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Qualitative Research: Design, Implementation and Methods
DESIGN X440.2
Get an introduction to what qualitative research is, the types of qualitative research methods, the appropriate situations to apply qualitative methods, and how to conduct your own qualitative research. You learn to build a research protocol and use various techniques to design, conduct, analyze and present an informative research study.
At the end of the course, you are expected to conduct your own qualitative research study . To that end, you develop a research plan based on the given situation, collect data using qualitative methodologies , engage with various techniques for coding and analyzing qualitative data effectively, and present the data and insights in a manner that is best aligned with the goals of the research.
Prerequisites: None.
Course Outline
Course Objectives
- Understand what constitutes qualitative research, how it differs from quantitative research and when to apply qualitative research methods
- Identify and formulate appropriate qualitative research plans
- Apply qualitative research data collection techniques
- Develop coding schemes for analysis of qualitative data
- Present qualitative data to inform and influence
What You Learn
- Developing qualitative research questions
- Building a research protocol
- Observing, listening and probing: the core skills of a qualitative researcher
- Qualitative sampling and participant recruitment
- Understanding an overview of the qualitative data analysis process
- Communicating your findings, from summary to interpretation
- Presenting qualitative results
How You Learn
We are online! All of the design classes are conducted online and include video classes, mentor-led learning and peer-to-peer support through our student online platform, Canvas.
- Reading assignments
- Quizzes at instructor’s discretion
- Small-group activities
- Homework assignments
- Capstone project
Is This Course Right for You?
This course is intended for students in the Professional Program in User Experience (UX) Design , or anybody interested in obtaining skills in qualitative research. You do not need preexisting research experience for this course. Our experienced instructors provide practical information, leverage their qualitative research skills and monitor your development along with peer-to-peer support on our student online platform.
Fall 2024 enrollment opens on June 17!
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- Study with us
- Short Courses in Qualitative Research Methods
Oxford Qualitative Courses: Short Courses in Qualitative Research Methods
Expert teaching from specialists in qualitative research methods
Short courses:
- Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods
- Introduction to doing Qualitative Interviews
- Introduction to Analysing Qualitative Data
- Introduction to conversation analysis and health care encounters
- Learning with the book: an introduction to qualitative research methods for health research
The University of Oxford's expert-led programme of short courses in qualitative research methods aims to equip participants with the knowledge and skills to design, conduct, and interpret qualitative research. Through these short courses we share the experience, knowledge and enthusiasm of our research-active tutors
Our courses are particularly suited to those who are planning or working on projects with a qualitative research component. Our aims are to:
- Equip health and care professionals, researchers and policy makers with an understanding of the different approaches to qualitative research
- Support the development of core skills such as interviewing, ethnographic observation, running focus groups (whether virtual or face-to-face), conversation analysis, meta-ethnography, and qualitative data analysis.
This highly-regarded programme is delivered in online and face-to-face formats to suit a range of learners. We use a mixture of lectures and small group work, delivered by our team of qualitative researchers from the University of Oxford’s Medical Sociology and Health Experiences Research Group . Our group has run these successful courses for twenty years alongside active involvement in qualitative research on a variety of topics, ranging from studies of experiences of health conditions and of healthcare practice, to evaluations of organisational change. Our group also includes qualitative methodologists at the forefront of developing qualitative methods including conversation analysis and evidence synthesis.
Findings from our group’s research on patient experiences, together with supported video, audio and text extracts, can be found on the HEXI.ox.ac.uk website. Our portfolio of research and expertise informs current local, national and international healthcare policy and research.
The syllabuses of our qualitative courses draw on a wide range of expertise from within our research group, including the disciplinary areas of medical sociology, anthropology, and public policy.
Teaching team
Our courses are led by a highly experienced and research-active teaching team. Our team have a range of specialities and skills spanning the breadth of qualitative research methods, ensuring that each session is led by a knowledgeable expert in the field. As well as being accomplished researchers, our team are skilled at communicating qualitative research methods to people in an accessible and clear way. Our team are friendly and approachable and will be available to offer tailored feedback during the course. Our participants regularly emphasise that our teaching team are a highlight of our courses.
Who are OUR courses for?
Our courses are suited to a wide range of professions, including:
- Health and care professionals
- Undergraduate and postgraduate students
- Academics and researchers interested in health research
- Marketing and communications professionals
- Health and care advisers and policy makers
What do participants think?
New: Online Resources
Our teaching team have collated a series of freely available online resources for anyone looking for learning opportunities.
Receive our bulletin:
Our courses are popular and often sell-out quickly. To receive a bulletin of upcoming course dates, please register here .
Got a question? Contact us:
Our friendly team are on-hand to answer your questions and queries.
Email: [email protected]
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Qualitative Data Analysis
This course provides an applied approach to qualitative data analysis through the lens of multiple methods and methodologies.
About this Course
The analysis of qualitative research data is a fundamental yet multifaceted process that requires careful attention to the unique qualities of qualitative research design. This course provides an applied, phenomenological approach to qualitative data analysis. It is designed for an interdisciplinary audience with examples taken from the nonprofit, commercial, and government sectors in the health and social sciences.
Undergraduate/graduate students, research staff, and IRB members in particular may find this course meaningful as an introduction to qualitative research methods.
Course Preview:
Language Availability: English
Suggested Audiences: Faculty, IRB Chairs, IRB Members, Research Staff, Undergraduate and Graduate Students
Organizational Subscription Price: $675 per year/per site for government and non-profit organizations; $750 per year/per site for for-profit organizations Independent Learner Price: $99 per person
Course Content
" role="button"> introduction to qualitative data analysis.
This module discusses the data analysis considerations shared by all qualitative methods and approaches this course covers. This includes the basic qualitative data analysis process and tools and the rigorous and ethical approaches to qualitative data analysis that apply across methods.
Recommended Use: Required ID (Language): 20971 (English) Author(s): Margaret R. Roller, MA - Roller Research
" role="button"> In-Depth Interview Method
This module begins with an overview of the basic in-depth interview method and its variations. This provides the foundation for the core discussions concerning the distinctive aspects of the in-depth interview method that affect qualitative data analysis, including quality and ethical considerations.
Recommended Use: Supplemental ID (Language): 20972 (English) Author(s): Margaret R. Roller, MA - Roller Research
" role="button"> Focus Group Discussion Method
To provide a basis for the core discussions, this module begins with an overview of the fundamentals of the focus group method and its variations. This provides an understanding of the distinctive aspects of the focus group method that affect qualitative data analysis, including quality and ethical considerations.
Recommended Use: Supplemental ID (Language): 20973 (English) Author(s): Margaret R. Roller, MA - Roller Research
" role="button"> Ethnography
Understanding the ethnographic approach and its variations is important to the discussion of data analysis. For this reason, the module begins with an overview of ethnographic research and the distinctive aspects of ethnography that affect qualitative data analysis, including quality and ethical considerations.
Recommended Use: Supplemental ID (Language): 20974 (English) Author(s): Margaret R. Roller, MA - Roller Research
" role="button"> Narrative Research
This module provides an overview of narrative research and its variations. It provides an overview of narrative research, which serves as a foundation for the core discussions concerning the distinctive aspects of the narrative research approach that affect qualitative data analysis. The module concludes with a discussion of quality and ethical considerations.
Recommended Use: Supplemental ID (Language): 20975 (English) Author(s): Margaret R. Roller, MA - Roller Research
" role="button"> Case Study Research
Case study research and its variations are examined at the start of this module. Then, distinctive aspects of case study research that affect qualitative data analysis are explored, including quality and ethical considerations.
Recommended Use: Supplemental ID (Language): 20976 (English) Author(s): Margaret R. Roller, MA - Roller Research
" role="button"> Qualitative Content Analysis Method
This module reviews the basic Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) method and its variations. It also discusses the distinctive aspects of the QCA method that affect qualitative data analysis and the quality and ethical considerations that QCA presents.
Recommended Use: Supplemental ID (Language): 20977 (English) Author(s): Margaret R. Roller, MA - Roller Research
Who should take the Qualitative Data Analysis course?
The suggested audience includes students, faculty, and staff that want to learn more about the basics of qualitative data analysis and one or more of the discussed methods.
How long does it take to complete the Qualitative Data Analysis course?
This course consists of one required module and six supplemental modules. All learners should complete module 1 and then complete the supplemental modules as needed (20-30 minutes each).
" role="button"> Why should an organization subscribe to this course?
Organizational subscriptions provide access to the organization's affiliated members. This allows organizations to train individuals across the organization on how to properly conduct qualitative data analysis.
" role="button"> What are the standard recommendations for learner groups?
This course is designed such that learners should complete the first module and then any following method modules as needed.
" role="button"> Is this course eligible for continuing medical education credits?
This course does not currently have CE/CME credits available.
Related Content
This course provides learners with an understanding of how to improve study design, collect and analyze data, and promote reproducible research.
Essentials of observational research protocol design and development.
Foundational course that orients and prepares learners to engage with the scholarly publication process in an informed way.
An in-depth review of the development and execution of protocols.
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Qualitative Research Methods and Research Writing
| Course Status : | Completed | |
| Course Type : | Elective | |
| Duration : | 12 weeks | |
| Category : | ||
| Credit Points : | 3 | Postgraduate |
| Start Date : | 27 Jan 2020 | |
| End Date : | 17 Apr 2020 | |
| Enrollment Ends : | 03 Feb 2020 | |
| Exam Date : | 25 Apr 2020 IST |
| Description | Costs |
|---|---|
| New Students enrolled on MSc in Evidence-Based Health Care | £2570.00 |
| Short Course in Health Sciences | £3175.00 |
Details of funding opportunities, including grants, bursaries, loans, scholarships and benefit information are available on our financial assistance page.
If you are an employee of the University of Oxford and have a valid University staff card you may be eligible to receive a 10% discount on the full stand-alone fee. To take advantage of this offer please submit a scan/photocopy of your staff card along with your application. Your card should be valid for a further six months after attending the course.
Dr Anne-Marie Boylan
Module coordinator.
Anne-Marie Boylan is a Departmental Lecturer and Senior Research Fellow based in the Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences.
Assessment methods
Assessment will be based on submission of a written assignment which should not exceed 4,000 words.
Academic Credit
Applicants may take this course for academic credit. The University of Oxford Department for Continuing Education offers Credit Accumulation and Transfer Scheme (CATS) points for this course. Participants attending at least 80% of the taught course and successfully completing assessed assignments are eligible to earn credit equivalent to 20 CATS points which may be counted towards a postgraduate qualification.
Applicants can choose not to take the course for academic credit and will therefore not be eligible to undertake the academic assignment offered to students taking the course for credit. Applicants cannot receive CATS (Credit Accumulation and Transfer Scheme) points or equivalence. Credit cannot be attributed retrospectively. CATS accreditation is required if you wish for the course to count towards a further qualification in the future.
A Certificate of Completion is issued at the end of the course.
Applicants registered to attend ‘not for credit’ who subsequently wish to register for academic credit and complete the assignment are required to submit additional information, which must be received one calendar month in advance of the course start date. Please contact us for more details.
Please contact [email protected] if you have any questions.
Application
This course requires you to complete the application form and to attach a copy of your CV. If you are applying to take this course for academic credit you will also be required to provide a reference. Please note that if you are not applying to take the course for academic credit then you do not need to submit a reference.
Please ensure you read the guidance notes which appear when you click on the symbols as you progress through the application form, as any errors resulting from failure to do so may delay your application.
- Short Course Application Form
- Terms and Conditions
Selection criteria
Admissions Criteria: To apply for the course you should:
- Be a graduate or have successfully completed a professional training course
- Have professional work experience in the health service or a health-related field
- Be able to combine intensive classroom learning with the application of the principles and practices of evidence-based health care within the work place
- Have a good working knowledge of email, internet, word processing and Windows applications (for communications with course members, course team and administration)
- Show evidence of the ability to commit time to study and an employer's commitment to make time available to study, complete course work and attend course and university events and modules.
- Be able to demonstrate English Language proficiency at the University’s higher level .
Accommodation
Accommodation is available at the Rewley House Residential Centre , within the Department for Continuing Education, in central Oxford. The comfortable, en-suite, study-bedrooms have been rated as 4-Star Campus accommodation under the Quality In Tourism scheme , and come with tea- and coffee-making facilities, free Wi-Fi access and Freeview TV. Guests can take advantage of the excellent dining facilities and common room bar, where they may relax and network with others on the programme.
IT requirements
Please ensure that you have access to a computer that meets the specifications detailed on our technical support page.
Terms & conditions for applicants and students
Information on financial support
Sign up for course news
- MSc in Evidence-Based Health Care
- MSc in EBHC (Teaching and Education)
- Postgraduate Diploma in Health Research
- Postgraduate Certificate in Health Research
and also available as an accredited short course in Health Sciences
BUSI 815 Qualitative Research Methods
- Course Description
For information regarding prerequisites for this course, please refer to the Academic Course Catalog .
Course Guide
View this course’s outcomes, policies, schedule, and more.*
*The information contained in our Course Guides is provided as a sample. Specific course curriculum and requirements for each course are provided by individual instructors each semester. Students should not use Course Guides to find and complete assignments, class prerequisites, or order books.
Selecting the appropriate method for exploring or examining business problems is a critical step in the research design process. Once it has been determined that a qualitative approach is suitable for addressing the research question, the qualitative researcher is presented with several options for inquiry design. Understanding the features and differences of each design can assist the researcher in selecting the best route for exploring the business problem to obtain actionable results. While paralleling quantitative research requirements, data collection, analysis, validity and reliability measures in qualitative research involve distinct language and protocol.
Course Assignment
Course requirements checklist.
After reading the Course Syllabus and Student Expectations , the student will complete the related checklist found in the Course Overview.
Discussions (6)
Discussions are collaborative learning experiences. Therefore, this course requires 6 distinct discussions. Each thread must be at least 500 words and demonstrate course-related knowledge. In addition to the thread, the student is required to reply to 2 other classmates’ threads. Each reply must be at least 250 words.
Literature Review: Draft Submission Assignment
The Literature Review: Final Submission Assignment will be checked for originality via the Turnitin plagiarism tool. This assignment will allow students to submit a draft of the final submission and make any necessary edits prior to submitting the final assignment.
Literature Review: Final Submission Assignment
This course requires one Literature Review paper. The paper is to be written in strict conformance to current APA standards, contain 8–10 pages of content (excluding the title page, abstract, and reference page), and use at least 12 peer-reviewed references.
Narrative Assignment
This course requires one Narrative Assignment. After reviewing the Learn material for the assigned module, the student will address the following in a paper in current APA format:
- Provide a description of the narrative design and when it is appropriate to use this design.
- Describe 2 problems or challenges the student might encounter when using this design, and how these may be addressed by the researcher.
- Provide a problem statement pertaining to doctoral persistence/attrition of business students.
- Craft 2 qualitative research questions that align with exploring the stated problem and are appropriate for narrative design.
- Compose a purpose statement to address one of these research questions that aligns with a narrative design.
Phenomenology Assignment
This course requires one Phenomenology Assignment.
After reviewing the Learn material for the assigned module, the student will address the following in a paper in current APA format:
- Provide a description of the phenomenological design and when it is appropriate to use this design.
- Describe 2 problems or challenges the student might encounter when using this design, and how the researcher might address these challenges.
- Provide a problem statement pertaining to doctoral persistence of business students.
- Craft 2 qualitative research questions that align with exploring the stated problem and are appropriate for phenomenological design.
- Compose a purpose statement to address one of these research questions that aligns with a phenomenological design.
Case Study Assignment
This course requires one Case Study Assignment.
After reviewing the Learn material for the module, the student will address the following paper in current APA format:
- Provide a description of the case study design and when it is appropriate to use this design.
- Craft 2 qualitative research questions that align with exploring the stated problem and are appropriate for case study design.
- Compose a purpose statement to address one of these research questions that aligns with a case study design.
Grounded Theory and Ethnography Assignment
This course requires 1 Grounded Theory and Ethnography Assignment.
After reviewing the Learn material for the module, the student will address the following in a paper in current APA format:
- Provide a description of each design and when it is appropriate to use each design.
- Describe 2 problems or challenges the student might encounter when using each design, and how the researcher might address these challenges.
- Craft 2 qualitative research questions align with exploring the stated problem; one that is appropriate for grounded theory, and one that is appropriate for ethnography.
- Compose a purpose statement to address one of these research questions that aligns with the selected design (choose one).
Interview Transcript Assignment
In an effort to give the student some hands-on experience with both interviewing and analyzing interview data, he/she is required to conduct two (2) recorded interviews lasting a minimum of 5 minutes each. The student must interview individuals who are knowledgeable on the research topic of doctoral persistence (either as experts or those who have had success in this area) and use the revised interview questions that he/she presented and received peer feedback prior in the course.
Qualitative Data Analysis Assignment
This course requires one Qualitative Data Analysis Assignment. After reviewing the Learn material for the module, the student will write an APA-formatted paper.
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Qualitative Research and Inquiry Methodology, Graduate Certificate
Gain expertise in data research with the IU Online Graduate Certificate in Qualitative Research and Inquiry Methodology. This program lets you explore cutting-edge digital tools and analytic methods for collecting and analyzing qualitative data.
- Request Info
Course Delivery : 100% Online
Total Credits : 12
In-State Tuition Per Credit : $500.36
Out-of-State Tuition Per Credit : $600.43
Cost of attendance may vary by campus. View the total cost calculator
Degree Overview
The Graduate Certificate in Qualitative Research and Methodology gives you opportunities to design and carry out rigorous qualitative research. Investigate critical issues in the field as you design and conduct studies to answer real-world questions. Acquire the expertise you need and learn from caring professors who are world-renowned experts in qualitative methodologies.
You’ll graduate with an Indiana University certificate respected by employers worldwide—and you can work on yours anytime and anywhere. Plus, you’ll enjoy personalized support services throughout your academic journey.
To be accepted to this program, you must have:
- A bachelor's degree
- Minimum undergraduate GPA of 2.75 out of 4.00
To apply to this program, complete an online application that includes:
- Transcripts
- Personal statement
- GRE scores (required only if applicant does not have an undergraduate or graduate degree from an accredited US institution)
- TOEFL or IELTS scores
Application Dates
Fall semester: May 2
Spring semester: Oct 3
Summer semester: Feb 1
Note: This program is not eligible for financial aid.
Career Outcomes
The Graduate Certificate in Qualitative Research and Methodology prepares you for careers in:
- Research firms
- Corporate data analytics
- Government agencies
- Universities
Certificate Requirements
To earn the Graduate Certificate in Qualitative Research and Inquiry Methodology, you must complete 12 credit hours. Requirements are broken down as follows:
- Core courses (9 credit hours)
- Elective (3 credit hours)
| Course Number | Course Name | Credits |
|---|---|---|
| EDUC-Y 611 | Qualitative Inquiry in Education | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 616 | Digital Tools for Qualitative Inquiry | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 640 | Analyzing Qualitative Data | 3 Credits |
| Course Number | Course Name | Credits |
|---|---|---|
| EDUC-Y 510 | Action Research I | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 612 | Critical Qualitative Inquiry I* | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 613 | Critical Qualitative Inquiry II* | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 624 | Discursive Psychology Approaches to Discourse Analysis | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 630 | Narrative Theory and Inquiry | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 631 | Discourse Theory and Analysis | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 633 | Feminist Theory and Methodology | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 650 | Topics in Inquiry Methodology | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 671 | Knowledge, Reflection, and Critique in Methodological Theory | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 672 | Communicative Action Theory | 3 Credits |
| EDUC-Y 673 | Discursive Psychology as Theory | 3 Credits |
*Must be taken concurrently with EDUC-Y 500.
Find course descriptions with our Search Schedule of Classes/Courses tool .
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Short courses
Qualitative Research Methods in Health
- 10am - 1pm each day
Cost: £1,500
Book a place.
Please email [email protected] if you wish to apply for this course. The next course will start on 3 October 2024
This course aims to equip you with the knowledge and skills to understand, design and conduct high quality qualitative research.
The course will help you:
- gain a clear understanding of the principles of qualitative research
- practise skills including interviewing, running a focus group, data analysis, and developing and presenting a research protocol
This course will be delivered online over 10 Thursday mornings from 3 October to 12 December.
This course is run by researchers from the UCL Centre for Excellence in Qualitative Research, within the Research Department of Primary Care and Population Health (PCPH).
Who it's for
This course is for:
- Master's level students, PhD students and research staff who need to design and conduct a qualitative study
- those who wish to know how to assess the quality of qualitative research (e.g. funders, journal editors, ethical committee members etc.)
You don't need to have any previous experience of qualitative research, but you will need to do some preparation before each session.
Course content
Lead: Julia Bailey and Tom Witney
This workshop will help you understand the basis on which qualitative methodology is selected as a research approach.
- learn about the philosophical debates around qualitative research
- contrast qualitative and quantitative approaches
- discuss the place of qualitative research in health and medicine
You'll also critique a published paper of a qualitative study. This will help you reflect on a completed study and consider not only the methodological approach and selection of methods, but also practical aspects such as sampling, what counts as data, the position of the researcher, data analysis, and application of findings.
Learning objectives
By the end of this workshop you'll be able to:
- describe key features of qualitative research
- explain the rationale for key features of qualitative research design
- know when qualitative or quantitative study designs are appropriate
- understand how ‘theory’ is relevant for qualitative research
Leads: Harpreet Sihre and Silvie Cooper
On this workshop you'll learn about qualitative research interviewing techniques and developing topic guides.
You'll explore structured, semi-structured and in-depth interview methods and their application, using real world examples. However, the emphasis will be on semi-structured interview techniques.
You'll also learn about and discuss:
- the importance of different communication styles and researcher reflexivity
- practical issues such as structuring questions, building rapport and dealing with challenging interviews
You'll be encouraged to think of an area of research around which you'll structure and produce a topic guide for use in a practical session. You'll also get the opportunity to practice your newly developed interviewing skills.
As far as possible, the workshop is tailored towards research that those attending are planning/doing.
By the end of this workshop you'll be able to:
- describe and distinguish between structured, semi-structured and 'in-depth' interviewing
- formulate and construct a topic guide
- apply and evaluate some key interviewing skills
Lead: Tom Witney and Fiona Aspinal
This workshop will introduce you to focus groups - a key qualitative research method.
You'll learn about the:
- different stages of the research process where focus groups can be used
- types of research questions that lend themselves to this approach
- practicalities of sampling, convening and conducting focus groups, including issues to consider when researching sensitive topics
You'll also practise your communication and group facilitation skills.
You'll be encouraged to think of an area of research around which you'll structure and produce a topic guide for use in a practical session.
- explain when and how to use focus groups
- design a topic guide for a focus group study
- organise and facilitate a focus group
Leads: Nathan Davies and Fiona Stevenson
On this workshop you'll discuss a range of ways of conducting qualitative data analysis and the rationales for different approaches.
You'll be encouraged to critically reflect on how decisions made throughout research affect the type and extent of analysis possible. The importance of decisions about transcription are also stressed.
You'll consider the place of data management software in qualitative analysis. You won't be taught how to use particular software packages, but you'll discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using these.
You'll conduct a thematic analysis on a piece of data, and reflect on and consider the best approach for your own work.
Please note: this workshop does not provide training in the use of Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis packages
- distinguish between different types of qualitative data analysis
- recognise the importance of decisions relating to transcribing, reflexivity, field notes, double coding and data management
- consider various approaches to analysis
- understand the principles and practicalities of conducting a basic thematic analysis
- evaluate the benefits of Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis for your projects
Leads: Jane Wilcock and Stephanie Kumpunen
In this interactive workshop you'll plan your own qualitative study design.
You'll work on your own and in small and large groups, with an experienced tutor. You'll also have the opportunity for one-to-one and small group discussions and advice on qualitative study design.
The first day is spent planning your study in a structured way. On the second day you'll present your study design proposal to tutors and other students in small groups, and discuss research issues arising from the proposed studies.
- write clear research questions
- understand the principles of (and debates about) quality in qualitative research
- plan a qualitative research study, specifying the details of how a study will be carried out
- present a four-slide summary of your study design
- discuss the rationale for chosen study designs
Teaching and assessment
The course is highly interactive, involving a range of teaching techniques including group work, practical tasks and discussion.
It will be run with a mixture of synchronous, online learning (e.g. presentations, small group discussions) and asynchronous learning (pre-recorded videos, readings, preparatory writing/planning).
You'll receive help designing and planning your own qualitative research project. You'll then present your design proposals and receive feedback from course tutors and peers at the end of the course.
You'll be required to do some preparation before each session (reading and/or watching videos).
How to apply
To apply for this course you’ll need to complete a short application form.
Your application will be judged on your suitability for the course and how much you're likely to benefit. Priority will be given to people who are actively planning or conducting qualitative research.
Please email [email protected] if you’d like to be added to the waiting list. When booking opens and there are spaces available for the course, you'll be emailed the application form.
Cancellation policy
Cancellations must be received in writing at least two weeks before the start of the event and will be subject to an administration charge of 20% of the course fee. Unfortunately, no refunds will be made within two weeks of the course date. Any refund will be made by UCL to you within 30 days of your cancellation and be paid to you in the same way as you paid for your order.
We reserve the right to cancel teaching if necessary and will, in such event, make a full refund of the registration fee. PCPH Events will not be liable for any additional incurred costs.
Further information
If you have any questions about the course content, please email Fiona Stevenson ( [email protected] ) or Julia Bailey ( [email protected] ).
For administrative queries, please contact Lynda Russell-Whitaker ( [email protected] ).
Course team
Julia Bailey - joint Course Director
Julia is an Associate Professor at the e-Health Unit at UCL and a sexual health speciality doctor in South East London. Her research interests include sexual health, e-Health, doctor-patient interaction, science communication and social science in medicine (qualitative methodologies). View Julia’s IRIS profile for more information about her work and publications.
Fiona Stevenson - joint Course Director
Fiona is a Professor of Medical Sociology and Co-Director of e-Health Unit at UCL. She’s currently Head of the Department of Primary Care and Population Health at UCL. Her research is broadly encompassed by the overarching theme of perceptions, communication and interactions about treatment. Her methodological expertise lies in qualitative methods, both in relation to thematic analysis of interviews and focus groups and conversation analysis of interactional data. She has expertise in conducting original research as well as implementing research findings into practice. View Fiona’s IRIS profile for more information about her work and publications.
Nathan Davies
Nathan is an Associate Professor and Alzheimer’s Society Fellow based in the Centre for Ageing Population Studies at UCL. His main research interests are in older adults, dementia, and supporting family carers. He's a qualitative researcher leading on several qualitative studies, which explore sensitive topics, including end of life care. In addition to experience of interviews, focus groups and various types of qualitative analysis, he has extensive experience of co-design, co-production and consensus-based methods. View Nathan’s IRIS profile for more information about his work and publications.
Jane Wilcock
Jane is a Senior Research Associate in the Centre for Ageing & Population Studies, UCL. Her main research interests are in dementia, ageing, emergent technologies and trials of complex interventions in primary care and community settings. A mixed-methods researcher, Jane has experience of a variety of study designs such as RCTs, interview and focus group studies, nominal group techniques and co-design of interventions. In addition, she is a methodology expert for the NIHR Research Design Service London. View Jane’s IRIS profile for more information about her work and publications.
Silvie Cooper
Silvie is a Lecturer (Teaching) in the Department of Applied Health Research at UCL. Her research interests include capacity building for health research, management of chronic pain, digital health, and patient education, using qualitative, mixed methods, and translational research approaches. Alongside her research, she designs and teaches on a variety of health and social science courses for undergraduates, postgraduates and professionals. Topics include research and evaluation methods, the social aspects of health and illness, and the impact of context, practice and policy on healthcare experiences. View Silvie’s IRIS profile for more information about her works and publications.
Harpreet Sihre
Harpreet formerly completed her PhD at the Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, where she researched the lived experiences of South Asian women with severe postnatal psychiatric illnesses using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. She then worked at the Unit of Social and Community Psychiatry on an NIHR-funded study researching accessibility and acceptability of Perinatal Mental Health Services.
Harpreet’s research interests encompass mental health, perinatal mental health, access to services and equality, diversity and inclusion, using qualitative research methods. Harpreet has taught on both undergraduate and postgraduate courses, including small group teaching and lecturing at the University of Birmingham and Queen Mary University. View Harpreet’s IRIS profile for more information about her work and publications.
Tom is a Research Fellow at the department of Primary Care and Population Health . He is a qualitative health researcher, with a particular interest in sexual health and relationship intimacy. His current work focuses on improving access to sexual health for trans and gender diverse people and supporting uptake of chlamydia retesting following a diagnosis. View Tom’s Iris profile for more information about his work and publications.
Fiona Aspinal
Fiona is based in the Department of Applied Health Research for the NIHR ARC North Thames as 'Senior Research Associate in Qualitative Methods Applied to Organisational Research in Health' where, as part of the ARC North Thames' Research Partnership Team, she helps to facilitate and support health and social care research with local, regional and national relevance. She is also the social care research lead for NIHR CRN North Thames.
Her areas of research interest are: Qualitative research and evaluation of complex health and social care interventions and organisations; The experience and outcomes of integrated care policy and practice for staff, service users and informal carers; Social and community health care for adults, including people with dementia; Social care research infrastructure/skills.
At UCL, in addition to the Qualitative Research Methods in Health short course, Fiona teaches on research methods and social science courses and modules, such as the BSc Population Health Sciences, the Medicine MBBS BSc and the Population Health MSc. She also supervises undergraduate and postgraduate students. View Fiona’s Iris profile for more information about her work and publications.
Stephanie Kumpunen
Stephanie is a THIS Institute Doctoral Fellow at UCL and a Senior Fellow in Health Policy at Nuffield Trust (a London-based health and care think tank). Her research focuses on the organisation of Primary Care and community-based health and care services.
Stephanie has led on a number of qualitative studies and mixed-methods evaluations. She has a particular interest in rapid qualitative approaches; namely rapid ethnographies that inform health and care service improvement. View Stephanie’s UCL profile for more information about her work and publications.
“The course is a really a great opportunity to read, reflect, discuss and share research, which is helpful for personal and professional development.” [Academic Clinical Fellow, Spring 2022]
“This session really helped me to organise my thoughts and put together a coherent plan for future research. It will make writing my protocol very easy!” [PhD Student, Spring 2022]
“It was such an excellent course. The information and materials provided were straight to the point and helpful, the working atmosphere was inspiring and constructive, and the tasks were interesting and activating. Thank you to all tutors!” [Clinical Research Programme Coordinator, Spring 2022]
“Great tutors, great reading material. It was very interesting to hear other peoples' experiences. Although this course was virtual, there were plenty of opportunities for interaction. I now have a better understanding and I am confident to run my study. I would recommend this course to anyone who wants an intro in qual research.” [Pre-Doctoral Research Fellow, 2021]
"I have a more clear understanding of the basics of qual methods, terminology and ways it may fit into my own research." [Researcher, 2019]
Course information last modified: 22 Apr 2024, 13:33
Length and time commitment
- Time commitment: 10am - 1pm each day
- Course length: 10 weeks
Contact information
- Lynda Russell-Whitaker
- [email protected]
Related Short Courses
Bristol Medical School
Introduction to qualitative research methods.
This course provides a broad introduction to carrying out qualitative research and how to apply qualitative methods to a range of contexts and study designs. We draw on the expertise within the University of Bristol. Course tutors have extensive experience of applied qualitative research including expertise in ethnography, optimising trial methods and recruitment, sensitive health topics, intervention development, and health care research.
| Dates | 12 - 16 May 2025 |
|---|---|
| Fee | £1,100 |
| Format | Online |
| Audience | Open to all applicants ( ) |
Course profile
This course aims to give an overview and introduction to the major qualitative research methods based in the social sciences as used in health services, public health and other health-related research.
Please click on the sections below for more information.
Taught over 5 consecutive full days. The course will run online. It will comprise a series of live and pre-recorded lectures/materials, complemented by informal small and large group practical activities and discussions.
Intended Learning Objectives
By the end of the course participants should be able to:
- appreciate the importance of qualitative research methods in the study of health, illness, and health services and systems;
- understand how to identify when a research topic requires qualitative research methods, and be able to select the most appropriate methods to answer the particular research question;
- practise the skills required to conduct in-depth interviews, facilitate focus groups, and undertake observation and/or ethnographic research;
- begin to analyse qualitative data; and
- know how to employ qualitative research methods alongside other methods in health research.
Target audience
The course is open to anyone who would like to understand the use of these methods or begin to learn how to use them. Attendees do not need to have any previous background in or knowledge of qualitative research methods, although some experience of or ideas for a health-related research project using qualitative approaches would make the course more relevant.
This course is intended to give an overview and hands-on introduction to qualitative research methods, as used in the social sciences and health-related research. Methods introduced include individual interviews, focus groups and participant observation, as well as research design, ethical issues, data analysis, mixing qualitative and quantitative methods and writing up findings for publication. Day 1 introduces qualitative research and interviewing techniques.
Day 2 covers study design (including qualitative sampling) and focus groups.
Day 3 focuses on ethnographic and observational methods.
Day 4 covers data analysis (including coding, thematic analysis and computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software).
Day 5 covers mixing and integrating methods and writing up research findings for publication. Students will also have the opportunity to plan a qualitative project of their choice through a structured workshop.
Teaching staff
The Course Organisers are: Dr Jon Banks , Senior Research Fellow. Research Interests: Sociology and applied health research Dr Katie Whale , Research Fellow. Research Interests: Health Psychology and intervention design
- Prerequisites
To make sure the course is suitable for you and you will benefit from attending, please ensure you meet the following prerequisites before booking:
| Software | The course includes a session on qualitative software management using NVivo software as an example. NVivo access is not required for the session but is recommended in order to engage with the self-guided workbook. |
|---|---|
| Other | The course includes preparatory work for live sessions that will enable engagement with workshops and support learning. It is expected this work is completed in attendees own time. The ethnography session includes time to conduct observations in a community setting, e.g. a coffee shop. If possible please complete this day of the course from a location that will allow you to take part in this exercise. |
Before booking this course, please make sure you read the information provided above about the target audience and prerequisites. It is important that you have access to the relevant IT resources needed for the course and meet the knowledge prerequisites to ensure you can get the most from the course.
Bookings are taken via our online booking system , for which you must register an account. To check if you are eligible for free or discounted courses please see our fees and voucher packs page . All bookings are subject to our terms & conditions, which can be read in full here .
For help and support with booking a course refer to our booking information page , FAQs or feel free to contact us directly. For available payment options please see: How to pay your short course fees.
Course materials
Participants are granted access to our virtual learning platform (Blackboard) 1 to 2 weeks in advance of the course. This allows time for any pre-course work to be completed and to familiarise with the platform.
To gain the most from the course, we recommend that you attend in full and participate in all interactive components. We endeavour to record all live lecture sessions and upload these to the online learning environment within 24 hours. This allows course participants to review these sessions at leisure and revisit them multiple times. Please note that we do not record breakout sessions.
All course participants retain access to the online learning materials and recordings for 3 months after the course.
University of Bristol staff and postgraduate students who do not wish to attend the full course may instead register for access to the 'Materials & Recordings' version of this course: Further information and bookings.
Testimonials
100% of attendees recommend this course*. *Attendee feedback from 2024.
Here is a sample of feedback from the last run of the course:
"Speakers and faculty had good knowledge on the subject, were friendly, approachable and helpful" - Course feedback, May 2024
"I have found this course extremely interesting and feel like i've learnt a lot. I really enjoyed the practical elements, specifically leading a focus group and the observation task. It's also been really helpful discussing my thoughts regarding my research study and receiving helpful feedback" - Course feedback, May 2024
"This was a great course. It covers a real breadth of the different aspects of qualitative research. Tutors were very knowledgeable and approachable. I liked the mix of live sessions, independent study and pre-recorded lectures. It really opened my eyes to the different uses of qualitative research, and how these could complement quantitative research. I came feeling a bit apprehensive and slightly suspicious (!) of qualitative work, and now feel inspired!" - Course feedback, May 2024
"The lectures were informative and gave a good overview, and the presenters were able to clarify any queries raised. The practical interview & focus group exercises and the data analysis session provided a good insight into some of the difficulties that one might face when conducting qualitative research" - Course feedback, May 2024
"The moderators were fab! i felt that the course was super engaging and i felt comfortable contributing in breakout rooms which is out my comfort zone" - Course feedback, May 2024
"The course was scheduled well and had a lot of interaction which kept people engaged. it was overall very enjoyable and information was easily digested" - Course feedback, May 2024
"I'm very pleased to have attended and feel I've got a lot from it and will help me greatly in my future qualitative research" - Course feedback, May 2024
"Varied, comprehensive and well organized. Really interactive and kept my engagement despite being 5 full days online!" - Course feedback, May 2024
"The course is very well organized and it's been very helpful for me in improving my qualitative research skills" - Course feedback, May 2024
Bookings are currently closed.
You will be able to register with our booking system from midday 24 September 2024. Bookings will be accepted from midday 8 October 2024.
Find out more
- Join our mailing list for updates
This was a great course. It covers a real breadth of the different aspects of qualitative research. Tutors were very knowledgeable and approachable. I liked the mix of live sessions, independent study and pre-recorded lectures. It really opened my eyes to the different uses of qualitative research, and how these could complement quantitative research. I came feeling a bit apprehensive and slightly suspicious (!) of qualitative work, and now feel inspired!
Dates don't work? Just need a refresher?
Find out about the self-paced Materials & Recordings version of this course [UoB only].
You may also like:
- Applying Qualitative Research to Randomised Controlled Trials
- Co-Design, Co-Production and Participatory Action Research
- Writing a Qualitative Paper
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Graduate Certificate in Qualitative Studies
The Graduate Certificate in Qualitative Studies prepares students to conduct rigorous, thoughtful, careful and credible qualitative research.
Qualitative Studies at a Glance
Non-degree, certificate program.
Current graduate students seeking to enhance their qualitative research skills.
All certificate students have access to the QuaLab, a space where students practice qualitative research methods on cutting-edge software within the context of active research projects.
Concentrations
Qualitative methods concentration (qual).
The Qualitative Methods Concentration focuses on qualitative research design, methods, and data analysis. It provides methodological training for students and researchers through formal coursework, qualitative data analysis software workshops (ATLAS.ti) and speaker events.
Please contact [email protected] if you have any questions.
Concentration Requirements
- Minimum 10 credits from Methods courses
- Minimum 5 credits from Theory or Gateway courses
- Complete at least 2 Atlas.ti Data Analysis workshops.
- Attend a minimum of 2 Speaker Series events.
How to Apply
Step 1: Students must declare their intention to complete the QUAL Concentration by filling out the planning form and submitting it to [email protected] . All forms must be approved by academic advisors at the undergraduate level and faculty advisors or committee chairs at the graduate level.
Step 2: The Steering Committee will review and approve all planning forms during the second week of each academic quarter. We will then confirm with students that their form has been approved. Students should then start completing the requirements .
Step 3: Once the student has completed all requirements, the student should complete the checklist for completion and submit it to [email protected] along with a copy of their unofficial transcripts. The Committee will review the checklist and unofficial transcript before granting the QUAL concentration.
The course list below is inexhaustive and many courses change year to year. If you believe a course you have taken or plan to take should qualify for the QUAL concentration, you can petition the steering committee. Send an email to [email protected] and include the course name, description and syllabus.
*Some exceptions for extraordinary circumstances can be made to the requirements on a case-by-case basis.
Questions about the forms or processes should be directed to [email protected] .
Methods Courses
Methods courses delve deeply into and equip students to employ specific qualitative methods or techniques.
Minimum 10 credits.
- ANTH 519 / GH 538 – Advanced Qualitative Research Methods in Anthropology and Public Health (5)
- ANTH 549 / DANCE 550 – Dance Ethnography (3)
- ANTH 550 – Ethnographic Field Techniques (5)
- COM 513 – Fieldwork Research Methods (5)
- COM 514 – Critical Discourse Analysis (5)
- COM 525 – Community Based Research Methods (5)
- GEOG 525 – Advanced Qualitative Methods in Geography (5)
- GH 531 – Practical Research & Evaluation Methods for Global Health (3)
- GH 538 – Advanced Qualitative Research Design and Methods in Global Health (3)
- GH 539 – Analyzing Qualitative Data (3)
- JSIS 512 – Qualitative Data Analysis (5)
- JSIS 595 – Research Tutorial: Qualitative Research (5)
- NMETH 583 – Advanced Qualitative Research Methods (4)
- NURS 576 – Assessment & Collaboration with Communities, Populations, and Systems (3)
- POL S 504 – Multi-Method Field Research (5)
- POL S 559 – Qualitative and Mixed Methods (5)
- PUBPOL 525 – Qualitative Case-Based Research Methods (4)
Gateway Courses
Gateway courses are broad umbrella courses that introduce a variety of qualitative methods and foreground research design principles.
Minimum 5 credits from Theory or Gateway courses.
- AIS 501 / GWSS 510 – Documentary Research Methods for the Social Sciences and Humanities (5)
- BIO A 525 – Research Methods & Study Design in Biocultural Anthropology (5)
- COM 527 – Global Communication Research Methods (5)
- EDPSY 586 – Qualitative Methods of Educational Research I (4)
- EDPSY 587 – Qualitative Methods of Educational Research II (4)
- FRENCH 590 – Qualitative Research Methods (5)
- HSERV 538-9 – Evaluation and Community Organizing (6)
- JSIS 595 – Research Tutorial: Research Methods & Design (5)
- NMETH 582 – Qualitative Research Inquiry and Methods (4)
- PHI 513 – Analytic Skills for Public Health II (3)
- SOC 582 – Doing Qualitative Research (3)
- SOCWL 581 – Qualitative Research: Methods and Designs (3)
- SOCWL 585 – Qualitative Methods in Social Work Research I (3)
Theory Courses
Theory courses focus on paradigms, epistemologies, and implications of research design and qualitative methods.
- B H 552 – Advanced Qualitative Methods (4)
- COM 597 – Special Topics: Comparative Social Research (5)
- GWSS 503 – Feminist Research and Methods of Inquiry (5)
- NMETH 588 – Mixed Methods Research for Health Sciences (4)
- SOCWL 586 – Qualitative Methods in Social Work Research II (3)
- The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Events Calendar
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Qualitative Research 101
Thursday, September 12, 2024 10am to 12pm
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About this Event
This online training session will provide an introduction to qualitative research methods. Topics covered will include differences between quantitative and qualitative research, qualitative research methodologies, strategies for qualitative data collection, and methods of qualitative data analysis. Participants will have the opportunity to ask questions and share experiences conducting qualitative research. Presenters MaryBeth Grewe, MPH Program Manager, Qualitative Research Service Research Specialist, Patient and Community Engagement in Research (PaCER) Program NC TraCS Institute Simone Frank, MPH Senior Project Manager, Patient and Community Engagement in Research (PaCER) Program Research Specialist, Qualitative Research Service NC TraCS Institute ** This event may be recorded. Materials such as slides or handouts will be shared with documented attendees only. Please help us accurately document attendance by using your full name in your Zoom window. Your name can be edited in the participant panel during the session. **
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Register to receive the Zoom information: https://go.unc.edu/QR912
Home » Research Methods » Qualitative Methods "How-To" Guides
Qualitative Methods "How-To" Guides Edited by Patricia Leavy
This series provides researchers and students with step-by-step, practical instruction on established and emerging qualitative methods. Authors are leaders in their respective areas of expertise who demystify the research process and share innovative practices and invaluable insider advice. The basics of each method are addressed, including philosophical underpinnings, and guidance is offered on designing studies; generating, analyzing, interpreting, and representing data; and evaluating the quality of research. With accessible writing, robust examples, and ample pedagogical features, books in this series are ideal for use in courses or by individual researchers.
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Qualitative and quantitative research methodologies (qqrm) - online certificate course.
Research is a core area in development and humanitarian programming. Some of the research activities normally undertaken by various programs to promote evidence-based planning include assessments, surveys and evaluations. These activities employ qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. Qualitative research aims at generating an in-depth understanding of a specific program activity or event, rather than surface description of a large sample of a population. On the other hand, quantitative research focuses on gathering, analyzing and presenting numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people to explain a particular phenomenon.
Given the great significance of research in development and humanitarian work, IDEAL Public Health and Development Consultancy (IPHDC) has planned a training on Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies (QQRM) . The training aims at equipping participants with current knowledge, skills and best practices on research to improve the quality of their overall programming.
When is the training?
30th September to 4th October 2024
Who should attend this training?
UN, Government and NGO staff including but not limited to program coordinators, project managers and officers.
What are the key aspects of the training?
- Introduction to Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies (QQRM);
- Hypothesis setting;
- Research study design including sampling methods;
- Questionnaire development;
- Interviewing techniques;
- Observation techniques and tools;
- Participatory research techniques;
- Focus group discussion (FGD) techniques and tools;
- Key informant interview (KII) techniques and tools;
- Note-taking and coding;
- Qualitative and quantitative data analysis (Using SPSS, Nvivo and Ms Excel);
- Presentation of findings.
What is the main training objective?
This course aims at building the knowledge and competencies of participants on qualitative and quantitative research methodologies.
What learning approach and language will be used in the training?
The training delivery method includes interactive webinar sessions, PowerPoint presentations, articles, videos, quizzes and assessments.
The entire training will be facilitated in English.
Fee information
How to register.
Interested individuals should complete our Course Application Form before Sunday 29th September 2024.
For more information on our courses you can visit our training page .
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A qualitative analysis of health service problems and the strategies used to manage them in the COVID-19 pandemic: exploiting generic and context-specific approaches
- Hania Rahimi-Ardabili 1 ,
- Farah Magrabi 1 ,
- Brenton Sanderson 1 , 2 ,
- Thilo Schuler 1 , 3 &
- Enrico Coiera 1
BMC Health Services Research volume 24 , Article number: 1067 ( 2024 ) Cite this article
Metrics details
The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted health systems around the globe. Lessons from health systems responses to these challenges may help design effective and sustainable health system responses for future challenges. This study aimed to 1/ identify the broad types of health system challenges faced during the pandemic and 2/ develop a typology of health system response to these challenges.
Semi-structured one-on-one online interviews explored the experience of 19 health professionals during COVID-19 in a large state health system in Australia. Data were analysed using constant comparative analysis utilising a sociotechnical system lens.
Participants described four overarching challenges: 1/ System overload, 2/ Barriers to decision-making, 3/ Education or training gaps, and 4/ Limitations of existing services. The limited time often available to respond meant that specific and well-designed strategies were often not possible, and more generic strategies that relied on the workforce to modify solutions and repair unexpected gaps were common. For example, generic responses to system overload included working longer hours, whilst specific strategies utilised pre-existing technical resources (e.g. converting non-emergency wards into COVID-19 wards).
During the pandemic, it was often not possible to rely on mature strategies to frame responses, and more generic, emergent approaches were commonly required when urgent responses were needed. The degree to which specific strategies were ready-to-hand appeared to dictate how much a strategy relied on such generic approaches. The workforce played a pivotal role in enabling emergent responses that required dealing with uncertainties.
Peer Review reports
The COVID-19 pandemic has posed a significant challenge to health systems worldwide, and many have struggled to cope, especially in the early stages [ 1 ]. The global consequences of COVID-19 on health systems are measured in loss or impairment of lives [ 2 ], healthcare professional burnout [ 3 ], reduced services, and delayed care [ 4 , 5 ].
Unfortunately, it is highly probable that health systems will confront many more such crises, with climate change risks amongst these [ 6 ]. Understanding what was common to successful COVID-19 strategies, and what was shared amongst failed ones could be instructive as we prepare for the future. The pandemic affected every aspect of operations from planning and procurement to care delivery [ 7 , 8 ]. Services, processes and tools were repurposed or created ad hoc, often from the ground up [ 9 , 10 ]. Hospitals for instance, responded by repurposing existing facilities and wards, and implementing strategies to cope with sudden rises in patient numbers that overwhelmed existing critical care services such as intensive care units [ 11 , 12 ]. The initial phase of the pandemic witnessed immediate actions, some of which succeeded such as the development of mRNA vaccines [ 13 ] and others that failed such as certain COVID-19 contact tracing applications [ 14 ].
The challenges healthcare professionals experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic has had some attention in the research literature. For example, a 2021 systematic review examining the COVID-19 burden on healthcare workers from nine different countries identified four main challenges of inadequate preparedness; emotional challenges; insufficient equipment and information; and work burnout [ 15 ].
This study goes beyond describing the challenges faced, and examines the responses to these problems using the lens of sociotechnical system theory (STS) [ 16 ]. STS thinking sees system processes as the emergent outcome of interactions between people and technology [ 16 ].
Using first-hand stories from healthcare professionals, this study first describes the different health service problems experienced by health professionals during the pandemic. Next, we attempt to categorise the different strategies they employed to deal with these problems, exploring how people and technologies came together to craft responses to these problems during the pandemic. We develop a typology of responses that identifies the different roles for generic (general-purpose strategies), and specific (local or health service-specific) approaches. Identifying the circumstances in which each of these strategy types was used may assist in preparedness and guide future crisis responses.
A series of semi-structured interviews explored the firsthand experiences of healthcare professionals in either developing or making COVID-19 pandemic responses. We utilised a qualitative and interpretive approach, which aims to generate new hypotheses by exploring emergent relationships between descriptions of phenomena [ 17 , 18 ]. This manuscript follows the COREQ (Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research) guidelines (See Additional file 1 for the checklist).
Participants and setting
Health system staff from a variety of professional groups and levels of seniority were recruited. Health professionals who had been involved in the pandemic response in New South Wales (NSW) were eligible for interviews. These included medical specialists (e.g. respiratory physicians), nurses and midwives, general practitioners (GPs), allied health workers (e.g. physiotherapists working in ICUs), health service executives and administrative staff, and paramedics. Participants were selected from a diverse range of health professions and services, including hospitals, public health organisations, and laboratories, in both public and private sectors as well as rural and urban settings. Our target sample size of 20 was informed by a systematic review of 14 qualitative studies that explored the experiences of healthcare professionals during the pandemic and concluded that on average, past studies reached data saturation with approximately 15 participants [ 19 ].
NSW is an Australian state with over eight million people. It includes about 9,600 full-time equivalent GPs [ 20 ] and 2000 registered pharmacies [ 21 ] governed by the federal government [ 22 ]. Further, NSW Health is the public health system for the state and includes NSW Ambulance, NSW Health Pathology, eHealth NSW, Health Protection NSW (public health legislation and surveillance), and Local Health Districts (LHDs) [ 23 ]. LHDs encompass hospitals, home hospitals, hospital pharmacies, aged health and disabilities, mental health, aboriginal health, drug health, and public health including immunisation [ 24 ]. During 2020-21, NSW had a total of 228 public hospitals and 210 private hospitals [ 25 ], and over 150 pathology collection centres [ 26 ]. Participants in this study were from general practices and community pharmacies, as well as NSW Health, including NSW Ambulance, Health Pathology (including COVID-19 testing centres), eHealth NSW, hospitals, hospital pharmacies, and immunisation services.
The research team (E.C., B.S., T.S., F.M.) initiated purposive recruitment with a convenience sample [ 27 , 28 ], identifying potential participants within their health system networks. Once enrolled, we used snowballing where participants were asked to forward the study invitation email to others who might be interested. Participants did not have any pre-existing relationship with the interviewer (H.R.-A.) who invited them via email. Transcripts were deidentified by H.R.-A. before sharing them with the other core analysis team (E.C., F.M).
Ethics and consent
Ethics approval was obtained from the Macquarie University Ethics Committee (ID: 11187) prior to commencing the study. Participants provided written informed consent prior to data collection.
Data collection
Data were collected between April and September 2022. At the time of the interview, the COVID-19 vaccine was freely available to the community, and health services in NSW have been providing in-person services in addition to tele-consultation. One-on-one interviews were conducted online using videoconferencing software (Zoom Video Communications, Inc. 2023) with each session lasting an average of 51 min (range: 27–73 min). One of the researchers (H.R-A.) with experience in qualitative interviews was responsible for conducting the interviews. Interviews were transcribed using an AI-based transcription tool (rev.com). A subset of four transcripts were manually checked for transcription accuracy (H.R-A.). Data collection and preliminary analysis were concurrent, with emerging themes from initial analysis reshaping subsequent interview questions and recruitment. Emerging themes about the use of different types of strategies led to new probe questions about strategy and whether such responses were new to the setting. The bulk of the analysis was conducted after data collection.
After the interviewer introduced herself and the reasons for conducting the research (identifying potential approaches for a crises ready health system) participants were asked about: (1) The challenges they faced while providing clinical services during the entire stages of the pandemic; (2) Specific health service responses that they were involved with and (3) what they did differently to pre COVID-19 practices (See Additional file 2 for the initial version of the interview guide).
Data analysis
Data were analysed using constant comparative analysis [ 29 ]. Two early transcripts were open-coded line-by-line to identify emerging concepts and themes (By H.R-A.). To ensure generalisability, these early codes were discussed and refined with a second analyst (E.C.). Codes were further refined and extended during the study by comparing similar categories across participants. An axial coding approach was taken, looking at connections between categories in terms of causation, strategies, consequences, context, and related conditions [ 29 ]. This process continued until all transcripts were coded. Both inductive and deductive approaches were utilised for coding and conceptualising the themes and frameworks.
Data coding was supported by QRS International NVivo ® 12 Software. Visualisation of code connections, codes and data was undertaken using Microsoft Excel. Some codes were grouped into more general constructs, and others were separated into several distinct codes. H.R-A. created memos of each transcript including key quotes, cross-indexed back to the transcripts and documented all process changes in an audit trail.
Reflexivity
Authors (E.C., B.S., T.S.; males) have a clinical background (medical doctors) and two are currently in clinical practice (B.S., T.S.). E.C. (PhD), F.M. (PhD, female) and H.R-A. (PhD, female) were academic researchers at the time of the study. All authors are experienced health system researchers, with prior experience in qualitative research. The interviewer and principal analyst (H.R.-A.) who had no previous contact with any of the participants, deidentified the transcripts before sharing them with other team members. Three participants were willing to provide feedback on the initial analyses.
Analytic framework
We analysed data to identify the types of (1) problems faced by participants or their health services during the COVID-19 pandemic; and (2) the type of health service responses employed to manage these problems. The analysis of health service responses was undertaken using the lens of STS theory which emphasises that system processes are the inevitable consequence of interaction between the people and technology, and that studying either in isolation leads to reductionism that fails to explain how the real world works adequately [ 16 ]. Thus, technological processes were analysed alongside human processes, each shaping the other in a continuous process of human-technology interaction [ 30 , 31 ]. For example, if a participant discussed technology, we probed for human processes related to the technology. We sought to understand the context that led to different social and technical response patterns with specific attention to human and technology interactions. Two researchers (H. R-A. and E.C.) analysed the health service responses reported by interviewees, and differences in interpretation were resolved by discussion.
Participant characteristics
Of 28 invited health professionals, 19 participated in our study. Participants who were involved in the pandemic response were GPs ( n = 2), pharmacists ( n = 2), specialists (e.g. emergency physician and respiratory physician), ( n = 3), nurses and midwives ( n = 3), allied health workers (e.g. physiotherapist and social worker working in ICU) ( n = 3), pathologists ( n = 2), a paramedic ( n = 1), a clerical officer ( n = 1) and public health implementation officer/ managers ( n = 2).
Health service problem types
Participants identified four broad classes of challenges faced by their health services during COVID-19. A summary of challenges is provided below, and a detailed description with example quotes from participants available in Additional File 3 .
Health system overload . The ability for health services to meet the needs of the population as the pandemic unfolded was often compromised because of an imbalance between the supply and demand for resources. System overload was often the result.
Barriers to decision-making : In the rapidly unfolding pandemic, evidence was not being generated and distributed as quickly as health services required, and the communication pathways to share information were sometimes suboptimal.
Education and training gaps : The need to train the public and health service staff as services responded to the pandemic was triggered both by the arrival of new evidence and best-practice guidance needing to be shared widely, or by staff working in roles that were new to them.
Limitations of existing services : Faced with multiple and concurrent challenges, many existing services or care models were found to be inadequate.
Health service response types
Respondents provided a rich account of the different strategies employed to meet the problems faced during the early years of the pandemic, with multiple examples across all four problem types (Additional file 4 ).
High-level analysis of these responses identified that human organisational responses were apparently shaped by the degree of technology maturity and availability. We observed differences in the use of generic responses (applicable to many settings) and specific responses (designed to serve a given service, its unique characteristics and the problems it faced). In this section below, we contrast examples of general and specific responses, presented for each problem type to explore why these strategic differences might have been adopted. Example responses are cross-referenced to relevant quote IDs in brackets, indicating each code’s cell address and item number in the Excel sheet - Additional file 4 as “([Cell address]#[item number when available])”.
Health system overload
Generic overload management strategies: Respondents described increasing the hours worked by staff (quote IDs H03#1, H20, H21), redeploying staff to critical services (quote ID H03#2), hiring new staff (quote IDs H03#3, H20#2, H21#4) or retraining existing staff (quote IDs H14#3, H15#2) to address imbalances between service supply and demand. Work pattern changes included delaying non-urgent care (quote IDs H03#9, H13#7, H66), altering staff/patient ratios in hospitals (quote IDs H03#12, H35#2,6,7), and fast-tracking patient discharge in tandem with home monitoring and support packs for COVID-19 patients (quote ID H03#11). Clinical staff working under difficult circumstances or longer hours were supported with access to accommodation, peer and mental health support (quote IDs H15#7, H21#3, H27#2, H35#5).
The choice of generic responses appeared to be driven by time constraints necessitating immediate solutions (quote ID H20#2). For example, outsourcing recruitment was more expedient than developing new internal processes: “ they hired an external company to I guess source more [staff who] didn’t have the experience that we had it was yeah that’s what effectively led for those long [vaccine] lines… the expectation was the training would come in the same day… the workforce was ignored… it would be much helpful to know that like in two months we’re wrapping up to be 1500 [vaccinations] yeah we would have tried extra hard to train more people [Pharmacist – 14].”
Specific overload management strategies: Overload strategies were sometimes quite specific to the health service experiencing stress. Batch testing of pooled samples for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests was undertaken to improve the throughput of otherwise overloaded laboratory services (quote ID H07#1). Rapid antigen tests (RATs) were used in hospitals to reduce the number of PCR tests for likely-negative individuals and for symptomatic positive patients, and allow ill patients to receive COVID-19 treatment without delay (quote ID H07#2):
What a rapid test would do with someone who is symptomatic would be that if you turn positive on a RAT you are COVID positive , so what that would end up doing was then that would decrease the amount of PCR that we were doing… If we had access to them [RATs] in Delta [variant phase] a testing capacity for PCRs would have dropped , identification of COVID positive patients who have been much faster , and that would have changed our treatment or discharge plans for these patients a lot quicker [ICU Nurse – 13].
Other specific responses were increasing hospital capacity by converting non-emergency wards into COVID-19 wards (quote ID H08#1), creating temporary wards (e.g. tents in hospital car parks) (quote ID H18), and facilitating hospital discharge by providing bus services to take patients home (quote ID H55). Emergency co-ordination centres assisted in identifying beds for patients across a region (quote ID H03#10), and respiratory clinics were set up in the community to support keeping patients at home (quote ID H60#2).
Barriers to decision-making
Generic decision-making strategies: Health services adopted several generic strategies to improve data capture, and dissemination of new evidence and local data. A respondent explained how a generic electronic medical record system (EMR) was customised to capture COVID-19 specific information (quote ID H56). “ We had to make EMR kind of work for us [Emergency physician – 09].” The respondent and their colleagues “ had to sort of come up with a process … to mark that you’ve had COVID and then not test you .” General purpose strategies required staff to be vigilant for problems during their application: “people were good at that. It was just realising that it [problem] was coming. So sort of working out. Oh hang on this is going to be a problem as we go forward. So what do we do? [Emergency physician – 09] . ”
Non-specific technologies such as email, Zoom, and Microsoft Teams were often used to enhance team communication. Communication processes were also enhanced by scheduling regular daily staff meetings at hospitals (quote IDs H09#1, H14#11), and weekly meetings for GPs to speak directly with those involved in pandemic management from the public health system (quote ID H09#4). Microsoft SharePoint was used to gather information about staff activities, such as where and when they treated COVID-19 patients, to assist with infection control and for patient managements (quote IDs H47, H48#2, H49).
Specific decision-making strategies: To provide local best practice guidance, expert support teams were created to assist with troubleshooting (quote ID H09#3), local protocols were developed and updated potentially daily (quote IDs H09#2, H68#1,), and interdisciplinary collaborations (e.g. pharmacists working with nurses) developed local workflow models (quote ID H17#1). Such activities required significant effort (quote ID H09#2): “ a working group that met like daily seven days a week for months and months and months to put together the [local protocol and updates] response [Transplant nephrologist – 18]. ”
Education and training gaps
Generic training strategies: Virtual training packages were used to maximise the dissemination of educational materials where local training was not feasible (quote ID H57). Peer support networks were developed to support information sharing where training was not available (quote IDs H03#4, H34 #5, H15#2). Adaptations of such solutions required significant human effort e.g. peer support meant senior staff had to be “there every step of the way [Emergency nurse – 13]. ”
Specific training strategies: Many of the responses designed to educate the health system workforce and the community were highly targeted (quote ID H15#2). Specific training programs were instituted to meet urgent needs, e.g. training clinicians in the use of PPE and hand hygiene. Consumers received highly targeted educational messages, such as requests to avoid unnecessary calling of ambulances, and simple social distancing rules and masking advice (quote IDs H22, H25, H26). Pharmacies provided in-house RATs for members of the public who did not understand the testing process (quote ID H25).
Limitations of existing services
Generic service strategies: The early stages of the pandemic saw a flurry of new or extended health services, often implemented under significant time and resource limitations. Periods of public health mandated lockdowns and work-from-home arrangements relied upon general purpose technologies (quote IDs H3#13, H14#5). Virtual consultations were delivered over channels of varying sophistication from telephone to online telecare products (quote IDs H13#3, H44#2, H52#1, H62#1). When there was lack of supply or limited access to manufactured PCR kits for COVID-19, specialised experts using general PCR techniques “try and put together a rapid PCR type of [solution/reagent] which they didn’t have [Pathology manager – 26] ” (quote ID H64#2).
Specific service strategies: Context-specific responses to service limitations included massive expansion of contact tracing capabilities, new measures such as routine COVID-19 surveillance of clinical staff (quote ID H14#6), and the use of QR (quick response) codes in public venues to support rapid contact tracing (quote ID H14#15). COVID-19 focussed respiratory clinics (quote ID H60#2) and PCR testing facilities appeared in the community for the first time. Specialist vaccination hubs and expanded community pharmacy services such as home delivery of medications were other specific responses. Hospital emergency services expanded their triage functions by creating specialised COVID-19 assessment areas with staff in full PPE, either using repurposed hospital space or in carparks outside the emergency departments or clinics (quote ID H03#11, H13#1,2, H14#13). Laboratories took advantage of manufactured PCR kits when available (quote ID H064#4): “you just opened the box and you put it together and you go [Pathology manager – 26].”
General to specific strategies . Many early responses to the pandemic involved the use of general strategies that sought to optimise responses from existing services (such as reconfiguring rostering or using general-purpose software):
The use of general solutions seemed to coincide with urgency and lack of time or resources to craft a more specific local solution (e.g. quote ID H20#2).
General solutions also could thus be seen to “buy time” whilst uncertainty remained about the best way forward, and better more specific solutions were being developed (e.g. quote IDs H03#13, H14#5). Pre-existing SARS infection control protocols were widely used early on and adapted to local circumstances or evolving knowledge. Generic information and communication tools were used to patch together information processes whilst more sophisticated solutions could be developed (e.g. quote IDs H13#3, H44#2, H52#1, H62#1) [ 32 ].
It is the nature of such generic responses that they are never a perfect fit to a specific task or context. Consequently, some adaptation or localisation is required to better meet these local needs. Such “fitting work” [ 33 ] often fell to local staff, and could take the form of workarounds (e.g. to make standard computer systems work in a new setting) or the addition of local changes (e.g. to a PPE protocol [ 34 ]) (e.g. quote IDs H47, H48#2, H49, H56).
The need for fitting work imposes additional load on staff (e.g. quote IDs H03#1, H20, H21) to “ make things work here right now ” and could be a contributor to the high levels of staff burnout reported through the pandemic.
Specific to general strategies . Highly local solutions to pandemic challenges were often needed where services provided highly specialised services. For example, the details of changes to the workflow for laboratory processing of high volumes of PCR tests would not have wide applicability beyond the laboratory setting.
The use of specific solutions appeared to coincide with unique local problems, or some capacity to develop new specific solutions whilst generic solutions “ held the fort ” (quote ID H64 #2).
Nonetheless, general lessons from such specific responses can sometimes be drawn e.g. in the approach taken to agree upon the specific solution and how it is subsequently communicated. For example, public health services had to rapidly expand their workforce in support of contact tracing, and their use of external recruitment agencies could be adopted by very different parts of the health system.
This study has examined the challenges faced during the COVID-19 pandemic, and health system responses to those challenges in Australia.
Clearly the challenges faced during the pandemic were not uniform, and different health services found themselves better or less well prepared or capable of responding than others [ 35 ]. Our analysis of these responses identified what appeared to be two quite different response pathways that played distinct roles in crisis management – the adoption of general strategies which could be used across a wide variety of settings, or the use or creation of highly targeted context specific responses.
What lessons can be learned from these broad responses? Given the nature of crises, each will bring novel and likely unanticipated challenges.
When faced with requirements to dramatically alter the duties and workflows of existing health services, especially when constrained by time, resource or knowledge, health services can turn to general-purpose strategies to reconfigure their existing workforce, and adopt ready to hand general purpose technologies. Whilst not ideal, these strategies support quick responses and buy time for more targeted solutions to emerge.
Crisis preparedness could thus focus on understanding the range of general-purpose tools and processes that can quickly be brought to hand. Adaptation protocols might provide guidance on localisation processes that optimise speed, quality, impact on staff, or cost. For example, protocols might describe processes of problem identification, workaround development, and team communication approaches that facilitate these tasks. In developing such protocols, we should not forget that while some services must develop highly localised solutions, they nevertheless can be a rich source of lessons about general approaches to identifying issues, designing solutions, and enacting them effectively. During the pandemic, innovations commonly involved combining pre-existing services.
Theoretical frameworks for system resilience describe the importance of flexibility and adaptability to respond to unexpected and escalating situations [ 36 , 37 ]. Generic competencies are often team-based and include information management, communication and coordination, decision-making, and effect control [ 36 ]. Responses when managing the early phase of health emergencies should be simple and generic, such as using generic international guidance [ 38 ]. The Interactive Systems Framework (ISF) for dissemination and implementation distinguishes innovation-specific capacity and general capacity [ 39 ]. Various implementation frameworks suggest general organisational capacity building is an essential step in the early phase of implementation [ 40 ]. Such approaches emphasise that stabilising a situation and maintaining organizational function are key to managing uncertainty while developing specific responses.
Limitations
The problems and system responses reported in this study may lack representativeness because of the small sample size of interviewees, the focus on a single albeit large health system in Australia, and the potential for recruitment biases introduced by convenience and snowballing sampling. Different nations had distinct experiences during COVID-19, such as variations in public health measures adopted, access to vaccines, lockdowns, government policy, and health impacts of the virus on their population. Thus, these findings may not be generalisable to other health system settings. Respondents detailed challenges and system responses with many examples. We anticipated achieving theoretical saturation with 20 participants but during the analysis phase did not do so. This may be due to the richness of innovations during COVID-19 or the diverse selection of participants [ 41 , 42 ]. Failure to saturate suggests that interviewing additional participants could likely identify new examples and issues that might have uncovered additional issues. However, the concept of data saturation in qualitative studies is currently under debate [ 43 ].
Health services have a range of different response strategies available to them when faced with novel challenges, and selection of a strategy can be guided by the circumstances and the availability of ready-to-hand specific strategies. The workforce is pivotal in enabling emergent responses that require dealing with uncertainties. Recognising the important role that general purpose strategies play when time is short (e.g. emergencies) and specific solutions are not yet available suggests that health services can invest in formalising protocols for solution design and focus on workforce support, including team communication and supporting solution implementation. Such capabilities should enhance health system preparedness for crises such as new pandemics or climate-change triggered events. Much can also be learnt about the construction of context-specific solutions, a deeper exploration of when to employ such approaches and how to support them to best prepare for future crises.
Data availability
The complete datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available because consent was not obtained from study participants for data to be made public but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request subject to approval from the Macquarie University Ethics Committee. Part of the deidentified data is provided as a supplementary file.
Abbreviations
Electronic medical record system
General practitioner
Intensive care unit
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Personal protective equipment, RAT: Rapid antigen tests
Sociotechnical system
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank K-lynn Smith and Yvonne Zurynski for their valuable feedback on the manuscript.
The project was conducted with funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council: Partnership Centre for Health System Sustainability; and Centre of Research Excellence in Digital Health (APP1134919).
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Hania Rahimi-Ardabili, Farah Magrabi, Brenton Sanderson, Thilo Schuler & Enrico Coiera
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E.C., B.S., T.S. and F.M. conceptualised the study. H.R.-A. developed the study protocol and collected data, E.C. and H.R.-A. analyzed the data. E.C. and H.R.-A. prepared the original draft, and all authors contributed to the final drafts of the manuscript.
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Rahimi-Ardabili, H., Magrabi, F., Sanderson, B. et al. A qualitative analysis of health service problems and the strategies used to manage them in the COVID-19 pandemic: exploiting generic and context-specific approaches. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 1067 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11499-7
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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11499-7
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