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• Official Site of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum
• Council on Foreign Relations - Space Exploration and U.S. Competitiveness
• National Geographic Society - The History of Space Exploration
• National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Space exploration and economic growth: New issues and horizons
• space exploration - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• space exploration - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

In the decades following the first Sputnik and Explorer satellites, the ability to put their instruments into outer space gave scientists the opportunity to acquire new information about the natural universe , information that in many cases would have been unobtainable any other way. Space science added a new dimension to the quest for knowledge, complementing and extending what had been gained from centuries of theoretical speculations and ground-based observations.

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After Gagarin’s 1961 flight, space missions involving human crews carried out a range of significant research, from on-site geologic investigations on the Moon to a wide variety of observations and experiments aboard orbiting spacecraft . In particular, the presence in space of humans as experimenters and, in some cases, as experimental subjects facilitated studies in biomedicine and materials science . Nevertheless, most space science was, and continues to be, performed by robotic spacecraft in Earth orbit, in other locations from which they observe the universe, or on missions to various bodies in the solar system . In general, such missions are far less expensive than those involving humans and can carry sophisticated automated instruments to gather a wide variety of relevant data.

In addition to the United States and the Soviet Union , several other countries achieved the capability of developing and operating scientific spacecraft and thus carrying out their own space science missions. They include Japan , China , Canada , India , and a number of European countries such as the United Kingdom, France , Italy , and Germany , acting alone and through cooperative organizations, particularly the European Space Agency . Furthermore, many other countries became involved in space activities through the participation of their scientists in specific missions. Bilateral or multilateral cooperation between various countries in carrying out space science missions grew to be the usual way of proceeding.

Scientific research in space can be divided into five general areas: (1) solar and space physics, including study of the magnetic and electromagnetic fields in space and the various energetic particles also present, with particular attention to their interactions with Earth, (2) exploration of the planets, moons, asteroids, comets, meteoroids, and dust in the solar system, (3) study of the origin, evolution , and current state of the varied objects in the universe beyond the solar system, (4) research on nonliving and living materials, including humans, in the very low gravity levels of the space environment , and (5) study of Earth from space.

The first scientific discovery made with instruments orbiting in space was the existence of the Van Allen radiation belts , discovered by Explorer 1 in 1958. Subsequent space missions investigated Earth’s magnetosphere , the surrounding region of space in which the planet’s magnetic field exerts a controlling effect ( see Earth: The magnetic field and magnetosphere ). Of particular and ongoing interest has been the interaction of the flux of charged particles emitted by the Sun, called the solar wind , with the magnetosphere. Early space science investigations showed, for example, that luminous atmospheric displays known as auroras are the result of this interaction, and scientists came to understand that the magnetosphere is an extremely complex phenomenon.

The focus of inquiry in space physics was later extended to understanding the characteristics of the Sun , both as an average star and as the primary source of energy for the rest of the solar system, and to exploring space between the Sun and Earth and other planets ( see interplanetary medium ). The magnetospheres of other planets, particularly Jupiter with its strong magnetic field, also came under study. Scientists sought a better understanding of the internal dynamics and overall behaviour of the Sun, the underlying causes of variations in solar activity, and the way in which those variations propagate through space and ultimately affect Earth’s magnetosphere and upper atmosphere. The concept of space weather was advanced to describe the changing conditions in the Sun-Earth region of the solar system. Variations in space weather can cause geomagnetic storms that interfere with the operation of satellites and even systems on the ground such as power grids.

To carry out the investigations required for addressing these scientific questions, the United States, Europe, the Soviet Union, and Japan developed a variety of space missions, often in a coordinated fashion. In the United States, early studies of the Sun were undertaken by a series of Orbiting Solar Observatory satellites (launched 1962–75) and the astronaut crews of the Skylab space station in 1973–74, using that facility’s Apollo Telescope Mount. These were followed by the Solar Maximum Mission satellite (launched 1980). ESA developed the Ulysses mission (1990) to explore the Sun’s polar regions. Solar-terrestrial interactions were the focus of many of the Explorer series of spacecraft (1958–75) and the Orbiting Geophysical Observatory satellites (1964–69).

In the 1980s NASA , ESA, and Japan’s Institute of Space and Astronautical Science undertook a cooperative venture to develop a comprehensive series of space missions, named the International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program, that would be aimed at full investigation of the Sun-Earth connection. This program was responsible for the U.S. Wind (1994) and Polar (1996) spacecraft, the European Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO; 1995) and Cluster (2000) missions, and the Japanese Geotail satellite (1992).

Among many other missions, NASA has launched a number of satellites, including Thermosphere, Ionosphere, Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED, 2001); the Japanese-U.S.-U.K. collaboration Hinode (2006); and Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO, 2006), part of its Solar Terrestrial Probes program. The Solar Dynamics Observatory (2010); the twin Van Allen Probes (2012); and the Parker Solar Probe (2018), which made the closest flybys of the Sun, were part of another NASA program called Living with a Star. A two-satellite European/Chinese mission called Double Star (2003–04) studied the impact of the Sun on Earth’s environment.

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Essay on Space Exploration

• Updated on  
• Jun 11, 2022

For scientists, space is first and foremost a magnificent “playground” — an inexhaustible source of knowledge and learning that is assisting in the solution of some of the most fundamental existential issues concerning Earth’s origins and our place in the Universe. Curiosity has contributed significantly to the evolution of the human species. Curiosity along with the desire for a brighter future has driven humans to explore and develop from the discovery of fire by ancient ancestors to present space explorations.  Here is all the information you need and the best tips to write an essay on space exploration.

What is Space Exploration?  

Space Exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. While astronomers use telescopes to explore space, both uncrewed robotic space missions and human spaceflight are used to explore it physically. One of the primary sources for space science is space exploration, which is similar to astronomy in its classical form. We can use space exploration to validate or disprove scientific theories that have been created on Earth. Insights into gravity, the magnetosphere, the atmosphere, fluid dynamics, and the geological evolution of other planets have all come from studying the solar system.

Advantages of Space Exploration 

It is vital to understand and point out the advantages of space exploration while writing an essay on the topic.

New inventions have helped the worldwide society. NASA’s additional research was beneficial to society in a variety of ways. Transportation, medical, computer management, agriculture technology, and consumer products all profit from the discoveries. GPS technology, breast cancer treatment, lightweight breathing systems, Teflon fibreglass, and other areas benefited from the space programme.

It is impossible to dispute that space exploration creates a large number of employment opportunities around the world. A better way to approach space exploration is to spend less and make it more cost-effective. In the current job market, space research initiatives provide far too much to science, technology, and communication. As a result, a large number of jobs are created.

Understanding

NASA’s time-travelling space exploration programmes and satellite missions aid in the discovery of previously unknown facts about our universe. Scientists have gained a greater understanding of Earth’s nature and atmosphere, as well as those of other space entities. These are the research initiatives that alert us to impending natural disasters and other related forecasts. It also paves the way for our all-powerful universe to be saved from time to time.

Disadvantages of Space Exploration

Highlighting disadvantages will give another depth to your essay on space exploration. Here are some important points to keep in mind.

Pollution is one of the most concerning issues in space travel. Many satellites are launched into space each year, but not all of them return. The remnants of such incidents degrade over time, becoming debris that floats in the air. Old satellites, various types of equipment, launch pads, and rocket fragments all contribute to pollution. Space debris pollutes the atmosphere in a variety of ways. Not only is space exploration harmful to the environment, but it is also harmful to space.

A government space exploration programme is expensive. Many people believe that space mission initiatives are economical. It should be mentioned that NASA just celebrated its 30th anniversary with $196.5 billion spent.

Space exploration isn’t a walk in the park. Many historical occurrences demonstrate the dangers that come with sad situations. The Challenger space shuttle accident on January 28, 1986, must be remembered. The spacecraft exploded in under 73 seconds, resulting in a tremendous loss of life and property.

Conclusion 

There are two sides to every coin. To survive on Earth, one must confront and overcome obstacles. Space exploration is an essential activity that cannot be overlooked, but it can be enhanced by technological advancements.

Space Exploration Courses

Well, if your dream is to explore space and you want to make a career in it, then maybe space exploration courses are the right choice for you to turn your dreams into reality.

Various universities offering space exploration courses are :

• Arizona State University, USA
• Bachelor of Science in Earth and Space Exploration
• Earth and Space Exploration (Astrobiology and Biogeosciences)
• Earth and Space Exploration (Astrophysics)
• University of Leicester, UK
• Space Exploration Systems MSc
• York University
• Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) in Space Engineering

Tips to write an IELTS Essay  on Space Exploration

• The essay’s word count should be at least 250 words. There is no maximum word count. If you write less than 250 words, you risk submitting an incomplete essay. The goal should be to write a minimum of 250-words essay.
• There will be more than one question on the essay topic. The questions must be answered in their entirety. For example, for the topic ‘crime is unavoidable,’ you might see questions like 1. Speak in favour of and against this topic, 2. Give your opinion, and 3. Suggest some measures to avoid crime. This topic now has three parts, and all of them must be answered; only then will the essay be complete.
• Maintain a smooth writing flow. You can’t get off track and create an essay that has nothing to do with the issue. The essay must be completely consistent with the question. The essay’s thoughts should be tied to the question directly. Make use of instances, experiences, and concepts that you can relate to.
• Use a restricted number of linking phrases and words to organise your writing. Adverbial phrases should be used instead of standard linking words.
• The essay should be broken up into little paragraphs of at least two sentences each. Your essay should be divided into three sections: introduction, body, and conclusion. ( cheapest pharmacy to fill prescriptions without insurance )
• Don’t overuse complicated and long words in your essay. Make appropriate use of collocations and idioms. You must be able to use words and circumstances effectively.
• The essay must be written correctly in terms of grammar. In terms of spelling, grammar, and tenses, there should be no mistakes. Avoid using long, difficult sentences to avoid grammatical problems. Make your sentences succinct and to-the-point.
• Agree/disagree, discuss two points of view, pros and disadvantages, causes and solutions, causes and effects, and problem-solution are all examples of essay questions to practise.
• Make a strong beginning. The opening should provide the reader a good indication of what to expect from the rest of the article. Making a good first impression and piquing your attention starts with a good introduction.
• If required, cite facts, figures, and data. It’s best to stay away from factual material if you’re not sure about the statistics or stats. If you’re unsure about something, don’t write it down.
• The essay’s body should be descriptive, with all of the points, facts, and information listed in great detail.
• The conclusion is the most noticeable part. Your IELTS band is influenced by how you end your essay.
• Make sure there are no spelling errors. If you’re not sure how to spell something, don’t use it. It is preferable to utilize simple, everyday terms.
• Do not include any personal or casual remarks. It is strictly forbidden.
• Once you’ve finished drafting your essay, proofread it. It enables you to scan for minor and large grammar and spelling problems.

This was the Essay on Space Exploration. We hope it was helpful to you. Experts at Leverage Edu will help you out in writing your essays for IELTS, SOPs and more!

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The Value of Science in Space Exploration

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The Value of Science in Space Exploration provides a rigorous assessment of the value of scientific knowledge and understanding in the context of contemporary space exploration. It argues that traditional spaceflight rationales are deficient, and that the strongest defense of spaceflight comes from its potential to produce intrinsically and instrumentally valuable knowledge and understanding. It engages with contemporary epistemology to articulate an account of the intrinsic value of scientific knowledge and understanding. It also parleys with recent work in science policy and social philosophy of science to characterize the instrumental value of scientific research, identifying space research as an effective generator of new knowledge and understanding. These values found an ethical obligation to engage in scientific examination of the space environment. This obligation has important implications for major space policy discussions, including debates surrounding planetary protection policies, space resource exploitation, and human space settlement. Whereas planetary protection policies are currently employed to prevent biological contamination only of sites of interest in the search for extraterrestrial life, it contends that all sites of interest to space science ought to be protected. Meanwhile, space resource exploitation and human space settlement would result in extensive disruption or destruction of pristine space environments. The overall ethical value of these environments in the production of new knowledge and understanding is greater than their value as commercial or real commodities, and thus, exploitation and settlement of space should be avoided until the scientific community adequately understands these environments.

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The Value of Science in Space Exploration

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How to Write an Essay on Space Exploration in IELTS? Tips and Samples

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International English Language Testing System  (IELTS) is one of the world’s leading English language tests that evaluates the English language proficiency among non-native speakers. Writing test task 2 of the IELTS exam is a descriptive essay-type question based on topics related to the general interest. The word limit is a minimum of 250 words, and the task duration is 40 minutes. This article discusses ‘ space exploration, a commonly asked topic for IELTS essays, to help test takers prepare well for the test. Here are the tips for writing the best essay and two samples ‘space exploration’ essays that you can follow.

Table of Contents

Word limit for the essay, time duration, type of question, essay topics.

• Sample 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Space Exploration

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Applicants will have to write an essay in IELTS task 2 in response to a statement. The minimum word limit should be 250 words. There is no upper word limit. Make sure you are not writing less than 250 words, or it will be counted as an incomplete task. 

The time duration allotted for the writing task 2 essay is 40 minutes. You need to manage your time, so make sure you plan and write the essay within the stipulated time. Appear for mocks to work on your writing speed. 

In IELTS Essay writing, applicants need to write an essay while responding to a particular premise, statement, or argument. It is an informal descriptive essay, where the applicants need to prepare a 250-word write-up based on opinion, facts, arguments, and experiences. All the parts of the question need to be answered in the essay. 

The essay topics are based on general interest and academic modules. It is important to practice essay writing in common genres like art, education, crime, space, culture, tradition, social problems, and environment. 

Samples on Space Exploration Essay IELTS

Sample 1: advantages and disadvantages of space exploration .

Space exploration is the detailed exploration of space, the solar system, and the universe. It is explored by robotic spacecraft and spaceflights. Earlier ‘Space Race’ was only popular between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union achieved many milestones in its early days. It is a huge part of American history. On 20th July 1969, Neil Armstrong along with Buzz Aldrin won the space race. Yet, there are many advantages and disadvantages of space exploration. Many opine that the space program costs high, and some take it as an invention.

Advantages of Space exploration

Inventions:

The global society has benefited through new inventions. The additional research conducted by NASA helped to benefit society in different ways. The discoveries benefit transportation, medicine, computer management, agriculture technology, and consumer goods. The space program helped in GPS technology, breast cancer treatment, lightweight breathing systems, Teflon fiberglass, etc. 

Employment:

One cannot deny the fact that space exploration generates numerous jobs globally. Spending less and making it more cost-effective is a better way to approach space exploration. Space research programs add too much to science, technology, and communication in the present unemployment scenario. And this results in a massive employment generation. 

Understanding: 

Time to time-space exploration programs and satellite missions by NASA help unravel the undiscovered facts about our universe. Scientists better understand the nature, atmosphere of Earth, and other space bodies. These are the exploration programs that make us aware of future natural disasters and other related predictions. It also paves the path to save our almighty universe from time to time. 

Conclusion: Every coin has two sides. To sustain on Earth, one has to face the challenge and overcome it. Space exploration is a vital activity that cannot be neglected but can be improved with technology.

Disadvantages of Space exploration

Pollution is one of the alarming concerns in space exploration. Every year, many satellites are launched in space, and not all of them return. Over time, the remains of such instances become debris and float in the air. Old satellites, different types of equipment, launching pads, pieces of rockets are all adding to pollutants. Space debris pollutes space in many ways. Space exploration is not only harming the environment but also space.  

A national space exploration program costs high. Many individuals argue that space mission programs are cost-effective. It must be noted that NASA in the recent program, celebrated its 30th anniversary with an expenditure of $196.5 billion.

Space exploration is not a bed of roses. Many historical events prove the danger associated with tragic incidents. One must focus on the incident on January 28, 1986, with the Challenger space shuttle. Within just 73 seconds, the shuttle exploded and resulted in a massive loss of life and property. 

Moreover, there are different opinions on the advantages of space exploration with more innovations and improved technologies.

Recommended Reads:

Essay sample 2: 

The first man to walk on the moon claimed it was a step forward for humankind. However, it has made little difference in most people’s lives.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

A greater number of people believe that space exploration has not made enough contribution to the lives of people. It has not made a sufficient impact if the expenses associated with it are justified. As per my understanding, various questions arise out of this, but if considered on an overall basis, the scientific impact is very encompassing. 

A man to the moon and expensive satellites and telescopes had no impact on the life of an average wage earner or the one without proper meals a day. A large population is still vulnerable and facing various economic challenges. Many enjoy watching the man traveling to the moon, or the NASA videos, but there is no justification for the huge amount of money that was spent over the years for space exploration. It could have made a lot of difference if these investments were directed towards employment, medicine, education, infrastructure, and culture. 

Nonetheless, the impacts are directly related to science and culture. A man on the moon was a moment of utilitarian concern. It was a powerful incident that encouraged countless lives to attain achievements. Space exploration has led to concrete and fruitful innovations. For example, new aspects of entertainment, microchip, the internet, and countless other discoveries. From small to huge, there are several discoveries, and the most important one can be staying connected throughout the globe. We are truly indebted to the funding of space exploration for all of these innovations and discoveries. 

Far from being utter waste, as some belief it to be, space exploration has been the reason for the progress of humankind. It must receive more support and advancement.

Tips to write a winning IELTS essay 

• The word length of the essay should be at least 250 words. There is no upper word limit. However, if you write less than 250 words, you may end up submitting an incomplete essay. The idea should be to write an essay of a minimum of 250 words. 
• The essay topic will have more than one question. All the parts of the questions are to be answered. For example, for the topic ‘crime is unavoidable’, here you may have questions like 1. Speak in favor and against this topic, 2. Give your opinion, 3. Suggest some measures to avoid crime. Now, this topic has three parts, and all the parts are to be answered; only then the essay will be complete. 
• Maintain the flow in writing. You cannot derail your thoughts and write an essay that is not relevant to the topic. The essay should be in complete sync with the question. The ideas in the essay should be directly related to the question. Use examples, experiences, and ideas that you can connect well with. 
• Organize your essay using linking phrases and words in a limited manner. Avoid using normal linking words, and go for adverbial phrases.
• The entire essay should be divided into small paragraphs with a minimum of two sentences each. There should be three parts to your essay, introduction, body, and conclusion. 
• Do not fill your essay with too many complicated and long words. Use collocations and idioms correctly. You must have a clear idea of using words and contexts.
• The essay should be grammatically correct. There should not be errors in terms of spelling, punctuation, and tenses. To avoid grammatical errors, avoid long and complicated sentences. Write short and crisp sentences. 
• Practice various essay questions like to agree/ disagree, discuss two opinions, advantages & disadvantages, causes, and solutions, causes and effects, and problem- solution. 
• Write a good introduction. The introduction should offer a clear idea about the rest of the content. An introduction is an important part of creating an impression and developing interest. 
• Use facts, statistics, and data if necessary. If you are unsure about the data and numbers, it is better to avoid any factual information. Do not write anything that you are not very sure about. 
• The body of the essay should be descriptive and contain all the points, facts, and information in a detailed manner. 
• The conclusion is prominent. The way you conclude your essay plays an important role in boosting your IELTS band. 
• Take care of the spelling mistakes. Do not write complicated spellings that you are not sure of. It is better to use simple and common words. 
• Do not write any informal or personal comments. It is not permitted strictly. 
• Proofread your essay once you are done writing. It helps you to scan minor and major issues in terms of grammatical and spelling errors. 

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Recapturing a Future for Space Exploration: Life and Physical Sciences Research for a New Era (2011)

Chapter: summary.

SCIENCE AND EXPLORATION

More than four decades have passed since a human first set foot on the Moon. Great strides have been made since in our understanding of what is required to support an enduring human presence in space, as evidenced by progressively more advanced orbiting human outposts, culminating in the current International Space Station (ISS). However, of the more than 500 humans who have so far ventured into space, most have gone only as far as near-Earth orbit, and none have traveled beyond the orbit of the Moon. Achieving humans’ further progress into the solar system has proved far more difficult than imagined in the heady days of the Apollo missions, but the potential rewards remain substantial. Overcoming the challenges posed by risk and cost—and developing the technology and capabilities to make long space voyages feasible—is an achievable goal. Further, the scientific accomplishments required to meet this goal will bring a deeper understanding of the performance of people, animals, plants, microbes, materials, and engineered systems not only in the space environment but also on Earth, providing terrestrial benefits by advancing fundamental knowledge in these areas.

During its more than 50-year history, NASA’s success in human space exploration has depended on the agency’s ability to effectively address a wide range of biomedical, engineering, physical science, and related obstacles—an achievement made possible by NASA’s strong and productive commitments to life and physical sciences research for human space exploration, and by its use of human space exploration infrastructures for scientific discovery. * This partnership of NASA with the research community reflects the original mandate from Congress in 1958 to promote science and technology, an endeavor that requires an active and vibrant research program. The committee acknowledges the many achievements of NASA, which are all the more remarkable given budgetary challenges and changing directions within the agency. In the past decade, however, a consequence of those challenges has been a life and physical sciences research program that was dramatically reduced in both scale and scope, with the result that the agency is poorly positioned to take full advantage of the scientific opportunities offered by the now fully equipped and staffed ISS laboratory, or to effectively pursue the scientific research needed to support the development of advanced human exploration capabilities.

Although its review has left it deeply concerned about the current state of NASA’s life and physical sciences research, the Committee for the Decadal Survey on Biological and Physical Sciences in Space is nevertheless

_____________

* These programs’ accomplishments are described in several National Research Council (NRC) reports—see for example, Assessment of Directions in Microgravity and Physical Sciences Research at NASA (The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2003).

convinced that a focused science and engineering program can achieve successes that will bring the space community, the U.S. public, and policymakers to an understanding that we are ready for the next significant phase of human space exploration. The goal of this report is to lay out steps whereby NASA can reinvigorate its partnership with the life and physical sciences research community and develop a forward-looking portfolio of research that will provide the basis for recapturing the excitement and value of human spaceflight—thereby enabling the U.S. space program to deliver on new exploration initiatives that serve the nation, excite the public, and place the United States again at the forefront of space exploration for the global good. This report examines the fundamental science and technology that underpin developments whose payoffs for human exploration programs will be substantial, as the following examples illustrate:

• An effective countermeasures program to attenuate the adverse effects of the space environment on the health and performance capabilities of astronauts, a development that will make it possible to conduct prolonged human space exploration missions.

• A deeper understanding of the mechanistic role of gravity in the regulation of biological systems (e.g., mechanisms by which microgravity triggers the loss of bone mass or cardiovascular function)—understanding that will provide insights for strategies to optimize biological function during spaceflight as well as on Earth (e.g., slowing the loss of bone or cardiovascular function with aging).

• Game changers, such as architecture-altering systems involving on-orbit depots for cryogenic rocket fuels, an example of a revolutionary advance possible only with the scientific understanding required to make this Apollo-era notion a reality. As an example, for some lunar missions such a depot could produce major cost savings by enabling use of an Ares I type launch system rather than a much larger Ares V type system.

• The critical ability to collect or produce large amounts of water from a source such as the Moon or Mars, which requires a scientific understanding of how to retrieve and refine water-bearing materials from extremely cold, rugged regions under partial-gravity conditions. Once cost-effective production is available, water can be transported to either surface bases or orbit for use in the many exploration functions that require it. Major cost savings will result from using that water in a photovoltaic-powered electrolysis and cryogenics plant to produce liquid oxygen and hydrogen for propulsion.

• Advances stemming from research on fire retardants, fire suppression, fire sensors, and combustion in microgravity that provide the basis for a comprehensive fire-safety system, greatly reducing the likelihood of a catastrophic event.

• Regenerative fuel cells that can provide lunar surface power for the long eclipse period (14 days) at high rates (e.g., greater than tens of kilowatts). Research on low-mass tankage, thermal management, and fluid handling in low gravity is on track to achieve regenerative fuel cells with specific energy greater than two times that of advanced batteries.

In keeping with its charge, the committee developed recommendations for research fitting in either one or both of these two broad categories:

1. Research that enables space exploration: scientific research in the life and physical sciences that is needed to develop advanced exploration technologies and processes, particularly those that are profoundly affected by operation in a space environment.

2. Research enabled by access to space: scientific research in the life and physical sciences that takes advantage of unique aspects of the space environment to significantly advance fundamental scientific understanding.

The key research challenges, and the steps needed to craft a program of research capable of facilitating the progress of human exploration in space, are highlighted below and described in more detail in the body of the report. In the committee’s view, these are steps that NASA will have to take in order to recapture a vision of space exploration that is achievable and that has inspired the country, and humanity, since the founding of NASA.

ESTABLISHING A SPACE LIFE AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES RESEARCH PROGRAM: PROGRAMMATIC ISSUES

Research in the complex environment of space requires a strong, flexible, and supportive programmatic structure. Also essential to a vibrant and ultimately successful life and physical sciences space research program is a partnership between NASA and the scientific community at large. The present program, however, has contracted to below critical mass and is perceived from outside NASA as lacking the stature within the agency and the commitment of resources to attract researchers or to accomplish real advances. For this program to effectively promote research to meet the national space exploration agenda, a number of issues will have to be addressed.

Administrative Oversight of Life and Physical Sciences Research

Currently, life and physical science endeavors have no clear institutional home at NASA. In the context of a programmatic home for an integrated research agenda, program leadership and execution are likely to be productive only if aggregated under a single management structure and housed in a NASA directorate or key organization that understands both the value of science and its potential application in future exploration missions. The committee concluded that:

• Leadership with both true scientific gravitas and a sufficiently high level in the overall organizational structure at NASA is needed to ensure that there will be a “voice at the table” when the agency engages in difficult deliberations about prioritizing resources and engaging in new activities.

• The successful renewal of a life and physical sciences research program will depend on strong leadership with a unique authority over a dedicated and enduring research funding stream.

• It is important that the positioning of leadership within the agency allows the conduct of the necessary research programs as well as interactions, integration, and influence within the mission-planning elements that develop new exploration options.

Elevating the Priority of Life and Physical Sciences Research in Space Exploration

It is of paramount importance that the life and physical sciences research portfolio supported by NASA, both extramurally and intramurally, receives appropriate attention within the agency and that its organizational structure is optimally designed to meet NASA’s needs. The committee concluded that:

• The success of future space exploration depends on life and physical sciences research being central to NASA’s exploration mission and being embraced throughout the agency as an essential translational step in the execution of space exploration missions.

• A successful life and physical sciences program will depend on research being an integral component of spaceflight operations and on astronauts’ participation in these endeavors being viewed as a component of each mission.

• The collection and analysis of a broad array of physiological and psychological data from astronauts before, during, and after a mission are necessary for advancing knowledge of the effects of the space environment on human health and for improving the safety of human space exploration. If there are legal concerns about implementing this approach, they could be addressed by the Department of Health and Human Services Secretary’s Advisory Committee on Human Research Protections.

Establishing a Stable and Sufficient Funding Base

A renewed funding base for fundamental and applied life and physical sciences research is essential for attracting the scientific community needed to meet the prioritized research objectives laid out in this report. Researchers

must have a reasonable level of confidence in the sustainability of research funding if they are expected to focus their laboratories, staff, and students on research issues relevant to space exploration. The committee concluded that:

• In accord with elevating the priority of life and physical sciences research, it is important that the budget to support research be sufficient, sustained, and appropriately balanced between intramural and extramural activities. As a general conclusion regarding the allocation of funds, an extramural budget should support an extramural research program sufficiently robust to ensure a stable community of scientists and engineers who are prepared to lead future space exploration research and train the next generation of scientists and engineers.

• Research productivity and efficiency will be enhanced if the historical collaborations of NASA with other sponsoring agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health, are sustained, strengthened, and expanded to include other agencies.

Improving the Process for Solicitation and Review of High-Quality Research

Familiarity with, and the predictability of, the research solicitation process are critical to enabling researchers to plan and conduct activities in their laboratories that enable them to prepare high-quality research proposals. Regularity in frequency of solicitations, ideally multiple solicitations per year, would help to ensure that the community of investigators remains focused on life and physical science research areas relevant to the agency, thereby creating a sustainable research network. The committee concluded that:

• Regularly issued solicitations for NASA-sponsored life and physical sciences research are necessary to attract investigators to research that enables or is enabled by space exploration. Effective solicitations should include broad research announcements to encourage a wide array of highly innovative applications, targeted research announcements to ensure that high-priority mission-oriented goals are met, and team research announcements that specifically foster multidisciplinary translational research.

• The legitimacy of NASA’s peer-review systems for extramural and intramural research hinges on the assurance that the review process, including the actions taken by NASA as a result of review recommendations, is transparent and incorporates a clear rationale for prioritizing intramural and extramural investigations.

• The quality of NASA-supported research and its interactions with the scientific community would be enhanced by the assembly of a research advisory committee, composed of 10 to 15 independent life and physical scientists, to oversee and endorse the process by which intramural and extramural research projects are selected for support after peer review of their scientific merit. Such a committee would be charged with advising and making recommendations to the leadership of the life and physical sciences program on matters relating to research activities.

Rejuvenating a Strong Pipeline of Intellectual Capital Through Training and Mentoring Programs

A critical number of investigators is required to sustain a healthy and productive scientific community. A strong pipeline of intellectual capital can be developed by modeling a training and mentoring program on other successful programs in the life and physical sciences. Building a program in life and physical sciences would benefit from ensuring that an adequate number of flight- and ground-based investigators are participating in research that will enable future space exploration. The committee concluded that:

• Educational programs and training opportunities effectively expand the pool of graduate students, scientists, and engineers who will be prepared to improve the translational application of fundamental and applied life and physical sciences research to space exploration needs.

Linking Science to Needed Mission Capabilities Through Multidisciplinary Translational Programs

Complex systems problems of the type that human exploration missions will increasingly encounter will need to be solved with integrated teams that are likely to include scientists from a number of disciplines, as well as engineers, mission analysts, and technology developers. The interplay between and among the life and physical sciences and engineering, along with a strong focus on cost-effectiveness, will require multidisciplinary approaches. Multidisciplinary translational programs can link the science to the gaps in mission capabilities through planned and enabled data collection mechanisms. The committee concluded that:

• A long-term strategic plan to maximize team research opportunities and initiatives would accelerate the trajectory of research discoveries and improve the efficiency of translating those discoveries to solutions for the complex problems associated with space exploration.

• Improved central information networks would facilitate data sharing with and analysis by the life and physical science communities and would enhance the science results derived from flight opportunities.

ESTABLISHING A LIFE AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES RESEARCH PROGRAM: AN INTEGRATED MICROGRAVITY RESEARCH PORTFOLIO

Areas of Highest-Priority Research

NASA has a strong and successful track record in human spaceflight made possible by a backbone of science and engineering accomplishments. Decisions regarding future space exploration, however, will require the generation and use of new knowledge in the life and physical sciences for successful implementation of any options chosen. Chapters 4 through 10 in this report identify and prioritize research questions important both to conducting successful space exploration and to increasing the fundamental understanding of physics and biology that is enabled by experimentation in the space environment. These two interconnected concepts—that science is enabled by access to space and that science enables future exploration missions—testify to the powerful complementarity of science and the human spaceflight endeavor. For example, the research recommended in this report addresses unanswered questions related to the health and welfare of humans undertaking extended space missions, to technologies needed to support such missions, and to logistical issues with potential impacts on the health of space travelers, such as ensuring adequate nutrition, protection against exposure to radiation, suitable thermoregulation, appropriate immune function, and attention to stress and behavioral factors. At the same time, progress in answering such questions will find broader applications as well.

It is not possible in this brief summary to describe or even adequately summarize the highest-priority research recommended by the committee. However, the recommendations selected (from a much larger body of discipline suggestions and recommendations) as having the highest overall priority for the coming decade are listed briefly as broad topics below. The committee considered these recommendations to be the minimal set called for in its charge to develop an integrated portfolio of research enabling and enabled by access to space and thus did not attempt to further prioritize among them. In addition, it recognized that further prioritization among these disparate topic areas will be possible only in the context of specific policy directions to be set by NASA and the nation. Nevertheless, the committee has provided tools and metrics that will allow NASA to carry out further prioritization (as summarized below in the section “Research Portfolio Implementation”).

The recommended research portfolio is divided into the five disciplines areas and two integrative translational areas represented by the study panels that the committee directed. The extensive details (such as research time-frames and categorizations as enabling, enabled-by, or both) of the research recommended as having the highest priority are presented in Chapters 4 through 10 of the report, and much of this information is summarized in the research portfolio discussion in Chapter 13 .

Plant and Microbial Biology

Plants and microbes evolved at Earth’s gravity (1 g ), and spaceflight represents a completely novel environment for these organisms. Understanding how they respond to these conditions holds great potential for advancing

knowledge of how life operates on Earth. In addition, plants are important candidates for components of a biologically based life support system for prolonged spaceflight missions, and microbes play complex and essential roles in both positive and negative aspects of human health, in the potential for degradation of the crew environment through fouling of equipment, and in bioprocessing of the wastes of habitation in long-duration missions. The highest-priority research, focusing on these basic and applied aspects of plant and microbial biology, includes:

• Multigenerational studies of International Space Station microbial population dynamics;

• Plant and microbial growth and physiological responses; and

• Roles of microbial and plant systems in long-term life support systems.

Behavior and Mental Health

The unusual environmental, psychological, and social conditions of spaceflight missions limit and define the range of crew activities and trigger mental and behavioral adaptations. The adaptation processes include responses that result in variations in astronauts’ mental and physical health, and strongly stress and affect crew performance, productivity, and well-being. It is important to develop new methods, and to improve current methods, for minimizing psychiatric and sociopsychological costs inherent in spaceflight missions, and to better understand issues related to the selection, training, and in-flight and post-flight support of astronaut crews. The highest-priority research includes:

• Mission-relevant performance measures;

• Long-duration mission simulations;

• Role of genetic, physiological, and psychological factors in resilience to stressors; and

• Team performance factors in isolated autonomous environments.

Animal and Human Biology

Human physiology is altered in both dramatic and subtle ways in the spaceflight environment. Many of these changes profoundly limit the ability of humans to explore space, yet also shed light on fundamental biological mechanisms of medical and scientific interest on Earth. The highest-priority research, focusing on both basic mechanisms and development of countermeasures, includes:

• Studies of bone preservation and bone-loss reversibility factors and countermeasures, including pharmaceutical therapies;

• In-flight animal studies of bone loss and pharmaceutical countermeasures;

• Mechanisms regulating skeletal muscle protein balance and turnover;

• Prototype exercise countermeasures for single and multiple systems;

• Patterns of muscle retrainment following spaceflight;

• Changes in vascular/interstitial pressures during long-duration space missions;

• Effects of prolonged reduced gravity on organism performance, capacity mechanisms, and orthostatic intolerance;

• Screening strategies for subclinical coronary heart disease;

• Aerosol deposition in the lungs of humans and animals in reduced gravity;

• T cell activation and mechanisms of immune system changes during spaceflight;

• Animal studies incorporating immunization challenges in space; and

• Studies of multigenerational functional and structural changes in rodents in space.

Crosscutting Issues for Humans in the Space Environment

Translating knowledge from laboratory discoveries to spaceflight conditions is a two-fold task involving horizontal integration (multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary) and vertical translation (interaction among basic,

preclinical, and clinical scientists to translate fundamental discoveries into improvements in the health and well-being of crew members during and after their missions). To address the cumulative effect of a range of physiological and behavioral changes, an integrated research approach is warranted. The highest-priority crosscutting research issues include:

• Integrative, multisystem mechanisms of post-landing orthostatic intolerance;

• Countermeasure testing of artificial gravity;

• Decompression effects;

• Food, nutrition, and energy balance in astronauts;

• Continued studies of short- and long-term radiation effects in astronauts and animals;

• Cell studies of radiation toxicity endpoints;

• Gender differences in physiological effects of spaceflight; and

• Biophysical principles of thermal balance.

Fundamental Physical Sciences in Space

The fundamental physical sciences research at NASA has two overarching quests: (1) to discover and explore the laws governing matter, space, and time and (2) to discover and understand the organizing principles of complex systems from which structure and dynamics emerge. Space offers unique conditions in which to address important questions about the fundamental laws of nature, and it allows sensitivity in measurements beyond that of ground-based experiments in many areas. Research areas of highest priority are the following:

• Study of complex fluids and soft matter in the microgravity laboratory;

• Precision measurements of the fundamental forces and symmetries;

• Physics and applications of quantum gases (gases at very low temperatures where quantum effects dominate); and

• Behavior of matter near critical phase transition.

Applied Physical Sciences

Applied physical sciences research, especially in fluid physics, combustion, and materials science, is needed to address design challenges for many key exploration technologies. This research will enable new exploration capabilities and yield new insights into a broad range of physical phenomena in space and on Earth, particularly with regard to improved power generation, propulsion, life support, and safety. Applied physical sciences research topics of particular interest are as follows:

• Reduced-gravity multiphase flows, cryogenics, and heat transfer database development and modeling;

• Interfacial flows and phenomena in exploration systems;

• Dynamic granular material behavior and subsurface geotechnics;

• Strategies and methods for dust mitigation;

• Complex fluid physics in a reduced-gravity environment;

• Fire safety research to improve screening of materials in terms of flammability and fire suppression;

• Combustion processes and modeling;

• Materials synthesis and processing to control microstructures and properties;

• Advanced materials design and development for exploration; and

• Research on processes for in situ resource utilization.

Translation to Space Exploration Systems

The translation of research to space exploration systems includes identification of the technologies that enable exploration missions to the Moon, Mars, and elsewhere, as well as the research in life and physical sciences that

is needed to develop these enabling technologies, processes, and capabilities. The highest-priority research areas to support objectives and operational systems in space exploration include:

• Two-phase flow and thermal management;

• Cryogenic fluid management;

• Mobility, rovers, and robotic systems;

• Dust mitigation systems;

• Radiation protection systems;

• Closed-loop life support systems;

• Thermoregulation technologies;

• Fire safety: materials standards and particle detectors;

• Fire suppression and post-fire strategies;

• Regenerative fuel cells;

• Energy conversion technologies;

• Fission surface power;

• Ascent and descent propulsion technologies;

• Space nuclear propulsion;

• Lunar water and oxygen extraction systems; and

• Planning for surface operations, including in situ resource utilization and surface habitats.

For each of the high-priority research areas identified above, the committee classified the research recommendations as enabling for future space exploration options, enabled by the environment of space that exploration missions will encounter, or both.

Research Portfolio Implementation

While the committee believes that any healthy, integrated program of life and physical sciences research will give consideration to the full set of recommended research areas discussed in this report—and will certainly incorporate the recommendations identified as having the highest priority by the committee and its panels—it fully recognizes that further prioritization and decisions on the relative timing of research support in various areas will be determined by future policy decisions. For example, and only as an illustration, a policy decision to send humans to Mars within the next few decades would elevate the priority of enabling research on dust mitigation systems, whereas a policy decision to focus primarily on advancing fundamental knowledge through the use of space would elevate the priority of critical phase transition studies. The committee therefore provided for future flexibility in the implementation of its recommended portfolio by mapping all of the high-priority research areas against the metrics used to select them. These eight overarching metrics, listed below with clarifying criteria (see also Table 13.3 ) added in parentheses, can be used as a basis for policy-related ordering of an integrated research portfolio. Examples of how this might be done are provided in the report.

• The extent to which the results of the research will reduce uncertainty about both the benefits and the risks of space exploration ( Positive Impact on Exploration Efforts, Improved Access to Data or to Samples, Risk Reduction )

• The extent to which the results of the research will reduce the costs of space exploration ( Potential to Enhance Mission Options or to Reduce Mission Costs )

• The extent to which the results of the research may lead to entirely new options for exploration missions ( Positive Impact on Exploration Efforts, Improved Access to Data or to Samples )

• The extent to which the results of the research will fully or partially answer grand science challenges that the space environment provides a unique means to address ( Relative Impact Within Research Field )

• The extent to which the results of the research are uniquely needed by NASA, as opposed to any other agencies ( Needs Unique to NASA Exploration Programs )

• The extent to which the results of the research can be synergistic with other agencies’ needs ( Research Programs That Could Be Dual-Use )

• The extent to which the research must use the space environment to achieve useful knowledge ( Research Value of Using Reduced-Gravity Environment )

• The extent to which the results of the research could lead to either faster or better solutions to terrestrial problems or to terrestrial economic benefit ( Ability to Translate Results to Terrestrial Needs )

Facilities, Platforms, and the International Space Station

Facility and platform requirements are identified for each of the various areas of research discussed in this report. Free-flyers, suborbital spaceflights, parabolic aircraft, and drop towers are all important platforms, each offering unique advantages that might make them the optimal choice for certain experiments. Ground-based laboratory research is critically important in preparing most investigations for eventual flight, and there are some questions that can be addressed primarily through ground research. Eventually, access to lunar and planetary surfaces will make it possible to conduct critical studies in the partial-gravity regime and will enable test bed studies of systems that will have to operate in those environments. These facilities enable studies of the effects of various aspects of the space environment, including reduced gravity, increased radiation, vacuum and planetary atmospheres, and human isolation.

Typically, because of the cost and scarcity of the resource, spaceflight research is part of a continuum of efforts that extend from laboratories and analog environments on the ground, through other low-gravity platforms as needed and available, and eventually into extended-duration flight. Although research on the ISS is only one component of this endeavor, the capabilities provided by the ISS are vital to answering many of the most important research questions detailed in this report. The ISS provides a unique platform for research, and past NRC studies have noted the critical importance of its capabilities to support the goal of long-term human exploration in space. † These include the ability to perform experiments of extended duration, access to human subjects, the ability to continually revise experiment parameters based on previous results, the flexibility in experimental design provided by human operators, and the availability of sophisticated experimental facilities with significant power and data resources. The ISS is the only existing and available platform of its kind, and it is essential that its presence and dedication to research for the life and physical sciences be fully utilized in the decade ahead.

With the retirement of the space shuttle program in 2011, it will also be important for NASA to foster interactions with the commercial sector, particularly commercial flight providers, in a manner that addresses research needs, with attention to such issues as control of intellectual property, technology transfer, conflicts of interest, and data integrity.

Science Impact on Defining Space Exploration

Implicit in this report are integrative visions for the science advances necessary to underpin and enable revolutionary systems and bold exploration architectures for human space exploration. Impediments to revitalizing the U.S. space exploration agenda include costs, past inabilities to predict costs and schedule, and uncertainties about mission and crew risk. Research community leaders recognize their obligations to address those impediments. The starting point of much of space-related life sciences research is the reduction of risks to missions and crews. Thus, the recommended life sciences research portfolio centers on an integrated scientific pursuit to reduce the health hazards facing space explorers, while also advancing fundamental scientific discoveries. Similarly, revolutionary

† See, for example, National Research Council, Review of NASA Plans for the International Space Station , The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2006.

and architecture-changing systems will be developed not simply by addressing technological barriers, but also by unlocking the unknowns of the fundamental physical behaviors and processes on which the development and operation of advanced space technologies will depend. This report is thus much more than a catalog of research recommendations; it specifies the scientific resources and tools to help in defining and developing with greater confidence the future of U.S. space exploration and scientific discovery.

More than four decades have passed since a human first set foot on the Moon. Great strides have been made in our understanding of what is required to support an enduring human presence in space, as evidenced by progressively more advanced orbiting human outposts, culminating in the current International Space Station (ISS). However, of the more than 500 humans who have so far ventured into space, most have gone only as far as near-Earth orbit, and none have traveled beyond the orbit of the Moon. Achieving humans' further progress into the solar system had proved far more difficult than imagined in the heady days of the Apollo missions, but the potential rewards remain substantial.

During its more than 50-year history, NASA's success in human space exploration has depended on the agency's ability to effectively address a wide range of biomedical, engineering, physical science, and related obstacles—an achievement made possible by NASA's strong and productive commitments to life and physical sciences research for human space exploration, and by its use of human space exploration infrastructures for scientific discovery. The Committee for the Decadal Survey of Biological and Physical Sciences acknowledges the many achievements of NASA, which are all the more remarkable given budgetary challenges and changing directions within the agency. In the past decade, however, a consequence of those challenges has been a life and physical sciences research program that was dramatically reduced in both scale and scope, with the result that the agency is poorly positioned to take full advantage of the scientific opportunities offered by the now fully equipped and staffed ISS laboratory, or to effectively pursue the scientific research needed to support the development of advanced human exploration capabilities.

Although its review has left it deeply concerned about the current state of NASA's life and physical sciences research, the Committee for the Decadal Survey on Biological and Physical Sciences in Space is nevertheless convinced that a focused science and engineering program can achieve successes that will bring the space community, the U.S. public, and policymakers to an understanding that we are ready for the next significant phase of human space exploration. The goal of this report is to lay out steps and develop a forward-looking portfolio of research that will provide the basis for recapturing the excitement and value of human spaceflight—thereby enabling the U.S. space program to deliver on new exploration initiatives that serve the nation, excite the public, and place the United States again at the forefront of space exploration for the global good.

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Essay on Space Exploration

Introduction.

Space exploration is defined as continually discovering new celestial bodies in the cosmos and learning more about them through ever-evolving and bettering space technology (Traphagan). In actual physical space exploration, unmanned robotic probes and human spaceflight are used in conjunction. When it comes to the study of space, however, the majority of the work is done by astronomers who have access to telescopes. The field of study known as astronomy, which examines the motions of heavenly bodies and how space affects them, has been around for as long as there have been trustworthy records of human history. However, it was not until the early 20th century that large and relatively efficient rockets were developed. This development paved the way for humans to fly into space. The proliferation of scientific information, the promotion of international collaboration, the guaranteeing of humanity’s long-term existence, and the development of military and geopolitical advantages over other states are all frequently cited as justifications for space exploration. Space research has often been utilized as a cover for actual conflict in the context of geopolitical rivalries, such as the Cold War (Holland and Burns).

To further their understanding of the universe, astronauts use cutting-edge technology when they are in space. Before 1957, there had never been a significant attempt to leave the earth’s atmosphere. This changed in 1957. Throughout the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union made attempts to find a solution to their disagreements. With the launch of the first probe into space in 1957, the Soviet Union became the first country to explore the area. It was initially planned for a living being, specifically a dog, to be launched into space. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States of America was established in 1958 (David et al.). Its primary organization is tasked with manufacturing satellites and space probes that will be utilized for experimental purposes in space. In addition, scientists research the solar system to expand their knowledge and improve their chances of discovering answers to humanity’s challenges. In 1960, Neil Armstrong served as the captain of the first successful American space mission led by NASA. This space mission was the first ever to visit the moon (David et al.).

Even though it’s only been in the last few decades that there has been a significant uptick in space travel, humans have been fascinated by space ever since the start of humanity. Consequently, the program demands a more considerable amount of funds (Heracleous et al.). The United States of America is just one of many countries that devote significant financial resources to sending humans into space. It has led to various parties having differing perspectives, with proponents saying that the investment is beneficial and opponents believing that the resources could be used for something more significant than what they are now being used for. People have the notion that lowering the costs of space exploration will be beneficial to the economy since it will free up some funds that can be used to address some urgent issues in particular domains. Nevertheless, there is no denying many advantages to exploring space. I think the government should support space exploration due to its significance for society in terms of the natural world, the socioeconomic system, and advancements in technology and science (Heracleous et al.).

One reason to support space exploration is the countless technological advancements that have emerged from it. These advancements have helped a variety of industries, including communication; thus, we must continue to fund space exploration. It has connected people worldwide by making it more straightforward for individuals to exchange information with one another, regardless of where they are physically situated in the world. Businesses, both governmental and private, on a global scale are expanding as a direct result of improvements in the efficiency of communication and coordination made possible by space exploration (ISECG 5). All of these things have been feasible because of the deployment of satellites into space, capable of transmitting audio and video signals. NASA is the government agency in the United States that is in charge of doing research in the fields of aviation and space (Statista.com). Without the human exploration of space, humankind would not have access to the television and communication networks that are currently in existence. Because of space projects, people now can learn about current events worldwide and the dynamic relationship between the earth and its atmosphere. Effective communication not only contributes to the formation of social interactions but also plays a role in space exploration, which brings together specialists from various fields to produce answers to a wide range of societal issues. Because space exploration has improved worldwide communication, it must receive adequate financial support.

The fact that modern society is currently facing one of the most significant challenges on a global scale in the form of climate change is one of the essential arguments in favor of funding space exploration. Our increased knowledge of scientific principles, brought about by the deployment of space satellites, enables us to improve our ability to forecast potentially catastrophic weather phenomena and to issue timely alerts to mitigate the impact of these occurrences (ISECG 7). The rate of global warming, also known as the increase in the average temperature of the world, has been increasing at a faster rate over the last few decades due to the rising concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. It has a lot of negative implications, such as floods and droughts, which put a stop to the economies of many nations and have an effect on the agricultural industry. In addition, exploring space encompasses a range of fields, one of which is promoting public safety through disseminating information and raising consciousness (Statista.com). It suggests that the monies put aside to deal with the aftermath of natural disasters would be reduced. Because countries must advance while monitoring their emissions’ impact on the environment, new space exploration activities need to be supported by governments worldwide. As a consequence, the findings obtained from such research continue to be essential for developing environmentally responsible alternatives that will improve not only the economics of the nation but also the health of its population.

The overwhelming majority of criticisms against space flight centers are on the economic burden imposed by the exorbitantly high operations and equipment costs. People have started questioning whether or not government funds should be spent on such an expensive project when other companies desperately need financial support. As an illustration, the operational costs of NASA in 2017 were expected to be $19.6 billion (Statista.com). They have suggested that the cash be used to solve societal issues such as eliminating poverty and enhancing the health care system. Over 19 billion United States dollars are spent by NASA annually on space research and operations, and this number is expected to rise to 19.6 billion in 20220. (Statista.com). I’m not going to dispute that space exploration is pricey; nonetheless, the advantages much exceed the disadvantages, which is why I believe it’s an investment that should be made. The advancement in technology that comes with space exploration has also encouraged study and development in other sectors, fostering economic growth (ISECG 8). Exploration of space, despite the huge costs involved, is essential to the process of finding long-term solutions because it establishes a connection between past, present, and future changes and the effect those changes have on civilization.

In general, public funding for space exploration should be promoted because of the numerous ways in which it has the potential to improve civilization. These improvements could include improvements in communication as well as environmental benefits. Humanity must pay the price to reap the rewards of space exploration. This is an unavoidable cost. In this circumstance, the sacrifice being asked for is financial help. The nation’s economy benefits from the government’s investments in space research since those investments have a knock-on effect on other industries, such as the technological and medical fields. Those quick to dismiss this proposition because the high-cost explanation is sufficient ought to reevaluate their viewpoint in light of the benefits they have received from telecommunication and environmental satellites. Space exploration is still beneficial to both people and the environment, and it should not be regarded as a waste of resources.

Works Cited

David, Jason W., et al. “A history of the NASA operational spaceflight Surgeon:1958 – Present.”  Acta Astronautica , 2022.

Heracleous, Loizos, et al. “Ambidexterity as Historically Embedded Process: Evidence From NASA, 1958 to 2016.”  The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science , vol. 55, no. 2, 2018, pp. 161-189.

Holland, Dora, and Jack O. Burns. “The American Space Exploration Narrative from the Cold War Through the Obama Administration.”  Space Policy , vol. 46, 2018, pp. 9-17.

International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG).  Benefits Stemming from Space Exploration.  Global Space Exploration Organization, 2013, pp. 1-23.

Statista.com. “NASA Budget Request From 2014 To 2023.” 2018. https://www.statista.com/statistics/264494/nasas-budget/

Traphagan, John W. “Religion, Science, and Space Exploration from a Non-Western Perspective.”  Religions , vol. 11, no. 8, 2020, p. 397.

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Essay on India in Space

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Introduction.

India’s journey in space research began in 1962 with the Indian National Committee for Space Research. Its mission: to use space technology for national development.

ISRO’s Formation

Moon and mars missions.

India made history with the Chandrayaan-1 in 2008, discovering water on the moon. In 2014, the Mars Orbiter Mission made India the first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit.

Future Plans

ISRO plans to explore Venus and the Sun’s corona, demonstrating India’s growing prowess in space.

250 Words Essay on India in Space

Introduction to india’s space journey, major milestones in india’s space exploration.

India’s journey in space exploration has been marked by significant milestones. The launch of the first satellite, Aryabhata, in 1975 marked the beginning of India’s independent space journey. However, the launch of Chandrayaan-1 in 2008, which discovered water molecules on the moon, and the Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) in 2013, which made India the first Asian country to reach Martian orbit, are testaments to the country’s advanced scientific capabilities.

Current Endeavours and Future Prospects

Currently, India is working on several ambitious projects. Gaganyaan, India’s first manned space mission, aims to send astronauts into space by 2022. The Aditya-L1 mission, set for 2022, intends to study the Sun’s corona.

India’s space journey is not only about exploring the cosmos but also about leveraging space technology for societal benefits. With advancements in communication satellites, remote sensing, and satellite navigation, India is using space technology for disaster management, weather forecasting, telemedicine, and education.

India’s space journey has been a blend of scientific curiosity, national pride, and societal development. With its future missions, India is set to further its reputation as a major player in global space research and exploration. The journey of India in space is a testament to the power of a vision, scientific rigor, and indomitable determination.

500 Words Essay on India in Space

India’s journey into space is a fascinating narrative of ambition, determination, and scientific advancement. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), established in 1969, has been the driving force behind India’s space exploration, transforming the nation from a developing country to a significant player in the global space community.

ISRO’s Early Years and Achievements

Technological advancements and mars mission.

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Chandrayaan Missions and Lunar Exploration

India’s lunar exploration program, Chandrayaan, has also received international acclaim. Chandrayaan-1, launched in 2008, made a significant discovery of water molecules on the lunar surface. Chandrayaan-2, despite a setback in the soft landing attempt, has provided valuable data about the lunar surface and will pave the way for future missions.

The Commercial Aspect: Antrix Corporation

Recognizing the commercial potential of space technology, ISRO established Antrix Corporation in 1992. Antrix has successfully commercialized ISRO’s capabilities in satellite technology and launch services, providing cost-effective solutions to international clients and contributing to the global space economy.

Future Prospects: Gaganyaan and Beyond

India’s space journey represents a blend of scientific curiosity, technological prowess, and a vision for societal development. It is a testament to the nation’s capabilities and potential. As India continues to explore the vast expanse of space, it not only contributes to global scientific knowledge but also inspires future generations to dream big and strive for excellence.

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• Published: 10 June 2024

Evidence for transient morning water frost deposits on the Tharsis volcanoes of Mars

• A. Valantinas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9995-3335 1 , 2 ,
• N. Thomas 1 ,
• A. Pommerol   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9165-9243 1 ,
• O. Karatekin 3 ,
• L. Ruiz Lozano   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8084-5438 3 ,
• C. B. Senel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7677-9597 3 , 4 ,
• O. Temel 3 , 5 ,
• E. Hauber   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1375-304X 6 ,
• D. Tirsch   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5905-5426 6 ,
• V. T. Bickel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7914-2516 7 ,
• G. Munaretto 8 ,
• M. Pajola   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3144-1277 8 ,
• F. Oliva   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6271-3722 9 ,
• F. Schmidt   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2857-6621 10 , 11 ,
• I. Thomas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3887-6668 12 ,
• A. S. McEwen 13 ,
• M. Almeida 1 ,
• M. Read 1 ,
• V. G. Rangarajan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3694-7696 14 ,
• M. R. El-Maarry   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8262-0320 15 ,
• F. G. Carrozzo 9 ,
• E. D’Aversa   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5842-5867 9 ,
• F. Daerden   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7433-1839 12 ,
• B. Ristic 12 ,
• M. R. Patel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8223-3566 16 ,
• G. Bellucci   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0867-8679 9 ,
• J. J. Lopez-Moreno   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7946-2624 17 ,
• A. C. Vandaele   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8940-9301 12 &
• G. Cremonese 8  

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• Atmospheric dynamics
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The present-day water cycle on Mars has implications for habitability and future human exploration. Water ice clouds and water vapour have been detected above the Tharsis volcanic province, suggesting the active exchange of water between regolith and atmosphere. Here we report observational evidence for extensive transient morning frost deposits on the calderas of the Tharsis volcanoes (Olympus, Arsia and Ascraeus Montes, and Ceraunius Tholus) using high-resolution colour images from the Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System on board the European Space Agency’s Trace Gas Orbiter. The transient bluish deposits appear on the caldera floor and rim in the morning during the colder Martian seasons but are not present by afternoon. The presence of water frost is supported by spectral observations, as well as independent imagery from the European Space Agency’s Mars Express orbiter. Climate model simulations further suggest that early-morning surface temperatures at the high altitudes of the volcano calderas are sufficiently low to support the daily condensation of water—but not CO 2 —frost. Given the unlikely seasonal nature of volcanic outgassing, we suggest the observed frost is atmospheric in origin, implying the role of microclimate in local frost formation and a contribution to the broader Mars water cycle.

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The Tharsis Rise is a large volcanic province in the tropics of Mars 1 (latitude range: ±40° N, longitude range: 220–300° E). It is a broad topographic dome that rises about 5 km above the surrounding terrain and covers a region 5,000 km wide 2 . It contains some of the Solar System’s largest and tallest volcanoes 3 , such as Olympus Mons (21 km altitude), Arsia Mons (18 km), Ascraeus Mons (18 km) and Pavonis Mons (14 km), but also smaller shield volcanoes such as Ceraunius Tholus (9 km). Volcanic activity on Mars has been concentrated predominantly in this region throughout the planet’s geological history, persisting into current times, as evidenced by lava flows that are as recent as 2.4 million years old 4 . No current volcanic activity has been detected in Tharsis, although recent geophysical data show that Mars is still geodynamically active 5 , 6 , 7 .

Notable orographic water ice clouds and other atmospheric phenomena have been observed in Tharsis 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 . Water ice clouds play a fundamental role in cycling water on Mars, moving moisture for thousands of kilometres from polar regions to relatively dry equatorial areas 13 , 14 . In addition, Tharsis is situated along the route of an important cross-equatorial exchange of water vapour, where approximately 10 12  kg of water is annually transferred between the northern and southern hemispheres through the solstitial Hadley cells 15 . Atmospheric observations 16 have revealed a localized enrichment in water vapour above the Tharsis volcanoes, suggesting that an active exchange of water vapour between the regolith and the atmosphere may be ongoing, probably facilitated by desorption from the regolith and/or sublimation of frost. A subsequent study 17 confirmed the water-vapour enrichment over these areas but hypothesized that the local circulation pattern typical of the volcanic region is possibly responsible for the enrichment as it may carry considerable amounts of water vapour upslope.

Apart from the polar regions, water ice manifests on the surface as seasonal frost in mid- and low-latitude locations. NASA’s (the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s) Viking 2 lander detected water frost at ~48° N 18 , 19 , 20 . In addition, orbital observations from a variety of instruments revealed that water frost can occur up to 13° S in the southern hemisphere and as low as 32° N on shaded pole-facing slopes 21 , 22 , 23 . However, the presence of frost at the tropics (~0° N latitude) was not expected because of higher average surface temperatures 24 and lower humidity 25 . Some studies predicted that on most of Mars’s surface, small amounts of H 2 O frost can condense nightly if radiative cooling is strong enough 26 , 27 . For example, extremely small amounts of water frost have been observed to condense near the equator on the high thermal emissivity calibration targets of NASA’s Opportunity rover 28 , 29 .

Most of the Martian atmosphere is composed of CO 2 gas, and therefore CO 2 frost can also form if surface temperatures are low enough 30 . On the basis of nightly surface temperatures and thermal modelling, it was shown that in the equatorial regions CO 2 frost may condense diurnally 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 . Predictions 30 , 31 indicated that putative CO 2 frost deposits may persist for only a few minutes after sunrise (~6:00 Local Solar Time ( lst )) before sublimating back into the atmosphere. Follow-up global surveys, utilizing early-morning colour observations from the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS 33 ) were conducted to search for these frosts in the equatorial regions, but no evidence of morning CO 2 frost was identified 34 .

Observations by the Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS 35 ) on board the European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) provide strong evidence for morning frost deposition on the equatorial Tharsis volcanoes. We present here these observations coupled with supporting evidence from other instruments and modelling.

Observations of frost

Early-morning images ( lst  = 7:11; latitude = 18.5° N, longitude = –133.5° E; spatial resolution = 4.5 m pixel –1 ) of Olympus Mons caldera acquired by CaSSIS (at utc 2022 November 25) in the late northern winter (solar longitude (Ls) ~345°) on Mars year (MY) 36 first revealed bluish deposits (at ~500 nm) on sections of the caldera floor and rim (Fig. 1 ). The CaSSIS observation suggests a spatial correlation between the bluish deposits and topography (Fig. 1d ). The deposits are concentrated on the caldera floor but are absent on well-illuminated warm slopes and farther north on the volcano flank. The finding was confirmed five days later with a High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) 36 observation acquired on 2022 November 30 ( lst  = 7:20; latitude = 18.2° N, longitude = −133.2° E; spatial resolution = 800 m pixel –1 ), which revealed that the diffuse bluish ‘halo’ deposit was ubiquitous on the entire caldera floor and rim (Fig. 1b,c ). The halo is absent on the volcano flanks and is concentrated only at the mountain summit. During the CaSSIS detection, the Nadir and Occultation for Mars Discovery (NOMAD 37 ) spectrometer was operating and acquired a ride-along observation (instantaneous field of view = 17.5 km × 0.5 km). The nadir spectral data acquired in the NOMAD limb nadir and solar occultation (LNO) channel revealed that the deposit is frost (Fig. 1e ) as indicated by the elevated ice index values (more than 3 σ confidence; Methods and Supplementary Figs. 1 and 2 ).

a , Global view of Mars with white box marking the location of Olympus Mons. b , HRSC wide-angle image of Olympus Mons acquired in the early morning ( lst  = 7:20, Ls = 346.7°, latitude = 18.2° N, longitude = −133.2° E). The black dashed line indicates the orbit of the TGO corresponding to the images in d and e . The white box highlights the close up in c . c , Zoomed-in view of the Olympus Mons caldera. The white and blue dashed rectangles show the footprints of the CaSSIS and NOMAD-LNO observations, respectively. d , High-resolution (4.5 m pixel –1 ) CaSSIS colour image of frost on the caldera floor and northern rim of Olympus Mons ( lst  = 7:11, Ls = 344.1°). Frost is absent on the well-lit steep slopes. The blue rectangle marks the footprint of the one NOMAD-LNO observation that falls within the frost-covered area. e , NOMAD-LNO channel observation of the Olympus Mons caldera. The ice index values ( Methods ) indicate the presence of frost over the caldera floor (> µ  + 3 σ ). The coloured areas on the plot indicate the confidence intervals. HRSC image ID: hn889_0000 ( b , c ). CaSSIS colour image ID: MY36_022332_162_0_NPB ( d ). NOMAD-LNO observation ID: 20221125_082524 ( e ). Credit: b , ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; d , ESA/TGO/CaSSIS under a Creative Commons license CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO .

Repeat imaging by HRSC shows that the frost deposits on top of Olympus Mons (Fig. 1b ) appear only in the early Martian morning ( lst  = ~7:00–7:30; latitude = 18.2° N, longitude = −133.2° E) and are spatially correlated with a geological bright halo unit (Extended Data Fig. 1a,d ). This unit may be dust that is relatively brighter than the surrounding material due to different grain size or texture 38 . This bright halo unit is also observed in Context Camera 39 images (Extended Data Fig. 2a ). Materials consisting of smaller particles may exhibit different thermophysical properties such as lower thermal conductivity 40 and high thermal emissivity 41 . Surfaces with such properties cool down more at night and warm up more slowly in the morning, further enhancing the likelihood and duration of frost formation. This latter point is illustrated by CaSSIS observations of frost on dust deposits that have not been removed by winds (Extended Data Fig. 2b,c ). As shown by CaSSIS, frost may also condense leeward of small craters where air-fall dust can accumulate and is perhaps less compact (Extended Data Fig. 2d ). Porous and less-compact materials provide more nucleation sites for frost formation 42 . Outside of the bright halo, frost is found near the northern rim of Olympus Mons, but its emplacement is more localized (Extended Data Fig. 2e–i ). In conclusion, the observed frost patterns on Olympus Mons, particularly in areas with geologically distinct bright dust deposits, underscore the importance of thermophysical properties such as low thermal conductivity and high thermal emissivity, as well as surface texture, in governing the formation, distribution and persistence of frost on Mars.

Within the CaSSIS database, 13 instances of frost have been found (Extended Data Fig. 3 ). These include detections not only on the largest Tharsis volcanoes of Olympus, Ascraeus and Arsia Montes but also on the smaller-sized Ceraunius Tholus shield volcano (Extended Data Fig. 4 ). In one case, the frost deposits on Arsia Mons (Fig. 2a ) are observed in the early Martian morning and during southern winter solstice ( lst  = ~8:00, Ls = ~90°, latitude = −8.7° N, longitude = −121.1° E). The frost line dividing warm and shadowed slopes is, however, not observed in the repeat CaSSIS observations of this location, which were acquired during late southern spring (Fig. 2b–d ). Photometric analysis shows that frost is associated with an increase in ratioed reflectance of up to 20% at wavelengths (Fig. 2e ; CaSSIS blue (BLU) filter bandwidth is 390–570 nm (ref. 43 )). The fact that frosty surfaces are sometimes brighter only at blue wavelengths, implying a lower spectral slope, can also be observed in a linearly stretched CaSSIS BLU filter image (Extended Data Fig. 5 and Methods ) and average spectra from a k -means clustering analysis 44 , 45 applied on a topographically corrected and photometrically normalized CaSSIS cube (Supplementary Fig. 3 ). The photometric and clustering analyses suggest that the frost deposits are probably very thin.

a , Frost on the shadowed slope of the crater in an early-morning observation during southern winter in MY 35 (latitude = −8.74° N, longitude = −121.14° E). b – d , No frost in an early-morning observation ( b ) and no frost in afternoon observations ( c , d ) during late southern spring in MY 36. The spectral profile along the black line in a is shown in e and reveals a marked increase in reflectance up to 20% in the BLU filter when frost is present. Errors are from the uncertainty in the absolute calibration of the instrument and are about ~3% (ref. 43 ). The illumination direction is indicated by the arrows in the bottom right corner of each image. North is up in all panels. The CaSSIS image IDs are shown in order ( a – d ): MY35_008465_192_0_NPB, MY36_020297_350_3_NPB, MY36_020366_190_1_NPB and MY36_020478_190_3_NPB. Credit: a , ESA/TGO/CaSSIS under a Creative Commons license CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO .

CaSSIS observations of Olympus and Arsia Montes indicate diurnal and possibly seasonal trends in frost deposition (Fig. 3 ). The four detections in Olympus Mons (Fig. 3a,b ) are clustered around the early-morning hours ( lst   =  ~7:00–7:30) and northern spring equinox (Ls = ~320–40°). Similarly, the four detections in Arsia Mons (Fig. 3c–d ) fall within a slightly wider time range ( lst  = ~ 7:00–8:30) but around the southern winter solstice (Ls = ~45–145°). The early-morning non-detections in Arsia Mons fall within the southern summer period, which suggests seasonality (Extended Data Fig. 6b ), but the lack of early-morning observations in the northern summer precludes us from making the same conclusion for the detections in Olympus Mons (Extended Data Fig. 6a ). We removed observations at extremely high solar incidence angles (>85°) because of low image signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and therefore there is an observational bias towards lst s at about 6:00 ( Methods ). Collectively, CaSSIS observations suggest that the frost cycle over Martian volcanoes is ephemeral and exhibits variability on multiple timescales. It appears to be influenced by diurnal patterns, probably reflecting daily temperature fluctuations. In addition, there is a probable control by the Martian seasons, indicating a longer-term variation in the frost cycle. On the basis of the CaSSIS observations, while there are indications of diurnal and seasonal influences on frost deposition on Martian volcanoes, these observations alone cannot definitively determine the composition of the frost. Therefore, we use simulations of surface temperatures as a proxy for frost composition.

a – d , Rose diagrams showing the seasonal ( a , c ) and diurnal ( b , d ) frost detections by CaSSIS over Olympus Mons ( a , b ) and Arsia Mons ( c , d ). The width of each bin reflects the number of CaSSIS observations. Frost is detected around northern spring equinox (Ls = ~0°) on Olympus Mons and around southern winter solstice (Ls = ~90°) on Arsia Mons. Frost is detected only in the early-morning hours (~7:00–8:00  lst ). The negative detections in the early morning bins correspond to observations that were acquired in warmer seasons.

Surface temperatures indicate water frost

At the time of CaSSIS frost detections in Olympus Mons (Fig. 1 ) and Arsia Mons (Fig. 2 ), the surface temperatures calculated by the general circulation model (GCM 46 ) via the Mars Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF 47 ) model are inconsistent with CO 2 frost. The stability of CO 2 frost at higher altitudes necessitates exceptionally low temperatures, specifically below 140 K, to maintain its solid state 30 . The predicted surface temperatures (at ~150 km model resolution) are ~150 K and 185 K at ~7:00  lst in Olympus Mons and at ~8:00  lst in Arsia Mons, respectively (Fig. 4 ). In addition, advanced high-resolution mesoscale modelling, with a model resolution of 5.47 km, reveals a substantial temperature difference between the surface temperature and the local CO 2 frost point at the locations of CaSSIS observations, with a difference of approximately 10 K at Olympus Mons (Fig. 5d ) and over 55 K at Arsia Mons (Extended Data Fig. 7d ). In fact, the surface temperatures predicted at each CaSSIS frost location (Table 1 ) consistently exceed the CO 2 frost point, corresponding to the mean surface temperature ~162 K (excluding C3 and C6). The stratification of water vapour in Mars’s atmosphere, especially near the surface, is not well understood 48 , making the determination of the H 2 O frost point challenging due to its considerable variability; however, it is generally accepted that this point occurs at around 180 K (ref. 14 ). Since the predicted surface temperatures at the time of CaSSIS, HRSC and NOMAD observations are too warm, this suggests that CO 2 frost is unlikely, hence providing support for the presence of water frost. At these seasons (Ls = 346.7° for Olympus Mons and Ls = 93.8° for Arsia Mons), CO 2 frost was also not observed by the Thermal Emission Imaging System 29 or by the Emirates Mars InfraRed Spectrometer 32 . Interestingly, the GCM also predicts that some CO 2 frost may be present at Ls = ~0–150° and at around sunrise (5:00–6:00  lst ) in Arsia Mons (Fig. 4b ). This result is consistent with previous studies indicating CO 2 frost formation from minutes to tens of minutes after sunrise in the equatorial regions 29 , 30 , 31 . However, such potential CO 2 frost deposits would sublime very quickly and would be difficult to detect by cameras and spectrometers due to low SNR 34 . In addition, we investigated the possible role of CO 2 frost in regolith gardening and slope streak formation on Mars 30 , 34 , 49 . We found no slope streaks on the calderas of the largest Tharsis volcanoes or any obvious differences in talus boulder shapes and sizes ( Methods and Extended Data Fig. 8 ). These results suggest that the diurnal CO 2 or H 2 O frost cycle plays a minor (if any) role in landscape evolution at these sites.

a , b , Annual surface temperatures at four different local mean solar times (LMST). c , d , Diurnal surface temperatures at Olympus Mons (Ls = 350°) ( c ) and Arsia Mons (Ls = 90°) ( d ) as predicted by the GCM. In c , d , blue and red horizontal dashed lines depict CO 2 30 and H 2 O frost point 14 , respectively. On both volcano calderas at the time of CaSSIS image acquisition, CO 2 frost point is not reached. This indicates favourable conditions for H 2 O ice. The simulations were conducted at geographical coordinates 18.75° N, −133.75° E for Olympus Mons and −8.75° N, −121.25 °E for Arsia Mons.

a – d , Utilizing MarsWRF high-resolution mesoscale modelling (at the time of CaSSIS observation Fig. 1d ), this figure presents the influence of Olympus Mons’s topography on its local climate, as shown by elevation gradients ( a ), surface atmospheric pressure ( b ), near-surface horizontal wind patterns ( c ) and the deviation in temperature between the Martian surface and the local CO 2 frost point ( d ). The topography of the Olympus Mons caldera is demonstrated to cause noticeable variations in local pressure, wind velocities and temperature gradients. The black outline across all panels highlights the boundary of the Olympus Mons caldera, while the black dashed rectangle marks the area observed by CaSSIS, as referenced in Fig. 1d . The CO 2 frost point in the area of CaSSIS observation is exceeded by about 10 K. By contrast, the CO 2 frost point in Arsia Mons is exceeded by around 60 K (Extended Data Fig. 7d ).

Microclimate and water ice amount

Our high-resolution mesoscale simulations reveal the distinct microclimatic conditions induced by the topography of the Tharsis volcanoes, as shown in Fig. 5 and Extended Data Fig. 7 . Specifically, within the calderas of Olympus Mons and Arsia Mons, we observe a substantial reduction in surface atmospheric pressure and near-surface horizontal wind speeds compared with the surrounding areas. For example, within the caldera of Olympus Mons (Fig. 5b ), the atmospheric pressure is estimated at only 110 Pa, compared with 160 Pa at the mountain’s base. Similarly, in the area of Arsia Mons (Extended Data Fig. 7b ), the pressure is about 100 Pa, notably lower than the over 200 Pa found in the adjacent plains. Moreover, the near-surface horizontal wind speeds within Olympus Mons (Fig. 5c ) are estimated at less than 10 m s –1 , in stark contrast to the approximately 30 m s –1 observed along the volcano’s flanks. In the case of Arsia Mons (Extended Data Fig. 7c ), the wind speeds are below 5 m s –1 within the caldera, compared with roughly 20 m s –1 on the flanks, highlighting the profound impact of volcanic topography on localized weather patterns.

Furthermore, our GCM simulations suggest that the thickness of water frost deposits is on the order of 1 µm ( Methods ). However, this estimate carries considerable uncertainty due to the unknown quantities of water-vapour-column abundances. To refine this estimate, we reference radiative transfer calculations 50 , 51 , which suggest a minimum thickness of 100 µm, while laboratory experiments 52 imply a thickness of about 10 µm ( Methods ). By adopting the median thickness of 10 µm for the water frost, and considering that the frost deposits are confined to the calderas of Olympus, Arsia, Ascraeus Montes and Ceraunius Tholus, we estimate that there is a transfer of approximately 1.5 × 10 8  kg of water ice between the surface and the atmosphere ( Methods ).

Possible sources of water vapour

The seasonal trends as shown by the set ( n  = 13) of CaSSIS observations suggests an atmospheric phenomenon driven by water transport due to large-scale seasonal changes, such as sublimation of the seasonal ice cap in the opposite hemisphere and transportation of humid air into the volcano calderas by upslope winds. Seasonal processes have been observed at a wide range of Martian latitudes 53 and may also apply to the Tharsis region. For example, the activity of the Aphelion Cloud Belt peaks at Ls ∼ 40°–140° (ref. 54 ), and in general little cloud activity is observed at Ls ~245°–320° 10 . Similarly, afternoon orographic clouds have been detected by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s Mars Color Imager 55 over the Tharsis volcanoes 10 . The seasonal observation of water-vapour enrichment over Tharsis 17 shows increased abundances around northern spring equinox (Ls 0°), consistent with the CaSSIS detections of frost close to this season in Olympus Mons. Therefore, we hypothesize that this water-vapour enrichment 17 may be the source of the frost deposits detected in our study. The transport of water vapour from high latitudes to the Tharsis highlands could be facilitated by large-scale atmospheric eddies 56 . This process could be further augmented by strong upslope winds, driven by a combination of thermal effects and mountain gravity waves 57 , facilitating the movement of moisture over the volcano calderas. The local topography-induced circulation 57 and microclimatic conditions within the caldera (shown in Fig. 5 and Extended Data Fig. 7 ) may create favourable conditions for water frost condensation during the cold Martian nights. Within these calderas, ~150,000 tons of water ice is exchanged daily between the regolith and the atmosphere during the cold Martian seasons. Although this amount is relatively a small fraction of the seasonal inventory of water vapour in the Martian atmosphere (~10 12  kg) (ref. 14 ), it is important in the context of localized Martian environmental processes. Understanding these micro-environments is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of Mars’s hydrological cycle.

It is conceivable that dormant volcanoes can emit CO 2 , water vapour and minor amounts of SO 2 (ref. 58 ) via diffuse outgassing from the regolith 59 , 60 . If the observed water frost deposits are of volcanic origin, their distribution may constrain models for present-day outgassing from the interior. However, on Mars, SO 2 has not been detected 61 and no thermal hotspots have been found 62 . A volcanic source for the condensate cannot completely be ruled out, but further tests for trace species (CO 2 , H 2 S and SO 2 ) would be useful to explore the likelihood of this potential mechanism. Consequently, we conclude here that the newly detected frosts on Tharsis volcano calderas are probably of atmospheric origin.

CaSSIS frost observations

We surveyed ~4,200 CaSSIS images (acquired up to 2022 February 05) with illumination geometries of 50–90° incidence within dusty, low thermal inertia (<100 TIU) regions (60° N—30° S). Only images that include the latest CaSSIS radiometric and absolute calibration were used in this study 43 , 63 , 64 .

The images used in this study consisted of early (6:00–9:00  lst ) and late (15:00–18:00  lst ) times. Analysis and comparison in these two local time regimes may help the distinction between early-morning and late-afternoon phenomena. During the survey, it was noticed that most CaSSIS images acquired at extremely high solar incidence angles of 85–90° contain colour and calibration artefacts due to the decrease in SNR and/or an increase in aerosol contribution from the atmosphere 63 . Consequently, the images with colour artefacts were labelled as ambiguous and were not used for further analysis.

Frost detections relied on the use of CaSSIS NPB (near infrared (NIR) = 940, panchromatic (PAN) = 670, blue (BLU) = 497 nm) and synthetic RGB (red–green–blue; PAN and BLU only) products. These filter configurations allow a convenient separation between frosty and frost-free terrains. In CaSSIS colour products, frosty areas appear bluish, and/or whitish, and sometimes are bright only in the BLU filter (relative to frost-free areas; also see Supplementary Figs. 9 and 10 ). In support, we observe bluish frost deposits in HRSC colour images shown in Fig. 1b and Extended Data Fig. 1 (composites of blue (440 nm), green (530 nm) and red (750 nm) channels).

As shown by previous studies 21 , 65 deposits are usually correlated with topography (prefer poleward-sloping terrains). Therefore, if both conditions were met (colour and topographic correlation), it was considered a strong indication of surface frost. As a final procedure, each of these candidate detections was then analysed using a spectral profile tool in the Environment for Visualizing Images software. This procedure extracts the pixel irradiance over flux ( I/F ) values between two manually selected points crossing the potentially frosted region in each filter. The profiles were then normalized by a mean I/F of a nearby frost-free, relatively flat region of interest (ROI), a well-established method to cancel out some of the atmospheric and topographic effects 49 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 . If the frost deposits were brighter in the BLU filter than the surrounding frost-free terrains by at least 3% (within CaSSIS absolute uncertainty 43 ), then such images were flagged as potential frost detections. This survey yielded many frosty sites (not shown here) at latitudes ~40° N and ~30° S. However, because these latitude bands are dominated by known seasonal frost deposits 21 , 23 , 65 and we do not have a robust method to distinguish between seasonal and diurnal frost, we further narrowed our filtering criteria. The final frost detections analysed here were restricted to equatorial ~20° N to ~10° S latitudes (outside of the seasonal mid-latitude regions). In this work, only equatorial sites that included visible evidence of frost are considered.

The spectral profile shown in Fig. 2e was computed by dividing each pixel along the profile by an average pixel value extracted from an ROI in Extended Data Fig. 5d . The ROI (>100 pixels in size) was selected on a frost-free and relatively flat terrain as suggested by the low slope values in the CaSSIS digital elevation model of this site. CaSSIS digital elevation models were produced by a pipeline developed at the Astronomical Observatory of Padova, National Institute for Astrophysics 71 , 72 .

NOMAD-LNO spectral processing

The NOMAD instrument is a suite of three high-resolution spectrometers also on board TGO, offering nadir infrared observations through its LNO channel 37 , 73 . This channel covers the 2.2–3.8 µm spectral range where several spectral features of ice are distributed over different wavelengths. Nevertheless, the NOMAD-LNO spectrometer has the particularity of not observing the entire spectral range at once. The data are acquired through small spectral windows, representing specific diffraction orders of the diffraction grating. Each LNO observation can select a maximum number of 6 diffraction orders every 15 seconds to ensure the best possible SNR 74 , 75 , 76 . The LNO footprint (instantaneous field of view) is 17.5 km × 0.5 km (ref. 75 ), which provides enough spatial scale to resolve the caldera of Olympus Mons. In this work, we use spectrally and radiometrically calibrated LNO data converted into a reflectance factor. The 2.7 µm ice band is the strongest in the LNO spectral range, resulting from both CO 2 and H 2 O ice absorption. Although the use of this band is not suitable for quantifying the amount of ice (easily saturated), it is effective for detecting homogeneous deposits (both CO 2 and H 2 O ice), as demonstrated with the ice index value 77 . This spectral parameter uses two diffraction orders. It is based on the combination of high reflectivity at continuum wavelengths with a more pronounced absorption in the 2.7 μm band. Initially defined as the spectral ratio between the reflectance factors of order 190 (continuum part, 2.32–2.34 µm) and 169 (short wavelengths shoulder of the 2.7 µm band, 2.61–2.63 µm) (ref. 77 ), we adjust the ice index by considering the available orders of the joint CaSSIS–NOMAD observations, that is, orders 190 and 168 (2.64–2.65 µm).

In nadir mode, the variability in the reflectance factors is caused mainly by the surface albedo variations resulting from the different absorption of the Martian surface mineralogy 78 , 79 , 80 . To remove spatial albedo variations over the explored Martian surface, we normalize the LNO reflectance factors to the Martian albedo. The adjusted ice index (II) can thus be defined as:

where R i is the LNO reflectance factor value averaged around the central wavelength i of the LNO spectrum, fitted by a third-degree polynomial to mitigate the spectral oscillations resulting from the instrumental characteristics of the LNO channel, which become significant on the edges of each order (Supplementary Figs. 1 and 2 ). OMEGA i is the OMEGA albedo map 80 based on reflectance spectra in the near infrared as NOMAD-LNO R i . Two OMEGA albedo maps are used in this work: one defined at 2.32 µm for order 190 and the other defined at 2.62 µm for order 168. Studies have shown that this spectral parameter identifies spatially extensive and abundant ice deposits when the index values are three sigma higher than their average value over ice-free mid-latitude terrain 77 , 81 .

Mars GCM modelling

We perform the Martian GCM simulation for the entire MY 36 using the MarsWRF model, which is the Mars adaptation of the general-purpose planetary atmosphere model, planetWRF 47 . Here the GCM set-up is based on a previous study 46 examining the Martian planetary boundary and dust–turbulence interaction over a decade, from MY 24 to MY 34, which hosted three global dust storms. The reference model set-up 46 was validated against NASA’s Mars Climate Sounder (MCS) observations on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, radio occultation observations from ESA’s Mars Express orbiter, as well as the in situ observations from NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover. This model set-up consists of a semi-interactive two-moment dust transport model 46 within the MarsWRF framework, in a way that the dust is lifted, mixed by model winds and sedimented, as guided by observed maps of column-integrated dust optical thickness 82 , 83 . Via this method, model processes govern the vertical dust distribution and related dust radiative heating, yet the horizontal dust distribution is guided to match the orbiter observations. In this model, the horizontal dust distribution is constrained to follow observations. In this model, the two-stream correlated k -distribution scheme is used for the short-wave and long-wave radiative transfer 84 . We use a Mars-specific boundary-layer turbulence parameterization scheme, which allows us to obtain the surface–atmosphere exchange coefficients 85 Surface properties of the MarsWRF model, such as the topography, albedo, emissivity and thermal inertia, are acquired from the datasets of the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter 2 and Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES 78 ) observations, where the details are presented in another study 47 . Here we increased the horizontal model grid spacing of the GCM from 5° × 5° to 2.5° × 2.5° (ref. 46 ), enabling better spatial coverage to provide more realistic boundary and initial conditions to our mesoscale simulations. We used 52 vertical sigma layers extending up to the model top of 100 km. The predicted surface temperatures are shown in Table 1.

Our modelling methodology is based on a previous study by MarsWRF 85 , 86 . Mesoscale simulations for Fig. 5 and Extended Data Fig. 7 were forced with initial and boundary conditions acquired by GCM simulations corresponding to the same seasonal conditions of CaSSIS observations shown in Figs. 1 and 2 . The plots we present in terms of winds, pressure and temperature correspond to the local hours of observations. We nested three mesoscale domains in our GCM domain (see Supplementary Fig. 12 for details). Mesoscale domains use prescribed boundary conditions, derived either from GCM predictions (as in the case of d2) or from another mesoscale domain (d3 and d4). The GCM grid has a horizontal resolution of approximately 150 km. We progressively increased the horizontal resolution with a factor of three for our nested mesoscale domains. Our innermost domain, d4, has a horizontal resolution of 5.47 km. To assess the accuracy of our mesoscale predictions, we compared MarsWRF surface temperature predictions with the surface temperature observations by MCS and TES available for Olympus Mons and Arsia Mons regions at around 3:00  lst (Supplementary Fig. 13 ). We considered a sufficient Ls range of MCS and TES observations (Ls 310–360 for Olympus Mons and Ls 75–100 for Arsia Mons) to provide a sufficient set of observations to acquire a temperature map to be compared with MarsWRF simulations. These observations range from 1:00  lst to 4:00  lst , and MarsWRF estimations at the corresponding local times are compared for validation. The modelled surface temperatures for Olympus Mons caldera are within 10 K of the observations and within a few degrees Kelvin for Arsia Mons. It is important to note that these predictions carry uncertainties, particularly in regions with complex topography such as the Tharsis volcanoes.

Surface frost thickness and mass estimations

The MarsWRF GCM incorporates the phase transition and transport mechanisms of water vapour and ice, facilitating a parameterization of the Martian hydrological cycle that aligns with the methodologies outlined by previous studies 87 . This parameterization enables the model to approximate the surface frost layer thickness to about 1 μm at the locations in our study. However, it is important to acknowledge the inherent uncertainties associated with such estimations, particularly due to the limitations of physical parameterizations within Martian atmospheric models. These uncertainties are most pronounced in the prediction of atmospheric variables in regions lacking empirical observational data, such as the deposition rates of atmospheric volatiles.

In a recent experimental investigation, one study 52 systematically evaluated the interaction between water frost deposition and the optical properties of a Martian soil simulant, specifically Mars Global Simulant (MGS-1 88 ). The experimental design involved the controlled deposition of water frost on the surface of the simulant, followed by precise measurements of both the spectral reflectance and the thickness of the frost layer. The findings indicate that a frost layer thickness ranging from approximately 10 to 20 μm is required to significantly attenuate the characteristic red slope of the spectral reflectance, aligning with the observed morning frost brightening in the blue wavelengths by approximately 10–20% as detected by the CaSSIS instrument. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that a relatively thin frost layer of about 100 μm is sufficient to flatten the visible spectrum, effectively neutralizing the spectral features.

Radiative transfer models 50 , 51 can provide an additional constraint on the frost thickness estimation via the minimum optical depth ( τ ) necessary for frost visibility at CaSSIS visible and LNO near-infrared wavelengths. For example, with a τ of 10 –2 , we anticipate a minimal impact on albedo, less than 0.1 at CaSSIS visible wavelengths and negligible at LNO near-infrared wavelengths, given the single-scattering co-albedo is around 10 −6 for visible light and less than 10 −1 at 2.6 μm. However, LNO observations indicate a discernible albedo reduction at near-infrared wavelengths, suggesting a higher optical depth than 10 −2 . This implies that the frost’s grain radius and/or thickness must exceed 5 μm and 1 μm, respectively. If the grain radius is about 1 μm, then the frost layer’s thickness could be significantly greater, approximately 100 μm.

To conduct a preliminary quantification of the frost mass, we assumed a uniform frost layer thickness across all identified frost-covered regions, as observed by CaSSIS. The geographical extent of the frost coverage was approximated to the combined surface areas of the calderas of Martian volcanoes such as Arsia Mons, Olympus Mons, Ascraeus Mons and Ceraunius Tholus. By integrating the uniform frost thickness with the delineated area and adopting the density value for pure ice, we derived an initial estimate of the total frost mass. This approach provides a rudimentary yet insightful approximation of the frost mass, acknowledging the broad-scale estimative nature of this calculation.

Boulder size measurements

To investigate a potential effect of the diurnal frost cycle on the overall geomorphology and landscape evolution, we studied the shape of mass-wasted boulders across six sites of interest. Here we compare the sizes of boulders on volcanoes with frost as determined by CaSSIS (two sites in Olympus Mons and one in Arsia Mons) and on volcanoes where frost has not been detected (Tharsis Mons, Jovis Tholus and Ulysses Tholus). Because frost accumulates preferentially on poleward-facing slopes on Mars 29 , here we focused only on north-facing and south-facing slopes. This might reveal whether there are considerable differences in boulder sizes due to frost weathering 89 .

We used eight map-projected High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) 90 images in Geographic Information System (QGIS) to determine the three principal dimensions of each identified boulder. The first dimension is defined as the longest distance between two points on the boulder as visible from orbit. Similarly, the second dimension is defined as the diameter of the boulder orthogonal to the first dimension. Last, the third dimension is defined as the height of the boulder as estimated using shadow length and solar incidence angle. In total, we identified and measured 63 boulders across the six sites. All derived measurements were plotted on ternary diagrams 91 using the Tri-Plot software 92 . These diagrams relate the three principal dimensions of each boulder, visualizing its overall shape as well as similarities and differences within and across the studied sites.

Data availability

CaSSIS data can be found on the University of Bern repository ( https://observations.cassis.unibe.ch/ ) and the ESA’s Planetary Science Archive ( https://archives.esac.esa.int/psa ). NOMAD-LNO observations are also found on the ESA’s Planetary Science Archive.

Code availability

The PlanetWRF model for Martian GCM and mesoscale simulations is accessible by request at https://planetwrf.com/ .

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Acknowledgements

CaSSIS is a project of the University of Bern and funded through the Swiss Space Office via ESA’s PRODEX programme. The instrument hardware development was also supported by the Italian Space Agency (ASI) (ASI-INAF agreement no. 2020-17-HH.0), INAF/Astronomical Observatory of Padova and the Space Research Center (CBK) in Warsaw. Support from SGF (Budapest), the University of Arizona (Lunar and Planetary Lab.) and NASA is also gratefully acknowledged. Operations support from the UK Space Agency under grant ST/R003025/1 is also acknowledged. The NOMAD experiment is led by the Royal Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy (IASB-BIRA), assisted by Co-PI teams from Spain (IAA-CSIC), Italy (INAF-IAPS) and the United Kingdom (Open University). This project acknowledges funding by the Belgian Science Policy Office (BELSPO), with the financial and contractual coordination by the ESA Prodex Office (PEA 4000103401, 4000121493) and Italian Space Agency through grant 2018-2-HH.0. Operations and science support from the UK Space Agency under grants ST/X006549/1, ST/Y000234/1, ST/V005332/1 and ST/V002295/1 is also acknowledged. This research is financially supported by the Research Foundation-Flanders (FWO) with grant 12AM624N to C.B.S., and grant 12ZZL23N to O.T. J.J.L.-M. acknowledges financial support from the Severo Ochoa grant CEX2021-001131-S funded by MCIN/AEI/ 10.13039/501100011033 and by Spanish MICIIN through Plan Nacional and European funds. F.S. acknowledges support from the Institut National des Sciences de l’Univers (INSU), the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) through the Programme National de Planétologie. MRELM acknowledges funding from the KU internal grant (8474000336-KU-SPSC).

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Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

A. Valantinas, N. Thomas, A. Pommerol, M. Almeida & M. Read

Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA

A. Valantinas

The Royal Observatory of Belgium (ROB-ORB), Brussels, Belgium

O. Karatekin, L. Ruiz Lozano, C. B. Senel & O. Temel

Archaeology, Environmental Changes & Geo-chemistry (AMGC) Research Unit, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

C. B. Senel

Institute of Astronomy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany

E. Hauber & D. Tirsch

Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

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INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Padova, Italy

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GEOPS, Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Orsay, France

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Royal Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy (BIRA-IASB), Brussels, Belgium

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Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tuscon, AZ, USA

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Institute for Earth and Space Exploration, Department of Earth Sciences, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada

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Space and Planetary Science Center and Department of Earth Sciences, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

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Contributions

A.V. led conceptualization, CaSSIS data collection and analysis, and writing. N.T. and A.P. led conceptualization, design and production of the CaSSIS instrument and its operation. O.T., C.B.S. and O.K. performed mesoscale and global circulation model simulations with MarsWRF, did post-processing of the modelling results and compared model predictions with MCS and TES observations, which were analysed by O.T. and O.K. L.R.L. and F.O. performed NOMAD spectral analysis. G.M. and M.P. performed CaSSIS clustering analysis and photometry. V.T.B. processed HiRISE data, performed boulder size measurements and analyzed boulder shapes. L.R.L., V.T.B., G.M., M.P., F.S., A.P., A.S.M., M.R.E.-M., V.G.R., N.T. and I.T. contributed to writing. F.G.C., A.P., N.T., G.B. and E.D. contributed to discussions and assisted with data interpretation. C.R., G.B. and I.T. contributed to data processing. A.C.V., J.J.L.-M., F.D. and M.R.P. contributed to the design and production of the NOMAD instrument and its operation. D.T., E.H., M.R., M.A., I.T. and B.R. participated in instrument operations and planning of the observations. N.T. and G.C. acquired funds for the development of the CaSSIS instrument and the generation of DEMs. A.C.V. and F.D. acquired funds for the development of the NOMAD instrument.

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Extended data

Extended data fig. 1 diurnal variations of frost halo on olympus mons..

HRSC images of Olympus Mons (lat = 18.2°N, lon = −133.2°E) acquired at different local times in MY 36. ( a, b ) Late morning images showing no evidence of frost on the bright halo deposit surrounding the volcano caldera. ( c, d ) Early morning images revealing the presence of frost on the bright halo deposit. The bright halo deposit is likely composed of fine-grained dust with low thermal conductivity, which facilitates frost formation. North is up in all panels. HRSC image IDs: hn705_0000 (a), hn772_0000 ( b ), hn889_0000 ( c ), hn948_0000 ( d ). Credit: ESA/DLR/FU Berlin.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Irregular frost distribution on the outskirts of Olympus Mons caldera.

( a ) Bright halo visible in the CTX global mosaic (Dickson et al., 2018). The bright halo deposit is also visible in HRSC non-detections in Extended Data Fig. 1 . ( b ) Dark windstreak and triangular bright unremoved dust deposits seen in CTX. ( c ) CaSSIS morning observation of froststreaks (lat/lon = 18.28°N, −134.24°E) that correlate with bright dust deposits seen in CTX. ( d, e ) Frost deposits leeward of small craters (lat/lon: 18.27°N, −134.24°E and 18.83°N, −133.65°E respectively). ( f, g ) Froststreaks that are parallel to local winds (lat/lon: 18.90°N, −133.65°E and 18.9°N −133.74°E respectively). ( h, i ) Small frost deposits on the rim of a collapse pit (lat/lon: 18.95°N, −133.69°E) and on the levee of a lava channel (lat/lon: 19.00°N, −133.71°E). North is up in all panels. CaSSIS IDs: MY37_023825_162_0 (LST =7:13AM; Ls = 42.84; c,d) and MY36_015229_160_0 (LST = 6:57AM; Ls = 35.24 ; e-i). Credit: a , b , NASA/JPL/MSSS/The Murray Lab; c – l , ESA/TGO/CaSSIS under a Creative Commons license CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO .

Extended Data Fig. 3 CaSSIS frost detections in the Tharsis volcanic region.

Frost was detected only on and around the calderas of the three largest volcanoes such as Olympus, Arsia and Ascraeus Montes, but also on the smaller Ceraunius Tholus volcano. Frost has not been observed yet on Pavonis Mons and other Tharsis volcanoes. The basemap is the color hillshade MOLA data at 64 pixels per degree resolution. Credit: NASA/JPL/GSFC.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Frost on the caldera floor of Ceraunius Tholus volcano.

( a ) Wide angle view of Ceraunius Tholus (lat = 24.0°N, lon = −97.1°E) with CaSSIS early morning observation overlain on the CTX mosaic. ( b ) Zoomed in view of (a). White rectangle marks the close up in (c). ( c ) Ubiquitous frost coverage on the caldera floor and the apparent absence of frost on the caldera rim. ( d ) CaSSIS color NPB image of the Ceraunius Tholus caldera acquired at a different local time featuring no frost. Both CaSSIS images in (b) and (d) are acquired at similar incidence (and phase) angles, which suggests that photometric effects are not the cause of surface blueing. North is up in all panels. CaSSIS image IDs in order: MY37_023134_024_3_NPB ( a−c ) and MY36_022599_024_0_NPB ( d ). a , b , d , NASA/JPL/MSSS/The Murray Lab; a , b , c , d , ESA/TGO/CaSSIS under a Creative Commons license CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO .

Extended Data Fig. 5 Greyscale CaSSIS filter images of a small crater presented in Fig. 2 .

( a–c ) Three individual filters: NIR (860–1100 nm), PAN (550–800 nm) and BLU (390–570 nm). ( d ) CaSSIS DEM of the same scene with the location of the spectral profile and the frost-free ROI used in the reflectance ratio ( Methods ) overlaid. The frost deposits are brighter and visible in the CaSSIS BLU filter. North is up in all panels. CaSSIS ID: MY35_008465_192_0 ( a − c ) and DEM ID: CAS-DTM-MY36_020366_190_1-OPD-03–01 ( d ). Credit: ESA/TGO/CaSSIS under a Creative Commons license CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO .

Extended Data Fig. 6 Seasonal and local time coverage of CaSSIS early morning observations of Olympus Mons and Arsia Mons.

CaSSIS image coverage over Olympus Mons ( a ) and Arsia Mons ( b ). Based on these observations frost is not detected during late morning hours in Olympus Mons and around southern summer solstice (Ls ~270°) in Arsia Mons. The shaded grey region shows the CaSSIS observational bias (from 90 − 85° solar incidence) due to the low signal-to-noise ratio. Most observations were discarded in this region due to spectral ambiguity. The black lines mark the local sunrise time.

Extended Data Fig. 7 Microclimatic conditions simulated over Arsia Mons.

This figure illustrates the impact of Arsia Mons′ topography on localized atmospheric conditions (at 8AM, Ls = 90°, Fig. 2a ), depicted through ( a ) elevation gradients, ( b ) surface atmospheric pressure, ( c ) near-surface horizontal wind patterns, and ( d ) the temperature differential between the Martian surface and the local CO 2 frost point. The complex caldera topography of Arsia Mons is shown to substantially influence local pressure distributions, wind velocities, and thermal gradients. Notably, surface temperatures at sites identified by CaSSIS for frost presence exceed the CO 2 frost point by approximately 60 K, suggesting the predominance of H 2 O ice in these frost deposits.

Extended Data Fig. 8 Triangular (ternary) diagrams of boulder shape across six sites of interest.

Boulder shape and size analysis for Olympus Mons ( a , b ), Arsia Mons ( c ), Tharsis Tholus ( d ), Jovis Tholus ( e ), and Ulysses Tholus ( f ). The slope aspect of each site is indicated on the respective panel. The Olympus Mons ( a , b ) and Arsia Mons ( c ) sites were found to feature a distinct early morning frost signature (positives, blue), the other three sites not (negatives, red)( d – f ) – yet there is no obvious difference in boulder shape across those sites (the colored polygons underline the distribution of points). C = compact, P = platy, B = bladed, E = elongated, V = very; a = longest boulder dimension, b = intermediate boulder dimension, c = smallest boulder dimension. HiRISE image IDs ( a – f ): ESP_014275_1990_RED, ESP_043272_1980_RED, ESP_047439_1990_RED, PSP_009884_1980_RED, ESP_057843_1715_RED, ESP_012612_1940_RED, ESP_033711_1985_RED, and ESP_045619_1835_RED.

Supplementary information

Supplementary information.

Supplementary Figs. 1–13 and Text.

Supplementary Table 1

Additional CaSSIS observation details and GCM estimated surface temperatures.

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Valantinas, A., Thomas, N., Pommerol, A. et al. Evidence for transient morning water frost deposits on the Tharsis volcanoes of Mars. Nat. Geosci. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01457-7

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01457-7

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Introduction

The role of human health, the role of space technology in earth observation.

Since the International Space Station became suitable for human habitation, research has been initiated to establish the effects of space and microgravity on various phenomena of human life. Undoubtedly, space exploration breakthroughs have immensely contributed to the betterment of human life. Conspicuous evidence of the benefits of space tours to human life include: advances in human health, education, earth observation, telemedicine, and disaster management among others.

The International Space Exploration has provided a unique platform for carrying out the impact on human health, earth, and beyond. Research has been conducted on the station to provide a better understanding of the phenomena of human health such as the environment, aging, disease, and trauma.

Physiological and biological tests have produced vital results and, therefore, improving our comprehension of the series of physiological events that are usually shielded by gravity and invention of new and advanced medical technology and procedures, including telemedicine, cell behaviour, disease models, and nutrition.

The Canadian Space Agency (2012) gives an inspiring narration of how a robotic arm has successfully performed a brain surgery. In 2008, Paige Nickason became the first brain tumor patient to receive surgery from a robot. Since then, numerous patients have received surgeries from the neuroArm. The development of the neuroArm owes a lot of credit to space exploration.

For a long time, robots have constituted a major component of space technologies and currently, the technology is being tailored to provide medical solutions as evidenced in the neuroArm. mcDolnard, Dettwiller and Associates Limited has made enormous advances in designing a two-armed neuroArm and developing a tele-operated surgery unit for children. Furthermore, the company is developing an image-guided independent robot system for the early diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer.

One of the major health challenges associated with space exploration is kidney stones and bone loss for astronauts during long stays on space. Astronauts have had to participate in regular physical exercises to counter the problem. In a bid to provide more efficient solutions to bone loss and renal dysfunction, astronauts take biophosphonate, vitamin D, and Calcium respectively. The precautions for promoting astronauts health have provided insights for treating osteoporosis in Canada and other parts of the world (Canadian Space Agency, 2012).

Space exploration and its associated technology have also improved the health of humanity through the invention of asthma management devices. The European Space Agency has developed a device for establishing the level of nitrogen monoxide, a major cause of lung inflammation, in exhaled air. The devise has been found to be beneficial to asthma patients since it assists in monitoring and managing the levels of asthma prevention and suitability of medication (Canadian Space Agency, 2012).

Safe drinking water is essential to human life. Regrettably, many people all over the globe fall short of access to clean and safe water. Space technology has led to the development of improved water filtration and cleaning systems. The advances in the water treatment and recovery process provide a lasting solution to people experiencing water shortages in Canadians and across the globe (Canadian Space Agency, 2012). These are among the many contributions of space technology to the improvement of human health.

Advances in space exploration, particularly the creation of the International Space Station, has enhanced the observation of the globe to provide better comprehension and solutions to environmental matters on earth (Neil, 2011). The Space Station provides a suitable location for viewing the globe’s ecosystems.

The observations provide vital insights on the earth’s climate, environmental changes, and natural disasters. According to the Canadian Space Agency (2012), space technology has been vital for advances in remote sensing. In particular, the inception of the International Space Station has provided thousands of images of the globe’s surface, oceans, atmosphere, and the moon.

Space technology has also been vital in the provision of real time data. This has been instrumental particularly in providing information on natural disasters including tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes. The Canadian Space Agency (2012) acknowledges that the observation of the globe from space complements human operated systems and provides insightful information on the global environment.

The Canadians and other space agencies in the globe use the International Space Station to back research aimed at providing understanding and insight into climate change. The Space Station has provided a suitable platform for viewing atmospheric changes and movements, the earth’s surface, and oceans. For the past one and a half century, human endeavors have caused substantial changes in the earth’s environment.

These include the greenhouse effect, alteration of the nitrogen cycle, and destruction of land cover. Space exploration is instrumental in providing understanding of the relationship between human activities and changes in the globe’s climate. This information forms the bedrock for engineering sustainable developments for Canadians and the rest of humanity (Canadian Space Agency, 2012).

Even with the enormous milestones made in space travel, it still possesses serious threats to the health of the astronauts. Cosmic and radiations from the sun pose a serious health hazard to the astronauts. The radiations are ingredients for fatal cancer, the nervous system, and heart dysfunction. Other health problems associated with space travel include: bone loss, fainting spells on getting back to the earth’s gravity, cognitive problems, impaired cardiovascular functioning, muscle atrophy, and cabin fever (Canadian Space Agency, 2012).

Although space visits have been posing serious health hazard to the astronauts, space travel has continued to impact on human life since its inception. Humanity owes a lot to the International Space Station as regards to educational, scientific, and technological milestones that have been achieved.

It has inspired the development of medical equipment and procedures to solve some of the disturbing health issues with more precision. A better understanding of our habitat and the earth could not be achieved without the aid of space travel. In addition, the study of sciences, mathematics, engineering, and technology could not be motivating and interesting in the absence of space travel.

Canadian Space Agency. (2012). International Space Station Benefits for Humanity. Web.

Neil, M. (2011). What Does Space Exploration Do for Us? London: Capstone Global Library

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IvyPanda. (2018, December 19). International Space Exploration: Improving Human Life. https://ivypanda.com/essays/space-exploration-canada/

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1. IvyPanda . "International Space Exploration: Improving Human Life." December 19, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/space-exploration-canada/.

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Branched-chain amino acids in liver diseases: complexity and controversy, 1. introduction, 2. metabolism and signal transduction in bcaas in the liver, 3. association of bcaas with liver diseases, 3.1. non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, 3.2. hepatocellular carcinoma, 3.3. cirrhosis, 3.4. hepatic encephalopathy, 3.5. hepatitis c virus infection, 3.6. acute liver failure, 4. clinical application of bcaas in the treatment of liver diseases, 5. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Zhang, Y.; Zhan, L.; Zhang, L.; Shi, Q.; Li, L. Branched-Chain Amino Acids in Liver Diseases: Complexity and Controversy. Nutrients 2024 , 16 , 1875. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16121875

Zhang Y, Zhan L, Zhang L, Shi Q, Li L. Branched-Chain Amino Acids in Liver Diseases: Complexity and Controversy. Nutrients . 2024; 16(12):1875. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16121875

Zhang, Yaqi, Luqi Zhan, Lingjian Zhang, Qingmiao Shi, and Lanjuan Li. 2024. "Branched-Chain Amino Acids in Liver Diseases: Complexity and Controversy" Nutrients 16, no. 12: 1875. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16121875

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Space Exploration — Privatization Of Space Exploration: A Paradigm Shift

Privatization of Space Exploration: a Paradigm Shift

• Categories: Exploration Space Exploration

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Published: Jun 13, 2024

Words: 690 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

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Introduction, accelerated technological innovation, economic and employment opportunities, ethical and regulatory challenges.

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