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Descriptive Essay: The Industrial Revolution and its Effects

The Industrial Revolution was a time of great age throughout the world. It represented major change from 1760 to the period 1820-1840. The movement originated in Great Britain and affected everything from industrial manufacturing processes to the daily life of the average citizen. I will discuss the Industrial Revolution and the effects it had on the world as a whole.

The primary industry of the time was the textiles industry. It had the most employees, output value, and invested capital. It was the first to take on new modern production methods. The transition to machine power drastically increased productivity and efficiency. This extended to iron production and chemical production.

It started in Great Britain and soon expanded into Western Europe and to the United States. The actual effects of the revolution on different sections of society differed. They manifested themselves at different times. The ‘trickle down’ effect whereby the benefits of the revolution helped the lower classes didn’t happen until towards the 1830s and 1840s. Initially, machines like the Watt Steam Engine and the Spinning Jenny only benefited the rich industrialists.

The effects on the general population, when they did come, were major. Prior to the revolution, most cotton spinning was done with a wheel in the home. These advances allowed families to increase their productivity and output. It gave them more disposable income and enabled them to facilitate the growth of a larger consumer goods market. The lower classes were able to spend. For the first time in history, the masses had a sustained growth in living standards.

Social historians noted the change in where people lived. Industrialists wanted more workers and the new technology largely confined itself to large factories in the cities. Thousands of people who lived in the countryside migrated to the cities permanently. It led to the growth of cities across the world, including London, Manchester, and Boston. The permanent shift from rural living to city living has endured to the present day.

Trade between nations increased as they often had massive surpluses of consumer goods they couldn’t sell in the domestic market. The rate of trade increased and made nations like Great Britain and the United States richer than ever before. Naturally, this translated to military power and the ability to sustain worldwide trade networks and colonies.

On the other hand, the Industrial Revolution and migration led to the mass exploitation of workers and slums. To counter this, workers formed trade unions. They fought back against employers to win rights for themselves and their families. The formation of trade unions and the collective unity of workers across industries are still existent today. It was the first time workers could make demands of their employers. It enfranchised them and gave them rights to upset the status quo and force employers to view their workers as human beings like them.

Overall, the Industrial Revolution was one of the single biggest events in human history. It launched the modern age and drove industrial technology forward at a faster rate than ever before. Even contemporary economics experts failed to predict the extent of the revolution and its effects on world history. It shows why the Industrial Revolution played such a vital role in the building of the United States of today.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — History of the United States — Industrial Revolution

Essays on Industrial Revolution

Industrial revolution essay topics and outline examples, essay title 1: the industrial revolution: catalyst for economic transformation and social change.

Thesis Statement: This essay explores the Industrial Revolution as a pivotal period in history, analyzing its role as a catalyst for economic transformation, technological innovation, and significant societal changes in labor, urbanization, and living conditions.

• Introduction
• The Emergence of Industrialization: Transition from Agrarian to Industrial Society
• Technological Advancements: Inventions and Their Impact on Production
• Factory System and Labor: The Changing Nature of Work
• Urbanization and Its Consequences: The Growth of Industrial Cities
• Social Reforms and Challenges: Responses to Inequities and Labor Conditions
• Legacy of the Industrial Revolution: Long-Term Effects on Modern Society

Essay Title 2: The Dark Side of Progress: Environmental Consequences and Labor Exploitation during the Industrial Revolution

Thesis Statement: This essay critically examines the Industrial Revolution, shedding light on its environmental consequences, the exploitation of laborers, and the ethical dilemmas that arose as a result of rapid industrialization.

• Environmental Impact: Pollution, Deforestation, and Resource Depletion
• Factory Conditions and Child Labor: The Human Cost of Industrialization
• Ethical Considerations: Debates on Economic Gain vs. Social Welfare
• Worker Movements and Labor Reforms: Struggles for Workers' Rights
• The Industrial Revolution and Globalization: Impact Beyond Borders
• Reevaluating Progress: Lessons for Sustainable Development

Essay Title 3: The Industrial Revolution and Its Influence on Modern Economic Systems and Technological Advancements

Thesis Statement: This essay analyzes the profound influence of the Industrial Revolution on contemporary economic systems, technological innovations, and the enduring legacy of industrialization in shaping our modern world.

• Capitalism and Industrialization: The Birth of Modern Economic Systems
• Technological Breakthroughs: The Impact of the Steam Engine, Textile Industry, and More
• The Role of Industrial Giants: Key Figures and Their Contributions
• Globalization and Trade Networks: Connecting Continents and Markets
• Innovation and the Information Age: Tracing Technological Progress
• Contemporary Challenges and Opportunities: Navigating the Post-Industrial World

Prompt Examples for Industrial Revolution Essays

The impact of industrialization on society.

Examine the social consequences of the Industrial Revolution. How did the shift from agrarian economies to industrialized societies affect the lives of individuals, families, and communities? Discuss changes in work, living conditions, and social structures.

The Role of Technological Advancements

Analyze the technological innovations that drove the Industrial Revolution. Explore the inventions and advancements in industry, transportation, and communication that transformed economies and societies. Discuss their significance and long-term effects.

Economic Transformation and Capitalism

Discuss the economic aspects of the Industrial Revolution. How did the rise of industrial capitalism reshape economic systems and create new opportunities and challenges for businesses and workers? Analyze the growth of factories, trade, and global markets.

Labor Movements and Workers' Rights

Examine the emergence of labor movements and workers' rights during the Industrial Revolution. Discuss the conditions and struggles faced by laborers and the efforts to improve working conditions, wages, and labor laws. Explore the role of unions and collective action.

Urbanization and the Growth of Cities

Explore the process of urbanization and the rapid growth of cities during the Industrial Revolution. Discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by urban life, including issues of overcrowding, sanitation, and social inequality.

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability

Analyze the environmental impacts of industrialization. How did the Industrial Revolution contribute to pollution, resource depletion, and environmental degradation? Discuss the early awareness of these issues and the emergence of sustainability concerns.

History's Turning Points: Walls, Rights, Revolutions

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The Worldwide Impact of The Industrial Revolution in The 18th and 19th Centuries

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The Most Important Factors that Contributed to America’s Industrial Revolution

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The Influence of Industrial Revolution on Children and Families

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1733 - 1913

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the mid-18th century. The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the United Kingdom, Europe and the United States. The beginning of industrialization in the United States is started with the opening of a textile mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1793 by Samuel Slater.

There was a few reasons of the beginning of Industrial Revolution: shortage of wood and the abundance of convenient coal deposits; high literacy rates; cheap cotton produced by slaves in North America; system of free enterprise.

Samuel Slater is most associated with starting up the textiles industry in the U.S. An early English-American industrialist known as the "Father of the American Industrial Revolution" and the "Father of the American Factory System". He opened a textile mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1793.

There were many improvements in technology and manufacturing fundamentals that improved overall production and economic growth in the United States. Several great American inventions affected manufacturing, communications, transportation, and commercial agriculture.

The Industrial Revolution resulted in greater wealth and a larger population in Europe as well as in the United States. From 1700 to 1900, there was huge migration of people living in villages to moving into towns and cities for work. The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in history. During the Industrial Revolution, environmental pollution increased.

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Industrial Revolution - Free Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

The Industrial Revolution was a period from about 1760 to 1840 in which major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transportation had a profound effect on the socio-economic and cultural conditions. Essays could discuss its causes, impacts on society, the economy, and the environment, as well as comparisons with other revolutionary periods like the digital revolution. A vast selection of complimentary essay illustrations pertaining to Industrial Revolution you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Pre-Industrial Revolution

Pre- Industrial Revolution Prior to the Industrial Revolution the way most people lived in Europe was very different to how they lived post the Industrial Revolution. 9 out of 10 people lived in rural areas, there was a large mostly poor lower class, a small rich upper class and not much of a middle class. Rural people raised most of their food on small farms and they didn't have to leave home each day to work at their jobs. Ordinary […]

The Second Industrial Revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution took place in America from the 1870s until the beginning of World War I in 1914. During these forty-five years young children and women began working in the workforce as well as many people migrating from all over the world, mostly from Europe in hope to find their American dream and jobs. This created urbanization and overpopulation. Technology also advanced which created a more competitive companies and economy. The characteristics of the Second Industrial Revolution include […]

The Economic Change

The Industrial Revolution was the economic change from agriculture products to machine manufactured products that began in England around the 1750s and ended in the 1870s. Britain then forced workers to stay in the country so that they didn't let the U.S. know the industrial secrets of Britain; eventually, Samuel Slater, an English businessman, fled to the U.S. with knowledge of machinery and textile industry in hopes to get wealthy. This sparked the Industrial Revolution, which caused massive changes in […]

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Started the Industrial Revolution

What Started the Industrial Revolution and How It Changed Society Vanessa Civil Union County College Abstract This paper explores three published articles that show how the Industrial Revolution started and shaped society. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain during the 18th century and later moved to other countries such as Germany, France, and the United States. This is the time period when agricultural societies became more industrialized. Industrial Revolution drastically changed society, before the industrial revolution people were mostly in […]

Industrial Revolution Affected Society

The industrial revolution affected society during the late 1700s-mid 1800s by increasing production and improving communication, but it also caused harsh working conditions and pollution. The increase of production caused by new organizational strategies and new inventions, such as the industrial mill and the factory system, increased job opportunities and lowered prices, improving the quality of life. Communication enhanced during the industrial revolution due to new inventions, such as the telegraph, which enabled long-distance communication for business and private matters. […]

The Industrial Era

The Industrial Era was a time in which American transformed into a modern, urban and industrial nation. The growth of the economy encouraged the industry. The rural and farm life of the nation was taken over by the industry and urbanization. The development of cities involved advancements in technology and an increase in diversity within a society. The Industrial Revolution reached the United States during the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution reshaped culture in America. It had significant effects on […]

Fascinating History of the Industrial Revolution

The fascinating history of the Industrial Revolution begins with a brief understanding of what Pre-Industrial Revolution life was like in the early 1700s. Most of the people during this time period lived in rural areas and worked on their family's farm. Their success in farming was very weather dependent and they made everything themselves from the plots of land around them. Not only was the pace of manufacturing slow, but it was done by hand using very basic tools. Products […]

Industrial Revolution Evolved in Britain

Industrial Revolution evolved in Britain in the 18th century, mass production factories started to take place. Industrial Revolution changed Britain's society forever because everything had changed. British industries were small workshops, and everything was made by hand before the Industrial Revolution. Britain was dependent on India for cotton however after the Industrial Revolution they can take raw cotton and made the thread themselves. Soon After the Industrial Revolution moved beyond Britain to United States because of a man named Samuel […]

Revolutions are Seen as Positive Advancements

Industrial Revolutions are seen as positive advancements, which can lead to furthering economic growth in a nation. Although, industrial revolutions can bring numerous positive outcomes, it can also bring many negative outcomes to the developing country that is going through an industrial change. Throughout history, there has been more than one industrial revolution that has occurred, and it also continues to happen to this day. So far, there has been three different waves of industrial revolution and we are currently […]

The Industrial Revolution Began

The Industrial Revolution began in the 18th century, changing society and opening doors of unlimited production possibilities. The inventors of this time created a new look on life and the eager society of the century never looked back. The Revolution was made possible by people such as James Watt, Benjamin Franklin, and Eli White. The Revolution encouraged the transition from agricultural labor to industrial labor, such as factory work. During the time of the Industrial Revolution, there was a rapid […]

Industrial Revolution was an Era

The Industrial Revolution was an era that had a great impact in American history. It was a time period that showed a large amount of change in the economy. During this time human hands were replaced by large machines and manufacturing. Before all of these changes were made, all work was done by hand which took a lot more time for things to get done. This all came about in Great Britain during the mid 18th century. Samuel Slater brought […]

Increase of Child Labor

Industrial Revolution Due to the increase of child labor and the improvement in transportation, society during and after the Industrial Revolution was a mixed legacy. Many new things started during this time period. Child labor was a negative effect on society, whereas transportation was a positive effect. Many of the new things that happened during the Industrial Revolution set the foundations higher for modern society as a whole. The Industrial Revolution called for a higher work ethic and the will […]

Think of the Industrial Revolution

When I think of the Industrial Revolution I think of supply and demand. The Industrial Revolution took place from the 18th to 19th centuries, during a period in which many areas were mostly rural societies in Europe and America, before becoming industrialized. Then, urban city life was born, ultimately creating power driven machinery, factories, jobs and economic development. Before the Industrial Revolution, manufacturing was often prepared in people's homes or farms using basic tools or simple machines. Industrialization caused a […]

During the Industrial Revolution

During the Industrial Revolution the urbanization of cities and the rise in factories in the US contributed to environmental damage and the health hazards of humans through pollution. This quote, Industries discharged foul, sometimes toxic, solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes into the surrounding air, water, and land (Rosen, 565) tells us how unregulated factories expelled dangerous wastes into the ecosystem without being treated to be harmless. During the Industrial Revolution the lifestyle of Americans in the US changed and population […]

The Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution was the start of fast growth for machines and mechanics. This was the big change for our society. The cities grew and factories were being built and the revolution started from water, iron, steam and shift from agriculture. The second phase of the revolution was based on new technologies of technology, oil, the petrol engine emerged, and greater use of cheap steel. In the Industrial Revolution, there was a huge population shift. It began moving from rural […]

Main Changes during the Industrial Revolution

During the Industrial Revolution, many lives were changed by innovations. There were some innovations that needed to be updated, but there were also some ideas that needed to come to life. Some of the most important innovations were the telephone, the incandescent lightbulb and the car. In 1846, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. The telepone was invented to improve the telegraph. In contrast to the telegraph that used Morse Codes, the telephone allowed people to use their voices to […]

Revolution in the United States

The industrial revolution in the United States of America took a turn from a conventional agricultural society into a vibrant industrial society soon after the civil war. These remarkable changes were a result of many factors such as the availability of raw materials, a large labor force as well as the development of the trans-continental railroad system among other factors. The discovery of iron ore was also among the factors that helped to power up the American Industrial revolution. There […]

First Industrial Revolution

What would our lives look like if it weren't for the machines that we use on a daily bases? Before the discovery of fossil fuels everything ran on a simply sources of energy. The main sources of energy before the Industrial Revolution would have been what little energy that was captured from various types of windmills or waterwheels that would capture energy to use immediately. The way things had been drastically changed with the discovery of fossil fuels underground. New […]

Industrial Revolution Took Place

The Industrial Revolution took place during what we know as the Victorian Era. It impacted the lives of millions of people in ways that could never have been imaged at the time; and the ideals and inventions of then continue to influence our lives even still. While many of the developments during the Industrial Revolution had a positive effect, some did not. The Industrial Revolution brought about extreme poverty, child labor, gruesome injuries, and unhygienic practices. Many of these things […]

The British Industrial Revolution

Introduction The British industrial revolution is also known as the scientific revolution, due to the fact that many scientific and technological discoveries were made during this period in Britain. The industrial revolution is also seen as the era when gadgets were invented. It also led to the too different acts being passed to protect labor workers during the period where they highly relied on child labor and the health concerns of the lower-class. These innovations would not have been possible […]

What were some Negative Effects of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution is defined as a change in manufacturing and transportation that took place in the late 1700s and 1800s. Before the Industrial Revolution that began in England, people used hand tools and basic equipment to make things at home, but after industrialization, most of them were replaced by the machines. Industrialization was the transition to factories, special purpose machinery, and mass production. The textile industries, along with the development of steam engines, iron products played a central role […]

Child Labor was a Crucial Part

Child labor was a crucial part for the success of the United States. Making small children work for fifteen hours a day is terrible and in no way moral. However, without the children working then the Industrial revolution would have failed in America ,thus, having major consequences. America is one of the leading countries in the world in economics,science, technology, and more. All of this success stems from the Industrial revolution. Without the revolution America would be so far behind […]

The Industrial Revolution and Child Labor

The Industrial Revolution had a negative effect on society due to the child labor and horrible working conditions. Until the 1780s most work would have been done by hand. It was the movement which powered machinery. Great Britain was the first country which was industrialized. The reasons why it started in Great Britain was because the agricultural revolution, the enclosure movement, capital, natural resources, and supply of markets. There were many accounts concerning child labor in the 1700s. Child labor […]

Child Labor in the Industrial Revolution

Industrial revolution was the major crucial eras that changed Great Britain Nardinelli (1980; p.739). It happened because of steady monetary, social and political posture in Great Britain and conveyed permanent effects in Britain. With its fast rising monopoly on ocean trade, its renewed interest in technical discovery, and its system of state banks holding tight to its economic safety. Industrial revolution was called the greatest era in the history which endlessly transformed Verdon (2002; p.299) stated that urban life, social […]

Industrial Revolution: Definitions, Causes and History

The Industrial Revolution was a period of time between the 18th and 19th century that sparked the beginning of a major change in modern society from old ways of farming and agriculture to a shift in urbanization and modern machine manufacturing. Prior to the industrial revolution, most of the manufacturing was done in people’s houses using hand tools and other basic machines. However, with the new advanced machinery and factories, the mass producing of products would soon be more efficient […]

Industrial Revolution in Europe and in the US

The industrial revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and in the US, from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The end result of the industrial revolution led to some long and short term effects, both positive and negative. The negative effects included poor working conditions in factories, poor sanitary conditions in cities, and of course child labor. On the other hand, the positive effects included no child abuse or overworking of children, prices went […]

How Industrialization Impacted the Global Order

Industrialization is when a country or region enters into a period of great industrial growth which implies several economic and social changes. Economically speaking, a country with a large population would be a prime spot for industrialization due to the large population needing jobs and money. This in turn would cause people to urbanize around areas where factories were located which makes a bigger population. In terms of social changes, the "lowest class" was created, which consisted of the working […]

Negative Effects of Child Labor in the Industrial Revolution

In the early 1800’s to the middle half of the 1900’s, children were viewed as labor workers. Children did not attend school or get an education like kids do today. Instead, adults took these young kids advantage and used them as labor workers since they were too naive and unable to go against the commands of adults. As the Newsies insinuates, life back in the Industrial Revolution was you work or you live on the streets. Adults and kids alike […]

The Industrial Revolution Analysis

The Industrial Revolution was one of the most important turning points in all of human history, and to many, the Revolution along with its problems, is a thing of the distant past. However, this could not be further from the truth. While developed countries such as United States and England have passed the Industrial Age for the most part, developing areas such as China still have citizens who see similar issues as those during the Industrial Revolution, and little to […]

Industrial Revolution Expanded Throughout Britain

"During the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution expanded throughout Britain rigorously. The use of steam-powered machines led to an enormous increase in the number of factories being built, primarily textile mills. However, child labor reached a whole new measure during this time period. The Industrial Revolution was a major aspect involving children working long hours in dangerous factory conditions for very little wages. They were considered valuable laborers because their small stature allowed them to be restricted into smaller spaces […]

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How to Write an Essay About Industrial Revolution

Understanding the industrial revolution.

Before diving into an essay about the Industrial Revolution, it's crucial to understand its historical significance and impact. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century, was a period of major industrialization and technological advancement that transformed largely agrarian and handcraft-centered economies into industrial and machine-dominated ones. This transformation began in Great Britain and gradually spread to other parts of the world. Your essay should start by explaining the origins of the Industrial Revolution, highlighting key technological innovations like the steam engine and mechanized textile production. Discuss the various factors that contributed to the start of the Industrial Revolution, such as economic conditions, availability of resources, and social and political changes.

Developing a Thesis Statement

A strong essay on the Industrial Revolution should be anchored by a clear, concise thesis statement. This statement should present a specific viewpoint or argument about the Industrial Revolution. For example, you might explore its impact on economic growth, analyze its effects on social structures, or argue how it paved the way for modern industrial societies. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and provide a structured approach to your analysis.

Gathering Supporting Evidence

To support your thesis, gather evidence from various sources, including historical texts, academic journals, and economic analyses. This might include data on industrial output, demographic changes, urbanization trends, or first-hand accounts of life during the Industrial Revolution. Use this evidence to support your thesis and build a persuasive argument. Be sure to consider different perspectives and address potential counterarguments.

Analyzing the Effects of the Industrial Revolution

Dedicate a section of your essay to analyzing the effects of the Industrial Revolution. Discuss how it transformed economies, social structures, urban environments, and even global relationships. Consider both the positive outcomes, such as increased production and technological advancements, and the negative consequences, including environmental damage and the exploitation of workers. Explore how the Industrial Revolution laid the groundwork for the modern world, including its ongoing influence in contemporary societies.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence provided. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the significance of the Industrial Revolution in shaping the modern world. You might also want to reflect on the lessons learned from this period or its relevance to current technological and industrial transformations.

Reviewing and Refining Your Essay

After completing your essay, review and refine it for clarity and coherence. Ensure that your arguments are well-structured and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers, educators, or historians to further improve your essay. A well-written essay on the Industrial Revolution will not only demonstrate your understanding of this pivotal period in history but also your ability to engage with complex historical themes and issues.

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6.3 Capitalism and the First Industrial Revolution

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain the evolution of economic theories from mercantilism to capitalism
• Analyze the ways in which mechanization challenged existing social, economic, and political structures
• Discuss the ideological responses to capitalism, including Marxism

Just as colonial empires were the crucible of new political ideas and gave rise to new forms of resistance to exploitation, they also inspired new economic ideas. Mercantilism, which advocated building a nation’s power by increasing trade through exports, had originally propelled colonization . But as people around the world gained their political freedom, they also became interested in economic freedom, and mercantilism fell out of favor. Capitalism, a system in which prices and costs, not government intervention, serve to regulate the supply and demand of goods traded for individual profit, became popular. However, not everyone agreed with this new economic order; Marxists critiqued it and proposed systems focused on equality rather than profit.

From Mercantilism to Capitalism

In 1681, the French finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert asked a group of French business owners led by a man named Thomas Le Gendre how the government could help them. Le Gendre reportedly told Colbert, “ Laissez nous faire ,” meaning “let us do it.” This gave rise to the concept of laissez-faire economics , which argues that market forces alone should drive the economy and that governments should refrain from direct intervention in or moderation of the economic system. The idea of laissez-faire economics was consistent with the logistical realities of global empires. It was effectively impossible for leaders in Europe to micromanage economic operations that were on the other side of an ocean. Therefore the evolution to a laissez-faire economic model might have been as much a practical necessity as an ideological shift.

Adam Smith was a Scottish political economist and philosopher best known for writing the book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), often referred to by its shortened title The Wealth of Nations ( Figure 6.18 ). Earlier scholars had written about various aspects of economics, but with this book Smith became the first person to produce a comprehensive philosophical examination of the way nations should manage their economies.

In The Wealth of Nations , Smith argued that the “ invisible hand ” of the marketplace guided people when they made their own economic decisions. By doing the work that would bring them the greatest profit, he explained, people inadvertently tended to produce the goods and services most needed by society. To allow the invisible hand to work, Smith advocated the reduction of tariffs and most forms of governmental regulation. His work was based on rational choice theory , the idea that people understand their options and make rational choices that will help them achieve reasonable objectives. In Smith’s view, this form of selfishness is often good for the individual and for society.

Although Smith did not use the term, preferring to call his system commercial society , he and his supporters promoted the idea later known as capitalism , an economic system in which private individuals and companies typically own the means of production such as factories and farms, and free (unregulated) markets set the value of most goods and services based on supply and demand.

Smith was a critic of slavery . He believed slavery was inefficient and suggested it was doomed to fail if markets were truly free. Because the cost of feeding, clothing, and housing enslaved people, however poorly, was passed on to consumers, Smith also noted that goods made using enslaved labor were more expensive. Free labor could produce goods more inexpensively because the employer did not have to pay for his laborers’ upkeep. However, Smith also used rational choice theory to minimize slavery’s horrors. In The Wealth of Nations , he acknowledged that the enslaved people living in the British Caribbean were “in a worse condition than the poorest people either in Scotland or Ireland,” but he justified their suffering on the basis that “it is the interest of their master that they should be fed well and kept in good heart in the same manner as it is his interest that his working cattle should be so.”

Whether sugar plantations on which enslaved people labored were themselves capitalist enterprises has been a matter of debate among historians. One the one hand, capitalism presupposes freedom on the part of all actors engaged in an economic transaction. Merchants are free to sell what they wish at the prices they wish to charge, and consumers are free to pay the price that is set or to refuse to buy the product. Employers are free to set hours and wages for employees, and employees are supposedly free to accept the employer’s terms or hold out for better ones.

The workforce on sugar plantations, however, consisted of enslaved people who could legally be coerced to do whatever labor their owners decided for whatever compensation they chose to give (usually the minimum of food, clothing, and shelter required to keep the laborers alive). On the other hand, plantation owners behaved in much the same way as owners of other industrial enterprises, by setting production goals, for example. Many have pointed out that the highly regimented system of labor on sugar plantations was much like that in capitalist enterprises like textile factories. The debate is ongoing. What no one disputes is that the profits earned from the sale of sugar and other plantation products grown by enslaved people were often invested in capitalist enterprises, including the factories that were coming into existence in the eighteenth century.

Adam Smith’s ideas challenged the established mercantilist economic order and attracted critics. Some governmental leaders were understandably hesitant to surrender their power to the free market. They questioned the wisdom of reformers like Smith who disagreed with the favorable-balance emphasis of mercantilism . Conservative critics pointed out that while mercantilism might not have been perfect, it had delivered tremendous wealth to Europe, or at least to Europe’s ruling classes.

Other world leaders, most notably in Great Britain , rejected conservative critics and embraced Smith’s ideas, which promised greater potential freedoms and profits for the nation’s wealthiest citizens, and they became the dominant force in British economic reforms. The wealthy House of Commons leader Charles James Fox praised Smith’s ideas in Parliament, although he later admitted he had not read The Wealth of Nations and thought it far too long. In 1777, Prime Minister Fredrick North proposed a revised tax code based on Smith’s work. In 1792, Prime Minister William Pitt praised Smith’s work as “the best solution to every question connected with the history of commerce, or with the systems of political economy.”

Smith’s ideas spread across the Atlantic, and in 1807 President Thomas Jefferson wrote “Smith’s Wealth of Nations is the best book to be read.” As Smith’s ideas took root, governments reduced tariffs, cut back on economic regulations, and led their nations’ transition from the quest for favorable balances of trade to the search for personal profit.

Smith’s ideas remain influential, but modern scholars often criticize them. In contrast to his reliance on rational choice theory, they argue that people do not always behave rationally or make the best decisions. Others condemn the moral failings of the invisible hand, which sacrificed the lives and wellbeing of enslaved people, poor workers, and colonial subjects to provide elites with profit.

In Their Own Words

The wealth of nations.

An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is better known by its shortened title The Wealth of Nations . Published by the Scottish scholar Adam Smith in 1776, it was probably the first comprehensive study of economic philosophy. Always controversial, it remains an influential work today. As you read this excerpt from it, look for Smith’s definition of the “invisible hand.”

As every individual, therefore, endeavors as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual revenue of the society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. He intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. —Adam Smith , The Wealth of Nations

• How would you explain the idea of the invisible hand in your own words?
• What are some potential benefits and drawbacks to a society’s reliance on the invisible hand?
• Do you always act in your own economic best interests? Do others? Does the invisible hand work better for some people than others? Why or why not?

Mechanization

In the late 1700s, western European nations began to adopt mechanization , the use of machines to replace the labor of animals and humans. Mechanization set the stage for the Industrial Revolution , a transition away from societies focused on agriculture and handicraft production to socioeconomic systems dominated by the manufacture of goods, primarily with machines.

People in many places, including China, Egypt, India, Greece, and Rome, had made limited use of machinery in the ancient past; however, most goods were produced by skilled artisans for local consumption. Beginning in the mid-1600s, the British enjoyed an agricultural revolution that allowed smaller numbers of farmers employing fewer farm laborers to produce a surplus of food, and that in turn led to a population increase.

In the 1700s, entrepreneur s in England found a way to make use of unemployed or underemployed farm laborers and their families. These entrepreneurs provided farm families with raw materials and asked them to produce finished goods in their cottages, a system that became known as cottage labor . Rural women spun wool or flax into thread, and men then wove it into woolen cloth or linen. Some farm families made bonnets from straw. Other people made nails, knit hosiery, or made lace. The entrepreneur collected their finished products, paid them for their labor, and sold the finished goods in towns and cities. Because the farm laborers were not skilled artisans, they could not command high wages, and the entrepreneurs reaped great profits.

In time, entrepreneurs began to gather laborers together in one location, a factory . This decision gave them greater control over production because they could hire managers to supervise the workers’ labor. It was also easier to install machines in factories than in laborers’ cottages (although laborers might be provided with or rent relatively small machines, such as knitting frames, for their cottages). Factories came to be concentrated in towns and cities. As work moved to urban areas, so too did men and women who could not find work on farms. By the late 1700s, British business owners, supported by government policies inspired by Adam Smith, were setting up factories and hiring many of these migrant workers.

During the Industrial Revolution, factories increasingly relied on machine power, most importantly the steam engine . A steam engine uses heat to transform water into steam, which expands and drives a piston to perform work. Hero of Alexandria, in Egypt, produced the first steam engine when he created the aeolipile, a simple turbine that powered toys, around the year 70 CE. Steam engines remained little more than curiosities until 1698 when the English inventor Thomas Savery used the world’s first commercial steam engine to pump water out of mines and to supply water for industrial water wheels. By 1776, British factories were powering some of their operations with improved steam engines designed by the Scottish engineer James Watt .

Locomotives and boats powered by steam engines soon delivered raw materials to the factories and transported finished goods to consumers. In 1807, American inventor Robert Fulton began operation of the first successful commercial steamboats. In 1812, Matthew Murray , an English industrialist, opened the world’s first successful steam locomotive line. Several inventors produced steam-powered vehicles that could travel on roads, but the heavy weight of steam engines and the poor conditions of most roads doomed them to failure and kept steam engines in the factories, waterways, and railroads.

Industrialization, motivated and enabled by capitalism , created tremendous wealth for business owners and middle-class professionals, but their profits often came at a high cost to workers. The production of goods shifted from the handiwork of highly skilled middle-class artisans to mechanized production done by low-paid unskilled laborers. Workers did enjoy access to new consumer goods made cheaper by industrialization, but to afford those goods they had to work long hours, in difficult and often dangerous conditions. Perhaps most importantly, workers lost control over their working conditions. Farmers and artisans, particularly those who owned their land or shops, were free to decide how and when they worked, whereas factory owners carefully regulated every aspect of their workers’ professional and even personal lives. For example, the 1848 employee handbook for the Hamilton Manufacturing Company stated that “the company will not employ any one who is habitually absent from public worship on the Sabbath, or known to be guilty of immorality.”

Some workers rebelled against industrialization, which threatened their status as skilled laborers. Beginning in 1811, a secretive group of British textile workers calling themselves Luddites began destroying textile machinery, rioting, and setting fires in response to the industrialization of their workplaces ( Figure 6.19 ). They took their name from the mythical Ned Ludd , a worker who supposedly destroyed a mechanized loom rather than submit to industrialization. As the Luddite movement grew, so did the legend of Ned Ludd, until some workers claimed that King Ludd lived in Sherwood Forest and fought corrupt industrialists, much as Robin Hood had opposed corrupt authorities during the Middle Ages. The Luddites did not argue in favor of a specific ideology or a grander purpose. They were simply angry that industrialization was destroying their traditional way of life, and they fought back with every tool at their disposal.

British leaders reacted quickly to the Luddites, with some calling them a mob worthy of execution. In 1812, the poet and peer Lord Byron responded by pointing out that these same people worked the fields, produced the goods, and served in the armed forces of the British Empire. Byron argued that the mob “often speaks the sentiments of the people” and warned “it is the mob” that “enabled you to defy all the world and can also defy you when neglect and calamity have driven them to despair.” He urged the British government to respond to the protesting workers with “conciliation and firmness” rather than violence. Most British business and political leaders disagreed with Byron and worked to suppress the rebellion. Parliament made industrial sabotage a capital offense. British authorities hanged many Luddites and exiled more to prison colonies. By 1816, the industrialists had defeated the Luddites. Today, “Luddite” is often used as a generic description of anyone opposed to technological change.

Dueling Voices

The luddites.

The Luddites were British factory workers who engaged in the destruction of machines, rioting, and vandalism to resist industrialization. Following are excerpts from two primary sources on the Luddites, describing separate incidents and written from different perspectives.

West Riding of Yorkshire The complaint of John Sykes of Linthwaite . . . taken upon oath this 6th day of March 1812 before me Joseph Radcliffe Esquire one of His Majesty’s Justices of the Peace in and for the said Riding - Who saith that between one and two o clock this Morning a number of people came to the door of his said Master’s dwelling house and knocked violently at it, and demanded admittance or otherwise they would break the door open—to prevent which this Examinnant opened the door and 30 or more people with their faces blacked or disguised came in and asked if there were any amunition guns or pistols in the house and where the Master was, on being told he was not at home they secured or guarded every person of the family and then a number of them took a pound of candles and began to break the tools and did break 10 pairs of shears and one brushing machine the property of his said Master, that one of them who seemed to have the command said that if they came again and found any machinery set up, they would blow up the premises, soon after which they all went away— Sworn before me — Joseph Radcliffe [The mark of John Sykes] —An account of machine-breaking at Linthwaite, Yorkshire, March 1812

Sir We mentioned some frames to be removed today from 10 miles off. They came totally unmolested. The soldiers did not go near the village, and the constables had no interruption whatever. We have been concerned to see these instances of removing frames because it must leave some of the country people without the means of work, but it will at the same time open their eyes to the consequence of their own proceedings. For some time before these troubles broke out, in many places a fifth of the frame workers were out of employ, and this naturally induced some hosiers (not perhaps of the first reputation) to give them particular kinds of work at reduced prices; and the hosiers who were giving the higher prices found themselves undersold in certain articles at the London Market. This again brought about new arrangements, which soured the whole body of workmen . . . resentment against those hosiers who paid the under price has been the leading feature up to the present day. They have seldom made free with other property altho’ opportunities at all times have presented themselves, and in one instance lately at Clifton, some cloths that one of the frame breakers brought away, were carefully sent back again the following day. —A letter sent to London from a magistrate describing the situation in Nottingham, February 1812

• What are the key similarities and differences between the two accounts?
• Why do you think they provide such different views of the Luddites?
• Was the Luddite rebellion a reasonable response to the challenges posed by industrialization? Why or why not?

Karl Marx was a highly controversial intellectual and revolutionary. Born in 1818 in Trier, in what is now Germany, he grew up as the son of a successful lawyer and was baptized into the Evangelical Church when he was six years old. As a young man, he studied law at the University of Berlin, where a professor introduced him to the philosophy of Georg Hegel . Marx quickly embraced Hegel’s idealistic universal history, which suggested the world is progressing through conflicts toward greater freedom. After completing his education, he worked as a journalist and writer.

In 1848, Marx published The Communist Manifesto with his co-author Friedrich Engels . In the book, the two argued that “the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” Their idea, that recognizing the class struggle between workers and the ruling class is central to understanding societies, is also known as Marxism ( Figure 6.20 ). In addition to laying out their vision of history, Marx and Engels predicted that society would eventually replace current economic systems with socialism , a system in which the public, not private companies or individuals, owns the means of production. In their view, socialism was one phase of the transition from the private ownership characteristic of capitalism to the completely classless society of communism . They called for the forcible overthrow of current societies, a statement many communists around the world embraced as a declaration of war on capitalism . The ideals of communism were inspired by the abuses of capitalism that often exploited workers.

Link to Learning

Karl Marx published The Communist Manifesto with his co-author Friedrich Engels in 1848. Many writers from across the political and ideological spectrum inaccurately portray the ideas in The Communist Manifesto to support their own ideas or to paint their opponents in a negative light. Consider reading The Communist Manifesto for yourself and drawing your own conclusions about what the work says and what it might mean to you.

Marx’s book Das Kapital , published in 1867, is one of history’s most often cited sources on economics and politics. In Das Kapital , Marx argued that the bourgeoisie , members of a social class that owned the means of production, were primarily motivated by the desire to exploit labor. In his view, employers paid wages to their workers, also known as the proletariat , that were far less than their labor was worth. They then kept the excess value produced by wage earners, in a process Marx argued was unfair to the workers. Employers used their profits to purchase additional resources and to buy political influence to ensure that the law would support the wealthy instead of the workers. The wealthy became unfit to rule as they increasingly leveraged their growing economic and political power until workers were left powerless and in poverty. Eventually the capitalist system would collapse, and the workers would reclaim control of society.

The Past Meets the Present

Marx on capitalism and communism.

Karl Marx died almost 150 years ago, but his ideas remain widely debated. In 1867, Marx published the first volume of Das Kapital , and it quickly reached a wide audience among those interested in history, economics, and politics. After his death in 1883, Fredrich Engels, his co-author on The Communist Manifesto , published the second and third volumes of Das Kapital based on Marx’s notes. In this quote from Das Kapital , Marx explained his view of the origins of capitalism.

The economic structure of capitalist society has grown out of the economic structure of feudal society. The dissolution of the latter set free the elements of the former . . . [T]he historical movement which changes the producers into wage-workers, appears, on the one hand, as their emancipation from serfdom and from the fetters of the guilds, and this side alone exists for our bourgeois historians. But, on the other hand, these new freedmen became sellers of themselves only after they had been robbed of all their own means of production, and of all the guarantees of existence afforded by the old feudal arrangements. And the history of this, their expropriation, is written in the annals of mankind in letters of blood and fire. —Karl Marx , Das Kapital

Long after Marx’s death, his ideas continued to provide inspiration for people dissatisfied with inequality between social classes and angered by injustices. In 1917, revolutionaries in Russia, inspired by Marx’s ideas, overthrew the government and established a new communist society that became the Soviet Union and existed until 1991. Subsequent communist revolutions gave rise to governments that still exist in China, Vietnam, North Korea, Cuba, and Laos. Even in capitalist countries, communist and socialist political parties exist and are often quite popular with voters. Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont proudly calls himself a socialist, although as many have pointed out, he does not seek to overthrow capitalism or advocate public ownership of the means of production.

• What is capitalism, as described in this excerpt from Das Kapital ? According to Karl Marx, what are its origins?
• How does Marx’s view of history agree or disagree with what you know about history?
• Are Marx’s ideas still relevant today? Why or why not?
• What would Marx say about the history of the world since his death? Have events since 1883 supported or undermined his arguments?

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Primary Source Set The Industrial Revolution in the United States

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The resources in this primary source set are intended for classroom use. If your use will be beyond a single classroom, please review the copyright and fair use guidelines.

Teacher’s Guide

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The Industrial Revolution took place over more than a century, as production of goods moved from home businesses, where products were generally crafted by hand, to machine-aided production in factories. This revolution, which involved major changes in transportation, manufacturing, and communications, transformed the daily lives of Americans as much as— and arguably more than—any single event in U.S. history.

An early landmark moment in the Industrial Revolution came near the end of the eighteenth century, when Samuel Slater brought new manufacturing technologies from Britain to the United States and founded the first U.S. cotton mill in Beverly, Massachusetts. Slater’s Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, like many of the mills and factories that sprang up in the next few decades, was powered by water, which confined industrial development to the northeast at first. The concentration of industry in the Northeast also facilitated the development of transportation systems such as railroads and canals, which encouraged commerce and trade.

The technological innovation that would come to mark the United States in the nineteenth century began to show itself with Robert Fulton’s establishment of steamboat service on the Hudson River, Samuel F. B. Morse’s invention of the telegraph, and Elias Howe’s invention of the sewing machine, all before the Civil War. Following the Civil War, industrialization in the United States increased at a breakneck pace. This period, encompassing most of the second half of the nineteenth century, has been called the Second Industrial Revolution or the American Industrial Revolution. Over the first half of the century, the country expanded greatly, and the new territory was rich in natural resources. Completing the first transcontinental railroad in 1869 was a major milestone, making it easier to transport people, raw materials, and products. The United States also had vast human resources: between 1860 and 1900, fourteen million immigrants came to the country, providing workers for an array of industries.

The American industrialists overseeing this expansion were ready to take risks to make their businesses successful. Andrew Carnegie established the first steel mills in the U.S. to use the British “Bessemer process” for mass producing steel, becoming a titan of the steel industry in the process. He acquired business interests in the mines that produced the raw material for steel, the mills and ovens that created the final product and the railroads and shipping lines that transported the goods, thus controlling every aspect of the steelmaking process.

Other industrialists, including John D. Rockefeller, merged the operations of many large companies to form a trust. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Trust came to monopolize 90% of the industry, severely limiting competition. These monopolies were often accused of intimidating smaller businesses and competitors in order to maintain high prices and profits. Economic influence gave these industrial magnates significant political clout as well. The U.S. government adopted policies that supported industrial development such as providing land for the construction of railroads and maintaining high tariffs to protect American industry from foreign competition.

American inventors like Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Alva Edison created a long list of new technologies that improved communication, transportation, and industrial production. Edison made improvements to existing technologies, including the telegraph while also creating revolutionary new technologies such as the light bulb, the phonograph, the kinetograph, and the electric dynamo. Bell, meanwhile, explored new speaking and hearing technologies, and became known as the inventor of the telephone.

For millions of working Americans, the industrial revolution changed the very nature of their daily work. Previously, they might have worked for themselves at home, in a small shop, or outdoors, crafting raw materials into products, or growing a crop from seed to table. When they took factory jobs, they were working for a large company. The repetitive work often involved only one small step in the manufacturing process, so the worker did not see or appreciate what was being made; the work was often dangerous and performed in unsanitary conditions. Some women entered the work force, as did many children. Child labor became a major issue. Dangerous working conditions, long hours, and concern over wages and child labor contributed to the growth of labor unions. In the decades after the Civil War, workers organized strikes and work stoppages that helped to publicize their problems. One especially significant labor upheaval was the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. Wage cuts in the railroad industry led to the strike, which began in West Virginia and spread to three additional states over a period of 45 days before being violently ended by a combination of vigilantes, National Guardsmen, and federal troops. Similar episodes occurred more frequently in the following decades as workers organized and asserted themselves against perceived injustices.

The new jobs for the working class were in the cities. Thus, the Industrial Revolution began the transition of the United States from a rural to an urban society. Young people raised on farms saw greater opportunities in the cities and moved there, as did millions of immigrants from Europe. Providing housing for all the new residents of cities was a problem, and many workers found themselves living in urban slums; open sewers ran alongside the streets, and the water supply was often tainted, causing disease. These deplorable urban conditions gave rise to the Progressive Movement in the early twentieth century; the result would be many new laws to protect and support people, eventually changing the relationship between government and the people.

The Industrial Revolution is a complex set of economic, technological, and social changes that occurred over a substantial period of time. Teachers should consider the documents in this collection as tools for stimulating student thinking about aspects of the Industrial Revolution.

Suggestions for Teachers

• After providing a definition of the Industrial Revolution and explaining the time span across which it took place, teachers might supply small groups of students with a set of the documents in this primary source set. Students can categorize the documents by whether they provide information about what happened, why it happened, or its effects. Some documents may fit into more than one category. When small groups have completed their work, the teacher can facilitate creating a class list of events of the Industrial Revolution, causes (or supporting factors), and effects. Students may search the Library’s online collections to find additional evidence to support the causes and effects on the class chart.
• Using the documents in this primary source set, students can create a timeline of important events in the Industrial Revolution. The last document in the set is dated 1919. Was the Industrial Revolution over by 1919? Challenge students to find evidence in the Library of Congress digital collections to support their answer (there are documents that suggest industrialization in the South was still taking place into the 1930s).
• Understanding a historical event as it was experienced by those who lived through it is an important skill of historical thinking—and one that can be difficult to develop. Teachers may challenge students to study documents in the collection to identify varied perspectives on the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution, as experienced by people of the day. Would students classify the responses as mainly positive, mainly negative, or about equally divided? How did people respond to what they perceived as negative effects of the Industrial Revolution?
• In 1893, Chicago hosted the World’s Columbian Exposition, which highlighted achievements of the United States and other nations in a variety of fields, including manufacturing and technology. An entire building was devoted to electricity. Using the primary source set as a starting point, ask students to design an exhibit about the development of American industry for the World’s Columbian Exposition.

Additional Resources

Detroit Publishing Company

Built in America

Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers at the Library of Congress

Inside an American Factory: Films of the Westinghouse Works

National Child Labor Committee Collection

Britain’s Industrial Revolution Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Factors that led to britain’s industrialization in the eighteenth century, works cited.

“ Industrial revolution refers to dramatic change in the main sectors of economy such as agriculture, transportation and manufacturing. Industrialization was associated with major benefits such as rise in people’s living standards, increased job opportunities and economic growth, among others.

According to historians, Great Britain was the first nation in the entire globe to industrialize. Industrialization in Britain started in the late eighteenth century. The following essay examines the factors that led to Britain’s industrialization in the late eighteenth century.

By the second part of the eighteenth century, Great Britain was regarded as one of the wealthiest nation across the globe due to industrial revolution. The following factors explain why Industrial revolution occurred in Britain;

Agricultural revolution of the eighteenth century was one of the factors. According to historians, agricultural revolution was characterized by a change in stock breeding and farming methods which in turn enhanced food production in Great Britain. Framers adopted a commercial approach as opposed to the past where they produced food for domestic use.

The large demand of food commodity from London motivated workers to increase their production. Landlordism, which refers to the act of owning large estates, was also a main factor that enhances commercialization of British agriculture. Agricultural revolution helped to lower the food commodity prices in Great Britain.

The cost of labor also lowered as a result of agricultural revolution. British government was therefore in a position to feed its citizens. British families thus, used their disposal incomes to buy manufactured products. Increased food production in Great Britain caused the population to increase. Population growth played a major role in providing the required labor in the new factories.

The other factor which led to Britain’s industrialization in the eighteenth century is the availability of capital for investment. Financial reforms which included introduction of derivatives such as swaps and options also enhanced the industrial revolution in Great Britain. Additionally, the revolution was boosted by the presence of effective central namely Bank of England.

The financial system in the Great Britain was highly effective compared to other European nations like Spain and Italy. The introduction of financial instruments such as bill of exchange made it possible for people to make payments. Political powers in Great Britain were based on economic and technological matters. Thus, the country had a large number of individuals whose main objective was innovation for development (Arnstein 72).

A study which was done by Arnstein (20) suggested that the presence of huge mineral deposits also enhanced industrialization in Great Britain. Britain is a country which is rich in mineral deposits such as iron ore and carbon fuel. Mineral resources played an important role in the manufacturing process. Iron was used in the production of new machineries. The country’s size was relatively smaller and this enhanced transportation of minerals.

The availability of ready market for manufactured goods led to Britain’s industrialization. Availability of ready market ensured that goods from Great Britain were absorbed as fast as they were produced. The country’s exports increased significantly during the late part of the eighteenth century.

During the colonial times, the nation had created an immense colonial empire. The colonial empire made the country to export goods to many parts of the world, compared to its key rivals such as Holland and France. The development of merchant marine made it possible for the country to transport goods throughout the world. Also, Britain’s railroad created a faster and cheaper means of transportation for the manufactured goods.

This had major impacts on the markets as it increased demand for goods and services. Britain’s railroad connected the major towns such as London, Manchester and Liverpool and this helped to spur trade. As a prerequisite to create conducive atmosphere for vibrant economic growth, the British government heavily invested in infrastructural developments.

Among the infrastructural developments that were made include the invention of steam engine. The invention of steam engine also played an important role in enhancing productivity of goods in Great Britain. It facilitated trade in the European region through easier market access by linking Britain with neighboring countries like Spain and Germany. Construction of infrastructural facilities was also enhanced by plenty supply of water from rivers (Arnstein 18).

According to Arnstein (56), Industrialization in Great Britain was also enhanced by the country’s ability to produce goods cheaply. The adoption of machinery in production of goods led to mass production and reduced the cost of production. The invention of flying shuttle led to mass production of yard goods.

In addition, factories were located near rivers and sources of power, which in turn enabled manufacturers to double their output. Great Britain also protected its key industries such as textile by discouraging imports.

The newly created factories provided jobs to thousands of families in Great Britain. In order to ensure that factory machines run at a steady rate, employees were required to work in shifts. Factory managers mainly employed workers from rural areas as they were regarded as hard working. This made people to live near factories and this in turn helped to create new towns.

Arnstein (36) in his study suggested that, the British government made substantial efforts in enhancing industrialization in the late eighteenth century. The government provided investors with a stable business environment. The parliament passed laws which safeguarded private property.

Additionally, Great Britain adopted capitalism form of economy which advocates for private ownership of resources. There were thus, no restrictions on private ownership of resources in England. The government did not intervene with regard to tariffs and taxes. The government also ensured that the credit system was flexible for private investors. The free market economy ensured that individuals’ had rights to own property and dispose off natural resources and man-made resources as they wished.

It also provided the owners of property with the right income, generated from the resources. Workers were also free to enter into any occupation for which they were specialized in. There was the aspect of self interest in pursuit of personal goals. Factories aimed at maximizing production and profits, land owners aimed at achieving maximum rent, workers shifted to occupation which offered the highest rewards and buyers spent their incomes in the way that satisfied the people most.

Industrial revolution in Great Britain in the late part of eighteenth-century was facilitated by factors such as the availability of resources for production, geographical advantages, such as the presence of streams and rivers which provided factories with water, financial reforms which resulted in extra capital for investment, among others. Industrial revolution in Great Britain brought about changes such as technological advancements, mass production, creation of new urban centers and efficient transport systems, among others.

Arnstein, Walter. Britain yesterday and today: 1830 to the present, Edition5 . London: D.C. Health, 1988.

• Industrial and French Revolutions
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• The Eighteenth Century America
• Western Experience to the Eighteenth Century
• Industrialization, Enlightenment, French Revolution
• An Analysis of the Impact of British Colonization
• Restoration and Nationalism
• Christopher Hill “The World Turned Upside Down”
• The French Revolution: Romanticism Period
• Nationalism in World War II
• Chicago (A-D)
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Industrial Revolution

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Technological Advancements: Paving the Path for Economic Transformation The Industrial Revolution of the late 1700s was the beginning of a time of change for America. Moving forward in a progressive way could be the best thing that happened for the country. Although some could argue that moving at a pace we, as Americans, could not […]

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4 Coal’s Impact on the Industrial Revolution and the Environment

Coal’s Pivotal Role: Extraction, Utilization, and Challenges During the Industrial Revolution, things started to change again. The world was becoming something a bit more recognizable to us today. Raw materials were being mined, like iron ore and coal, and many different things were happening with them after the mining process. Coal was, and still is, […]

5 The Industrial Revolution’s Health Legacy: Medical Illnesses and Longevity

Industrialization’s Health Paradox: COPD and Asthma Impact Now, let’s observe pre- and post-industrial society from a medical context. Longevity in industrialized society cannot be discussed without its most well-known aspect, which is medical illnesses. We all know that when a medical illness is present, and the environment is not so hygienic, for example, which was […]

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The Industrial Revolution

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Undergirding the development of modern Europe between the 1780s and 1849 was an unprecedented economic transformation that embraced the first stages of the great Industrial Revolution and a still more general expansion of commercial activity. Articulate Europeans were initially more impressed by the screaming political news generated by the French Revolution and ensuing Napoleonic Wars , but in retrospect the economic upheaval, which related in any event to political and diplomatic trends, has proved more fundamental.

Major economic change was spurred by western Europe’s tremendous population growth during the late 18th century, extending well into the 19th century itself. Between 1750 and 1800, the populations of major countries increased between 50 and 100 percent, chiefly as a result of the use of new food crops (such as the potato) and a temporary decline in epidemic disease. Population growth of this magnitude compelled change. Peasant and artisanal children found their paths to inheritance blocked by sheer numbers and thus had to seek new forms of paying labour. Families of businessmen and landlords also had to innovate to take care of unexpectedly large surviving broods. These pressures occurred in a society already attuned to market transactions, possessed of an active merchant class, and blessed with considerable capital and access to overseas markets as a result of existing dominance in world trade.

Heightened commercialization showed in a number of areas. Vigorous peasants increased their landholdings, often at the expense of their less fortunate neighbours, who swelled the growing ranks of the near-propertyless. These peasants, in turn, produced food for sale in growing urban markets. Domestic manufacturing soared, as hundreds of thousands of rural producers worked full- or part-time to make thread and cloth, nails and tools under the sponsorship of urban merchants. Craft work in the cities began to shift toward production for distant markets, which encouraged artisan-owners to treat their journeymen less as fellow workers and more as wage labourers. Europe’s social structure changed toward a basic division, both rural and urban, between owners and nonowners. Production expanded, leading by the end of the 18th century to a first wave of consumerism as rural wage earners began to purchase new kinds of commercially produced clothing, while urban middle-class families began to indulge in new tastes, such as uplifting books and educational toys for children.

In this context an outright industrial revolution took shape, led by Britain , which retained leadership in industrialization well past the middle of the 19th century. In 1840, British steam engines were generating 620,000 horsepower out of a European total of 860,000. Nevertheless, though delayed by the chaos of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, many western European nations soon followed suit; thus, by 1860 British steam-generated horsepower made up less than half the European total, with France, Germany, and Belgium gaining ground rapidly. Governments and private entrepreneurs worked hard to imitate British technologies after 1820, by which time an intense industrial revolution was taking shape in many parts of western Europe, particularly in coal-rich regions such as Belgium, northern France, and the Ruhr area of Germany. German pig iron production, a mere 40,000 tons in 1825, soared to 150,000 tons a decade later and reached 250,000 tons by the early 1850s. French coal and iron output doubled in the same span—huge changes in national capacities and the material bases of life.

Technological change soon spilled over from manufacturing into other areas. Increased production heightened demands on the transportation system to move raw materials and finished products. Massive road and canal building programs were one response, but steam engines also were directly applied as a result of inventions in Britain and the United States . Steam shipping plied major waterways soon after 1800 and by the 1840s spread to oceanic transport. Railroad systems, first developed to haul coal from mines, were developed for intercity transport during the 1820s; the first commercial line opened between Liverpool and Manchester in 1830. During the 1830s local rail networks fanned out in most western European countries, and national systems were planned in the following decade, to be completed by about 1870. In communication, the invention of the telegraph allowed faster exchange of news and commercial information than ever before.

New organization of business and labour was intimately linked to the new technologies. Workers in the industrialized sectors laboured in factories rather than in scattered shops or homes. Steam and water power required a concentration of labour close to the power source. Concentration of labour also allowed new discipline and specialization, which increased productivity.

The new machinery was expensive, and businessmen setting up even modest factories had to accumulate substantial capital through partnerships, loans from banks, or joint-stock ventures. While relatively small firms still predominated, and managerial bureaucracies were limited save in a few heavy industrial giants, a tendency toward expansion of the business unit was already noteworthy. Commerce was affected in similar ways, for new forms had to be devised to dispose of growing levels of production. Small shops replaced itinerant peddlers in villages and small towns. In Paris, the department store , introduced in the 1830s, ushered in an age of big business in the trading sector.

Urbanization was a vital result of growing commercialization and new industrial technology. Factory centres such as Manchester grew from villages into cities of hundreds of thousands in a few short decades. The percentage of the total population located in cities expanded steadily, and big cities tended to displace more scattered centres in western Europe’s urban map. Rapid city growth produced new hardships, for housing stock and sanitary facilities could not keep pace, though innovation responded, if slowly. Gas lighting improved street conditions in the better neighbourhoods from the 1830s onward, and sanitary reformers pressed for underground sewage systems at about this time. For the better-off, rapid suburban growth allowed some escape from the worst urban miseries.

Rural life changed less dramatically. A full-scale technological revolution in the countryside occurred only after the 1850s. Nevertheless, factory-made tools spread widely even before this time, as scythes replaced sickles for harvesting, allowing a substantial improvement in productivity. Larger estates, particularly in commercially minded Britain, began to introduce newer equipment, such as seed drills for planting. Crop rotation, involving the use of nitrogen-fixing plants, displaced the age-old practice of leaving some land fallow , while better seeds and livestock and, from the 1830s, chemical fertilizers improved yields as well. Rising agricultural production and market specialization were central to the growth of cities and factories.

The speed of western Europe’s Industrial Revolution should not be exaggerated. By 1850 in Britain, far and away the leader still, only half the total population lived in cities, and there were as many urban craft producers as there were factory hands. Relatively traditional economic sectors, in other words, did not disappear and even expanded in response to new needs for housing construction or food production. Nevertheless, the new economic sectors grew most rapidly, and even other branches displayed important new features as part of the general process of commercialization.

Geographic disparities complicate the picture as well. Belgium and, from the 1840s, many of the German states were well launched on an industrial revolution that brought them steadily closer to British levels. France, poorer in coal, concentrated somewhat more on increasing production in craft sectors, converting furniture making, for example, from an artistic endeavour to standardized output in advance of outright factory forms. Scandinavia and the Netherlands joined the industrial parade seriously only after 1850.

Southern and eastern Europe, while importing a few model factories and setting up some local rail lines, generally operated in a different economic orbit. City growth and technological change were both modest until much later in the 19th century, save in pockets of northern Italy and northern Spain. In eastern areas, western Europe’s industrialization had its greatest impact in encouraging growing conversion to market agriculture, as Russia, Poland, and Hungary responded to grain import needs, particularly in the British Isles . As in eastern Prussia, the temptation was to impose new obligations on peasant serfs labouring on large estates, increasing the work requirements in order to meet export possibilities without fundamental technical change and without challenging the hold of the landlord class.

Industrial Revolution Thesis Statement Activity

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Description

In this activity, which I use at the start of my Industrial Revolution unit, students work in small groups to predict whether they think the Industrial Revolution had an overall negative or positive impact on the world. Students must use images as evidence to construct a thesis statement in response to the provided prompt. This activity allows students to analyze sources, think critically, and work collaboratively.

Ready-to-go activity with no prep! Just print and go.

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