 29th August 1947, a resolution was moved in the Constituent Assembly for the appointment of a Drafting Committee to draft a permanent constitution of India. Accordingly, the Drafting Committee was appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar .
• The Drafting Committee took a total of 166 days , which was spread over 2 years, 11 months, and 18 days to prepare a draft constitution. The final draft of the Constitution was introduced in the Constituent Assembly on 4th November 1948 .
• After many deliberations and some modifications, the Draft Constitution was declared as passed by the Constituent Assembly on 26th November 1949. This is known as the “ Date of Adoption ” of the Constitution of India.
• A few provisions of the Constitution came into force on 26th November 1949. However, the major part of the Constitution came into force on 26th January 1950, making India a sovereign republic. This date is known as the “ Date of Enactment ” of the Constitution of India.

Salient Features of the Indian Constitution

• Several factors that have contributed to its elephantine size include – the need to accommodate the vast diversity of the country, a single constitution for both the Center and States, the presence of legal experts and luminaries in the Constituent Assembly, etc.
• Drawn from Various Sources – The Constitution of India has borrowed most of its provisions from the Government of India Act of 1935 as well as from the constitutions of various other countries.
• The Constitution of India is neither rigid nor flexible, but a synthesis of both.
• Federal System with Unitary Bias – The Constitution of India establishes a federal system of government and contains all the usual features of a federation. However, it also contains a large number of unitary or non-federal features.
• Parliamentary Form of Government – The Constitution of India has adopted the British Parliamentary System of Government. The parliamentary system is based on the principle of cooperation and coordination between the legislative and executive organs.
• While Parliament retains the ultimate authority to make laws , the judiciary serves as the guardian of the Constitution , ensuring that parliamentary actions adhere to constitutional norms and protect fundamental rights.
• An integrated judicial system means that a single system of courts, comprising of Supreme Court , High Courts, and Subordinate Courts, enforces both the central laws as well as the state laws.
• An independent judicial system means that the Indian judiciary operates autonomously, free from the influence of the executive and legislative branches of government.
• Fundamental Rights – The Indian Constitution guarantees 6 fundamental rights to all citizens, which promotes the idea of political democracy in the country. They operate as limitations on the tyranny of the executive and arbitrary laws of the legislature.
• The Directive Principles seek to establish a ‘Welfare State’ in India by promoting the ideal of social and economic democracy.
• These duties serve as a guide for citizens to contribute towards building a strong and harmonious nation.
• A Secular State – The Constitution of India does not uphold any particular religion as the official religion of the Indian State. Instead, it mandates that the state treat all religions equally, refraining from favoring or discriminating against any particular religion.
• Every citizen who is not less than 18 years of age has a right to vote without any discrimination based on caste, race, religion, sex, literacy, wealth, and so on.
• Single Citizenship – Single citizenship is a constitutional principle in India whereby all citizens irrespective of the state in which they are born or reside enjoy the same political and civil rights of citizenship all over the country, and no discrimination is made between them.
• Independent Bodies – The Indian Constitution has established certain independent bodies which are envisaged as the bulwarks of the democratic system of Government in India.
• The rationale behind the incorporation of these provisions is to safeguard the sovereignty, unity, integrity, and security of the country, the democratic political system, and the Constitution .
• This decentralized system allows for effective governance by delegating authority to address regional and local issues, promoting participatory democracy and grassroots development.
• Co-operative Societies – The 97th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2011 gave constitutional status and protection to co-operative societies.

Significance of the Constitution of India

• Rule of Law – The Constitution establishes the framework for governance based on the rule of law, ensuring that no individual, including government officials, is above the law.
• Protection of Rights – It guarantees fundamental rights to citizens, safeguarding their freedoms of speech, expression, religion, and more, while also providing mechanisms for legal redress if these rights are infringed upon.
• Structure of Government – The Constitution delineates the structure of government, defining the roles, powers, and limitations of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. This separation of powers prevents the concentration of authority and promotes checks and balances.
• Democratic Principles – Through provisions like a universal adult franchise, the constitution upholds democratic principles by ensuring citizens’ participation in governance through free and fair elections.
• Stability and Continuity – The constitution provides stability and continuity in governance, serving as a framework for guiding successive governments and preventing abrupt changes in the political system.
• National Unity – It fosters national unity by recognizing and respecting the diversity of the populace while also promoting a sense of common citizenship and allegiance to the nation.
• Legal Framework – The constitution serves as the legal foundation upon which all laws and regulations are based, providing consistency and coherence in the legal system.
• Adaptability – While providing a stable framework, the constitution also allows for necessary amendments to accommodate changing societal needs and values, ensuring its relevance over time.

Sources of the Constitution of India

• Government of India Act of 1935 – Federal Scheme, Office of Governor, Judiciary, Public Service Commissions, Emergency Provisions, and Administrative Details.
• British Constitution – Parliamentary System of Government, Rule of Law, Legislative Procedure, Single Citizenship, Cabinet System, Prerogative Writs, Parliamentary Privileges, and Bicameralism.
• US Constitution – Fundamental Rights, Independence of the Judiciary, Judicial Review, Impeachment of the President, Removal of Supreme Court and High Court Judges, and the Post of the Vice-President.
• Irish Constitution – Directive Principles of State Policy, the Nomination of Members to Rajya Sabha, and Method of Election of the President.
• Canadian Constitution – Federation with a strong Centre, vesting of residuary powers in the Centre, appointment of state governors by the Centre, and advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
• Australian Constitution – Concurrent List, Freedom of Trade, Commerce & Intercourse, and a Joint Sitting of the two Houses of Parliament.
• Weimar Constitution of Germany – Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency.
• Soviet Constitution (USSR, now Russia) – Fundamental duties and the ideal of Justice (Social, Economic, and Political) in the Preamble.
• French Constitution – Republic and the ideals of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity in the Preamble.
• South African Constitution – Procedure for amendment of the Constitution and election of members of Rajya Sabha.
• Japanese Constitution – Procedure established by law.

Various Schedules of the Indian Constitution

Parts of the Constitution

Note – Part-VII (The States in Part B of the First Schedule), has been deleted by the 7th Constitutional Amendment of 1956.

In conclusion, the Indian Constitution stands as a testament to the nation’s democratic ideals and aspirations. Its meticulous crafting, rooted in historical struggles and visionary principles, continues to guide India’s journey towards a more just, inclusive, and prosperous society. The Indian Constitution stands as a testament to upholding its values, fostering unity amidst diversity, and safeguarding the rights and liberties of every citizen, thus ensuring a brighter future for generations to come.

Related Concepts

• Constitutionalism – Constitutionalism is a system where the Constitution is supreme and the institution’s structure and processes are governed by constitutional principles. It provides the template or framework within which the state has to carry out its operations. It also puts limitations on the government.
• Classification of the Constitution – Constitutions across the world have been classified into the following categories and sub-categories:

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

When was the constitution of india adopted.

The Constitution of India was adopted on 26th November 1949 .

Why the Constitution of India is called a bag of Borrowing?

The Constitution of India is called a “bag of borrowing” due to its extensive adaptation of principles and provisions from various global sources. It amalgamates elements from multiple constitutions, including the British, American, Irish, Canadian, and others, reflecting India’s diverse legal heritage and democratic ideals.

Who is known as the ‘Father of Indian Constitution’?

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar is regarded as the “Father of the Indian Constitution” for his pivotal role as the chairman of the Drafting Committee and his significant contributions in shaping the provisions of the Indian Constitution.

When do we Celebrate the Constitution Day?

Constitution Day also famously known as ‘Samvidhan Divas’ , is celebrated in our country on 26th November every year to commemorate the adoption of the Constitution of India.

What is the Philosophy of the Constitution of India?

The philosophy of the Constitution of India revolves around several key principles such as Sovereignty, Equality, Justice, Liberty, Fraternity, Dignity, Secularism, Federalism, Democratic Principles, etc.

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Essay on Indian Constitution

Students are often asked to write an essay on Indian Constitution in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Indian Constitution

Introduction.

The Indian Constitution is the supreme law of India, providing the framework for political principles, procedures, and powers. It was adopted on 26th November 1949 and came into effect on 26th January 1950.

The Constitution of India is unique due to its features like Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles, and Fundamental Duties. It safeguards the rights of citizens and maintains a balance of power among different government branches.

The Constitution has been amended 104 times to cope with emerging needs. However, the basic structure remains untouched, preserving the democratic values it was built upon.

The Indian Constitution is a living document, continually evolving to meet the needs of the nation. It is the backbone of India’s democracy and the protector of its citizens’ rights.

250 Words Essay on Indian Constitution

The preamble and philosophy.

The Indian Constitution, adopted on 26th January 1950, serves as the backbone of India’s democratic polity. Its preamble expresses the philosophy of ‘Justice, Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity’, setting the tone for the nation’s governance.

Structure and Provisions

The Constitution, the world’s lengthiest written constitution, comprises 470 articles divided into 25 parts with 12 schedules. It provides a comprehensive framework for the three branches of government: the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. It also outlines Fundamental Rights and Duties, and the Directive Principles of State Policy, ensuring the protection of individual rights and promoting social welfare.

Amendability and Flexibility

The Indian Constitution is a living document with a blend of rigidity and flexibility. It allows for amendments to adapt to changing times, as evidenced by the 104 amendments made so far. Yet, it also maintains stability by making the amendment process rigorous.

Secularism and Federalism

The Constitution enshrines India as a secular state, providing for freedom of religion and upholding the principle of non-interference in religious matters by the state. It also establishes a quasi-federal form of government, balancing power between the centre and the states.

Significance and Challenges

The Constitution’s significance lies in its role as the guardian of democracy and individual rights. However, it also faces challenges like judicial activism, political instability, and regional imbalances. Addressing these issues is crucial for the continued success of the Constitution.

500 Words Essay on Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution, a comprehensive document of 395 Articles and 12 Schedules, is the world’s longest written constitution. It is not just a legal framework for governance but also a reflection of the nation’s social, political, and cultural ethos. The Constitution of India is a living document that has evolved over time through various amendments to meet the changing needs of the society.

Genesis of the Indian Constitution

The Constitution of India was born out of the struggle for freedom from British rule. The demand for a constitution drafted by representatives of the Indian people was first raised in 1934. The Constituent Assembly, formed in 1946, was entrusted with the task of drafting the constitution. The Assembly was a microcosm of the diversity of India, with members from different regions, religions, and social backgrounds. After nearly three years of deliberation, the Constitution was adopted on November 26, 1949, and came into effect on January 26, 1950.

Features of the Indian Constitution

The Constitution also incorporates a comprehensive list of fundamental rights, which are enforceable in the courts of law. It lays down the Directive Principles of State Policy, which are non-enforceable but fundamental in the governance of the country.

The Preamble: The Soul of the Constitution

Amendments to the constitution.

The Indian Constitution, with its comprehensive and inclusive nature, serves as the backbone of the world’s largest democracy. It provides a framework for governance while upholding the values of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity. The Constitution is a testament to the vision of the founding fathers and the resilience of the Indian people. It is a living document, evolving with the times, and continues to guide the nation towards a more equitable and just society.

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Essay on Constitution of India

The Constitution of India is a document containing the framework of the political system, the duties, rights, limitations, and structure of the government that this nation ought to follow. It also spells out the rights and duties of the Indian citizens. Nobody in India - not even the Prime Minister or the President - has the power to do anything that violates the constitutional rule.

Every year, on 26th January, we celebrate Republic Day. It was on this day in 1950 that the Constitution of India became effective. Although Dr Ambedkar is known for his prominent role in drafting the constitution, it was the fruit of the hard work of 299 people. 

How Big Is Our Constitution?

The Indian constitution is the lengthiest constitution in the world. It has 448 articles organised into 25 parts and 12 schedules. Our country is so big with so many cultures, castes and religions, and with so many states that people who drafted the Constitution had to focus on the minutest of detail. Besides, the Constitution has been amended many times and new rules and laws have been added. As a result, the Constitution of India became the lengthiest constitution in the world.

Is Our Constitution Flexible or Rigid?

The beautiful thing about our Constitution is it can be modified if a political party has a supermajority and yet it is not easily modifiable. The Supreme Court has ruled that no provision of the Constitution can be with the aim to destroy that provision. At the same time, nobody has the right to tweak the basic structure of the Constitution. As a result, on one hand, our Constitution remains updated and on the other, no political party with evil intentions can deface it to establish a monopoly.

Crystal clear Notion

Unlike the British constitution, our Constitution is completely written with no ambiguity. It focuses on the minutest aspects of the political, executive and legal systems of the country and it also focuses on the fundamental rights and duties of the citizens of India. 

Federal and Unitary Features

The Indian Constitution prescribes that India should have dual governance - the Centre and the regional states. It also ruled that the country must have the three pillars of democracy - legislative system, executive system and the judiciary. Hence, the Indian Constitution supports a federal structure. However, the Constitution has also given some extra power to the Centre. The Centre has the power to preside over matters that concern both the Centre as well as the states; it has the power to announce an emergency; it can modify the Constitution and the state has no power to oppose that modification. Hence, the Constitution has unitary features too.

By the Indians, for the Indians, of the Indians

The Constitution of India was created by the Indians. There is no foreign hand whatsoever. The due democratic process was followed in the form of debates before enforcing the Constitution. And last but not the least, it stands to protect the fundamental rights of every Indian. 

The Preamble

The Preamble to the constitution is the soul of it. The preamble says that India is a sovereign country - it is ruled and managed by the Indians and Indians only. It further says that India is a secular country. Unlike our neighbouring country, India, all the citizens of the country can practise their religions without any fear. Ours is a socialist country as per the Constitution- that means that her resources are owned by the community of the people - neither by the State nor by private corporations. Lastly, the preamble says that India is a democratic country where the citizens have the right to choose the members of the government.

A constitution is a bunch of rules and guidelines that oversee a nation's administration. The Constitution is the foundation of the nation's democratic and secular structure. The Indian Constitution is the world's longest, describing the foundation for political ideas, procedures, and government authorities. The Indian Constitution was drafted on November 26, 1949, and went into effect on January 26, 1950. Students will learn about the prominent aspects of India's Constitution and how it was developed in this essay about the Indian Constitution.

The Indian Constitution went into force on January 26, 1950. As a result, the 26th of January is observed as Republic Day in India.

How was India's Constitution Created?

After many debates and deliberations, representatives of the Indian people drafted the Indian Constitution. It is the world's most thorough Constitution.

The Indian Constitution was made by a Constituent Assembly, which was formed in 1946. Dr Rajendra Prasad was chosen as the Constituent Assembly's President. A Drafting Committee was formed to design the Constitution, with Dr B.R. Ambedkar served as Chairman. The creation of the Constitution took a total of 166 days, divided across a two-year, eleven-month, and eighteen-day period.

Characteristics of India's Constitution

The Indian Constitution opens with a Preamble that includes the fundamental aims and values of the Constitution. It establishes the Constitution's goals.

The World's Longest Constitution

The Indian Constitution is the world's longest constitution. When it was initiated, it included 395 things isolated into 22 divisions and eight schedules. It now comprises 448 items divided into 25 divisions and 12 schedules. So far, 104 amendments to the Indian Constitution have been made (the last of which took place on January 25, 2020, to extend the reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies).

The Indian Constitution's Rigidity and Flexibility

One of our Constitution's distinguishing traits is that it is neither as rigorous as the American Constitution. It indicates it is both stiff and flexible. As a result, it may readily change and expand with the passage of time.

The Preamble was eventually included in the Indian Constitution. There is no preface in the original Constitution. The Preamble's declared goals are to achieve justice, liberty, and equality for all people, as well as to foster brotherhood in order to safeguard the nation's unity and integrity.

Federal System with Unitary Characteristics

The government's powers are shared between the central government and the state governments. The powers of three governmental institutions, namely the executive, judiciary, and legislature, are divided under the Constitution. As a result, the Indian Constitution advocates for a federal structure. It has several unitary traits, such as a strong central power, emergency measures, the President appointing Governors, and so on.

Fundamental rights and fundamental responsibilities

The Indian Constitution outlines a comprehensive set of Fundamental Rights for Indian citizens. The Constitution also includes a list of 11 responsibilities for citizens, known as the Fundamental Duties. Some of these responsibilities include respect for the national flag and anthem, the country's integrity and unity, and the protection of public property.

India is a republic, which implies that the country is not ruled by a dictator or king.The public authority is composed of, by, and for individuals. Every five years, citizens propose and elect their leader.

The Constitution provides instructions for all citizens. It aided India in achieving the status of a Republic across the world. Atal Bihari Vajpayee once stated that "governments will come and go, political parties would be created and disbanded, but the country should persist, and democracy should exist indefinitely."

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FAQs on Constitution of India Essay

1.What is the distinction between Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties?

Fundamental Rights are human rights granted to Indian people. The Constitution initially established seven essential rights. The 44th Amendment eliminated the right to property from Part III of the Constitution in 1978.

Fundamental Duties were acquainted with the constitution by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, because of the ideas of the Swaran Singh Committee, which was delegated by the public authority.

Fundamental Rights

Part 3 of the Indian Constitution comprises the Fundamental Rights given to the Indian people. Fundamental Rights are addressed in Articles 12-35 of the Indian Constitution.

Fundamental Duties

Article 51-A of Part IV A of the Indian Constitution deals with Fundamental Duties.

2.In India, how many Fundamental duties are there? What are India's seven Fundamental rights?

Originally ten in number, the basic obligations were enlarged to eleven in 2002 by the 86th Amendment, which imposed a responsibility on every parent or guardian to guarantee that their child or ward has access to educational opportunities between the ages of six and fourteen years. The Constitution initially established seven fundamental rights: the right to equality, the right to freedom, the right against double-dealing, the right to strict opportunity, cultural and educational rights, the right to property, and the right to constitutional remedies.

3.Why isn't the right to property a fundamental right?

The right to property was one additional basic right enshrined in the Constitution. The 44th Constitutional Amendment, however, eliminated this right from the list of essential rights.

This was due to the fact that this privilege proved to be an impediment to achieving the aim of socialism and dispersing wealth (property) evenly among the people. Right to property is now a legal right rather than a basic one. 

Essay on Constitution of India for Students and Children in 1000 Words

In this article, you will read about Constitution of India, its background, Constituent Assembly, Membership, Drafting, Structure.

Table of Contents

Essay on Constitution of India (1000 Words)

The supreme law of India is known as the Constitution of India. The framework of demarcating fundamental political code laid down in the documents, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of state institutions. It sets out fundamental rights , directive principles, and, therefore, the responsibilities of citizens.

The Constitution B. R. Ambedkar cannot override by the Parliament and Constitution of India on the 2015 India postage. It was embraced by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949 and has become effective on 26 January 1950.

Background of Indian Constitution

India stopped to be a dominion of the British Crown and have become a sovereign democratic republic with the Constitution. Articles 5, 6, 7, 9, 8, 60, 324, 367, 366, 379, 388, 394, 391, 393, 392, and 380 of the Constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and therefore on 26 January 1950, the remaining articles became effective.

Constituent Assembly

The home is perhaps aware that of the seven members nominated by you, one had resigned from the House and was replaced. One died and wasn’t replaced. Another one was away in America, and his place filled up, and another person was involved in State matters, and there was a void to its extent.

Membership in Constitution of India

Judges, like Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, K. M. Munshi, Benegal Narsing Rau, and Ganesh Mavalankar, were members of the assembly. Female members included Sarojini Naidu, Durgabai Deshmukh Hansa Mehta, Amrit Kaur, and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit. Sachchidananda Sinha, who was the first two-day president of the assembly; Rajendra Prasad was later elected president. The group met for the first time on 9 December 1946.

Drafting of Constitution of India

The Constitution embraced on 26 November 1949, which was signed by 284 members. The day is widely known as National Law Day or Constitution Day; the day chosen to widespread the significance of the Constitution and to spread thoughts and concepts of Ambedkar.

Structure of Constitution of India

The Constitution of India is the world’s lengthiest for an autonomous nation. At its legislation, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and eight schedules. At about 145,000 words, it’s the second-longest active Constitution – after the Constitution of Alabama – within the world.

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Indian Constitution - Free Essay Examples and Topic Ideas

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the country that was adopted on 26th November, 1949 and came into effect on 26th January, 1950, which is celebrated as Republic Day in India. It is a comprehensive document that outlines the fundamental rights, duties, and obligations of citizens, as well as the powers and duties of the legislature, judiciary, and executive branches of the government. The Indian Constitution is the longest written constitution in the world, consisting of 448 articles in 22 parts, and 12 schedules. It is a living document that ensures constitutional remedies for any violation of citizens’ rights and liberties, ensuring justice, peace, and prosperity for all the people of India.

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Important Articles from Indian Constitution : Compilation Part I

• 16 Jul 2020
• GS Paper - 2
• Indian Constitution
• Constitutional Amendments

Introduction

• The Constitution of India contains 395 articles in 22 parts. It also contains 12 schedules. Since its adoption in 1949, it has been amended for 103 times.
• Total number of Amendment Bills introduced till today in parliament is 126.
• Last year 2019-20, was extremely important from the point of view of important constitutional amendment, landmark judgements and several constitutional crises. Here we are consolidating the important constitutional articles which remain in news throughout the year.

PART I: THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY

Article 3 - Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States

• Context - The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 reorganises the state of Jammu and Kashmir into: (i) the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir with a legislature, and (ii) the Union Territory of Ladakh without a legislature.

PART II CITIZENSHIP

Article 8 - Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin residing outside India.

Article 10 - Continuance of the rights of citizenship.

Article 11 - Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law.

• Context - The Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2019 , amends the Citizenship Act, 1955, and seeks to make foreign illegal migrants of certain religious communities coming from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan eligible for Indian citizenship.
• The National Register of Citizens (NRC) is a register containing names of all genuine Indian citizens. At present, only Assam has such a register.

Part III FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

Article 14- Equality before law

• Context - The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act 2019 makes a declaration of talaq a cognizable offence, attracting up to three years imprisonment witha fine. The Triple Talaq was considered as the violative of Article 14.

Article 15 - Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

Article 16 - Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.

• Context - The Constitution (103 rd Amendment) Act, 2019 , provides for 10% reservation for the economically weaker sections (EWS) in higher educational institutions and jobs within the general category. It inserted article 15 (6) and 16 (6) in the constitution.

Article 19 - Freedom of: (i) speech and expression, (ii) assembly, (iii) association, (iv) movement, (v) residence, and (vi) profession.

• Context - The Supreme Court has declared access to the internet a fundamental right under Article 19 (1)(a) of the Constitution.

Article 20- Protection in respect of conviction for offences.

• Context - Rule 49 MA provides for prosecution of a voter for making a false complaint of malfunction of an electronic voting machine or a voter verifiable paper audit trail machine. It is in contradiction with Article 20(3) of the Constitution which says that no person accused of an offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.

Article 32 - Right to constitutional remedies.

Part IV DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

Article 39 - Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State.

• Context - The Supreme Court appointed Justice Amitava Roy (retd.) Committee has given recommendations to reform prisons. Article 39-A of the Constitution directs the State to ensure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice on a basis of equal opportunity and shall, in particular, provide free legal aid by suitable legislation or schemes or in any other way.

Article 41 Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases.

• Context - The Chhattisgarh Cabinet has approved an amendment to the State Panchayati Raj Act, 1993, which makes mandatory the presence of a person with disabilities in all panchayats across the state. This implies that if differently abled members are not elected through the electoral process, then one member, either male or female, would be nominated by the government.

Article 43 - Living wage, etc., for workers.

• Context - Recently the government has enacted Wage Code Act to ensure minimum wage to the workers.

Article 44 - Uniform civil code for the citizens

• Context - The Supreme Court in a case concerning the question of whether succession and inheritance of a Goan domicile is governed by the Portuguese Civil Code, 1867 or the Indian Succession Act of 1925, held that the Constitution in Article 44 requires the State to strive to secure for its citizens a Uniform Civil Code (UCC) throughout India, but till date, no action has been taken in this regard.

Part V UNION EXECUTIVE & PARLIAMENT

Article 72 - Power of President to grant pardons etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases.

• Context - The convicts of Nirbhaya Case have misused the presidential pardon as dilatory tactics to frustrate the judicial process.

Article 80 - Composition of the Council of States.

• Context - The Supreme court has held that the NOTA option is meant only for universal adult suffrage and direct elections and not for polls held by the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote as done in the Rajya Sabha. The court held that making NOTA applicable in Rajya Sabha elections is contrary to Article 80(4) of the constitution and the Supreme Court’s judgment in PUCL v Union of India (2013).

Article 82 Readjustment after each census.

• Context - The bifurcation of Jammu and Kashmir state into the Union Territories of J&K and Ladakh has made delimitation of their electoral constituencies inevitable. Recently, the EC has held “internal discussions” on the Jammu and Kashmir reorganisation Act, 2019, particularly its provisions on delimitation.

Article 102 - Disqualifications for membership.

• Context - The Centre is considering a constitutional amendment to define the term ‘office of profit’ and the exempted categories. The draft amendment proposes to exempt advisors appointed by the Centre or states and those appointed to discharge legislative functions such as leader of opposition, chief whips, etc from disqualification related to the ‘office of profit’.

Article 123 - Power of President to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Parliament.

• Taxation and Other Laws (Relaxation of Certain Provisions) Ordinance, 2020
• Ordinance to Protect Health Workers
• Government Re-Promulgates Triple Talaq Ordinance

Read TTP on Major Constitutional Amendments- Part I , Part II , Part III

Legal Insights

Citizenship

SC expands Article 19 ambit: Not just state, even Pvt. citizens can face challenge

Constitution of India Essay

The constitution of India became effective on 26 th  January 1950; though it was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 th November 1949. It was written by a drafting committee headed by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. It is the longest written constitution that defines the power, procedures and responsibilities of the government institutions of India and gives detailed account of the fundamental rights and duties of the citizens of our country.

The original Indian Constitution is hand written, calligraphed and also the lengthiest Constitution in the world. The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India drafted by the Constituent Assembly, superior even to the Parliament, as it cannot over rides it. With the Constitution coming into effect, India’s status from “Dominion of India” was changed to the “Republic of India”.

Long and Short Essay on Constitution of India in English

Here are long and short essay on Constitution of India to help you with the topic in your exam.

After going through the Constitution of India essay you will know about the features of Constitution, who was in the drafting committee of the constitution, which other constitutions is the Indian constitution inspired from, how long does it took to draft the Constitution, and other facts of the Constitution of India.

You can use these essays in your school’s essay writing competition, debate competition or other similar events.

Short Essay on Constitution of India (200 words)

The Constitution of India was drafted under the chairmanship of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar who is known as the Father of the Indian Constitution. It took almost three years to draft the Constitution. Various socio-political and economic aspects of the society were taken into consideration while drafting the Constitution. The drafting committee also referred to the Constitutions of various other counties including Britain, France and Japan to seek valuable inputs.

The Constitution of India includes the Fundamental Rights and Duties of the citizens, the Directive Principles of State Policy and the Federal Structure of the Government of India. Every policy, right and duty has been explained at length in the Indian Constitution thereby making it the longest written Constitution in the world.

More than 2000 amendments had to be made in the Constitution of India in order to get it approved. It was adopted on 26th November 1949 and was enforced completely on 26 th January 1950. This was the day when our country began to be known as the Republic of India. 26 th January is since then celebrated as the Republic Day. The Indian National Flag is hoisted at various places across the country and the National Anthem is sung to rejoice the day. National Constitution Day, a special day dedicated particularly to the Indian Constitution, came into being in 2015.

Essay on Importance of Constitution of India (300 words)

Introduction

The Constitution of India is known to be the supreme document that gives a detailed account of what the citizens of India can and cannot do. It has set a standard that needs to be followed to ensure law and order in the society and also to help it develop and prosper.

Constitution Defines the Fundamental Rights and Duties of Indian Citizens

The fundamental rights and duties of the Indian citizens have clearly been defined in the Constitution of the country. The Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens include the Right to Equality, Right to Freedom, Right to Freedom of Religion, Cultural and Educational Rights, Right against Exploitation, Right to Constitutional Remedies. These are the basic rights that all the citizens of the country are entitled to irrespective of their caste, colour, creed or religion.

Some of the fundamental duties of an Indian citizen are to respect the constitution, honour the national flag and national anthem, protect the unity, preserve the heritage of the country, protect the integrity and sovereignty of India, promote the spirit of brotherhood, have compassion for living creatures, strive for excellence, protect public property and contribute his/ her bit in maintaining peace. These are also mentioned at length in the Indian Constitution.

Constitution Defines the Structure and Working of the Government

The structure and working of the government is also stated at length in the Constitution of India. The Constitution mentions that India has a parliamentary system of government. This system is present at the centre as well as in the states. The Prime Minister and the Union Council of Ministers have the power to take all the major decisions. The President of India, on the other hand, has nominal powers.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar along with his team of six members who were a part of the drafting committee came up with the Constitution of India. The Constitution was approved after several amendments. Many amendments have also been done after the enforcement of the Constitution.

Essay on Formation of Constitution of India (400 words)

The Constitution of India came into form on 26 th November 1949. A special committee was formed to draft the Constitution that gives a detailed account of the practices that are deemed lawful and those deemed unlawful and are punishable. The Constitution was enforced on 26 th January 1950. With the enforcement of the Constitution, our country came to be known as the Republic of India.

Special Drafting Committee for the Constitution of India

The task of drafting the Constitution of India was that of great responsibility. The Constituent Assembly set up a special drafting committee to further this work. There were seven members in the drafting committee. These included prominent Indian leaders namely, B.R. Ambedkar, B.L. Mitter, K.M. Munshi, N. Gopalaswami Ayengar, Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar, DP and Mohammad Saadullah. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar headed the drafting committee. Ambedkar is referred to as the Father of the Indian Constitution. This is because it was under his guidance and supervision that this big draft came into form.

Indian Constitution – Inspired by Constitutions of Other Countries

The constitution of India drew inspiration from the constitutions of various other countries. Many of the concepts and acts included in our constitution are borrowed from the constitutions of countries such as France, Germany, Japan, Australia, USA, Britain, Ireland, Russia and South Africa.

The drafting committee of the Indian Constitution also referred to the Government of India Act 1858, the Government of India Act 1919 and 1935 and the Indian Independence Act 1947 to get an idea about the acts and features to be included in the Constitution. These previous acts helped the committee understand the condition and requirement of the citizens of the country. Our Constitution is thus often referred to as the bag of borrowings. It consisted of as many as 395 articles, 22 parts and 8 schedules at the time of its enactment. It was handwritten and calligraphed.

After putting in immense efforts when the drafting committee presented the final draft of the Constitution of India, it was suggested to make several amendments. The committee sat together to make more than 2000 amendments to get the Constitution approved. The members conducted several discussions to make appropriate amendments for getting the approval. 284 members of the Constituent Assembly of India signed the Constitution to give their approval on the same. This was done two days before the enforcement of the constitution.

The Constitution of India is a massive piece of writing that includes a detailed account of the dos and don’ts for the Indian system. It has undergone around 100 amendments since it came into form.

Essay on Constitution of India (500 words)

Constitution of India – The Supreme Power of Country

The Constitution of India is rightly said to be the supreme power of the country. The laws, codes, rights and duties mentioned in the Indian Constitution need to be followed strictly by the citizens of the country. The decisions made in the parliament and Supreme Court of India are all based on the laws and codes defined in the Constitution of India. Parliament of India does not have the power to override the constitution.

Dr. B. R Ambedkar – The Chief Architect of Indian Constitution

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar headed the drafting committee formed to write the Constitution of India. He was the chairman of this committee. He contributed immensely in the formation of the Constitution by giving several valuable inputs and thus came to be known as the chief architect of the Constitution of India. There were six other members in the drafting committee which was formed by the Constituent Assembly of India. These members worked under the guidance of Dr. Ambedkar.

Constitution of India Replaced Government of India Act

The Government of India Act, 1935 acted as the fundamental governing document of India until the formation of the Constitution of India. The Constituent Assembly of India adopted the Constitution of India in November 1949. Many of the articles of the Constitution came into force at that time. The Constitution was effectively enforced on 26 th January 1950 which came to be known as the Indian Republic Day. The remaining articles became effective on this date. Our country which was until then called the Dominion of the British Crown thereafter came to be known as the Sovereign Democratic Republic of India.

Special Days to Celebrate the Constitution of India

Republic Day

The formation and enforcement of Indian Constitution is celebrated at a grand scale on the Republic Day each year. Republic Day is a national holiday in the country. A massive event is organized at India Gate, New Delhi on Republic Day to honour the Constitution of the country. The constitutional head of India, i.e., its president hoists national flag at Rajpath. The Prime Minister and President of India and several Chief Ministers of different states of the country are present at the event. Parades by school kids and armed forces are held on Rajpath. School children also perform dances and other cultural acts. Parade of beautiful tableau displaying the culture of various Indian states is also held during the event.

Several small events are organized at different offices and schools throughout the country to commemorate the Indian Constitution. Painting, essay and music competitions are held in schools and colleges. Patriotic songs are sung and speeches about the Constitution of India are delivered.

National Constitution Day

In the year 2015, Indian Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, gave the suggestion to dedicate an exclusive day to our constitution. Since the Indian Constitution was adopted on 26 th November 1949, this date was chosen to honour the constitution. 26 th November is being celebrated as the National Constitution Day since 2015.

Many small and big events are organized in schools, colleges and government institutions across India on this day. The importance of the Indian Constitution is emphasized during these events. Patriotic songs are sung and cultural activities are organized to celebrate the day.

The Constitution of India has been prepared with precision considering the interest of the common man as well as the overall interest of the country. It is a gift for the citizens of our country.

Long Essay on Constitution of India (600 words)

Enforced on 26 th January 1950, the Constitution of India was prepared by a committee consisting of seven members headed by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. It guides the citizens of India, the country’s government bodies and other authorities to act in the right manner. It has played a significant role in maintaining peace and prosperity in the country.

Salient Features of the Constitution of India

Here are the top salient features of the constitution of India:

Longest Written Constitution

The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution in the world. It took almost three years to write this detailed constitution. It has a preamble, 448 articles, 25 groups, 12 schedules and 5 appendices. It is much lengthier than the US Constitution that includes only 7 Articles.

Amalgamation of Rigidity and Flexibility

The Constitution of India is a mix of rigidity and flexibility. While it is the supreme power that needs to be followed diligently to maintain law and order in the country, the citizens can appeal to amend the provisions they deem outdated or stern. While certain provisions can be amended with some difficulty others are easy to amend. As many as 103 amendments have been done in the Constitution of our country since its enforcement.

The Preamble

The well drafted Preamble of the Indian Constitution gives a detailed account of the philosophy of the constitution. It states that India is a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic. It is a welfare state which puts its people first. It believes in equality, freedom and justice for its people. While democratic socialism was followed right from the beginning, the term Socialism was added only in 1976.

India – A Secular State

The Constitution has declared India a secular state. India does not give special status to any religion. It provides its citizens complete freedom to choose their religion. It condemns religious groups instigating people in the name of religion.

India – A Republic

The Constitution declares India to be a Republic. The country is not ruled by a nominated head or monarch. It has an elected head called the President. The President, elected indirectly by the people of the country, comes to power for a period of 5 years.

India – A Mix of Federalism and Unitarianism

The Constitution describes India as a federal structure with many unitary features. It is referred to as a Quasi-Federation or a Unitarian Federation. Just like a federation, India has divided power among the centre and states. It has a dual administration system. It has a written, supreme constitution that needs to be followed religiously. It includes an independent judiciary embedded with the power to decide centre-state disputes. At the same time it has unitary features such as a strong common constitution, common election commission and emergency provisions to name a few.

Fundamental Duties of Citizens

The Constitution of India clearly states the fundamental duties of its citizens. Some of these are to upload and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India, respect the national flag and the national anthem, preserve the rich heritage of the country, protect the natural environment, safeguard public property and treat everyone equally.

Directive Principles of the State Policy

The Directive Principles of the State Policy are also mentioned in the Constitution of India. These principles are basically the guidelines provided to the state to further socio-economic development aims via its policies.

The Constitution of India serves as a guiding light for its citizens. Everything is well-defined in the Indian Constitution. It has helped India attain the status of a Republic. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and the members of the drafting committee of the Indian constitution have indeed done a commendable job for which they will always be remembered.

Related Information:

Speech on Constitution of India

Speech on National Constitution Day

Constitution Day

Essay on National Constitution Day

Essay on Article 370 of Indian Constitution

Speech on Article 370 of Constitution of India

Essay on Article 35A of Indian Constitution

Slogans on Constitution

Essay on Section 377 of Indian Penal Code

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Article Contents

1.introduction, 2.the constitution and historical imagination, 3.time: founding moments, serialized epics, and everyday postscripts, 4.liberalism with indian characteristics: individuals and communities, 5.conclusion: freedom, discipline, and the paths not taken.

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The Indian Constitution: Moments, epics and everyday lives

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Rohit De, The Indian Constitution: Moments, epics and everyday lives, International Journal of Constitutional Law , Volume 18, Issue 3, October 2020, Pages 1022–1030, https://doi.org/10.1093/icon/moaa077

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I submit that a Constituent Assembly not only frames a constitution, but also gives people a new framework of life. Dakshayani Velayudhan, Dec. 9, 1946, in 1 Constituent Assembly of India Debates

January 26, 2020 marked the seventieth anniversary of the Indian Constitution. Official celebrations focused on memorializing the “fundamental duties” of the citizen in the constitution that range from “respecting public property and adjuring violence” to “respecting the national flag and national anthem.” In striking contrast, hundreds of thousands of Indian citizens gathered in the streets protesting the changes to the citizenship law by affirming constitutional values of equality, liberty, fraternity, and justice through public recitations of the preamble. 1 The current government-led crisis of the Indian constitutional system has been described as “death of the constitution by a thousand cuts” 2 and is being met with an exceptional resilience of constitutional patriotism from ordinary citizens. Perhaps for the first time since its promulgation, the Constitution is being reflected in popular culture and celebrated in film, song, and poetry. 3

Taking stock on the sixtieth anniversary of the Indian Constitution, political scientist Pratap Bhanu Mehta noted that constitutions, “not only allocate authority, define the limits of power or enunciate values, they also constitute our sense of history and shape a sense of self,” but despite the centrality of the Constitution to Indian social and political life, it remained “ill served by our historical imagination.” 4 In contrast, the last decade has witnessed an efflorescence of historically inflected writing, both scholarly and popular, on the Indian constitution. 5 Madhav Khosla, Ornit Shani, and myself recognize, in our respective work, that the promulgation of the Indian Constitution was a transformative moment for democracy in India, and is a resource for theorizing democracy more generally. As all three authors emphasize, this shared assumption marks a break from Indian scholarship, which saw the Constitution as a “superstructure” or as incidental to Indian politics; it is also a break from Western political theory which viewed the constitution as derivative and the Indian democratic experience at best as an anomaly. For Khosla, the Indian constitution is the “paradigmatic democratic experience in the 20th century, in much the same way in which Tocqueville’s America was for the 19th century.” 6 Ornit Shani notes that the Indian experience of universal adult franchise, irrespective of qualifications, predated not just the postcolonial world, but also the United States and France. I point out that the imbrication of constitution into daily life and the judicialization of politics have a considerably longer history in India than in most of the world. 7 Liberalism, democracy, industrialization, and social equality might have emerged sequentially in the west, but the Indian republic sought to achieve all goals simultaneously.

While differing in their emphasis on the process of change, the three books complement each other. Khosla excavates a shared constitutional vision at the moment of founding that makes visible the political apparatus of democratization, i.e. the codification and explication of rules as a pedagogical project, the emergence of a centralized overarching state, and focusing on the individual as the unit of representation. Shani argues that it was “practical rather than ideological steps,” through the bureaucratic task of implementing universal franchise, that “transformed the meaning of social existence in India” and laid the groundwork of electoral politics. 8 My work documents the use of constitutional remedies in courts and the emergence of constitutional rhetoric on the streets by ordinary people, arguing that the constitutional order was not a gift by enlightened politicians or benevolent judges but was produced and reproduced in everyday encounters by ordinary citizens. 9 Despite the text of the Indian Constitution reproducing several features of colonial legislation, and the institutions of the police, army, bureaucracy, and judiciary continuing with the same personnel and practices, all three authors rebut the idea that the Indian Constitution is an inevitable outgrowth of the colonial legal and bureaucratic frameworks. 10 Khosla distinguishes constitutional codification from colonial projects of codification, arguing that rights were marginal to the nationalist movement and colonial debates over representation were focused on group/communal identities. 11 Shani demonstrates how colonial bureaucrats, when tasked with expanding franchise even minimally, showed reluctance to enfranchise voters, shunned publicity, and found a range of administrative objections to expanding the voter’s list. In contrast, from 1948 onwards, in anticipation of changing legal authorities, the bureaucrats devised new precedents, overcame procedural hurdles, and actively publicized the process of turning citizens into voters. 12 I show how the judicial constitutional remedies in the new constitution gave Indian courts wide powers of judicial review and empowered citizens with the tactics and language to challenge a previously unimaginable range of governmental action both in the courts and on the streets. All three authors forcefully rebut the challenge to demographic non-representativeness (the unelected and largely upper caste Assembly members, the colonial bureaucracy, civil society groups, and litigants) by showing how the processes of constitution writing, electoral registration, and constitutional litigation opened up fields of action for the larger population by rewiring vocabularies, political imaginations, and expectations.

Along with these shared and complementary visions, these three books represent a heterogeneity of methods, archives and causality and offer different (and occasionally contradictory) answers to the nature of India’s constitutional experiment.

Between December 1946 and November 1949, over 300 members of the Indian Constituent Assembly met and deliberated over a constitutional draft in Delhi. For Khosla, this is a distinct moment of founding when “India’s political elite converged on a set of liberal constitutional values without the inheritance of any major liberal traditions.” 13 Khosla rejects not only arguments of colonial continuity, but also claims that these were products of a self-interested compromise over a transfer of power or that they were rooted in a long history of Indian liberal (and radical) thought. 14 While these claims can be contested, Khosla’s maneuver separates a future-oriented “constitutional moment” from everyday politics, allowing for a focus on the ideas themselves without reducing it to contingent maneuvering of interest groups. For instance, he shows how Nehru and Ambedkar, despite differing on their understanding of social and economic needs, came together in adopting a centralized state as the instrument of power for social and economic transformation and freedom, despite two decades of debates over provincial autonomy and village government. 15 One of the strengths of Khosla’s work is his deftness in placing the Indian debates on franchise, representation, and citizenship within the canon of political theory. Khosla’s narrative stops with the promulgation of the constitutional text by the Constituent Assembly, but he notes that the framework did not “exhaust its democratic character and carry the full weight of legitimation.” 16 The provision of universal adult suffrage and ease of constitutional amendment through constitutionally prescribed forms allowed for a democratic sovereignty in the future. Khosla suggests that the ease of amending the Indian Constitution through future parliaments was in recognition of the unelected nature of the Assembly and the absence of a process of ratification. 17 However, the first amendments to the Indian Constitution, circumscribing the rights to free speech and property and nullifying judicial verdicts, were made by the unelected Constituent Assembly in 1951. 18 According to Khosla, at the birth of the Indian republic, people were yet to transition from subjecthood to citizenship, but would do so through a democratic constitution. 19

In contrast, Ornit Shani argues that Indians became voters, and democratic subjects, before they became citizens. Shani focuses on the making of the Indian electorate through the preparation of the first draft electoral roll in anticipation of the Indian constitution. Moving away from the “ivory tower” of the Constituent Assembly, Shani shows how the “institution of electoral democracy,” which preceded the constitutional deliberations by politicians, was the product of a dialog between professional bureaucrats and ordinary people. She argues that it was the institutionalization of procedural equality in a deeply hierarchical society ahead of the constitution that made India’s democracy legible and legitimate to its people. 20 Shani’s archive is the little studied Secretariat of the Constituent Assembly, which was tasked with preparing an electoral roll for the new republic and bureaucratized the idea of equality for the purpose of voting.

As the deliberations began in the Constituent Assembly in 1946, both the territory of the future republic and the people who would constitute it remained undefined. The decision to partition British India into two states led to the greatest human displacement in history, resulting in the migration of 15 million people and millions of deaths. A patchwork of semi-autonomous princely states made up a third of the territory in South Asia, and their sovereigns continued to negotiate the status of their territories and subjects within the Indian union even after the promulgation of the Constitution. 21 The shifting populations and boundaries complicated the process of creating a list of voters and generated struggles for citizenship that were informed by the constitution being drafted and led to changes in the draft provisions. Shani reads the press notes issued by the Secretariat, the ensuing discussions in press, and the letters from the public as a “serialized epic of democracy” which allowed ordinary people to insert themselves as protagonists and “contribut[e] to the democratization of feelings and imagination.” 22 Similarly, administrative debates about funding and preparing a national electoral roll welded together 600 jurisdictions into a democratic federal structure and forged a common idea of Indianness. Most strikingly, Shani charts the transformation of a colonial bureaucratic imagination into one with an unprecedented “measure and tenacity of inclusion,” with state officials registering refugees in camps, homeless people, women in seclusion, and people living in remote areas. Through this new inclusive process they transform and democratize forms and procedures of democratic participation. The production of an electoral roll of 170 million people supported the notion that sovereignty resided in people with actual names and addresses (even though it might record that so-and-so slept under a tree), rather than being a faceless entity. Shani’s key intervention is to show that ordinary people did not react to the constitution-making process, but that constitution-making and everyday struggles were co-constitutive processes. For instance, she shows how the provisions on a centralized electoral commission and the principle of non-discrimination over place of birth emerged through struggles of internal migrants trying to get themselves into the electoral roll before the constitution was completed.

While Khosla’s narrative ends with the promulgation of the Constitution, and Shani’s runs parallel to the process of constitutional drafting, mine seeks to show how the Constitution after its promulgation “came so alive in popular imagination that ordinary people attributed meaning to its existence, took recourse through it and argued with it.” 23 What happens after the overarching centralized state with ambitions to restructure society and economy through codified rules, as Khosla describes, begins to intervene in everyday life? How do people who are not included in the electoral rolls or, more commonly, unable to protect their interests electorally, protect themselves? I argue that, almost as soon as it is promulgated, the Indian Constitution begins to operate as an organizational assumption for citizens and a background threat to the state through processes driven by some of its most marginal citizens. 24 I show this by looking at the use of the new constitutional remedies against attempts to transform the daily life of citizens, be it food practices, drinking habits, shopping, or sexual behavior. 25 While the book draws on judicial records, the central figure is not the judge but the litigant, who was able to insert themselves into an elite conversation and compel the state to respond. In contrast to the “serialized press notes” discussed by Shani, the site of encounter was not chosen by the state, and bureaucrats and politicians (including the constitution founders) are surprised and exasperated when being asked to abide by constitutional procedure. This point was acutely made when Durgabai Deshmukh, a liberal lawyer and constitutional drafter, faced with sex workers asserting their right to practice their profession, demanded that the constitution be amended to exclude them and that “notions of freedom undergo a change.” 26 It is clear that neither judges nor politicians exercise a monopoly on constitutional meaning, as ordinary Indians persist in their claims even after a judicial negation, or in anticipation of constitutional change. Like Shani, I draw inspiration from Robert Cover in recognizing that constitutions exist in a normative universe constructed by the “force of interpretive commitments, some small and private, others immense and public” and seek to bring the smaller actors to light. 27 Despite the centrality of the judicial archive, it was clear that judges did not control the final meaning of the constitution, as groups held onto constitutional interpretations and advanced claims counter to judicial visions.

In one of his final speeches to the Constituent Assembly, Dr Ambedkar worried that “democracy in India was only top dressing on a deeply undemocratic society.” 28 Not only was Ambedkar intimately familiar with the exclusions and violence of a caste society, he had also led two decades of negotiations with both the British and the Congress Party to create a more inclusive playing field but to little avail. How did the constitutional order provide a way for a more democratic society? Khosla gives the clearest answer to this question by suggesting the constitution centered on the individual in exclusion of other identities as the unit of representation, as demonstrated by dropping communal electorates based on religion. He suggests that even the constitutionally mandated special provisions made available to Dalit and tribal communities are framed on the “social and educational backwardness of a group,” which might have applied to certain castes at the time of independence, but were not innate to the group’s conditions. 29 His approach highlights the limitations of reading the Constitution as a document of shared consensus. The Constitution drafters, particularly women and Dalit members, were acutely aware of deep-seated inequalities in society and sought to harness state instruments to transform it. Central to this was an awareness that formal equality was not only insufficient but also dangerous, in that it could be used to hamper the state’s efforts to ameliorate social conditions. 30

The withdrawal of demands for communal representation and the disaggregation of caste and religious minorities are more a product of political machinations in the assembly than a commitment to liberalism. 31 There were only two Muslim members in the Assembly until June of 1947, when the Muslim League members took their seats. As several scholars have shown, the members of the League were outnumbered, had their loyalties and credibility attacked, and were outmaneuvered in committee meetings. 32 Aditya Nigam suggests that reading the constituent assembly debates as an event rather than a text makes visible how within the assembly the “liberal abstract notion of unmarked citizenship” was deployed in a desire for homogeneity rather than democracy and often silenced the articulation of a community-based grievance. 33

Shani’s work also focuses on the production of an unmarked procedurally equal citizenship, but her archive foregrounds the close relationship between community identity and the paradigmatic form of individual representation. The process of bureaucratic enumeration comes dazzlingly alive through the letters and public engagement that the constituent assembly are flooded with. While some are from individuals, a majority seem to come from a range of identity-based associations (a hybrid between traditional caste organizations and modern civil society groups) and, in expanding their liberal unmarked right to franchise, they make claims that are based on group identities. Take, for instance, the Assam Citizen’s Association Dhubri, which attempted to secure the voting rights of refugees, but lobbied to remove the constitutional restrictions preventing them from buying tribal land and pushed for state aid to support minority-run educational institutions. 34 The mobilization for individual representation was facilitated by community organizations. As Shani points out, some communities were unable to represent themselves, and tribal areas in Northeast and Central India, the Andamans, and the state of Jammu and Kashmir were not given the direct franchise. 35

Group identities entered my book in unexpected ways. As I tabulated challenges to particular laws, I noticed a clustering of petitions by individuals belonging to the same community, even in cases that were seemingly unconnected to ascriptive identities, such as commodity controls. It soon became apparent that in caste society, ascriptive identities and economic structures were closely linked, and the ability to litigate was greatest for those with access to informational networks or resources through community organizations. In many instances, what appeared to be claims for individual rights such as the right to drink, on closer examination seemed to be have been funded or organized by a community whose economic interests had been affected. As the archive made clear, not all communities in the 1950s had equal access to litigation, with landless laborers and Dalits , who made up a substantial portion of the population, being underrepresented. However, the acts of litigious citizens opened up pathways of rights for others less able to litigate and caused state officials to anticipate challenges and take constitutional norms as “organizational assumptions” to be followed or evaded. 36 Liberal theory treats liberty, property, and community as separate concepts, but in the Indian case they seem to be inextricably linked to constitutional design.

Despite these limitations and differences, all three authors agree that the Indian constitutional experiment was unprecedented for the time and in terms of its success. The two contemporaneous constituent assemblies in Pakistan and Israel were unable to agree upon a constitutional document, and neither has had the same degree of longevity or popular support. The longevity of the Indian Constituent Assembly is tied both to promise of the constitution and its framework of disciplining politics. For instance, attempts to challenge either the codification of rules or the overarching centralizing state were defended with a range of instruments within the constitution, from the provision of emergency to preventive detention laws. 37 While elections and electoral participation were celebrated, state elites were invested in using elections to discipline politics, curbing other forms of civic protest, and to thwart political engagement that had developed during the national movement. 38 Judicial victories were rare, narrow, and often reversed; moreover, the litigator was frequently castigated as a representative of a “private interest” against “national interest,” and the most effective strategies were where the litigant could, to paraphrase Hannah Arendt, frame their private interest as a general one. 39 As John Dunne notes, the globalization of representative democracy rooted in a bureaucratic statist structure erases more radical alternatives. 40

Given that the triad of features that our books identify and theorize faces increasing challenges in India, one direction for the emerging scholarship on the Indian Constitution is to explore the paths not taken. Kalyani Ramnath, for instance, suggests that the range of disparate opinions within the Constituent Assembly presents an opportunity to examine the different ways in which the constitutional text and polity could have been structured. 41 Khosla engages at some length with the Gandhian genealogy of thinking state power, but there remain other alternatives, including the federal proposals from the Dravidian parties and the princely states, Ambedkar’s radical economic plans including land nationalization, or the more robust imagination of fundamental rights in the Karachi Charter of 1932. Upendra Baxi describes constitutionalism in a threefold way: (i) as a corpus of texts signaling the original intention to fashion a new political formation that seeks to write society through law; (ii) as a set of ongoing interpretive practices within an authoritative community (be it bureaucrats, lawyers, or judges); and (iii) as a site for articulating insurgent orders of expectations from the state. 42 As we look towards the next decade of scholarship on the Indian Constitution, one hopes to see the recovery of more voices, imaginations, archives, and strategies covering the breadth of Baxi’s definitions of constitutionalism.

Rohit De & Surabhi Ranganathan, We are Witnessing the Rediscovery of India’s Republic , N.Y. Times (Dec. 27, 2019), https://nyti.ms/3iAyfeo .

Tarunabh Khaitan, Killing a Constitution by a Thousand Cuts: Executive Aggrandizement and Party-State Fusion in India , 14 Law & Ethics Hum. Rts . 49 (2020).

Suanshu Khurana, Ekkta Malik & Tanushree Ghosh, Poets, Singers and Writers on what the Constitution Means to Them in Letter and Spirit , Indian Express (Jan. 6, 2020), https://bit.ly/3c0qWKB; Article 15 ( Zee Studios, 2018).

Pratap Bhanu Mehta, What is Constitutional Morality? , 615 Seminar India ( Nov. 2010), https://bit.ly/3hyADkL .

This selection of monographs reflects both an interest in constitutional founding as well as constitutional narration for both legal and lay publics. On the constituent assembly and the moment of founding, see Gautam Bhatia, The Transformative Constitution: A Radical Biography in Nine Acts (2019) ; Arvind Elangovan, Norms and Politics: Sir Benegal Narsimha Rau and the Making of the Indian Constitution (1935–1950) (2019); The Indian Constituent Assembly: Deliberations on Democracy ( Udit Bhatia ed., 2017); Akash Singh Rathore, Ambedkar’s Preamble: A Secret History of the Constitution of India (2020); Sandipto Dasgupta, Legalizing the Revolution: Decolonization and Constitutionalism in the 20th Century (2020); Niraja Gopal Jayal, Citizenship and Its Discontents: An Indian History (2013) . On narrating constitutional jurisprudence, see Chitranshul Sinha, The Great Repression: The Story of Sedition in India (2019); Abhinav Chandrachud, A Republic of Rhetoric: Free Speech and the Constitution of India (2017); Anuj Bhuwania, Courting the People: Public Interest Litigation in Post-Emergency India (2017); Gautam Bhatia, Offend, Shock and Disturb: Free Speech under the Indian Constitution (2016); Pooja Parmar, Indigenity and Legal Pluralism in India: Claims, Histories and Meanings (2015), Kalpana Kannibiran, Tools of Justice: Non Discrimination and the Indian Constitution (2012). For an analytical overview, see Arun Kumar Thiruvengadam, The Indian Constitution: A Contextual Analysis (2018).

Madhav Khosla , India’s Founding Moment: The Constitution of a Most Surprising Democracy 6 (2020).

Rohit De, A People’s Constitution: The Everyday Life of the Law in the Indian Republic 4 (2018).

Ornit Shani, How India Became Democratic? Citizenship and the Making of the Universal Franchise 5 (2019).

De , supra note 7, at 3.

On the colonial constitutionalism argument, see Rannabir Sammadar, The Materiality of Politics: The Technologies of Rule (vol. 1) (2007); Sumit Sarkar, Indian Democracy: The Historical Inheritance , in The Success of India’s Democracy 21 (Atul Kohli ed ., 2001); Anil Kalhan, Constitution and “Extraconstitution , ” in Colonial Emergency Regimes in Postcolonial India and Pakistan 89–120 (Victor Ramraj & Arun K. Thiruvengadam eds., 2010).

Khosla , supra note 6. On the way the postcolonial legal order has attempted to integrate its colonial past, see Rahela Khorakiwala, From the Colonial to the Contemporary: Images, Iconography and Performances of Law in India’s High Courts (2019); Rohit De, Between Midnight and Republic: Theory and Practice of India’s Dominion Status , 17 Int’l J. Const. L. 1213 (2019).

Shani , supra note 8, at 32–51.

Khosla , supra note 6, at 18. Moving away from quantitative and game theory models for constitutional success, Khosla’s book is part of an emerging field of interest in Asian constitutional foundations. See Constitutional Foundings in South Asia (Kevin Yl Tan & Ridwan Ul Hoque eds., 2021); The Sri Lankan Republic at 40: Reflections on Constitutional History, Theory and Practice (Asanga Welikala ed., 2012); Maryam Khan, What’s in a Founding? Founding Moments and Pakistan’s “Permanent Constitution” of 1973 , in Founding Moments in Constitutionalism 201–21 (Richard Albert, Nischal Basnyet & Menaka Guruswamy eds., 2020); Constitution-Making in Asia: Decolonisation and State-Building in the Aftermath of the British Empire (Harshan Kumarasingham ed., 2016).

For an example of the compromise model of constitution making in British colonies, see Charles Parkinson, Bill of Rights and Decolonization: The Emergence of Domestic Human Rights Instruments in Britain’s Overseas Territories (2007). For arguments identifying antecedents of the Indian Constitution in Indian intellectual history, see Christopher Bayly, Recovering Liberties: Indian Thought in the Age of Liberalism and Empire (2011); Sukanya Bannerjee, Becoming Imperial Citizens: Indians in the Late Victorian Empire (2013) ; Elangovan, supra note 5; Jayal, supra note 5; Mithi Mukherjee, India in the Shadows of Empire: A Legal and Political History (1757–1950) (2009) . For an overview of radical or socialist antecedents to the Indian Constitution, see Rohit De, Constitutional Antecedents , in The Oxford Handbook to the Indian Constitution 17 ( Sujit Choudhary, Madhav Khosla, and Pratap Bhanu Mehta eds., 2015); Kama Maclean, The Fundamental Rights Resolution Nationalism, Internationalism, and Cosmopolitanism in an Interwar Moment , 37 Comp. Stud. S. Asia, Afr. & Middle E. 213 (2017). For a scalar lineage, see Stephen Legg, Dyarchy: Democracy, Autocracy, and the Scalar Sovereignty of Interwar India , 36 Comp. Stud. S. Asia, Afr. & Middle E. 44 (2016).

This builds on Uday Mehta’s argument that the Indian constitution, distinct from the American or French traditions, transforms power from “a traditional concern with establishing the conditions for freedom to a concern with sustaining life and its necessities”: see Uday S. Mehta, The Social Question and the Absolutism of Politics , 615 Seminar India ( Nov. 2010), https://bit.ly/2Rrq8oP . The Partition casts a shadow over these politics, with concerns of “fissiparous tendencies,” bringing those who would have preferred a more decentralized polity towards a consensus over a centralizing transformative state.

Khosla , supra note 6, at 156.

Khosla sets this up in contrast to the difficulty of constitutional amendments in the United States, which were promulgated after a widespread ratification process. See id . at 158.

Nivedita Menon, Citizenship and the Passive Revolution: Interpreting the First Amendment , Econ. & Pol. Weekly 1812 (2004); Arudra Burra, Freedom of Speech in the Early Constitution: A Study of the Constitution (First Amendment) Bill , in The Indian Constituent Assembly: Deliberations on Democracy , supra note 5, at 130.

Khosla , supra note 6, at 158.

Shani , supra note 8, at 5.

There were ninety-three seats reserved for representatives of princely states within the Assembly, though there was a lively debate about whether these members should be nominated by the prince or selected through popular representation. Several representatives took their seats well after the draft of the Constitution was finalized. The largest state, Hyderabad, was unrepresented in the Constituent Assembly, as it did not accede to India until after 1950. The princely states were also sites of experimentation for constitutional forms since the late nineteenth century: constitutionally mandated affirmative action was first introduced in Mysore in the early twentieth century; Aundh experimented with Gandhian decentralized government; and Manipur offered universal franchise and a stronger bill of rights. Given the possibility of joining an Indian union since the 1930s, the princely states had been debating various forms of federalism. The state of Jammu and Kashmir was the only state in the Indian union which was permitted to have its own constituent assembly and flag. On princely states, see Barbara Ramusack, The Indian Princes and Their States (2004); Manu Bhagavan, Princely States and the Making of Modern India: Internationalism, Constitutionalism and the Postcolonial Moment , 46 Indian Econ. & Soc. History Rev. 427 (2009). On Mysore and Baroda, see Manu Bhagavan, Soveriegn Spheres: Princes, Education and Empire in Colonial India (2003). On constitutional experiments in Baroda, see Rahul Sagar, How and Why the First Constitution in Modern India was Written , Scroll ( Jan. 19, 2020), https://bit.ly/3c7LAIY . On the Travancore Constitution, see Sarath Pillai, Fragmenting the Nation: Divisible Sovereignty and Travancore’s Quest for Federal Independence , 34 Law & History Rev. 743 (2016). On Hyderabad, see Kavita Saraswathi Datla, Sovereignty and the End of Empire: The Transition to Independence in Colonial Hyderabad , 3 Ab Imperio 63 (2018). On Manipur, see S. K. Bannerjee, Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947 , 19 Indian J. Pol. Sci. 35 (1958). On Aundh, see Indira Rothermund , The Aundh Experiment: A Gandhian Grass-roots Democracy (1983).

De,   supra note 7, at 9.

Id. at 218.

I took a conscious decision to not look at more obviously political cases in this book. I discuss them in Rohit De, Rebellion, Dacoity, and Equality: The Emergence of the Constitutional Field in Postcolonial India , 34 Comp. Stud. S. Asia, Afr. & Middle E. 260 (2014). See also Rohit De, How to Write Constitutional Histories: The Constitution of Everyday Life , Asian J. Comp. L. ( forthcoming 2020).

Letter from Durgabai Deshmukh, Member, Planning Commission and Chairperson Central Social Welfare Board, to Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India (Sept. 7, 1954) (on file with the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library).

Robert M. Cover, Foreword: Nomos and Narrative , 97 Harv. L. Rev . 4 (1983).

B. R. Ambedkar, Nov. 4, 1948, in 7 Constituent Assembly of India Debates , https://bit.ly/33EZ4co (last visited Oct. 1, 2020).

Khosla , supra note 6, at 150.

Bhatia, The Transformative Constitution: A Radical Biography in Nine Acts,   supra note 5 ; Kalpana Kannabiran, Tools of Justice: Non-Discrimination and the Indian Constitution (2012). Significantly, India Const . art. 15 not only provides a nondiscrimination clause and protects special measures for women, children, and classes with certain social and educational markers, but also specifically casts a horizontal responsibility of non-discrimination upon fellow citizens by throwing open schools, wells, shops, temples, and private establishments that had been sites of caste exclusion. The Constitution also provided for the rights of linguistic and religious minorities, while specifically granting freedom to groups that had been unfree, by abolishing untouchability, human trafficking, and forced labor.

On the changing idea of minorities, see Anupama Rao , The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India (2009); Faisal Devji, Muslim Zion: Pakistan as a Political Idea (2013). O n politics within the assembly, see Upendra Baxi, The Little Done, The Vast Undone: Some Reflections on Reading Granville Austin’s The Indian Constitution , 9 J. Indian L. Inst. 323 (1967).

Iqbal Ansari, The Politics of Constitution Making in India , in Minority Identities and the Nation State 113 (D. L. Sheth & Gurpreet Mahajan eds., 1999); Shefal Jhai, Rights Versus Representation: Defending Minority Interests in the Constituent Assembly , Econ. & Pol. Weekly 1579 (2003); Shefali Jha, Representation and its Epiphanies: A Reading of Constituent Assembly Debates , Econ. & Pol. Weekly 4357 (2004); Rochana Bajpai, The Conceptual Vocabularies of Secularism and Minority Rights in India , 7 J. Pol. Ideologies 179 (2002); Shabnum Tejani, The Necessary Conditions for Democracy: BR Ambedkar on Nationalism, Minorities and Pakistan , Econ. & Pol. Weekly 111 (2013).

Aditya Nigam, A Text Without Author: Locating Constituent Assembly as Event , Econ. & Pol. Weekly 2107 (2004).

Shani , supra note 8, at 176.

As Shani has shown elsewhere, Indian Muslims faced a more difficult time establishing citizenship and documents. See Ornit Shani, Conceptions of Citizenship in India and the “Muslim Question , ” 44 Mod. Asian Stud. 145 (2010). On the documentary burdens on Indian Muslims of partition, see Vazira Zamindar, The Long Partition: Refugees, Boundaries, Citizenship (2007).

For an illustration on how litigation by petty bureaucrats opened up possibilities for other groups, see Rohit De, A Republic of Petty Bureaucrats: Upendra Baxi and the Pathologies of Civil Service Jurisprudence , 9 Jindal Global L. Rev . 335 (2018).

Sandipto Dasgupta argues that the length and complexity of the Indian constitution are the result of an elite desire for legalism and procedural certainty to contain popular politics in the future, particularly over questions of property. See Sandipto Dasgupta, “A Language Which Is Foreign to Us”: Continuities and Anxieties in the Making of the Indian Constitution , 34 Comp. Stud. S. Asia, Afr. & Middle E. 228 (2014).

Dipesh Chakrabarty, “In the Name of Politics”: Democracy and the Power of the Multitude in India , 19 Pub. Culture 35 (2007).

Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition 34 (1958).

John Dunne, Setting the People Free: The Story of Democracy (2d ed. 2018) (I am grateful to Tejas Parashar for the reference).

Kalyani Ramnath, “We The People”: Seamless Webs and Social Revolution in India’s Constituent Assembly Debates , 32 S. Asia Res. 57 (2012).

Upendra Baxi, Outline of a Theory of Practice of Indian Constitutionalism , in Politics and Ethics of the Indian Constitution Politics and Ethics of the Indian Constitution 92, 92–118 (Rajeev Bhargava ed., 2008).

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Essay on Constitution of India in English for Children and Students

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Essay on Constitution of India: The constitution of India became effective on 26 th January 1950; though it was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 th November 1949. It was written by a drafting committee headed by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. Therefore it is the longest written constitution that defines the power, procedures and responsibilities of the government institutions of India and gives detailed account of the fundamental rights and duties of the citizens of our country.

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The original Indian Constitution is hand written, calligraphed and also the lengthiest Constitution in the world. The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India drafted by the Constituent Assembly, superior even to the Parliament, as it cannot over rides it. With the Constitution coming into effect, India’s status from “Dominion of India” was changed to the “Republic of India”.

Long and Short Essay on Constitution of India in English

Here are long and short essay on Constitution of India to help you with the topic in your exam.

After going through the Constitution of India essay you will know about the features of Constitution, who was in the drafting committee of the constitution, which other constitutions is the Indian constitution inspired from, how long does it took to draft the Constitution, and other facts of the Constitution of India.

However you can use these essays in your school’s essay writing competition, debate competition or other similar events.

Short Essay on Constitution of India in 200 words

The Constitution of India drafted under the chairmanship of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar who known as the Father of the Indian Constitution. It took almost three years to draft the Constitution. Various socio-political and economic aspects of the society were taken into consideration while drafting the Constitution. The drafting committee also referred to the Constitutions of various other counties including Britain, France and Japan to seek valuable inputs.

The Constitution of India includes the Fundamental Rights and Duties of the citizens, the Directive Principles of State Policy and the Federal Structure of the Government of India. Every policy, right and duty has explained at length in the Indian Constitution thereby making it the longest written Constitution in the world.

More than 2000 amendments had to made in the Constitution of India in order to get it approved. It was adopted on 26th November 1949 and enforced completely on 26 th January 1950. This was the day when our country began to be known as the Republic of India. 26 th January is since then celebrated as the Republic Day. The Indian National Flag is hoisted at various places across the country and the National Anthem is sung to rejoice the day. National Constitution Day, a special day dedicated particularly to the Indian Constitution, came into being in 2015.

Essay on Importance of Constitution of India in 300 words

The Constitution of India is known to the supreme document that gives a detailed account of what the citizens of India can and also cannot do. It has set a standard that needs to followed to ensure law and order in the society and also to help it develop and prosper.

Constitution Defines the Fundamental Rights and Duties of Indian Citizens

The fundamental rights and duties of the Indian citizens have clearly defined in the Constitution of the country. However the Fundamental Rights of the Indian citizens include the Right to Equality, Right to Freedom, Right to Freedom of Religion, Cultural and Educational Rights, Right against Exploitation, Right to Constitutional Remedies. Therefore these are the basic rights that all the citizens of the country entitled to irrespective of their caste, colour, creed or religion.

Some of the fundamental duties of an Indian citizen are to respect the constitution, honour the national flag and national anthem, protect the unity, preserve the heritage of the country, protect the integrity and sovereignty of India, promote the spirit of brotherhood, have compassion for living creatures, strive for excellence, protect public property and contribute his/ her bit in maintaining peace. These also mentioned at length in the Indian Constitution.

Constitution Defines the Structure and Working of the Government

The structure and working of the government also stated at length in the Constitution of India. The Constitution mentions that India has a parliamentary system of government. This system is present at the centre as well as in the states. The Prime Minister and the Union Council of Ministers have the power to take all the major decisions. The President of India, on the other hand, has nominal powers.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar along with his team of six members who were a part of the drafting committee came up with the Constitution of India. The Constitution approved after several amendments. Many amendments have also done after the enforcement of the Constitution.

Essay on Formation of Constitution of India in 400 words

The Constitution of India came into form on 26 th November 1949. A special committee formed to draft the Constitution that gives a detailed account of the practices that are deemed lawful and those deemed unlawful and are punishable. Therefore the Constitution was enforced on 26 th January 1950. With the enforcement of the Constitution, our country came to be known as the Republic of India.

Special Drafting Committee for the Constitution of India

The task of drafting the Constitution of India was that of great responsibility. The Constituent Assembly set up a special drafting committee to further this work. There were seven members in the drafting committee. These included prominent Indian leaders namely, B.R. Ambedkar, B.L. Mitter, K.M. Munshi, N. Gopalaswami Ayengar, Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar, DP and Mohammad Saadullah. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar headed the drafting committee. Ambedkar referred to as the Father of the Indian Constitution. This is because it was under his guidance and supervision that this big draft came into form.

Indian Constitution – Inspired by Constitutions of Other Countries

The constitution of India drew inspiration from the constitutions of various other countries. Many of the concepts and acts included in our constitution borrowed from the constitutions of countries such as France, Germany, Japan, Australia, USA, Britain, Ireland, Russia and South Africa.

The drafting committee of the Indian Constitution also referred to the Government of India Act 1858, the Government of India Act 1919 and 1935 and the Indian Independence Act 1947 to get an idea about the acts and features to be included in the Constitution. These previous acts helped the committee understand the condition and requirement of the citizens of the country. Our Constitution thus often referred to as the bag of borrowings. It consisted of as many as 395 articles, 22 parts and 8 schedules at the time of its enactment. It handwritten and calligraphed.

After putting in immense efforts when the drafting committee presented the final draft of the Constitution of India, it suggested to make several amendments. The committee sat together to make more than 2000 amendments to get the Constitution approved. The members conducted several discussions to make appropriate amendments for getting the approval. 284 members of the Constituent Assembly of India signed the Constitution to give their approval on the same. This done two days before the enforcement of the constitution.

The Constitution of India is a massive piece of writing that includes a detailed account of the dos and don’ts for the Indian system. It has undergone around 100 amendments since it came into form.

Essay on Constitution of India in 500 words

Constitution of india – the supreme power of country.

The Constitution of India rightly said to the supreme power of the country. The laws, codes, rights and duties mentioned in the Indian Constitution need to followed strictly by the citizens of the country. Therefore the decisions made in the parliament and Supreme Court of India are all based on the laws and codes defined in the Constitution of India. Parliament of India does not have the power to override the constitution.

Dr. B. R Ambedkar – The Chief Architect of Indian Constitution

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar headed the drafting committee formed to write the Constitution of India. He was the chairman of this committee. He contributed immensely in the formation of the Constitution by giving several valuable inputs and thus came to be known as the chief architect of the Constitution of India. There were six other members in the drafting committee which formed by the Constituent Assembly of India. These members worked under the guidance of Dr. Ambedkar.

Constitution of India Replaced Government of India Act

The Government of India Act, 1935 acted as the fundamental governing document of India until the formation of the Constitution of India. The Constituent Assembly of India adopted the Constitution of India in November 1949. Many of the articles of the Constitution came into force at that time. The Constitution effectively enforced on 26 th January 1950 which came to known as the Indian Republic Day. The remaining articles became effective on this date. Our country which until then called the Dominion of the British Crown thereafter came to known as the Sovereign Democratic Republic of India.

Special Days to Celebrate the Constitution of India

The formation and enforcement of Indian Constitution celebrated at a grand scale on the Republic Day each year. Republic Day is a national holiday in the country. A massive event organized at India Gate, New Delhi on Republic Day to honour the Constitution of the country. The constitutional head of India, i.e., its president hoists national flag at Rajpath. The Prime Minister and President of India and several Chief Ministers of different states of the country are present at the event. Parades by school kids and armed forces held on Rajpath. School children also perform dances and other cultural acts. Parade of beautiful tableau displaying the culture of various Indian states also held during the event.

Several small events organized at different offices and schools throughout the country to commemorate the Indian Constitution. Painting, essay and music competitions held in schools in addition to colleges. Patriotic songs sung and aslo speeches about the Constitution of India delivered.

National Constitution Day

In the year 2015, Indian Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, gave the suggestion to dedicate an exclusive day to our constitution. Since the Indian Constitution adopted on 26 th November 1949, this date chosen to honour the constitution. 26 th November celebrated as the National Constitution Day since 2015.

Many small and big events organized in schools, colleges and government institutions across India on this day. The importance of the Indian Constitution emphasized during these events. Patriotic songs sung and cultural activities organized to celebrate the day.

The Constitution of India has prepared with precision considering the interest of the common man as well as the overall interest of the country. It is a gift for the citizens of our country.

Long Essay on Constitution of India (600 words)

Introduction

Enforced on 26 th January 1950, the Constitution of India prepared by a committee consisting of seven members headed by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. It guides the citizens of India, the country’s government bodies and other authorities to act in the right manner. However it has played a significant role in maintaining peace and prosperity in the country.

Salient Features of the Constitution of India

Here are the top salient features of the constitution of India:

Longest Written Constitution

The Constitution of India the longest written constitution in the world. It took almost three years to write this detailed constitution. However it has a preamble, 448 articles, 25 groups, 12 schedules and 5 appendices. It is much lengthier than the US Constitution that includes only 7 Articles.

Amalgamation of Rigidity and Flexibility

The Constitution of India is a mix of rigidity and flexibility. While it is the supreme power that needs to followed diligently to maintain law and order in the country, the citizens can appeal to amend the provisions they deem outdated or stern. While certain provisions can amended with some difficulty others are easy to amend. As many as 103 amendments have done in the Constitution of our country since its enforcement.

The Preamble

The well drafted Preamble of the Indian Constitution gives a detailed account of the philosophy of the constitution. It states that India is a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic. It is a welfare state which puts its people first. However it believes in equality, freedom and justice for its people. While democratic socialism followed right from the beginning, the term Socialism added only in 1976.

India – A Secular State

The Constitution has declared India a secular state. Therefore India does not give special status to any religion. It provides its citizens complete freedom to choose their religion. It condemns religious groups instigating people in the name of religion.

India – A Republic

The Constitution declares India to be a Republic. Therefore the country not ruled by a nominated head or monarch. It has an elected head called the President. The President, elected indirectly by the people of the country, comes to power for a period of 5 years.

India – A Mix of Federalism and Unitarianism

The Constitution describes India as a federal structure with many unitary features. It referred to as a Quasi-Federation or a Unitarian Federation. Just like a federation, India has divided power among the centre and states. It has a dual administration system. It has a written, supreme constitution that needs to followed religiously. Therefore it includes an independent judiciary embedded with the power to decide centre-state disputes. At the same time it has unitary features such as a strong common constitution, common election commission and emergency provisions to name a few.

Fundamental Duties of Citizens

The Constitution of India clearly states the fundamental duties of its citizens. Some of these are to upload and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India, respect the national flag and the national anthem, preserve the rich heritage of the country, protect the natural environment, safeguard public property and treat everyone equally.

Directive Principles of the State Policy

The Directive Principles of the State Policy also mentioned in the Constitution of India. These principles are basically the guidelines provided to the state to further socio-economic development aims via its policies.

The Constitution of India serves as a guiding light for its citizens. Therefore everything well-defined in the Indian Constitution. It has helped India attain the status of a Republic. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and the members of the drafting committee of the Indian constitution have indeed done a commendable job for which they will always remembered.

Essay on Constitution of India FAQs

What is indian constitution short note.

The Indian Constitution is a written document that outlines the framework and rules for governing India. It defines the powers, duties, and responsibilities of the government and its citizens.

What is constitution in 100 words?

A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents that a state or organization is governed by. It outlines the structure of government, establishes rights and freedoms, and provides the framework for laws and institutions.

What is constitution 10 lines?

A constitution is a written document that sets the basic rules for governing a country. It defines the structure of the government, allocates powers among different entities, protects the rights of citizens, and establishes the legal framework for the nation.

What is the Constitution of India?

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the country. It lays down the framework that defines the political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers, and duties of the government institutions, and sets out fundamental rights and duties of citizens.

Who started Constitution of India?

The drafting committee for the Constitution of India was chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. He played a pivotal role in shaping and finalizing the Constitution.

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• IAS Preparation
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• Major Features Of The Constitution

Constitution of India - Major Features

The Constitution of India begins with a Preamble. The Preamble contains the ideals, objectives and basic principles of the Constitution. The salient features of the Constitution have evolved directly and indirectly from these objectives which flow from the Preamble.

Major Features of Indian Constitution – UPSC Notes Download PDF Here

Our Constitution has adopted the best features of most of the major constitutions of the world as per the needs of the country. Though borrowed from many constitutions around the world, the Constitution of India has several salient features that distinguish it from the constitutions of other countries.

This article lists the 18 major features of the Constitution and comprehensively covers each of the features in the article.

Aspirants would find this topic very helpful while preparing for the IAS Exam .

This topic is important for the Polity section (GS II) of the UPSC Syllabus.

Table of Contents

Constitution of India – Major Features

The salient features of the Indian Constitution are listed and briefed below:

1. Lengthiest Written Constitution

• Constitutions are classified into written, like the American Constitution, or unwritten, like the British Constitution.
• The Constitution of India has the distinction of being the lengthiest and most detailed constitutional document the world has so far produced. In other words, the Constitution of India is the lengthiest of all the written constitutions of the world.
• It is a very comprehensive, elaborate and detailed document.
• Geographical factors , that is, the vastness of the country and its diversity.
• Historical factors , for instance, the influence of the Government of India Act of 1935 , which was bulky.
• Single constitution for both the Centre and the states.
• The dominance of legal luminaries in the Constituent Assembly.
• The Constitution of India contains not only the fundamental principles of governance but also detailed administrative provisions.
• Both justiciable and non-justiciable rights are included in the Constitution.

2. Drawn from Various Sources

• The Constitution of India has borrowed most of its provisions from the constitutions of various other countries as well as from the Government of India Act of 1935 [About 250 provisions of the 1935 Act have been included in the Constitution].
• Dr B R Ambedkar proudly acclaimed that the Constitution of India has been framed after ‘ransacking all the known Constitutions of the world’.
• The structural part of the Constitution is, to a large extent, derived from the Government of India Act of 1935.
• The philosophical part of the Constitution (Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy) derive its inspiration from the American and Irish Constitutions respectively.
• The political part of the Constitution (the principle of Cabinet government and the relations between the executive and the legislature) has been largely drawn from the British Constitution.

To read more about the Sources of the Constitution , check the linked article.

3. Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility

•  Constitutions are classified into rigid and flexible .
• A rigid constitution is one that requires a special procedure for its amendment, for example, the American Constitution.
• A flexible constitution is one that can be amended in the same manner as ordinary laws are made, for example, the British Constitution.
• The Indian Constitution is a unique example of a combination of rigidity and flexibility.
• A constitution may be called rigid or flexible on the basis of its amending procedure.
• The Indian Constitution provides for three types of amendments ranging from simple to most difficult procedures depending on the nature of the amendment.
• Constitutional Amendment Process in India
• Important Amendments in the Indian Constitution

4. Federal System with Unitary Bias

• The Constitution of India establishes a federal system of government.
• It contains all the usual features of a federation, such as two governments, division of powers, written constitution, the supremacy of the constitution, the rigidity of the Constitution, independent judiciary and bicameralism.
• However, the Indian Constitution also contains a large number of unitary or non-federal features, such as a strong Centre, a single Constitution, the appointment of a state governor by the Centre, all-India services, an integrated judiciary, and so on.
• Moreover, the term ‘Federation’ has nowhere been used in the Constitution.
• Indian Federation is not the result of an agreement by the states.
• No state has the right to secede from the federation.
• Hence, the Indian Constitution has been variously described as ‘federal in form but unitary in spirit’, and ‘quasi-federal’ by K C Wheare.

To read more about Federalism in India , check the linked article.

5. Parliamentary Form of Government

• The Constitution of India has opted for the British Parliamentary System of Government rather than the American Presidential system of government.
• The parliamentary system is based on the principle of cooperation and coordination between the legislative and executive organs while the presidential system is based on the doctrine of separation of powers between the two organs.

To read more about the difference between Presidential and Parliamentary Forms of Government, check the linked article.

• The parliamentary system is also known as the ‘Westminster’ model of government, responsible government and cabinet government.
• The Constitution establishes the parliamentary system not only at the Centre but also in the States.
• In a parliamentary system, the role of the Prime Minister has become so significant, and therefore it is called a ‘Prime Ministerial Government’.

What are the features of parliamentary government in India?

The features of parliamentary government in India are as follows:

• Presence of real and nominal executives
• Majority party rule
• Collective responsibility of the executive to the legislature
• Membership of the ministers in the legislature
• The leadership of the prime minister or the chief minister
• Dissolution of the lower house (Lok Sabha or Assembly)
• Indian Parliament is not a sovereign body like the British Parliament
• Parliamentary Government combined with an elected President at the head (Republic)

6. Synthesis of Parliamentary Sovereignty and Judicial Supremacy

• The doctrine of the sovereignty of Parliament is associated with the British Parliament while the principle of judicial supremacy with that of the American Supreme Court.
• Just as the Indian parliamentary system differs from the British system, the scope of judicial review power of the Supreme Court in India is narrower than that of what exists in the US.
• This is because the American Constitution provides for ‘due process of law’ against that of ‘procedure established by law’ contained in the Indian Constitution ( Article 21 ).
• Therefore, the framers of the Indian Constitution have preferred a proper synthesis between the British principle of parliamentary sovereignty and the American principle of Judicial supremacy.
• The Supreme Court can declare parliamentary laws unconstitutional through its power of judicial review.
• The Parliament can amend the major portion of the Constitution through its constituent power.
• Difference Between Procedure Established by Law and Due Process of Law
•   Judicial Review

7. Rule of Law

• According to this axiom, people are ruled by law but not by men, that is, the basic truism that no man is infallible. The axiom is vital to a democracy.
• More important is the meaning that law is sovereign in democracy.
• The chief ingredient of law is custom which is nothing but the habitual practices and beliefs of common people over a long number of years.
• In the final analysis, the rule of law means the sovereignty of the common man’s collective wisdom.
• There is no room for arbitrariness
• Each individual enjoys some fundamental rights, and
• The highest judiciary is the final authority in maintaining the sanctity of the law of the land.
• The Constitution of India has incorporated this principle in Part III and in order to provide meaning to Article 14 (all are equal before the law and all enjoy equal protection of laws), the promotion of Lok Adalats and the venture of the Supreme Court known as “public interest litigation” have been implemented.
• Also, as per today’s law of the land, any litigant can appeal to the presiding judicial authority to argue the case by himself or seek legal assistance with the help of the judiciary.
• Rule of Law
• Difference between Rule of law and Rule by law
• Lok Adalats 
• Public Interest Litigation

8. Integrated and Independent Judiciary

• India has a single integrated judicial system.
• Also, the Indian Constitution establishes Independent Judiciary by enabling the Indian judiciary to be free from the influence of the executive and the legislature.
• The Supreme Court stands as the apex court of the judicial system. Below the Supreme Court are the High Courts at the state level.
• Under a high court, there is a hierarchy of subordinate courts, that is district courts and the other lower courts.
• The Supreme Court is a federal court, the highest court of appeal, the guarantor of the fundamental rights of the citizens and the guardian of the Constitution. Hence, the Constitution has made various provisions to ensure its independence.
• Separation of Powers in the Indian Constitution
• Judicial Activism

9. Fundamental Rights

• Part III of the Indian Constitution guarantees six fundamental rights to all Citizens.
• Fundamental Rights are one of the important features of the Indian Constitution.
• The Constitution contains the basic principle that every individual is entitled to enjoy certain rights as a human being and the enjoyment of such rights does not depend upon the will of any majority or minority.
• No majority has the right to abrogate such rights.
• The fundamental rights are meant for promoting the idea of political democracy.
• They operate as limitations on the tyranny of the executive and arbitrary laws of the legislature.
• They are justiciable in nature, that is, enforceable by the courts for their violation.

10. Directive Principles of State Policy

• According to Dr B R Ambedkar, the Directive Principles of State Policy is a ‘novel feature’ of the Indian Constitution.
• They are enumerated in Part IV of the Constitution.
• The Directive Principles were included in our Constitution in order to provide social and economic justice to our people.
• Directive Principles aim at establishing a welfare state in India where there will be no concentration of wealth in the hands of a few.
• They are non-justiciable in nature.
• In the Minerva Mills case (1980), the Supreme Court held that ‘the Indian Constitution is founded on the bedrock of the balance between the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles’.

Read further from:

• Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)
• Difference between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)

11. Fundamental Duties

• The original constitution did not provide for the fundamental duties of the citizens.
• Fundamental Duties were added to our Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee.
• It lays down a list of ten Fundamental Duties for all citizens of India.
• Later, the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2002 added one more fundamental duty.
• While the rights are given as guarantees to the people, the duties are obligations that every citizen is expected to perform.
• However, like the Directive Principles of State Policy, the duties are also non-justiciable in nature.
• There is a total of 11 Fundamental duties altogether.

12. Indian Secularism

• The Constitution of India stands for a secular state.
• Hence, it does not uphold any particular religion as the official religion of the Indian State.
• The State will not identify itself with or be controlled by any religion;
• While the State guarantees everyone the right to profess whatever religion one chooses to follow (which includes also the right to be an antagonist or an atheist), it will not accord preferential treatment to any of them;
• No discrimination will be shown by the State against any person on account of his religion or faith; and
• The right of every citizen, subject to any general condition, to enter any office under the state will be equal to that of fellow citizens. Political equality which entitles any Indian citizen to seek the highest office under the State is the heart and soul of secularism as envisaged by Constitution.
• The conception aims to establish a secular state. This does not mean that the State in India is anti-religious.
• The Western concept of secularism connotes a complete separation between religion and the state (negative concept of secularism).
• But, the Indian constitution embodies the positive concept of secularism , i.e., giving equal respect to all religions or protecting all religions equally.
• Moreover, the Constitution has also abolished the old system of communal representation. However, it provides for the temporary reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes to ensure adequate representation to them.
• Secularism in India and the United States – A Comparison

13. Universal Adult Franchise

• Indian democracy functions on the basis of ‘one person one vote’.
• Every citizen of India who is 18 years of age or above is entitled to vote in the elections irrespective of caste, sex, race, religion or status.
• The Indian Constitution establishes political equality in India through the method of universal adult franchise.

14. Single Citizenship

• In a federal state usually, the citizens enjoy double citizenship as is the case in the USA.
• In India, there is only single citizenship.
• It means that every Indian is a citizen of India, irrespective of the place of his/her residence or place of birth.
• He/she is not a citizen of the Constituent State like Jharkhand, Uttaranchal or Chattisgarh to which he/she may belong but remains a citizen of India.
• All the citizens of India can secure employment anywhere in the country and enjoy all the rights equally in all parts of India.
• The Constitution makers deliberately opted for single citizenship to eliminate regionalism and other disintegrating tendencies.
• Single citizenship has undoubtedly forged a sense of unity among the people of India.
• Citizenship in India
• Citizenship Amendment Act 2019 (CAA)

15. Independent Bodies

• The Indian Constitution not only provides for the legislative, executive and judicial organs of the government (Central and state) but also establishes certain independent bodies.
• They are envisaged by the Constitution as the bulwarks of the democratic system of Government in India.

The candidates can read about some of the Independent Bodies in detail from the links below:

16. Emergency Provisions

• The Constitution makers also foresaw that there could be situations when the government could not be run as in ordinary times.
• To cope with such situations, the Constitution elaborates on emergency provisions.
• Emergency caused by war, external aggression or armed rebellion [Aricle 352]
• Emergency arising out of the failure of constitutional machinery in states [Article 356 & 365]
• Financial emergency [Article 360].
• The rationality behind the incorporation of these provisions is to safeguard the sovereignty, unity, integrity and security of the country, the democratic political system and the Constitution.
• During an emergency, the central government becomes all-powerful and the states go into total control of the centre.
• This kind of transformation of the political system from federal (during normal times) to unitary (during an Emergency) is a unique feature of the Indian Constitution.

Read about emergency provisions in detail from the links provided below:

• Emergency – RSTV: In Depth
• Article 356 – President’s Rule
• Financial Emergency [Article 360]

17. Three-tier Government

• Originally, the Indian Constitution provided for a dual polity and contained provisions with regard to the organisation and powers of the Centre and the States.
• Later, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts (1992) have added a third-tier of government (that is, Local Government), which is not found in any other Constitution of the world.
• The 73rd Amendment Act of 1992 gave constitutional recognition to the panchayats (rural local governments) by adding a new Part IX and a new Schedule 11 to the Constitution.
• Similarly, the 74th Amendment Act of 1992 gave constitutional recognition to the municipalities (urban local government) by adding a new Part IX-A and a new Schedule 12 to the Constitution.
• Panchayati Raj in India
• Municipalities [243P – 243ZG]

18. Co-operative Societies

• The 97th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2011 gave constitutional status and protection of cooperative societies.
• It made the right to form cooperative societies a fundamental right (Article 19).
• It included a new Directive Principles of State Policy on the promotion of cooperative societies (Article 43-B).
• It added a new Part IX-B in the Constitution which is entitled “The Co-operative Societies” [Articles 243-ZH to 243-ZT].
• The new Part IX-B contains various provisions to ensure that the cooperative societies in the country function in a democratic, professional, autonomous and economically sound manner.
• It empowers the Parliament in respect of multi-state cooperative societies and the state legislatures in respect of other cooperative societies to make the appropriate law.

Philosophy of Constitution

• On January 22, 1947, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Objectives Resolution drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru. The Objectives Resolution contained the fundamental propositions of the Constitution and set forth the political ideas that should guide its deliberations.

The main principles of the resolution were:

• that India is to be an independent, sovereign republic ;
• that it is to be a democratic union with an equal level of self-government in all the constituent parts;
• that all power and the authority of the Union Government and governments of the constituent parts are derived from the people;
• that the constitution must strive to obtain and guarantee to the people justice-based upon social, economic and political equality, of opportunity and equality before the law;
• that there should be freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship, vocation, association and action;
• that the constitution must provide just rights for minorities, and people from backward and tribal areas, etc. so that they can be equal participants of social, economic and political justice; and
• to frame a constitution that should secure for India, a due place in the community of nations.

To read more about the Evolution and Framing of the Constitution , check the linked article.

The philosophy of a Constitution consists of the ideals for which the Constitution stands and the policies that the Constitution enjoins upon the rulers of the Community to follow. The Constitution of India reflects the impact of our ideology in the following spheres:

(i) Secularism : Secularism is the hallmark of the Indian Constitution. People professing different religions have the freedom of religious worship of their own choice. All religions have been treated alike. The fact appreciated in India was that all religions love humanity and uphold the truth. All the social reformers and political leaders of modern India have advocated religious tolerance, religious freedom and equal respect for all religions. This very principle has been adopted in the Constitution of India where all religions enjoy equal respect. However, the word ‘secularism’ was nowhere mentioned in the Constitution as adopted in 1949. The word ‘secularism’ has now been added to the Preamble to the Constitution through the 42nd Amendment passed in 1976.

(ii) Democracy : We have borrowed the modern form of democracy from the West. Under this system, democracy means the periodic responsibilities of the Government to go to the people. For this purpose; elections have been held every five-year to elect a Government by the people. However, democracy covers even the economic and social aspects of life. This aspect of democracy is well-reflected in the Directive Principles of State Policy. They are aimed at human welfare, cooperation, international brotherhood and so on.

(iii) Sarvodaya : Sarvodaya refers to the welfare of all. It is different from the welfare of the majority. It seeks to achieve the welfare of all without exception. It is referred to as Ram Rajya. The concept of Sarvodaya was developed by Mahatma Gandhi Acharya Vinoba Bhave and J. Narayan under which the material, spiritual, moral and mental development of everyone is sought to be achieved. The Preamble to the Indian Constitution and the Directive Principles of State Policy represent this ideal.

(iv) Socialism : Socialism is not new to India. Vedanta’s philosophy has socialism in it. The national struggle for freedom had this aim also in view. Jawaharlal Nehru referred to himself as a socialist and republican. Almost all the parties in India profess to promote democratic socialism. These principles are included in the Directive Principles of State Policy. However, to lay emphasis on this aspect, the word ‘socialism’ was specifically added to the Preamble to the Constitution through the 42nd Amendment.

(v) Humanism:  Humanism is a salient feature of Indian ideology. Indian ideology regards the whole of humanity as one big family. It believes in resolving international disputes through mutual negotiations. This is what we find in the Directive Principles of State Policy.

(vi) Decentralization : Decentralization is another aspect of Sarvodaya. India has always practised decentralization through the Panchayat system. Mahatma Gandhi also advocated decentralization. It is on this account that he is regarded as a philosophical anarchist. We have introduced the Panchayati Raj system in India to achieve the objective of decentralisation. The concept of cottage industries as laid down in the Directive Principles of State Policy also refers to decentralization.

(vii) Liberalism : Liberalism does not refer to the Western concept of liberalism. It refers, in the Indian context, to self-government, secularism, nationalism, economic reforms, constitutional approach, representative institutions etc. All these concepts were advocated by modern Indian leaders.

(viii) Mixed Economy : Co-existence is a salient feature of our ideology. Co-existence has manifested itself through a mixed system of economy. In this system, we have allowed both the private and public sectors of the economy to work simultaneously. Large-scale and essential industries have been put in the public sector.

(ix) Gandhism : Gandhism represents an ethical and moral India. Mahatma Gandhi set a new example of fighting foreign rule through non-violence. He taught the importance of non-violence and truth. He advocated untouchability, cottage industry, prohibition, adult education and the uplift of villages. He wanted a society free of exploitation and decentralized in character. All these Gandhian principles have found an honourable place in the Constitution of India.

The above details would help candidates prepare for UPSC 2024 .

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Indian Polity and Governance – Constitution, Political System, Panchayat Raj, Public Policy, Rights Issues, etc.

Last updated on August 30, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

India is a vast landscape with cultural, linguistic, and geographical diversity.

One element that binds India as a nation together is its polity and governance structure.

The Indian political system is connected with the threads of history, culture, and the aspirations of its people.

From the remarkable Constitution that serves as the guiding light to the intricate Panchayat Raj system, this blog post delves into the multifaceted aspects of Indian polity and governance, encompassing the Constitution, the political system, Panchayat Raj, public policy, and rights issues.

Table of Contents

Indian Polity – The Political System

Polity means political system.

Indian Polity means the Indian Political System.

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The Indian state has three organs – (1) legislature (which makes laws), (2) executive (which implements laws) and (3) judiciary (which interprets laws).

India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic.

Indian Political system derives its origin from the historical underpinnings , however, its present structure owes to the Indian Constitution .

India’s political system is federal in nature, with a union of states and territories.

At the Center – the Parliament, consisting of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People), is the legislative body responsible for making laws. The President, elected by an Electoral College, is the ceremonial head of the state. The Prime Minister, the head of government, leads the executive branch.

At the state level – the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly make law. The governor is the ceremonial head of each state (provinces). The Chief Minister leads the executive branch.

India’s vibrant multi-party democracy ensures that voices from various sections of society are heard.

Know more about Indian Polity …

Governance – The Administrative Framework

Governance in India is a dynamic process that involves the management, administration, and regulation of the nation’s affairs.

India is a democracy. The real power lies with people. However, people elect representatives to make laws.

At the executive level, there are political executives (elected) and permanent executives or bureaucrats (selected).

Rooted in the principles of democracy, governance encompasses various levels of decision-making, from the central government to state administrations and local bodies.

The Indian political system is characterized by a multi-tiered structure that facilitates decentralization, with power shared between the Union and State governments. This complex framework is guided by the Constitution of India, which outlines the roles and responsibilities of different branches of government and upholds the fundamental rights and freedoms of its citizens.

As India continues to evolve as a global player, its governance strives to strike a balance between tradition and progress, inclusivity and efficiency, and the aspirations of its diverse population.

Know more about Governance …

The Indian Constitution: The fundamental law of the land

At the heart of India’s polity lies its Constitution, a remarkable document that reflects the vision of the nation’s founding fathers.

Adopted on January 26, 1950, the Constitution of India enshrines the values of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity.

It establishes a democratic framework with a division of powers among the Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary, ensuring a system of checks and balances.

Over the years, the Indian Constitution has demonstrated its adaptability to changing times and societal needs. Amendments have been made to reflect evolving priorities while preserving the core principles. This capacity for change has allowed the Constitution to remain relevant and effective in a rapidly evolving world.

Know more about Indian Constitution …

Panchayat Raj: Empowering Local Governance

A unique feature of Indian governance is the Panchayat Raj system.

Enshrined in the Constitution’s 73rd and 74th Amendments, it empowers local self-governance at the grassroots level.

Panchayats (village councils) and Municipalities play a pivotal role in rural and urban development, ensuring community participation and decentralization of power.

This system promotes effective governance by addressing local issues with the involvement of the people.

Know more about Panchayat Raj …

Public Policy: Bridging Aspirations and Reality

Public policy formulation and implementation are crucial for addressing the diverse needs of the population.

The government’s policies impact various sectors, including education, healthcare, infrastructure, and the economy. Initiatives like “ Make in India ,” “Swachh Bharat Abhiyan,” and “ Digital India ” showcase India’s commitment to progress and development.

Effective policy implementation requires collaboration between the government, civil society, and the private sector.

Know more about the Public Policy of India …

Rights Issues: Striving for Social Justice

Rights encompass a wide range of freedoms, privileges, and protections that individuals are inherently entitled to by virtue of being human.

Despite progress, our society still grapples with numerous rights issues.

• Discrimination based on race, gender, religion, and economic status continues to persist.
• Gender inequality deprives millions of women of their rights and opportunities.
• The LGBTQ+ community faces challenges to their rights and acceptance.
• Marginalized communities often confront unequal access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities.
• Environmental degradation threatens the right to a sustainable future.

These issues are not isolated; they intersect and amplify one another, underscoring the complexity of the fight for rights.

India’s journey towards a just society involves addressing rights issues, particularly those concerning marginalized and vulnerable communities.

The Constitution guarantees fundamental rights such as the right to equality, freedom of speech, and the right to life.

Additionally, affirmative action policies, as enshrined in the Constitution’s provisions for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes, aim to uplift historically disadvantaged groups.

Know more about Rights Issues…

Challenges and Future Prospects

While India’s polity and governance framework has achieved significant milestones, challenges persist. Corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and socioeconomic disparities demand continuous attention. Additionally, maintaining the delicate balance between cultural diversity and national unity remains a constant endeavour.

The future of Indian polity and governance is promising, with technology-driven innovations, increased public awareness, and a growing emphasis on inclusive and sustainable development. Strengthening institutions, promoting transparency, and fostering citizen engagement will play a pivotal role in shaping the nation’s trajectory.

How to study Indian Polity and Governance?

Readers may note that this article on the Indian Polity and Governance is just an overview of the topic. There is a lot more to learn about Indian Polity and Governance.

We recommend the below sources to learn the subject.

• Join  ClearIAS Video Course (Prelims cum Mains).
• Go through  ClearIAS notes on Indian Polity and Governance.
• Read  books on Indian Polity .

Indian polity and governance are a testament to the nation’s commitment to democracy, unity, and progress.

The Constitution acts as a guiding compass, while the political system, Panchayat Raj, public policies, and rights issues collectively contribute to the nation’s growth.

As India treads the path of development, it is imperative to uphold the principles of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity to create a society that truly reflects the aspirations of its diverse populace.

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Essay on National Constitution Day for Students and Children

500+ words essay on national constitution day.

We celebrate National Constitution Day or Samvidhan Divas on 26 th November every year. The significance of this day is that on this day in the year 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted the Constitution of India . However, the Constitution of India came into force on 26 th January 1950. We celebrate 26 th January as Republic Day every year.

Declaration of National Constitution Day

On 11 th October 2015, while laying the foundation stone of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Statue of Equality memorial at Indu Mills compound, in Mumbai, the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi made a declaration. On 19 th November 2015, the Government of India officially declared 26 th November as the National Constitution Day by notification in the Gazette.

The year 2015 marks the 125 th birth anniversary of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar . Baba Saheb was the chairman of the drafting committee of the Constituent Assembly. He played a very significant role in the drafting of the Indian Constitution. The idea behind choosing this day to celebrate is to spread the importance of the Constitution as well as the ideas and thoughts of Baba Saheb Ambedkar. It is noteworthy here that previously we celebrated this day as National Law Day.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Celebrations on National Constitution Day

Since the year of 2015 was the 125 th birth anniversary of Baba Saheb Ambedkar, the Government of India decided to celebrate this year in a massive way. For this purpose, a special committee was formed under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi . Various ministries and departments organized various programs throughout the year with a view to spreading the thoughts and ideas of Baba Saheb. However, National Constitution Day is not a public holiday.

The first National Constitution Day was celebrated by the various government departments. According to the instructions of the Department of Education and Literacy , all the students of all the schools, read the preamble of the constitution. The students were also given information about the salient features of the Indian Constitution through lectures in each school.

Also, quiz and essay competitions both online and offline on the constitution of India were organized. As per the instructions of the Department of Higher Education, various universities were asked to arrange mock parliamentary debates in colleges. The University Grants Commission (UGC) also organized an all-India quiz competition at Ambedkar University, Lucknow.

The Ministry of External Affairs also instructed all overseas Indian schools to celebrate 26 th November as National Constitution Day. It asked the embassies to translate the Indian constitution into the local language of that nation and thereafter distribute it to various academies, libraries, and faculties of Indology. The Department of Sport also organized a symbolic run named “Run for Equality”. On 26 th November 2015, there was also held a special session of Parliament in order to give tribute to the constitution and Baba Saheb Ambedkar. Also, on this occasion, the Parliament House was decorated and illuminated.

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78 not out: How India's Constitution keeps us steady

India celebrated its 78th Independence Day recently, reminding us of the remarkable journey of a nation that not only survived many challenges but thrived. Our success story sharply contrasts with the recent political turmoil in many of our South Asian neighbours, such as Bangladesh, highlighting the crucial role our Constitution plays in ensuring stability and progress.

The common thread that connects India with most of the South Asian neighbours is that they are all constitutional democracies and largely gained their independence around the same time India did. A constitution is merely a document; its effectiveness depends on its implementation. The manner in which a constitution is crafted and its foundational principles are crucial to its execution. Constitutions are created by the people, for the people, and intended to serve the people.

The South Asian Context: A comparative analysis

Although South Asian nations claim to have democratic governments, their governance systems frequently do not fully embody democratic ideals. Social, political, and economic challenges have led to military coups, regime changes, constitutional overhauls, and violent protests. Over the past two years, three establishment leaders have fled their nations due to misgovernment and public unrest.

Pakistan's repeated collapses are attributed to military coups, the consequence of a Constitution that lacks robust checks and balances. This weakness has permitted the military to wield excessive influence, undermining civilian rule and judicial independence.

In Sri Lanka, political instability stems from frequent government changes and poor representation of ethnic minorities like Tamils and Muslims. The unclear delineation of presidential and prime ministerial powers fuels power struggles.

Nepal faces instability from managing ethnic diversity and regional autonomy, with frequent constitutional changes leading to political fragmentation. Bhutan's democratic constitutional monarchy struggles with power concentration in the monarchy, undermining democratic principles. Afghanistan’s issues arise from persistent conflict and weak institutions. The country’s Constitution, ratified in 2004, failed to address tribalism and ethnic divisions, enabling corruption and culminating in the Taliban takeover.

Bangladesh's turmoil is due to concentrated power and a Constitution that doesn’t prevent autocratic behavior. Weakened institutions lead to governance failures and unrest, with ideological shifts between secularism and Islamism destabilizing the nation. Executive dominance overshadows legislature and judiciary, weakening checks and balances.

A Constitution is a foundational document that must be both contemporary and visionary. The common feature across these South Asian nations is the failure of their constitutions to establish effective checks and balances, ensure political accountability, and manage diversity.

India's journey to independence and the monumental task of nation-building

Colonized for over two centuries, India’s freedom struggle under Mahatma Gandhi was notably marked by non-violent resistance.  Gandhiji’s unwavering principle was that the means must justify the end, rejecting violence in favor of non-violent struggle. He believed that freedom achieved through bloodshed was unworthy. This steadfast commitment, coupled with the unyielding determination of our leaders, united the populace and ultimately secured India's independence in 1947.

After gaining independence, many believed that India's struggles would come to an end, but this was not the case. With a diverse population, the challenge of nation-building looms large. Despite being under colonial rule for nearly two centuries, Indians had not lived under codified law, presenting a practical difficulty.

Moreover, India faced the challenge of partition. Yet, our leaders remained focused on establishing a stable, progressive, and inclusive nation, undeterred by the daunting obstacles. Instead of becoming anxious, they embraced the task of nation-building. Drafting the Constitution was a monumental task, but it was not unprecedented. As early as the 1930s, the Nehru Report demonstrated India's capability to draft its own Constitution. The Constituent Assembly, partly elected and partly nominated, was a microcosm of India's diverse populace, embodying a wide range of expertise.

The Indian Constitution, inspired by global models but carefully adapted to Indian society, emerged from vigorous debates on federalism, language, government structure, and fundamental rights. Consensus was a guiding principle throughout, with leaders like Dr BR Ambedkar and Jawaharlal Nehru making pivotal contributions to create a document that is both visionary and forward-looking.

India’s constitutional resilience

In contrast to other South Asian nations, India’s Constitution has provided a stable framework, effectively preventing the nation from slipping into political turmoil. Several key features and mechanisms have contributed to this resilience:

The Indian Constitution stands as a fortress of democracy, built on the unshakeable foundation of Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances. Parliament legislates and oversees. The executive, under the President and the Prime Minister, implements. The judiciary, led by the Supreme Court, interprets and safeguards the Constitution. This system of checks and balances ensures no branch oversteps, maintaining our democratic integrity.

The Basic Structure Doctrine isn't just a legal concept - it's our democracy's shield. Born from the Kesavananda Bharati case, this doctrine stands guard over our Constitution's soul, protecting it from any attempt to undermine our democratic values.

Our federal structure isn't about division - it's about strength through unity.  Clear separation of powers between the Union and the states, which is essential for the smooth functioning of democracy.  When boundaries are crossed, the Supreme Court stands ready to restore order. This system of checks and balances, operating both vertically and horizontally, isn't just governance - it's the backbone of our nation's stability.

Free and fair elections are the bedrock of our democracy. Public trust in our electoral process is paramount for political stability. The Election Commission must operate with absolute independence, free from political meddling. Independent institutions are vital for a fair and just democratic process, reinforcing public confidence in the political system.

As we celebrate 78 years of independence, it is crucial to acknowledge the vision of our forefathers. Their creation, the Indian Constitution, not only provides a framework for governance but also stands as a beacon for stability and progress in a region rife with political turmoil. It is this living document that has guided us through challenges, ensuring that India remains a vibrant democracy.

(Hasan Mohammed Jinnah is a State Public Prosecutor and Director of Prosecution, Tamil Nadu. Views expressed are author’s own)

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Where Kamala Harris Stands on the Issues: Abortion, Immigration and More

She wants to protect the right to abortion nationally. Here’s what else to know about her positions.

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By Maggie Astor

• Published July 21, 2024 Updated Aug. 24, 2024

With Vice President Kamala Harris having replaced President Biden on the Democratic ticket, her stances on key issues will be scrutinized by both parties and the nation’s voters.

She has a long record in politics: as district attorney of San Francisco, as attorney general of California, as a senator, as a presidential candidate and as vice president.

Here is an overview of where she stands.

Ms. Harris supports legislation that would protect the right to abortion nationally, as Roe v. Wade did before it was overturned in 2022, in Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization.

After the Dobbs ruling, she became central to the Biden campaign’s efforts to keep the spotlight on abortion, given that Mr. Biden — with his personal discomfort with abortion and his support for restrictions earlier in his career — was a flawed messenger. In March, she made what was believed to be the first official visit to an abortion clinic by a president or vice president.

She consistently supported abortion rights during her time in the Senate, including cosponsoring legislation that would have banned common state-level restrictions, like requiring doctors to perform specific tests or have hospital admitting privileges in order to provide abortions.

As a presidential candidate in 2019, she argued that states with a history of restricting abortion rights in violation of Roe should be subject to what is known as pre-clearance for new abortion laws — those laws would have to be federally approved before they could take effect. That proposal is not viable now that the Supreme Court has overturned Roe.

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