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Assignment Method

Published on :

21 Aug, 2024

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Dheeraj Vaidya

What Is The Assignment Method?

The assignment method is a strategic approach to allocating organizational resources, including tasks and jobs to various departments like people, machines, or teams. It aims to minimize total costs or completion time and gain maximum efficiency, by assigning resources to corresponding units.

The assignment procedure's importance stems from its capacity to optimize resource allocation procedures in a business. Organizations may guarantee that resources are used optimally, reducing waste and increasing productivity by implementing a systematic method. It facilitates the decision-making process for the efficient and economical use of resources by helping to make well-informed choices.

Table of contents

Assignment method explained, methodology, advantages & disadvantages, frequently asked questions (faqs), recommended articles.

• The assignment method strategically allocates resources to tasks, jobs or teams to minimize costs or completion time. It optimizes resource utilization, reduces waste, and improves operational efficiency.
• It involves using methods like complete enumeration, simplex, transportation, or the Hungarian method. It involves using the assignment method of linear programming .
• The   Hungarian assignment method efficiently solves assignment problems by determining optimal assignments using a cost matrix.
• Advantages include structured resource allocation, enhanced resource utilization, and improved operational effectiveness. Limitations include data accuracy requirements and limited flexibility for dynamic changes.

The assignment method in operation research is a strategy for allocating organizational resources to tasks to increase profit via efficiency gains, cost reductions , and improved handling of operations that might create bottlenecks . It is an operations management tool that, by allocating jobs to the appropriate individual, minimizes expenses , time, and effort.

The technique is an essential tool for project management and cost accounting . It assists in allocating indirect expenses , such as overhead, to objects or cost centers according to predetermined standards, such as direct labor hours or required machine hours. The method helps determine the overall cost of every good or service, which helps with pricing, output, and resource distribution decisions. It also guarantees effective work allocation, on-time project completion, and economical use of resources. In short, it solves assignment problems.

Assignment problems involve assigning workers to specific roles, such as office workers or trucks on delivery routes, or determining which machines or products should be used in a plant during a specific period. Transportation problems involve distributing empty freight cars or assigning orders to factories. Allocation problems also involve determining which machines or products should be used to produce a given product or set of products. Unit costs or returns can be independent or interdependent, and if allocations affect subsequent periods, the problem is dynamic, requiring consideration of time in its solution.

The assignment problem can be solved using four methods: The complete enumeration method, the simplex method, the transportation method, and the Hungarian method.

The complete enumeration approach generates a list of potential assignments between resources and activities, from which the best option is chosen based on factors like cost, distance, time, or optimum profit. If the minimum cost, time, or distance for two or more assignments is the same, then this approach offers numerous optimal solutions. However If there are a lot of assignments, it is no longer appropriate for manual calculations. Assignment method calculators, if reliable, can be used for the same.

The simplex method can be solved as a linear programming problem using the simplex algorithm. The transportation method is a special case of the assignment problem. The method is, however, computationally inefficient for solving the assignment problem due to the solution's degeneracy problem.

The Hungarian assignment method problem, developed by mathematician D. Konig, is a faster and more efficient approach to solving assignment problems. It involves determining the cost of making all possible assignments using a matrix. Each problem has a row representing the objects to be assigned and columns representing assigned tasks. The cost matrix is square, and the optimum solution is to have only one assignment in a row or column. This method is a variation of the transportation problem, with the cost matrix being square and the optimum solution being one assignment in a row or column of the cost matrix.

Let us look into a few examples to understand the concept better.

TechLogistics Solutions, an imaginary delivery company, employs the assignment method to optimize the distribution of its delivery trucks. They meticulously consider distance, traffic conditions, and delivery schedules. TechLogistics efficiently allocates trucks to routes through strategic assignments, effectively reducing fuel costs and ensuring punctual deliveries. This method significantly enhances the company's operational efficiency and optimizes the utilization of its delivery resources.

Suppose XYZ Inc., a manufacturing company, is challenged to efficiently assign tasks to its machines (A, B, and C). Using the assignment method, XYZ calculates the cost matrix, reflecting the cost associated with each task assigned to each machine. Leveraging advanced algorithms like the Hungarian method, the company identifies optimal task-machine assignments, minimizing overall costs. This approach enables XYZ to streamline its production processes and enhance cost-effectiveness in manufacturing operations .

Advantages of the assignment method include:

• Resource allocation is carried out in a structured and organized manner.
• Enhancement of resource utilization to achieve optimal outcomes.
• Facilitation of efficient distribution of tasks.
• Improvement in operational effectiveness and productivity.
• Economical allocation of resources.
• Reduction in project completion time.
• Consideration of multiple factors and constraints for informed decision-making.

The disadvantages of the assignment method are as follows:

• Dependence on accurate and up-to-date data for effective decision-making.
• Complexity when dealing with resource allocation on a large scale.
• Subjectivity is involved in assigning values to the resource-requirement matrix.
• Limited flexibility in accommodating dynamic changes or unforeseen circumstances.
• Applicable primarily to quantitative tasks, with limitations in addressing qualitative aspects.

Johnson's rule is an operations research method that aims to estimate the optimal sequence of jobs in two work centers to reduce makespan. It optimizes the overall efficiency of the process. In contrast, the assignment method is useful for resource allocation, matching resources to specific tasks or requirements to optimize efficiency.

The study assignment method refers to the process of allocating students to specific courses or study programs based on their preferences, skills etc. It involves matching students with appropriate courses or programs to ensure optimal utilization of educational resources and meet individual student needs.

The assignment method is frequently employed when there is a requirement to allocate restricted resources like personnel, equipment, or budget to particular tasks or projects. It aids in enhancing resource utilization operational efficiency, and enables informed decision-making regarding resource allocation considering various factors and constraints.

This article has been a guide to what is Assignment Method. Here, we explain its methodologies, examples, advantages, & disadvantages. You may also find some useful articles here -

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Assignment Method: Examples of How Resources Are Allocated

What Is the Assignment Method?

The assignment method is a way of allocating organizational resources in which each resource is assigned to a particular task. The resource could be monetary, personnel , or technological.

Understanding the Assignment Method

The assignment method is used to determine what resources are assigned to which department, machine, or center of operation in the production process. The goal is to assign resources in such a way to enhance production efficiency, control costs, and maximize profits.

The assignment method has various applications in maximizing resources, including:

• Allocating the proper number of employees to a machine or task
• Allocating a machine or a manufacturing plant and the number of jobs that a given machine or factory can produce
• Assigning a number of salespersons to a given territory or territories
• Assigning new computers, laptops, and other expensive high-tech devices to the areas that need them the most while lower priority departments would get the older models

Companies can make budgeting decisions using the assignment method since it can help determine the amount of capital or money needed for each area of the company. Allocating money or resources can be done by analyzing the past performance of an employee, project, or department to determine the most efficient approach.

Regardless of the resource being allocated or the task to be accomplished, the goal is to assign resources to maximize the profit produced by the task or project.

Example of Assignment Method

A bank is allocating its sales force to grow its mortgage lending business. The bank has over 50 branches in New York but only ten in Chicago. Each branch has a staff that is used to bring in new clients.

The bank's management team decides to perform an analysis using the assignment method to determine where their newly-hired salespeople should be allocated. Given the past performance results in the Chicago area, the bank has produced fewer new clients than in New York. The fewer new clients are the result of having a small market presence in Chicago.

As a result, the management decides to allocate the new hires to the New York region, where it has a greater market share to maximize new client growth and, ultimately, revenue.

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The Assignment Method: Definition, Applications, and Implementation Strategies

Last updated 03/15/2024 by

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Understanding the assignment method

Optimized resource utilization, enhanced production efficiency, maximized profitability, applications of the assignment method, workforce allocation, production planning, sales territory management, resource budgeting.

• Optimizes resource utilization
• Enhances production efficiency
• Maximizes profitability
• Requires thorough analysis of past performance and market conditions
• Potential for misallocation of resources if not executed properly

Frequently asked questions

How does the assignment method differ from other resource allocation methods, what factors should organizations consider when implementing the assignment method, can the assignment method be applied to non-profit organizations or public sector agencies, what role does technology play in implementing the assignment method, are there any ethical considerations associated with the assignment method, key takeaways.

• The assignment method optimizes resource allocation to enhance efficiency and profitability.
• Applications include workforce allocation, production planning, sales territory management, and resource budgeting.
• Effective implementation requires thorough analysis of past performance and market conditions.
• Strategic allocation of resources can drive overall performance and revenue growth.

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Assignment Problem: Meaning, Methods and Variations | Operations Research

After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Meaning of Assignment Problem 2. Definition of Assignment Problem 3. Mathematical Formulation 4. Hungarian Method 5. Variations.

Meaning of Assignment Problem:

An assignment problem is a particular case of transportation problem where the objective is to assign a number of resources to an equal number of activities so as to minimise total cost or maximize total profit of allocation.

The problem of assignment arises because available resources such as men, machines etc. have varying degrees of efficiency for performing different activities, therefore, cost, profit or loss of performing the different activities is different.

Thus, the problem is “How should the assignments be made so as to optimize the given objective”. Some of the problem where the assignment technique may be useful are assignment of workers to machines, salesman to different sales areas.

Definition of Assignment Problem:

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Suppose there are n jobs to be performed and n persons are available for doing these jobs. Assume that each person can do each job at a term, though with varying degree of efficiency, let c ij be the cost if the i-th person is assigned to the j-th job. The problem is to find an assignment (which job should be assigned to which person one on-one basis) So that the total cost of performing all jobs is minimum, problem of this kind are known as assignment problem.

The assignment problem can be stated in the form of n x n cost matrix C real members as given in the following table:

What is an Assignment Method?

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Assignment method.

In accounting and finance, the assignment method is a technique used for allocating or assigning resources, costs, or tasks among different departments, employees, or projects. The assignment method aims to optimize resource allocation to achieve maximum efficiency, cost savings, or other desired outcomes. It is often used in cost accounting, project management, and operations research.

For example, in cost accounting , the assignment method can be used to allocate indirect costs (such as overhead) to various cost centers or cost objects based on certain allocation criteria, like the proportion of direct labor hours or machine hours. This helps in determining the total cost of each product or service and aids in decision-making related to pricing, production levels, or resource allocation.

Another example is in project management, where the assignment method can be used to allocate tasks to team members based on their skills, availability, or other relevant factors. This helps in efficient task distribution, ensuring timely project completion, and optimal utilization of resources.

In summary, the assignment method is a technique used for allocating resources, costs, or tasks to optimize efficiency and achieve desired outcomes.

Example of an Assignment Method

Let’s take an example from cost accounting , specifically in a manufacturing company.

Suppose a manufacturing company produces three products: Product A, Product B, and Product C. The company has a total indirect overhead cost of $90,000. The indirect overhead cost needs to be allocated to each product based on machine hours used in production.

The machine hours used for each product are as follows:

• Product A: 600 hours
• Product B: 900 hours
• Product C: 1,500 hours

Total machine hours used: 3,000 hours (600 + 900 + 1,500)

Now, we will use the assignment method to allocate the indirect overhead costs based on the proportion of machine hours used for each product.

• Calculate the overhead rate per machine hour: \(\text{Overhead rate} = \frac{\text{Total overhead cost}}{\text{Total machine hours}} \) \(\text{Overhead rate} = \frac{90,000}{3,000 \text{ hours}} \) Overhead rate = $30 per machine hour
• Allocate the overhead cost to each product based on the machine hours used:
• Product A: 600 hours * $30 = $18,000
• Product B: 900 hours * $30 = $27,000
• Product C: 1,500 hours * $30 = $45,000

So, using the assignment method, the allocated overhead costs for Product A, Product B, and Product C are $18,000, $27,000, and $45,000, respectively. This allocation helps the company understand the total cost of producing each product and make informed decisions about pricing, production levels, and resource allocation.

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Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM): definition, template, and examples

Have you ever been caught in a project where tasks slip through the cracks or team members aren’t clear on who’s in charge? This is a common hurdle in project management, but it doesn’t have to be. The Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) is a game-changing tool that brings order to the chaos. RAM ensures that everyone knows their role and projects run smoothly by clearly defining who is responsible for each task, who makes the final call, and who needs to be kept in the loop.  

In this article, we’ll see how RAM can help you overcome confusion, improve team collaboration, and keep your projects on track from start to finish.

What is a Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) in project management?

A Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM), also sometimes referred to as a resource assignment matrix, is a project and resource management tool that helps you define the roles and responsibilities of your team members for each task or deliverable within a project. Also known as a RACI Matrix (where RACI stands for Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, and Informed), the RAM is a simple grid that maps tasks on one axis and team members or roles on the other. By filling in the matrix, you clarify who is responsible for executing tasks, who is accountable for ensuring they are completed, who needs to be consulted before decisions are made, and who should be kept informed throughout the process.

Types of Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM)

This structured approach is invaluable in complex projects, where clear communication and understanding of roles are essential to avoid bottlenecks, overlapping responsibilities, and missed deadlines.

The Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) comes in several variations, each designed to fit different project needs and organizational structures. While the core purpose remains the same–defining and assigning responsibilities–different types of RAMs allow for flexibility depending on the complexity of the project or the level of detail required. Let’s take a look at the most common types of RAMs.

RACI Matrix :

• Responsible : The person or team responsible for completing the task.
• Accountable : The individual ultimately answerable for the task’s completion. There should only be one accountable person per task.
• Consulted : Those whose opinions are sought (subject matter experts, for example) before a task is completed.
• Informed : People who are kept up-to-date on progress, but do not need to be consulted or directly involved.

Example: A company running a new product launch campaign can use a RACI Matrix to assign roles. The marketing manager (A) is accountable for the overall success of the campaign, while the content team (R) is responsible for creating promotional materials. The legal team (C) is consulted for compliance with advertising regulations, and the CEO (I) is kept informed of key campaign milestones.

RASCI Matrix :

• Adds Support : The role that provides resources or assistance to the person responsible.

Example : In a software development project, the lead developer (A) is accountable for delivering the final product. Junior developers (R) are responsible for writing the code, while the UI/UX designers (S) support the process by providing design resources. QA testers (C) are consulted during the testing phase, and the client (I) is informed of progress.

CAIRO Matrix :

• Includes Omitted : Roles or individuals who are intentionally excluded from a particular task or decision.

Example : In a construction project, the project manager (A) is accountable for overseeing all stages. The structural engineer (R) is responsible for designing the foundation, while the architect (C) is consulted on the overall design. The electrical contractor (O) is omitted during the foundation stage but will be involved later. The local government (I) is kept informed about permits and inspections.

Responsibility Assignment Matrix benefits

Implementing a Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) can make a significant impact on the way your project team operates. Whether your project involves a few individuals or multiple teams across different departments, a resource assignment matrix brings structure and clarity to task delegation, helping you avoid common pitfalls like missed deadlines, unclear responsibilities, and inefficient resource allocation. Here are some of the key benefits of using RAM in your project:

• Clarity and transparency

A RAM provides a clear understanding of who is responsible for each task, eliminating ambiguity. Everyone knows their role, which helps streamline decision-making and prevents misunderstandings about who owns a specific task.

• Improved communication

By mapping out who needs to be consulted or informed, a resource assignment matrix ensures that the right people are involved in discussions, reducing unnecessary communication and ensuring that key stakeholders stay in the loop at the right times.

• Enhanced accountability

With a designated person accountable for each task, the RAM ensures that there’s a clear point of contact for progress updates and issue resolution. This creates a sense of ownership, helping tasks move forward without unnecessary delays.

• Efficient resource allocation

The RAM helps you allocate tasks based on team members’ roles, expertise, and availability. This prevents overallocation or misallocation of resources and helps you ensure that work is assigned to the right people.

• Reduced risk of overlap or gaps

By outlining each person’s responsibilities, a resource assignment matrix minimizes the risk of work being duplicated or, worse, tasks being overlooked. This leads to a more efficient workflow and reduces the likelihood of last-minute surprises.

How to create a Responsibility Assignment Matrix

Creating a Responsibility Assignment Matrix is a straightforward but critical process for ensuring the success of your project. A well-constructed RAM provides a clear, visual representation of roles and responsibilities, helping your team understand who is responsible for each task, who has the final say, and who needs to be consulted or informed.  

While creating a RAM may seem simple, attention to detail is crucial in ensuring that every task and role is accurately defined. Below is a step-by-step guide to creating a resource assignment matrix that will keep your project organized, on track, and aligned with its goals.

• Identify project tasks : Start by listing out all the tasks, deliverables, or milestones that need to be completed. These should be the key activities required to achieve the project’s goals.
• Determine roles or team members : Identify the individuals or roles involved in the project. Depending on the size of the project, this might include project team members, external stakeholders, or departments.
• Assign responsibilities : Using the chosen RAM framework (e.g., RACI), assign the appropriate responsibilities for each task. Make sure there is one accountable person for each task and clarify who needs to be consulted or informed.
• Review and validate : Once the matrix is filled out, review it with the team to ensure everyone agrees with their roles and responsibilities. This step ensures that no roles are missed and that there is a clear understanding across the board.
• Update regularly : As the project evolves, so will the responsibilities. Make sure to update the RAM to reflect changes in the project scope, team composition, or responsibilities to keep it accurate and relevant.

Responsibility Assignment Matrix template

To help you get started, here’s a simple template for a RACI Matrix. You can customize this template to fit the needs of your project.

Download RAM template

Responsibility assignment matrix example

Case study 1: how a raci matrix was used in a software development project.

In a mid-sized software development project, the team used a RACI matrix to streamline the development and deployment of a new application. The project had several critical phases, including requirements gathering, coding, testing, and deployment.

• Requirements gathering : The business analyst was responsible (R), with the project manager accountable (A). Developers were consulted (C) for technical feasibility, and the client was kept informed (I).
• Coding : Developers were responsible (R) for writing the code, with the lead developer accountable (A). The QA team was consulted (C) to ensure testability, and the project manager was informed (I) of progress.
• Testing : The QA team took responsibility (R), with the lead developer accountable (A). Developers were consulted (C) to fix issues, and the project manager and client were informed (I).
• Deployment : The DevOps team was responsible (R) for deployment, with the project manager accountable (A). The QA team was consulted (C) for post-deployment checks, and all stakeholders were informed (I).

This matrix helped the team avoid miscommunication, ensured everyone knew their role, and kept the project on track.

Case study 2: How a RACI matrix was used in a construction project

In a small office renovation project, a RAM was used to effectively manage the coordination between the key stakeholders and ensure the project was completed on time and within budget.

• Design and Layout : The interior designer was responsible (R) for creating the office layout and design, with the project manager accountable (A) for overseeing the project. The office manager was consulted (C) to ensure the design met the company’s functional needs, while the contractor was informed (I) about the final design plans.
• Material Procurement : The contractor was responsible (R) for procuring materials needed for the renovation, with the project manager accountable (A) for budget adherence. The interior designer was consulted (C) to ensure the materials matched the design specifications, and the office manager was informed (I) of progress.
• Construction and Execution : The contractor was responsible (R) for executing the renovation, with the project manager accountable (A) for ensuring the project stayed on schedule. The interior designer was consulted (C) during the renovation for design adjustments, and the office manager was informed (I) of the project’s progress.

This RAM ensured that each stakeholder’s role was clearly defined, reducing the risk of miscommunication and keeping the project on track.

How to manage resources and their responsibilities with Birdview

Using a Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) is a proven method for bringing clarity, accountability, and efficiency to any project. By defining who is responsible, accountable, consulted, and informed for each task, you can avoid confusion, streamline communication, and ensure smoother project execution. Whether you’re managing a complex software development project or coordinating teams on a construction site, a resource assignment matrix can be an invaluable tool for ensuring success.

However, creating and maintaining a RAM can become challenging, especially in larger projects with many moving parts. This is where advanced project management tools like Birdview project and resource management software come into play. Birdview not only helps you to track resources, monitor task progress, and ensure that responsibilities are aligned with capacity and availability. With Birdivew, you can enhance your project planning, manage resources more effectively, and keep your team on track–all in one platform.  

Birdview streamlines the process by offering a suite of advanced functionalities tailored to make resource planning and management simpler, smarter, and more efficient. With Birdview, you get:

• Real-time resource tracking

Birdview allows you to monitor resource availability and utilization in real time, ensuring that tasks are assigned to the right people based on their current workload and capacity.

• Comprehensive project visibility

With Birdview’s intuitive dashboards, you get a holistic view of your project progress, including who’s working on what, task statuses, and potential bottlenecks.

• Role-based resource allocation

Birdview helps you allocate resources based on skills, roles, and availability, ensuring the right team members are assigned to the right tasks. With its AI-powered resource suggestion feature, Birdview goes a step further by recommending the best staff options for each task, taking into account their expertise and current workload.

• Capacity planning

Birdview’s capacity planning tools help you forecast resource needs and plan ahead to avoid overloading your team or underutilizing key personnel.

• Collaboration tools

Integrated communication features make it easy to consult and inform stakeholders, ensuring that everyone stays on the same page throughout the project lifecycle.

Explore how Birdview can fit your needs. Sign up for a free trial to test the platform yourself, or schedule a demo where a dedicated manager will guide you through the features and help you get the most out of the software.

Try Birdview PSA for free

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Assignment problem in linear programming : introduction and assignment model.

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Assignment problem is a special type of linear programming problem which deals with the allocation of the various resources to the various activities on one to one basis. It does it in such a way that the cost or time involved in the process is minimum and profit or sale is maximum. Though there problems can be solved by simplex method or by transportation method but assignment model gives a simpler approach for these problems.

In a factory, a supervisor may have six workers available and six jobs to fire. He will have to take decision regarding which job should be given to which worker. Problem forms one to one basis. This is an assignment problem.

1. Assignment Model :

Suppose there are n facilitates and n jobs it is clear that in this case, there will be n assignments. Each facility or say worker can perform each job, one at a time. But there should be certain procedure by which assignment should be made so that the profit is maximized or the cost or time is minimized.

In the table, Co ij is defined as the cost when j th job is assigned to i th worker. It maybe noted here that this is a special case of transportation problem when the number of rows is equal to number of columns.

Mathematical Formulation:

Any basic feasible solution of an Assignment problem consists (2n – 1) variables of which the (n – 1) variables are zero, n is number of jobs or number of facilities. Due to this high degeneracy, if we solve the problem by usual transportation method, it will be a complex and time consuming work. Thus a separate technique is derived for it. Before going to the absolute method it is very important to formulate the problem.

Suppose x jj is a variable which is defined as

1 if the i th job is assigned to j th machine or facility

0 if the i th job is not assigned to j th machine or facility.

Now as the problem forms one to one basis or one job is to be assigned to one facility or machine.

The total assignment cost will be given by

The above definition can be developed into mathematical model as follows:

Determine x ij > 0 (i, j = 1,2, 3…n) in order to

Subjected to constraints

and x ij is either zero or one.

Method to solve Problem (Hungarian Technique):

Consider the objective function of minimization type. Following steps are involved in solving this Assignment problem,

1. Locate the smallest cost element in each row of the given cost table starting with the first row. Now, this smallest element is subtracted form each element of that row. So, we will be getting at least one zero in each row of this new table.

2. Having constructed the table (as by step-1) take the columns of the table. Starting from first column locate the smallest cost element in each column. Now subtract this smallest element from each element of that column. Having performed the step 1 and step 2, we will be getting at least one zero in each column in the reduced cost table.

3. Now, the assignments are made for the reduced table in following manner.

(i) Rows are examined successively, until the row with exactly single (one) zero is found. Assignment is made to this single zero by putting square □ around it and in the corresponding column, all other zeros are crossed out (x) because these will not be used to make any other assignment in this column. Step is conducted for each row.

(ii) Step 3 (i) in now performed on the columns as follow:- columns are examined successively till a column with exactly one zero is found. Now , assignment is made to this single zero by putting the square around it and at the same time, all other zeros in the corresponding rows are crossed out (x) step is conducted for each column.

(iii) Step 3, (i) and 3 (ii) are repeated till all the zeros are either marked or crossed out. Now, if the number of marked zeros or the assignments made are equal to number of rows or columns, optimum solution has been achieved. There will be exactly single assignment in each or columns without any assignment. In this case, we will go to step 4.

4. At this stage, draw the minimum number of lines (horizontal and vertical) necessary to cover all zeros in the matrix obtained in step 3, Following procedure is adopted:

(iii) Now tick mark all the rows that are not already marked and that have assignment in the marked columns.

(iv) All the steps i.e. (4(i), 4(ii), 4(iii) are repeated until no more rows or columns can be marked.

(v) Now draw straight lines which pass through all the un marked rows and marked columns. It can also be noticed that in an n x n matrix, always less than ‘n’ lines will cover all the zeros if there is no solution among them.

5. In step 4, if the number of lines drawn are equal to n or the number of rows, then it is the optimum solution if not, then go to step 6.

6. Select the smallest element among all the uncovered elements. Now, this element is subtracted from all the uncovered elements and added to the element which lies at the intersection of two lines. This is the matrix for fresh assignments.

7. Repeat the procedure from step (3) until the number of assignments becomes equal to the number of rows or number of columns.

Related Articles:

• Two Phase Methods of Problem Solving in Linear Programming: First and Second Phase
• Linear Programming: Applications, Definitions and Problems

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Hungarian Method

The Hungarian method is a computational optimization technique that addresses the assignment problem in polynomial time and foreshadows following primal-dual alternatives. In 1955, Harold Kuhn used the term “Hungarian method” to honour two Hungarian mathematicians, Dénes Kőnig and Jenő Egerváry. Let’s go through the steps of the Hungarian method with the help of a solved example.

Hungarian Method to Solve Assignment Problems

The Hungarian method is a simple way to solve assignment problems. Let us first discuss the assignment problems before moving on to learning the Hungarian method.

What is an Assignment Problem?

A transportation problem is a type of assignment problem. The goal is to allocate an equal amount of resources to the same number of activities. As a result, the overall cost of allocation is minimised or the total profit is maximised.

Because available resources such as workers, machines, and other resources have varying degrees of efficiency for executing different activities, and hence the cost, profit, or loss of conducting such activities varies.

Assume we have ‘n’ jobs to do on ‘m’ machines (i.e., one job to one machine). Our goal is to assign jobs to machines for the least amount of money possible (or maximum profit). Based on the notion that each machine can accomplish each task, but at variable levels of efficiency.

Hungarian Method Steps

Check to see if the number of rows and columns are equal; if they are, the assignment problem is considered to be balanced. Then go to step 1. If it is not balanced, it should be balanced before the algorithm is applied.

Step 1 – In the given cost matrix, subtract the least cost element of each row from all the entries in that row. Make sure that each row has at least one zero.

Step 2 – In the resultant cost matrix produced in step 1, subtract the least cost element in each column from all the components in that column, ensuring that each column contains at least one zero.

Step 3 – Assign zeros

• Analyse the rows one by one until you find a row with precisely one unmarked zero. Encircle this lonely unmarked zero and assign it a task. All other zeros in the column of this circular zero should be crossed out because they will not be used in any future assignments. Continue in this manner until you’ve gone through all of the rows.
• Examine the columns one by one until you find one with precisely one unmarked zero. Encircle this single unmarked zero and cross any other zero in its row to make an assignment to it. Continue until you’ve gone through all of the columns.

Step 4 – Perform the Optimal Test

• The present assignment is optimal if each row and column has exactly one encircled zero.
• The present assignment is not optimal if at least one row or column is missing an assignment (i.e., if at least one row or column is missing one encircled zero). Continue to step 5. Subtract the least cost element from all the entries in each column of the final cost matrix created in step 1 and ensure that each column has at least one zero.

Step 5 – Draw the least number of straight lines to cover all of the zeros as follows:

(a) Highlight the rows that aren’t assigned.

(b) Label the columns with zeros in marked rows (if they haven’t already been marked).

(c) Highlight the rows that have assignments in indicated columns (if they haven’t previously been marked).

(d) Continue with (b) and (c) until no further marking is needed.

(f) Simply draw the lines through all rows and columns that are not marked. If the number of these lines equals the order of the matrix, then the solution is optimal; otherwise, it is not.

Step 6 – Find the lowest cost factor that is not covered by the straight lines. Subtract this least-cost component from all the uncovered elements and add it to all the elements that are at the intersection of these straight lines, but leave the rest of the elements alone.

Step 7 – Continue with steps 1 – 6 until you’ve found the highest suitable assignment.

Hungarian Method Example

Use the Hungarian method to solve the given assignment problem stated in the table. The entries in the matrix represent each man’s processing time in hours.

\(\begin{array}{l}\begin{bmatrix} & I & II & III & IV & V \\1 & 20 & 15 & 18 & 20 & 25 \\2 & 18 & 20 & 12 & 14 & 15 \\3 & 21 & 23 & 25 & 27 & 25 \\4 & 17 & 18 & 21 & 23 & 20 \\5 & 18 & 18 & 16 & 19 & 20 \\\end{bmatrix}\end{array} \)

With 5 jobs and 5 men, the stated problem is balanced.

\(\begin{array}{l}A = \begin{bmatrix}20 & 15 & 18 & 20 & 25 \\18 & 20 & 12 & 14 & 15 \\21 & 23 & 25 & 27 & 25 \\17 & 18 & 21 & 23 & 20 \\18 & 18 & 16 & 19 & 20 \\\end{bmatrix}\end{array} \)

Subtract the lowest cost element in each row from all of the elements in the given cost matrix’s row. Make sure that each row has at least one zero.

\(\begin{array}{l}A = \begin{bmatrix}5 & 0 & 3 & 5 & 10 \\6 & 8 & 0 & 2 & 3 \\0 & 2 & 4 & 6 & 4 \\0 & 1 & 4 & 6 & 3 \\2 & 2 & 0 & 3 & 4 \\\end{bmatrix}\end{array} \)

Subtract the least cost element in each Column from all of the components in the given cost matrix’s Column. Check to see if each column has at least one zero.

\(\begin{array}{l}A = \begin{bmatrix}5 & 0 & 3 & 3 & 7 \\6 & 8 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\0 & 2 & 4 & 4 & 1 \\0 & 1 & 4 & 4 & 0 \\2 & 2 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\\end{bmatrix}\end{array} \)

When the zeros are assigned, we get the following:

The present assignment is optimal because each row and column contain precisely one encircled zero.

Where 1 to II, 2 to IV, 3 to I, 4 to V, and 5 to III are the best assignments.

Hence, z = 15 + 14 + 21 + 20 + 16 = 86 hours is the optimal time.

Practice Question on Hungarian Method

Use the Hungarian method to solve the following assignment problem shown in table. The matrix entries represent the time it takes for each job to be processed by each machine in hours.

\(\begin{array}{l}\begin{bmatrix}J/M & I & II & III & IV & V \\1 & 9 & 22 & 58 & 11 & 19 \\2 & 43 & 78 & 72 & 50 & 63 \\3 & 41 & 28 & 91 & 37 & 45 \\4 & 74 & 42 & 27 & 49 & 39 \\5 & 36 & 11 & 57 & 22 & 25 \\\end{bmatrix}\end{array} \)

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Frequently Asked Questions on Hungarian Method

What is hungarian method.

The Hungarian method is defined as a combinatorial optimization technique that solves the assignment problems in polynomial time and foreshadowed subsequent primal–dual approaches.

What are the steps involved in Hungarian method?

The following is a quick overview of the Hungarian method: Step 1: Subtract the row minima. Step 2: Subtract the column minimums. Step 3: Use a limited number of lines to cover all zeros. Step 4: Add some more zeros to the equation.

What is the purpose of the Hungarian method?

When workers are assigned to certain activities based on cost, the Hungarian method is beneficial for identifying minimum costs.

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Quantitative Techniques: Theory and Problems by P. C. Tulsian, Vishal Pandey

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WHAT IS ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM

Assignment Problem is a special type of linear programming problem where the objective is to minimise the cost or time of completing a number of jobs by a number of persons.

The assignment problem in the general form can be stated as follows:

“Given n facilities, n jobs and the effectiveness of each facility for each job, the problem is to assign each facility to one and only one job in such a way that the measure of effectiveness is optimised (Maximised or Minimised).”

Several problems of management has a structure identical with the assignment problem.

Example I A manager has four persons (i.e. facilities) available for four separate jobs (i.e. jobs) and the cost of assigning (i.e. effectiveness) each job to each ...

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Java: define terms initialization, declaration and assignment

I find the defs circular, the subjects are defined by their verbs but the verbs are undefined! So how do you define them?

The Circular Definitions

initialization: to initialize a variable. It can be done at the time of declaration.

assignment: to assign value to a variable. It can be done anywhere, only once with the final-identifier.

declaration: to declare value to a variable.

[update, trying to understand the topic with lambda calc]

• initialization
• declaration
• variable-assignment
• 2 Declaration , Initialization , and Assignment are all included in The Java Tutorials Trail: Learning the Java Language . –  jaco0646 Commented Aug 8, 2015 at 15:38

8 Answers 8

assignment : throwing away the old value of a variable and replacing it with a new one

initialization : it's a special kind of assignment: the first. Before initialization objects have null value and primitive types have default values such as 0 or false . Can be done in conjunction with declaration.

declaration : a declaration states the type of a variable, along with its name. A variable can be declared only once. It is used by the compiler to help programmers avoid mistakes such as assigning string values to integer variables. Before reading or assigning a variable, that variable must have been declared.

• 3 SUMMARY? Initialization is a change from a starting value. Declaration is labeling with name and type. Assignment is a more general change in value, initialization a special type of assignment. –  hhh Commented Apr 10, 2010 at 17:09
• 1 correct. Initialization is special just because it's the first assignment of a variable –  Silvio Donnini Commented Apr 10, 2010 at 17:15
• 4 I don't think that primitives hold 0 or false values pre-initialization, given that fact that when you try to print an uninitialized variable, it produces a compile time error saying that the variable might not have been initialized, rather than printing their value. –  Adit A. Pillai Commented Dec 13, 2016 at 12:10
• In Java, fields of an object are automatically initialized to "empty" values (null, zero, or false) if there is no explicit initializer clause. But local variables in a block of code are not automatically initialized, and any attempt to read the value of a local without writing a value to it first will result in a compile-time error. For more information, see chapter 16 of the Java Language Specification . –  Daniel Pryden Commented Oct 25, 2017 at 17:13

Declaration is not to declare "value" to a variable; it's to declare the type of the variable.

Assignment is simply the storing of a value to a variable.

Initialization is the assignment of a value to a variable at the time of declaration .

These definitions also applies to fields.

However, it should be mentioned that "initialization" also has a more relaxed definition of "the first assignment to a variable", regardless of where it happens.

This, however, compiles:

Here i can be "initialized" from two possible locations, by simple assignments. Because of that, if i was an array, you can't use the special array initializer shorthand syntax with this construct.

So basically "initialization" has two possible definitions, depending on context:

• It allows, among other things, special array shorthand initializer syntax
• The compiler would do its best to ensure that exactly one of those assignments can happen, thus "initializing" the final variable

There's also JVM-context class and instance initialization, OOP-context object initialization, etc.

• "int[] arr = { 1, 2, 3 };" is arr-declared and {1,2,3}-assignment. It implies an initialization. Right? –  hhh Commented Apr 10, 2010 at 16:43
• Yes, that is an example of the special array initializer syntax being used, so it is initialization. –  polygenelubricants Commented Apr 10, 2010 at 16:46

Here is a short explanation with some examples.

Declaration: Declaration is when you declare a variable with a name, and a variable can be declared only once.

Example: int x; , String myName; , Boolean myCondition;

Initialization: Initialization is when we put a value in a variable, this happens while we declare a variable.

Example: int x = 7; , String myName = "Emi"; , Boolean myCondition = false;

Assignment: Assignment is when we already declared or initialized a variable, and we are changing the value. You can change value of the variable as many time you want or you need.

int x = 7; x = 12; .......We just changed the value.

String myName = "Emi"; myName = "John" .......We just changed the value.

Boolean myCondition = false; myCondition = true; .......We just changed the value.

Note: In memory will be saved the last value that we put.

declaration : whenever you define a new variable with its type

assignment : whenever you change the value of a variable by giving it a new value

initialization : an assignment that is done together with the declaration, or in any case the first assignment that is done with a variable, usually it's a constructor call for an object or a plain assignment for a variable

• I cannot understand the difference btw declaration and initialization. –  hhh Commented Apr 10, 2010 at 16:38
• initialization = declaration + assignment ? –  hhh Commented Apr 10, 2010 at 16:40
• it's more like initialization = first assignment (can be implicit for class fields, but has to be explicit for local variables) –  pablochan Commented Apr 10, 2010 at 16:51
• Initalization is not dependent upon assignment. Unreferenced objects can be initialized. It just so happens that programmers often assign at the point of initialization. Initialization is the creation of a new Object. –  Finbarr Commented Apr 10, 2010 at 16:54
• 2 @Finbarr: I think your confusing initialization with instantiation –  pablochan Commented Apr 10, 2010 at 22:12

I come from a C/C++ background, but the ideas should be the same.

Declaration - When a variable is declared, it is telling the compiler to set aside a piece of memory and associate a name (and a variable type) with it. In C/C++ it could look like this:

The compiler sees this and sets aside an address location for x and knows what methods it should use to perform operations on x (different variable types will use different access operations). This way, when the compiler runs into the line

It knows to put the integer value 8 (not the floating point value 8) into the memory location also known as 'x'.

Assignment - This is when you stuff a value into the previously declared variable. Assignment is associated with the 'equals sign'. In the previous example, the variable 'x' was assigned the value 8.

Initialization - This is when a variable is preset with a value. There is no guarantee that a variable will every be set to some default value during variable declaration (unless you explicitly make it so). It can be argued that initialization is the first assignment of a variable, but this isn't entirely true, as I will explain shortly. A typical initialization is a blend of the variable declaration with an assignment as follows:

The distinction between initialization and assignment becomes more important when dealing with constants, such as this...

When dealing with constants, you only get to assign their value at the time of declaration/initialization. Otherwise, they can't be touched. This is because constants are often located in program memory vs data memory, and their actual assignment is occurring at compile time vs run time.

Step 1: Declaration : int a;

Step 2: Initialization : a = 5;

Step 3: Assignment : a = b; (ex: int b = 10 ; now a becomes 10)

Simple program

it saves the value of 25.

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Home » Assignment – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Assignment – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Assignment is a task given to students by a teacher or professor, usually as a means of assessing their understanding and application of course material. Assignments can take various forms, including essays, research papers, presentations, problem sets, lab reports, and more.

Assignments are typically designed to be completed outside of class time and may require independent research, critical thinking, and analysis. They are often graded and used as a significant component of a student’s overall course grade. The instructions for an assignment usually specify the goals, requirements, and deadlines for completion, and students are expected to meet these criteria to earn a good grade.

History of Assignment

The use of assignments as a tool for teaching and learning has been a part of education for centuries. Following is a brief history of the Assignment.

• Ancient Times: Assignments such as writing exercises, recitations, and memorization tasks were used to reinforce learning.
• Medieval Period : Universities began to develop the concept of the assignment, with students completing essays, commentaries, and translations to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the subject matter.
• 19th Century : With the growth of schools and universities, assignments became more widespread and were used to assess student progress and achievement.
• 20th Century: The rise of distance education and online learning led to the further development of assignments as an integral part of the educational process.
• Present Day: Assignments continue to be used in a variety of educational settings and are seen as an effective way to promote student learning and assess student achievement. The nature and format of assignments continue to evolve in response to changing educational needs and technological innovations.

Types of Assignment

Here are some of the most common types of assignments:

An essay is a piece of writing that presents an argument, analysis, or interpretation of a topic or question. It usually consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Essay structure:

• Introduction : introduces the topic and thesis statement
• Body paragraphs : each paragraph presents a different argument or idea, with evidence and analysis to support it
• Conclusion : summarizes the key points and reiterates the thesis statement

Research paper

A research paper involves gathering and analyzing information on a particular topic, and presenting the findings in a well-structured, documented paper. It usually involves conducting original research, collecting data, and presenting it in a clear, organized manner.

Research paper structure:

• Title page : includes the title of the paper, author’s name, date, and institution
• Abstract : summarizes the paper’s main points and conclusions
• Introduction : provides background information on the topic and research question
• Literature review: summarizes previous research on the topic
• Methodology : explains how the research was conducted
• Results : presents the findings of the research
• Discussion : interprets the results and draws conclusions
• Conclusion : summarizes the key findings and implications

A case study involves analyzing a real-life situation, problem or issue, and presenting a solution or recommendations based on the analysis. It often involves extensive research, data analysis, and critical thinking.

Case study structure:

• Introduction : introduces the case study and its purpose
• Background : provides context and background information on the case
• Analysis : examines the key issues and problems in the case
• Solution/recommendations: proposes solutions or recommendations based on the analysis
• Conclusion: Summarize the key points and implications

A lab report is a scientific document that summarizes the results of a laboratory experiment or research project. It typically includes an introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.

Lab report structure:

• Title page : includes the title of the experiment, author’s name, date, and institution
• Abstract : summarizes the purpose, methodology, and results of the experiment
• Methods : explains how the experiment was conducted
• Results : presents the findings of the experiment

Presentation

A presentation involves delivering information, data or findings to an audience, often with the use of visual aids such as slides, charts, or diagrams. It requires clear communication skills, good organization, and effective use of technology.

Presentation structure:

• Introduction : introduces the topic and purpose of the presentation
• Body : presents the main points, findings, or data, with the help of visual aids
• Conclusion : summarizes the key points and provides a closing statement

Creative Project

A creative project is an assignment that requires students to produce something original, such as a painting, sculpture, video, or creative writing piece. It allows students to demonstrate their creativity and artistic skills.

Creative project structure:

• Introduction : introduces the project and its purpose
• Body : presents the creative work, with explanations or descriptions as needed
• Conclusion : summarizes the key elements and reflects on the creative process.

Examples of Assignments

Following are Examples of Assignment templates samples:

Essay template:

I. Introduction

• Hook: Grab the reader’s attention with a catchy opening sentence.
• Background: Provide some context or background information on the topic.
• Thesis statement: State the main argument or point of your essay.

II. Body paragraphs

• Topic sentence: Introduce the main idea or argument of the paragraph.
• Evidence: Provide evidence or examples to support your point.
• Analysis: Explain how the evidence supports your argument.
• Transition: Use a transition sentence to lead into the next paragraph.

III. Conclusion

• Restate thesis: Summarize your main argument or point.
• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your essay.
• Concluding thoughts: End with a final thought or call to action.

Research paper template:

I. Title page

• Title: Give your paper a descriptive title.
• Author: Include your name and institutional affiliation.
• Date: Provide the date the paper was submitted.

II. Abstract

• Background: Summarize the background and purpose of your research.
• Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct your research.
• Results: Summarize the main findings of your research.
• Conclusion: Provide a brief summary of the implications and conclusions of your research.

III. Introduction

• Background: Provide some background information on the topic.
• Research question: State your research question or hypothesis.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of your research.

IV. Literature review

• Background: Summarize previous research on the topic.
• Gaps in research: Identify gaps or areas that need further research.

V. Methodology

• Participants: Describe the participants in your study.
• Procedure: Explain the procedure you used to conduct your research.
• Measures: Describe the measures you used to collect data.

VI. Results

• Quantitative results: Summarize the quantitative data you collected.
• Qualitative results: Summarize the qualitative data you collected.

VII. Discussion

• Interpretation: Interpret the results and explain what they mean.
• Implications: Discuss the implications of your research.
• Limitations: Identify any limitations or weaknesses of your research.

VIII. Conclusion

• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your paper.

Case study template:

• Background: Provide background information on the case.
• Research question: State the research question or problem you are examining.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of the case study.

II. Analysis

• Problem: Identify the main problem or issue in the case.
• Factors: Describe the factors that contributed to the problem.
• Alternative solutions: Describe potential solutions to the problem.

III. Solution/recommendations

• Proposed solution: Describe the solution you are proposing.
• Rationale: Explain why this solution is the best one.
• Implementation: Describe how the solution can be implemented.

IV. Conclusion

• Summary: Summarize the main points of your case study.

Lab report template:

• Title: Give your report a descriptive title.
• Date: Provide the date the report was submitted.
• Background: Summarize the background and purpose of the experiment.
• Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct the experiment.
• Results: Summarize the main findings of the experiment.
• Conclusion: Provide a brief summary of the implications and conclusions
• Background: Provide some background information on the experiment.
• Hypothesis: State your hypothesis or research question.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of the experiment.

IV. Materials and methods

• Materials: List the materials and equipment used in the experiment.
• Procedure: Describe the procedure you followed to conduct the experiment.
• Data: Present the data you collected in tables or graphs.
• Analysis: Analyze the data and describe the patterns or trends you observed.

VI. Discussion

• Implications: Discuss the implications of your findings.
• Limitations: Identify any limitations or weaknesses of the experiment.

VII. Conclusion

• Restate hypothesis: Summarize your hypothesis or research question.
• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your report.

Presentation template:

• Attention grabber: Grab the audience’s attention with a catchy opening.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of your presentation.
• Overview: Provide an overview of what you will cover in your presentation.

II. Main points

• Main point 1: Present the first main point of your presentation.
• Supporting details: Provide supporting details or evidence to support your point.
• Main point 2: Present the second main point of your presentation.
• Main point 3: Present the third main point of your presentation.
• Summary: Summarize the main points of your presentation.
• Call to action: End with a final thought or call to action.

Creative writing template:

• Setting: Describe the setting of your story.
• Characters: Introduce the main characters of your story.
• Rising action: Introduce the conflict or problem in your story.
• Climax: Present the most intense moment of the story.
• Falling action: Resolve the conflict or problem in your story.
• Resolution: Describe how the conflict or problem was resolved.
• Final thoughts: End with a final thought or reflection on the story.

How to Write Assignment

Here is a general guide on how to write an assignment:

• Understand the assignment prompt: Before you begin writing, make sure you understand what the assignment requires. Read the prompt carefully and make note of any specific requirements or guidelines.
• Research and gather information: Depending on the type of assignment, you may need to do research to gather information to support your argument or points. Use credible sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites.
• Organize your ideas : Once you have gathered all the necessary information, organize your ideas into a clear and logical structure. Consider creating an outline or diagram to help you visualize your ideas.
• Write a draft: Begin writing your assignment using your organized ideas and research. Don’t worry too much about grammar or sentence structure at this point; the goal is to get your thoughts down on paper.
• Revise and edit: After you have written a draft, revise and edit your work. Make sure your ideas are presented in a clear and concise manner, and that your sentences and paragraphs flow smoothly.
• Proofread: Finally, proofread your work for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. It’s a good idea to have someone else read over your assignment as well to catch any mistakes you may have missed.
• Submit your assignment : Once you are satisfied with your work, submit your assignment according to the instructions provided by your instructor or professor.

Applications of Assignment

Assignments have many applications across different fields and industries. Here are a few examples:

• Education : Assignments are a common tool used in education to help students learn and demonstrate their knowledge. They can be used to assess a student’s understanding of a particular topic, to develop critical thinking skills, and to improve writing and research abilities.
• Business : Assignments can be used in the business world to assess employee skills, to evaluate job performance, and to provide training opportunities. They can also be used to develop business plans, marketing strategies, and financial projections.
• Journalism : Assignments are often used in journalism to produce news articles, features, and investigative reports. Journalists may be assigned to cover a particular event or topic, or to research and write a story on a specific subject.
• Research : Assignments can be used in research to collect and analyze data, to conduct experiments, and to present findings in written or oral form. Researchers may be assigned to conduct research on a specific topic, to write a research paper, or to present their findings at a conference or seminar.
• Government : Assignments can be used in government to develop policy proposals, to conduct research, and to analyze data. Government officials may be assigned to work on a specific project or to conduct research on a particular topic.
• Non-profit organizations: Assignments can be used in non-profit organizations to develop fundraising strategies, to plan events, and to conduct research. Volunteers may be assigned to work on a specific project or to help with a particular task.

Purpose of Assignment

The purpose of an assignment varies depending on the context in which it is given. However, some common purposes of assignments include:

• Assessing learning: Assignments are often used to assess a student’s understanding of a particular topic or concept. This allows educators to determine if a student has mastered the material or if they need additional support.
• Developing skills: Assignments can be used to develop a wide range of skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, research, and communication. Assignments that require students to analyze and synthesize information can help to build these skills.
• Encouraging creativity: Assignments can be designed to encourage students to be creative and think outside the box. This can help to foster innovation and original thinking.
• Providing feedback : Assignments provide an opportunity for teachers to provide feedback to students on their progress and performance. Feedback can help students to understand where they need to improve and to develop a growth mindset.
• Meeting learning objectives : Assignments can be designed to help students meet specific learning objectives or outcomes. For example, a writing assignment may be designed to help students improve their writing skills, while a research assignment may be designed to help students develop their research skills.

When to write Assignment

Assignments are typically given by instructors or professors as part of a course or academic program. The timing of when to write an assignment will depend on the specific requirements of the course or program, but in general, assignments should be completed within the timeframe specified by the instructor or program guidelines.

It is important to begin working on assignments as soon as possible to ensure enough time for research, writing, and revisions. Waiting until the last minute can result in rushed work and lower quality output.

It is also important to prioritize assignments based on their due dates and the amount of work required. This will help to manage time effectively and ensure that all assignments are completed on time.

In addition to assignments given by instructors or professors, there may be other situations where writing an assignment is necessary. For example, in the workplace, assignments may be given to complete a specific project or task. In these situations, it is important to establish clear deadlines and expectations to ensure that the assignment is completed on time and to a high standard.

Characteristics of Assignment

Here are some common characteristics of assignments:

• Purpose : Assignments have a specific purpose, such as assessing knowledge or developing skills. They are designed to help students learn and achieve specific learning objectives.
• Requirements: Assignments have specific requirements that must be met, such as a word count, format, or specific content. These requirements are usually provided by the instructor or professor.
• Deadline: Assignments have a specific deadline for completion, which is usually set by the instructor or professor. It is important to meet the deadline to avoid penalties or lower grades.
• Individual or group work: Assignments can be completed individually or as part of a group. Group assignments may require collaboration and communication with other group members.
• Feedback : Assignments provide an opportunity for feedback from the instructor or professor. This feedback can help students to identify areas of improvement and to develop their skills.
• Academic integrity: Assignments require academic integrity, which means that students must submit original work and avoid plagiarism. This includes citing sources properly and following ethical guidelines.
• Learning outcomes : Assignments are designed to help students achieve specific learning outcomes. These outcomes are usually related to the course objectives and may include developing critical thinking skills, writing abilities, or subject-specific knowledge.

Advantages of Assignment

There are several advantages of assignment, including:

• Helps in learning: Assignments help students to reinforce their learning and understanding of a particular topic. By completing assignments, students get to apply the concepts learned in class, which helps them to better understand and retain the information.
• Develops critical thinking skills: Assignments often require students to think critically and analyze information in order to come up with a solution or answer. This helps to develop their critical thinking skills, which are important for success in many areas of life.
• Encourages creativity: Assignments that require students to create something, such as a piece of writing or a project, can encourage creativity and innovation. This can help students to develop new ideas and perspectives, which can be beneficial in many areas of life.
• Builds time-management skills: Assignments often come with deadlines, which can help students to develop time-management skills. Learning how to manage time effectively is an important skill that can help students to succeed in many areas of life.
• Provides feedback: Assignments provide an opportunity for students to receive feedback on their work. This feedback can help students to identify areas where they need to improve and can help them to grow and develop.

Limitations of Assignment

There are also some limitations of assignments that should be considered, including:

• Limited scope: Assignments are often limited in scope, and may not provide a comprehensive understanding of a particular topic. They may only cover a specific aspect of a topic, and may not provide a full picture of the subject matter.
• Lack of engagement: Some assignments may not engage students in the learning process, particularly if they are repetitive or not challenging enough. This can lead to a lack of motivation and interest in the subject matter.
• Time-consuming: Assignments can be time-consuming, particularly if they require a lot of research or writing. This can be a disadvantage for students who have other commitments, such as work or extracurricular activities.
• Unreliable assessment: The assessment of assignments can be subjective and may not always accurately reflect a student’s understanding or abilities. The grading may be influenced by factors such as the instructor’s personal biases or the student’s writing style.
• Lack of feedback : Although assignments can provide feedback, this feedback may not always be detailed or useful. Instructors may not have the time or resources to provide detailed feedback on every assignment, which can limit the value of the feedback that students receive.

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Assignment Problem: Linear Programming

The assignment problem is a special type of transportation problem , where the objective is to minimize the cost or time of completing a number of jobs by a number of persons.

In other words, when the problem involves the allocation of n different facilities to n different tasks, it is often termed as an assignment problem.

The model's primary usefulness is for planning. The assignment problem also encompasses an important sub-class of so-called shortest- (or longest-) route models. The assignment model is useful in solving problems such as, assignment of machines to jobs, assignment of salesmen to sales territories, travelling salesman problem, etc.

It may be noted that with n facilities and n jobs, there are n! possible assignments. One way of finding an optimal assignment is to write all the n! possible arrangements, evaluate their total cost, and select the assignment with minimum cost. But, due to heavy computational burden this method is not suitable. This chapter concentrates on an efficient method for solving assignment problems that was developed by a Hungarian mathematician D.Konig.

"A mathematician is a device for turning coffee into theorems." -Paul Erdos

Formulation of an assignment problem

Suppose a company has n persons of different capacities available for performing each different job in the concern, and there are the same number of jobs of different types. One person can be given one and only one job. The objective of this assignment problem is to assign n persons to n jobs, so as to minimize the total assignment cost. The cost matrix for this problem is given below:

The structure of an assignment problem is identical to that of a transportation problem.

To formulate the assignment problem in mathematical programming terms , we define the activity variables as

for i = 1, 2, ..., n and j = 1, 2, ..., n

In the above table, c ij is the cost of performing jth job by ith worker.

Generalized Form of an Assignment Problem

The optimization model is

Minimize c 11 x 11 + c 12 x 12 + ------- + c nn x nn

subject to x i1 + x i2 +..........+ x in = 1          i = 1, 2,......., n x 1j + x 2j +..........+ x nj = 1          j = 1, 2,......., n

x ij = 0 or 1

In Σ Sigma notation

x ij = 0 or 1 for all i and j

An assignment problem can be solved by transportation methods, but due to high degree of degeneracy the usual computational techniques of a transportation problem become very inefficient. Therefore, a special method is available for solving such type of problems in a more efficient way.

Assumptions in Assignment Problem

• Number of jobs is equal to the number of machines or persons.
• Each man or machine is assigned only one job.
• Each man or machine is independently capable of handling any job to be done.
• Assigning criteria is clearly specified (minimizing cost or maximizing profit).

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How the Experimental Method Works in Psychology

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The Experimental Process

Types of experiments, potential pitfalls of the experimental method.

The experimental method is a type of research procedure that involves manipulating variables to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship. The results obtained through the experimental method are useful but do not prove with 100% certainty that a singular cause always creates a specific effect. Instead, they show the probability that a cause will or will not lead to a particular effect.

At a Glance

While there are many different research techniques available, the experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships. Using the experimental method, researchers randomly assign participants to a control or experimental group and manipulate levels of an independent variable. If changes in the independent variable lead to changes in the dependent variable, it indicates there is likely a causal relationship between them.

What Is the Experimental Method in Psychology?

The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled research methods and random assignment of study subjects to test a hypothesis.

For example, researchers may want to learn how different visual patterns may impact our perception. Or they might wonder whether certain actions can improve memory . Experiments are conducted on many behavioral topics, including:

The scientific method forms the basis of the experimental method. This is a process used to determine the relationship between two variables—in this case, to explain human behavior .

Positivism is also important in the experimental method. It refers to factual knowledge that is obtained through observation, which is considered to be trustworthy.

When using the experimental method, researchers first identify and define key variables. Then they formulate a hypothesis, manipulate the variables, and collect data on the results. Unrelated or irrelevant variables are carefully controlled to minimize the potential impact on the experiment outcome.

History of the Experimental Method

The idea of using experiments to better understand human psychology began toward the end of the nineteenth century. Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal laboratory in 1879.

Wundt is often called the father of experimental psychology. He believed that experiments could help explain how psychology works, and used this approach to study consciousness .

Wundt coined the term "physiological psychology." This is a hybrid of physiology and psychology, or how the body affects the brain.

Other early contributors to the development and evolution of experimental psychology as we know it today include:

• Gustav Fechner (1801-1887), who helped develop procedures for measuring sensations according to the size of the stimulus
• Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894), who analyzed philosophical assumptions through research in an attempt to arrive at scientific conclusions
• Franz Brentano (1838-1917), who called for a combination of first-person and third-person research methods when studying psychology
• Georg Elias Müller (1850-1934), who performed an early experiment on attitude which involved the sensory discrimination of weights and revealed how anticipation can affect this discrimination

Key Terms to Know

To understand how the experimental method works, it is important to know some key terms.

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is the effect that the experimenter is measuring. If a researcher was investigating how sleep influences test scores, for example, the test scores would be the dependent variable.

Independent Variable

The independent variable is the variable that the experimenter manipulates. In the previous example, the amount of sleep an individual gets would be the independent variable.

A hypothesis is a tentative statement or a guess about the possible relationship between two or more variables. In looking at how sleep influences test scores, the researcher might hypothesize that people who get more sleep will perform better on a math test the following day. The purpose of the experiment, then, is to either support or reject this hypothesis.

Operational definitions are necessary when performing an experiment. When we say that something is an independent or dependent variable, we must have a very clear and specific definition of the meaning and scope of that variable.

Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables are other variables that may also affect the outcome of an experiment. Types of extraneous variables include participant variables, situational variables, demand characteristics, and experimenter effects. In some cases, researchers can take steps to control for extraneous variables.

Demand Characteristics

Demand characteristics are subtle hints that indicate what an experimenter is hoping to find in a psychology experiment. This can sometimes cause participants to alter their behavior, which can affect the results of the experiment.

Intervening Variables

Intervening variables are factors that can affect the relationship between two other variables. 

Confounding Variables

Confounding variables are variables that can affect the dependent variable, but that experimenters cannot control for. Confounding variables can make it difficult to determine if the effect was due to changes in the independent variable or if the confounding variable may have played a role.

Psychologists, like other scientists, use the scientific method when conducting an experiment. The scientific method is a set of procedures and principles that guide how scientists develop research questions, collect data, and come to conclusions.

The five basic steps of the experimental process are:

• Identifying a problem to study
• Devising the research protocol
• Conducting the experiment
• Analyzing the data collected
• Sharing the findings (usually in writing or via presentation)

Most psychology students are expected to use the experimental method at some point in their academic careers. Learning how to conduct an experiment is important to understanding how psychologists prove and disprove theories in this field.

There are a few different types of experiments that researchers might use when studying psychology. Each has pros and cons depending on the participants being studied, the hypothesis, and the resources available to conduct the research.

Lab Experiments

Lab experiments are common in psychology because they allow experimenters more control over the variables. These experiments can also be easier for other researchers to replicate. The drawback of this research type is that what takes place in a lab is not always what takes place in the real world.

Field Experiments

Sometimes researchers opt to conduct their experiments in the field. For example, a social psychologist interested in researching prosocial behavior might have a person pretend to faint and observe how long it takes onlookers to respond.

This type of experiment can be a great way to see behavioral responses in realistic settings. But it is more difficult for researchers to control the many variables existing in these settings that could potentially influence the experiment's results.

Quasi-Experiments

While lab experiments are known as true experiments, researchers can also utilize a quasi-experiment. Quasi-experiments are often referred to as natural experiments because the researchers do not have true control over the independent variable.

A researcher looking at personality differences and birth order, for example, is not able to manipulate the independent variable in the situation (personality traits). Participants also cannot be randomly assigned because they naturally fall into pre-existing groups based on their birth order.

So why would a researcher use a quasi-experiment? This is a good choice in situations where scientists are interested in studying phenomena in natural, real-world settings. It's also beneficial if there are limits on research funds or time.

Field experiments can be either quasi-experiments or true experiments.

Examples of the Experimental Method in Use

The experimental method can provide insight into human thoughts and behaviors, Researchers use experiments to study many aspects of psychology.

A 2019 study investigated whether splitting attention between electronic devices and classroom lectures had an effect on college students' learning abilities. It found that dividing attention between these two mediums did not affect lecture comprehension. However, it did impact long-term retention of the lecture information, which affected students' exam performance.

An experiment used participants' eye movements and electroencephalogram (EEG) data to better understand cognitive processing differences between experts and novices. It found that experts had higher power in their theta brain waves than novices, suggesting that they also had a higher cognitive load.

A study looked at whether chatting online with a computer via a chatbot changed the positive effects of emotional disclosure often received when talking with an actual human. It found that the effects were the same in both cases.

One experimental study evaluated whether exercise timing impacts information recall. It found that engaging in exercise prior to performing a memory task helped improve participants' short-term memory abilities.

Sometimes researchers use the experimental method to get a bigger-picture view of psychological behaviors and impacts. For example, one 2018 study examined several lab experiments to learn more about the impact of various environmental factors on building occupant perceptions.

A 2020 study set out to determine the role that sensation-seeking plays in political violence. This research found that sensation-seeking individuals have a higher propensity for engaging in political violence. It also found that providing access to a more peaceful, yet still exciting political group helps reduce this effect.

While the experimental method can be a valuable tool for learning more about psychology and its impacts, it also comes with a few pitfalls.

Experiments may produce artificial results, which are difficult to apply to real-world situations. Similarly, researcher bias can impact the data collected. Results may not be able to be reproduced, meaning the results have low reliability .

Since humans are unpredictable and their behavior can be subjective, it can be hard to measure responses in an experiment. In addition, political pressure may alter the results. The subjects may not be a good representation of the population, or groups used may not be comparable.

And finally, since researchers are human too, results may be degraded due to human error.

What This Means For You

Every psychological research method has its pros and cons. The experimental method can help establish cause and effect, and it's also beneficial when research funds are limited or time is of the essence.

At the same time, it's essential to be aware of this method's pitfalls, such as how biases can affect the results or the potential for low reliability. Keeping these in mind can help you review and assess research studies more accurately, giving you a better idea of whether the results can be trusted or have limitations.

Colorado State University. Experimental and quasi-experimental research .

American Psychological Association. Experimental psychology studies human and animals .

Mayrhofer R, Kuhbandner C, Lindner C. The practice of experimental psychology: An inevitably postmodern endeavor . Front Psychol . 2021;11:612805. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.612805

Mandler G. A History of Modern Experimental Psychology .

Stanford University. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Britannica. Gustav Fechner .

Britannica. Hermann von Helmholtz .

Meyer A, Hackert B, Weger U. Franz Brentano and the beginning of experimental psychology: implications for the study of psychological phenomena today . Psychol Res . 2018;82:245-254. doi:10.1007/s00426-016-0825-7

Britannica. Georg Elias Müller .

McCambridge J, de Bruin M, Witton J.  The effects of demand characteristics on research participant behaviours in non-laboratory settings: A systematic review .  PLoS ONE . 2012;7(6):e39116. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039116

Laboratory experiments . In: The Sage Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods. Allen M, ed. SAGE Publications, Inc. doi:10.4135/9781483381411.n287

Schweizer M, Braun B, Milstone A. Research methods in healthcare epidemiology and antimicrobial stewardship — quasi-experimental designs . Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol . 2016;37(10):1135-1140. doi:10.1017/ice.2016.117

Glass A, Kang M. Dividing attention in the classroom reduces exam performance . Educ Psychol . 2019;39(3):395-408. doi:10.1080/01443410.2018.1489046

Keskin M, Ooms K, Dogru AO, De Maeyer P. Exploring the cognitive load of expert and novice map users using EEG and eye tracking . ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf . 2020;9(7):429. doi:10.3390.ijgi9070429

Ho A, Hancock J, Miner A. Psychological, relational, and emotional effects of self-disclosure after conversations with a chatbot . J Commun . 2018;68(4):712-733. doi:10.1093/joc/jqy026

Haynes IV J, Frith E, Sng E, Loprinzi P. Experimental effects of acute exercise on episodic memory function: Considerations for the timing of exercise . Psychol Rep . 2018;122(5):1744-1754. doi:10.1177/0033294118786688

Torresin S, Pernigotto G, Cappelletti F, Gasparella A. Combined effects of environmental factors on human perception and objective performance: A review of experimental laboratory works . Indoor Air . 2018;28(4):525-538. doi:10.1111/ina.12457

Schumpe BM, Belanger JJ, Moyano M, Nisa CF. The role of sensation seeking in political violence: An extension of the significance quest theory . J Personal Social Psychol . 2020;118(4):743-761. doi:10.1037/pspp0000223

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Python Numerical Methods

This notebook contains an excerpt from the Python Programming and Numerical Methods - A Guide for Engineers and Scientists , the content is also available at Berkeley Python Numerical Methods .

The copyright of the book belongs to Elsevier. We also have this interactive book online for a better learning experience. The code is released under the MIT license . If you find this content useful, please consider supporting the work on Elsevier or Amazon !

< 2.0 Variables and Basic Data Structures | Contents | 2.2 Data Structure - Strings >

Variables and Assignment ¶

When programming, it is useful to be able to store information in variables. A variable is a string of characters and numbers associated with a piece of information. The assignment operator , denoted by the “=” symbol, is the operator that is used to assign values to variables in Python. The line x=1 takes the known value, 1, and assigns that value to the variable with name “x”. After executing this line, this number will be stored into this variable. Until the value is changed or the variable deleted, the character x behaves like the value 1.

TRY IT! Assign the value 2 to the variable y. Multiply y by 3 to show that it behaves like the value 2.

A variable is more like a container to store the data in the computer’s memory, the name of the variable tells the computer where to find this value in the memory. For now, it is sufficient to know that the notebook has its own memory space to store all the variables in the notebook. As a result of the previous example, you will see the variable “x” and “y” in the memory. You can view a list of all the variables in the notebook using the magic command %whos .

TRY IT! List all the variables in this notebook

Note that the equal sign in programming is not the same as a truth statement in mathematics. In math, the statement x = 2 declares the universal truth within the given framework, x is 2 . In programming, the statement x=2 means a known value is being associated with a variable name, store 2 in x. Although it is perfectly valid to say 1 = x in mathematics, assignments in Python always go left : meaning the value to the right of the equal sign is assigned to the variable on the left of the equal sign. Therefore, 1=x will generate an error in Python. The assignment operator is always last in the order of operations relative to mathematical, logical, and comparison operators.

TRY IT! The mathematical statement x=x+1 has no solution for any value of x . In programming, if we initialize the value of x to be 1, then the statement makes perfect sense. It means, “Add x and 1, which is 2, then assign that value to the variable x”. Note that this operation overwrites the previous value stored in x .

There are some restrictions on the names variables can take. Variables can only contain alphanumeric characters (letters and numbers) as well as underscores. However, the first character of a variable name must be a letter or underscores. Spaces within a variable name are not permitted, and the variable names are case-sensitive (e.g., x and X will be considered different variables).

TIP! Unlike in pure mathematics, variables in programming almost always represent something tangible. It may be the distance between two points in space or the number of rabbits in a population. Therefore, as your code becomes increasingly complicated, it is very important that your variables carry a name that can easily be associated with what they represent. For example, the distance between two points in space is better represented by the variable dist than x , and the number of rabbits in a population is better represented by nRabbits than y .

Note that when a variable is assigned, it has no memory of how it was assigned. That is, if the value of a variable, y , is constructed from other variables, like x , reassigning the value of x will not change the value of y .

EXAMPLE: What value will y have after the following lines of code are executed?

WARNING! You can overwrite variables or functions that have been stored in Python. For example, the command help = 2 will store the value 2 in the variable with name help . After this assignment help will behave like the value 2 instead of the function help . Therefore, you should always be careful not to give your variables the same name as built-in functions or values.

TIP! Now that you know how to assign variables, it is important that you learn to never leave unassigned commands. An unassigned command is an operation that has a result, but that result is not assigned to a variable. For example, you should never use 2+2 . You should instead assign it to some variable x=2+2 . This allows you to “hold on” to the results of previous commands and will make your interaction with Python must less confusing.

You can clear a variable from the notebook using the del function. Typing del x will clear the variable x from the workspace. If you want to remove all the variables in the notebook, you can use the magic command %reset .

In mathematics, variables are usually associated with unknown numbers; in programming, variables are associated with a value of a certain type. There are many data types that can be assigned to variables. A data type is a classification of the type of information that is being stored in a variable. The basic data types that you will utilize throughout this book are boolean, int, float, string, list, tuple, dictionary, set. A formal description of these data types is given in the following sections.

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Home » Management Science » Transportation and Assignment Models in Operations Research

Transportation and Assignment Models in Operations Research

Transportation and assignment models are special purpose algorithms of the linear programming. The simplex method of Linear Programming Problems(LPP) proves to be inefficient is certain situations like determining optimum assignment of jobs to persons, supply of materials from several supply points to several destinations and the like. More effective solution models have been evolved and these are called assignment and transportation models.

The transportation model is concerned with selecting the routes between supply and demand points in order to minimize costs of transportation subject to constraints of supply at any supply point and demand at any demand point. Assume a company has 4 manufacturing plants with different capacity levels, and 5 regional distribution centres. 4 x 5 = 20 routes are possible. Given the transportation costs per load of each of 20 routes between the manufacturing (supply) plants and the regional distribution (demand) centres, and supply and demand constraints, how many loads can be transported through different routes so as to minimize transportation costs? The answer to this question is obtained easily through the transportation algorithm.

Similarly, how are we to assign different jobs to different persons/machines, given cost of job completion for each pair of job machine/person? The objective is minimizing total cost. This is best solved through assignment algorithm.

Uses of Transportation and Assignment Models in Decision Making

The broad purposes of Transportation and Assignment models in LPP are just mentioned above. Now we have just enumerated the different situations where we can make use of these models.

Transportation model is used in the following:

• To decide the transportation of new materials from various centres to different manufacturing plants. In the case of multi-plant company this is highly useful.
• To decide the transportation of finished goods from different manufacturing plants to the different distribution centres. For a multi-plant-multi-market company this is useful.
• To decide the transportation of finished goods from different manufacturing plants to the different distribution centres. For a multi-plant-multi-market company this is useful. These two are the uses of transportation model. The objective is minimizing transportation cost.

Assignment model is used in the following:

• To decide the assignment of jobs to persons/machines, the assignment model is used.
• To decide the route a traveling executive has to adopt (dealing with the order inn which he/she has to visit different places).
• To decide the order in which different activities performed on one and the same facility be taken up.

In the case of transportation model, the supply quantity may be less or more than the demand. Similarly the assignment model, the number of jobs may be equal to, less or more than the number of machines/persons available. In all these cases the simplex method of LPP can be adopted, but transportation and assignment models are more effective, less time consuming and easier than the LPP.

Related posts:

• Operations Research approach of problem solving
• Introduction to Transportation Problem
• Procedure for finding an optimum solution for transportation problem
• Initial basic feasible solution of a transportation problem
• Introduction to Decision Models
• Transportation Cost Elements
• Modes of Transportation in Logistics
• Factors Affecting Transportation in Logistics

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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