child abuse research paper ideas

127 Captivating Child Abuse Essay Ideas, Research Questions & Essay Examples

Child abuse is one of the crucial problems that has been overlooked for many centuries. At the same time, it is an extremely sensitive issue and should be recognized and reduced as much as possible.

In this article, you will find child abuse research topics and ideas to use in your essay.

Let’s start!

📝 The Child Abuse Essay Structure

🏆 best child abuse topics & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on child abuse, 📌 simple research topics about child abuse, 💡 interesting topics on child abuse, ❓ child abuse research questions.

Child abuse is one of the most problematic topics in today’s society. Writing child abuse essays may be challenging because it requires analyzing sensitive issues.

The problem refers to physical, psychological, or sexual mistreatment of children. It is vital to discuss this acute issue in studies and essays on child abuse.

Before working on your essay, you should select a topic for discussion. Here are some child abuse essay topics that we can suggest:

The problem of child abuse in the US (Canada, the UK)
Child abuse: Types and definitions
Child neglect crimes and their causes
Current solutions to the problem of sexual abuse of children
The importance of child maltreatment prevention programs
Child abuse: Legal implications
Consequences of child abuse and neglect

If you are looking for other possible titles for your paper, you can check out child abuse essays samples online. Remember to only use them as examples to guide your work, and do not copy the information you will find.

One of the most important features of an outstanding essay is its structure. Here are some tips on how you can organize your essay effectively:

Do preliminary research before writing your paper. It will help you to understand the issues you will want to discuss and outline which of them you will include in the essay. Remember to keep in mind the type of essay you should write, too.
An introductory paragraph is necessary. In this paragraph, you will present background information on the issue and the aspects that you will cover in the paper. Remember to include a thesis statement at the end of this section.
Think of the main arguments of your paper. You will present them in the body paragraphs of the essay. What child abuse issues do you want your reader to know about? Dedicate a separate section for each of the arguments. Remember to make smooth transitions between the paragraphs.
Remember to dedicate a paragraph to identifying the problem of the essay and explaining the main terms. For example, if you are writing a child labor essay, you can discuss the countries in which this practice is present. You can also reflect on the outcomes of this problem.
Include a refutation section if you are writing an argumentative essay. Discuss an alternative perspective on each of your arguments and prove that your opinion is more reliable than the alternative ones.
Remember that you should not make paragraphs and sentences too long. It is easier for the reader to comprehend shorter sentences compared to complex ones. You can write between 65 and 190 words per paragraph and include at least 10 words in a sentence. It is a good idea to make all sections of the body paragraphs of similar length.
A concluding paragraph or a summary is also very important. In this paragraph, you will discuss the arguments and counter-arguments of your paper.
Do not forget to add a reference page in which you will include the sources used in the paper. Ask your professor whether you need a title page and an outline too.
If you are not sure that the selected structure is good, check out child abuse essay examples online. Pay attention to how they are organized but do not copy the facts you will find in them.

For extra help, see our free samples and get some ideas for your paper!

Daniel Valerio Child Abuse In the end, it was an electrician who identified the typical signs of abuse in Daniel that finally led police to investigate, thereby exposing the weakness and ineffectiveness of the Dual Track System; the child […]
Ethical Dilemma of Child Abuse In the above example, a nurse has to apply rational judgment to analyze the extent and threats when making decisions in the best interest of the victim of child abuse.
Child Abuse: Preventive Measures My artifact is an infographic that communicates the various forms of child abuse and how to report them to the necessary authorities.
Child Abuse in the Victorian Era in Great Britain This was unacceptable in the eyes of the factory owners resulting in the implementation of the practice of children being sent into the mechanisms of machines while they were still operating since they were supposedly […]
Problem of Child Abuse The most common form of child abuse in America and in most parts of the world is child abuse. The cost of child abuse is dire to both the children, healthcare organizations, parents, and the […]
Physical Child Abuse Usually the child is unaware of the abuse due to the na ve state of mind or innocence. Physical abuse also lowers the social-economic status and thus high chances of neglect or abuse due to […]
Child Abuse Problem The study of the problem of child abuse has begun in the 60s with focusing attention to children problems. In such a case the early recognition of child abuse is of great importance.
Child Abuse: A Case for Imposing Harsher Punishments to Child Abusers While harsh punishments appear to offer a solution to the problem, this measure may be detrimental to the welfare of the child in the case where the abuser is its guardian.
The Relationship Between Child Abuse and Embitterment Disorder Some emotions, like the dread of tests in school or sibling rivalry and conflicts, are a regular part of growing up.
Child Abuse in the UAE and Explaining Theories The interest of carrying out the study on child abuse is based on the fact that it is a critical issue in any society, especially due to the actual and possible consequences on the child […]
The Causes and Effects of Child Abuse The main problem of the project is the presence of a number of effects of child abuse and parental neglect on children, their development, and communication with the world.
Discipline and Child Abuse: Motivation and Goals The first proof of the justice and reasonableness of discipline is that it is permitted by law to be considered to be the most authoritative source to consult.
Child Abuse Versus Elder Abuse The second distinction is that older people frequently encounter issues that might lead to abuse or neglect, particularly in nursing homes, such as mental disability, loneliness, and physical limitation.
Trafficking Causes Child Abuse and Neglect The dissociation of children from their families and the exposure to intense trauma they are subjected to during and after trafficking may cause the minors to have attachment problems.
Child Abuse and Maltreatment Discussion Additionally, this may cause a child’s behavior to change, such as making a sad or melancholy face or becoming furious with parents or other adults. When it comes to emotional abuse, a child may feel […]
Impact of Child Abuse on Adulthood: An Idea Worth Spreading A frequent argument of those who do not want to recognize the scale of the problem of abuse in the world is “Beating is a sign of love!”.
Effects of Child Abuse on Adults Second, she was so irrationally averse to the idea of having children that I knew immediately that it would be a contentious point in her future relationships.
Domestic Violence, Child Abuse, or Elder Abuse In every health facility, a nurse who notices the signs of abuse and domestic violence must report them to the relevant authorities.
Child Abuse: Screening Methods and Creating Financial Programs When the reporting is mandatory, it is easy to follow its guidelines which should be carefully elaborated not to be harsh on parents and at the same time offer protection to a child.
Child Abuse Allegations: Multidisciplinary Team Approach In children with allegations of child abuse, what is the effectiveness of the multidisciplinary team approach compared to the non-multidisciplinary team approach on prosecution rates, mental health referrals, and provision of medical examinations?
Hidden Epidemic of Child Abuse and Neglect Child abuse should be perceived as a form of deviant behavior to which researchers give different explanations: biological, psychological, socio-cultural.
Criminal Justice System: Child Abuse During the consideration of cases as part of a grand jury, citizens perform some functions of the preliminary investigation bodies.
Promoting Child Abuse Prevention Services in Oahu, Hawaii, and the US The primary goal the Hui Hawaii organization is trying to achieve is to improve the well-being of American children by preventing abuse, neglect, and depression.
Child Abuse in Singapore The second reason for child abuse in Singapore to continue being one of the most underreported illegal offenses is the country’s collectivist culture.
Protocol for Pre-Testing the Child Abuse and Neglect Public Health Policy Based on the above, it is necessary to identify the conditions of child abuse like the quality of family relations and improper upbringing.
Child Abuse: Term Definition However, there is a component that is not so clearly represented in other crimes: a third party, who has observed the abuse or the consequences of abuse has the legal obligation and reasonable cause of […]
Sociological Perspective on “Punishment” as a Major Contributor to Child Abuse This is done with the aim of ensuring that the child is disciplined and is perceived as a legitimate punishment. This has offered a loophole to parents to abuse the child in the name of […]
Critical Statistical Data Regarding the Issues Related to Child Abuse Due to acts of abuse children suffer greatly and it will not be wrong to say that these experiences are definitely engraved into the child’s personality.
Child Abuse and Culture: Juan’s Case Analysis The following is the list of reflective insights that I came to while getting myself familiarized with Juan’s case and analyzing this case’s discursive implications: When addressing the issue of children being suspected to have […]
New Jersey’s Bill on Child Abuse and Neglect The legislation’s impact is expected to be large because it is targeted at raising awareness of the pervasive issue of child abuse and encouraging the public to stay active and not to disregard any signs […]
Child Abuse and Neglect and Family Practice Model Also, psychological violence can be either the only form of violence or the consequence of psychological or sexual abuse or neglect. Inadequate evaluation of the child’s capabilities and overstated requirements can also be a form […]
Child Abuse and Neglect: Drug and Alcohol Problems The families of individuals who have committed a drug related offense should be investigated in order to ensure the practice is acceptable and capable of supporting the needs of more societies.
Child Abuse: History and Causes The purpose of this paper is to explore the history, and causes of child abuse as well as the legislation implemented to address its cases.
Child Abuse as a Result of Insufficient Policies According to Latzman and Latzman, child abuse may be manifested in the use of excessive physical force when disciplining a child or an adolescent.
The Prevention of Child Abuse From the interview conducted with the school administrator of the local elementary school and the director of a local preschool, it is clear that both institutions have some advocacy plans for the prevention of child […]
Child Abuse and Neglect A church/synagogue/mosque retreat activity for parents and they children can be beneficial in strengthening parents to deal with the issues of child abuse and neglect.
A True Nature of the Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect in a Society The outcomes of child abuse usually depend on a variety of factors like the age of a child, the type of relation between a child and a perpetrator, and, of course, the type of maltreatment.
A True Nature of the Effects of Child Abuse A society is in need of powerful and effective research that can prove the necessity to introduce the issue of child abuse and its effects as a leading problem the solution of which requires the […]
Child Abuse Problems and Its Effects on a Future Child’s Life In fact, there were the three main challenges in writing the literature review just completed that were overcome due to the ability to organize the work, follow the suggestions of the experts, and keep in […]
Effects of Child Abuse The nature of the effects of child abuse, their consequences in a society, and the most appropriate preventive methods should be considered.
Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect Antisocial behaviour is one of the outcomes of child abuse and parental neglect that may be disclosed in a variety of forms.
Child Abuse Issues and Its Effects The recognition of child abuse signs is a very important step as it is wrong to believe that child maltreatment takes place because of the presence of a single sing or poor understanding of child […]
Child Abuse and Capstone Project This is why the problem of child abuse remains to be crucial for analysis, as people have to understand its urgency and effects on human behavior.
The Effects of Child Abuse: Capstone Project Time Line The development of a Capstone Project will become a new step in solving the problem and thinking about the possible ways of improvement the situation and creation the most appropriate living conditions for children.
Introducing Improvements to Children Abuse Reporting System The paper is connected with the analysis of the quality of the current child abuse report systems because of the serious problems in the sphere of childcare.
Biological Underpinnings Behind Child Abuse The dimension of the baby’s head is also seen to decrease in quantity from on third of the whole body at birth, to a quarter at the age of two years and to an eighth […]
Cause and Effect of Child Abuse Parental response to the children is also presented in a form of abuse of the rights of the children, as they feel neglected or disowned.
Child Abuse and Neglect Children in Court The objective of this paper was to determine the level of knowledge and nature of attitudes among maltreated children who appeared in court during their detention case hearings.
Randomized Trial of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders in Adult Female Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse However, in spite of the fact that there exist a wealth of clinical literature on treatment methodologies of victims of sexual abuse, the evidence base concerning the treatment of victims of childhood sexual abuse exhibiting […]
Child Sexual Abuse: Impact and Consequences Due to the adverse consequences of sexual abuse, efforts to have Jody share her ordeal and get immediate help would be my priority.
Educational Program on Child Abuse The report “Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect” by Bernstein, Fink and Handelsman provides the findings of the consistency and validity of some of the conservative measures […]
Public Health Media Campaign Proposal for Child Abuse
Child Abuse and Lack of Communication in Marriages the Main Factors of Failed Family
The Reasons and Three Most Common Factors Contributing to Child Abuse in Our Society
Child Abuse and Its Effects on Social and Personality Development
Neo-Liberal and Neo-Conservative Perspectives on Child Abuse
Physical and Behavioural Indicators of Possible Child Abuse
Defining Child Abuse and Its Different Forms in the 21st Century
Child Abuse and Neglect: Recognizing the Signs and Symptoms
Behind Closed Doors: The Correlation Between Multiple Personality Disorder and Child Abuse
Child Abuse and Later Maladjustment in Adulthood
Modern Beliefs Regarding the Treatment of Child Abuse Victims
Neighborhood Poverty and Child Abuse and Neglect: The Mediating Role of Social Cohesion
The Connection Between Child Abuse, Child Discipline, and Adult Behavior
State the Possible Types, Signs and Symptoms of Child Abuse and Why It Is Important to Follow the Policies and Procedures of the Work Place
Child Abuse and Its Effects on the Physical, Mental, and Emotional State of a Child
Child Abuse, and Neglect and Speech and Language Development
Social Issue: Child Abuse and How It Affects Early Childhood Development
Child Abuse Scandal Publicity and Catholic School Enrollment
Physical Abuse: The Different Types of Child Abuse
Promoting Help for Victims of Child Abuse: Which Emotions Are Most Appropriate to Motivate Donation Behavior
Describing Child Abuse, Its Different Forms, and Solutions to the Problem
Child Abuse: The Four Major Types of Abuse, Statistics, Prevention, and Treatment
Causes and Risk Factors Behind Child Abuse
Child Abuse, Cause, and Effect on the Rest of Their Lives
Child Abuse Has Severe Negative Psychological Effects on Children
Child Abuse and the Professional Network Working Within the Child Protec
Child Abuse Prevention and Control: Can Physical, Sexual or Psychological Abuse Be Controlled Within the Household?
Child Abuse and the Effect on Development Into Adulthood
Child Abuse: Victim Rights & the Role of Legal Representative
Child Abuse and the Legal System – Developmental Forensic Psychology: Unveiling Four Common Misconceptions
Parent Stress Factors and Child Abuse: A Tutoring Proposal
Approaching Child Abuse From a Multi-Dimensional Perspective
Child Abuse, Alcoholism, and Proactive Treatment
Adverse Effects and Prevention of Child Abuse
Suspected Child Abuse and the Teacher´S Role in Reporting It
Child Abuse and Its Correlation to Poverty
Sexual Child Abuse Exploring the Mind of the Perpetrator
Relationship Between Domestic Violence and Child Abuse and How to Protect the Children From It
Child Abuse Saddest and Most Tragic Problem Today
Child Abuse and Academic Performance of Children
Why Should People Care About Child Abuse?
Why Should Child Abuse Be Addressed as a Social Problem?
How Child Abuse and Neglect Affect Childhood?
How Has Child Abuse Been Conceptualised and Addressed in Policy and Law?
How to Protect Children From Abuse and Neglect?
What Are the Negative Effects of Child Abuse?
How Is the United States Dealing With Child Abuse Problem?
How Can Therapy Help Victims of Child Abuse?
How Can the Community Stop Child Abuse and Neglect?
When Should Teachers Report Child Abuse?
What Cause Child Abuse?
Does Child Abuse and Neglect Lead To Bullying?
How Do the Government and Society Have a Responsibility to Help Child Abuse Victims?
Parent Support Groups Can Reduce Child Abuse?
When Child Abuse Overlaps With Domestic Violence: The Factors Influencing Child Protection Workers’ Beliefs?
How Can Spanking Lead to Child Abuse?
How the Government and Society Have a Responsibility to Help Child Abuse Victims
What Does Victimology Say About Child Abuse Data?
Are There Any Biomarkers for Pedophilia and Sexual Child Abuse?
When Does Discipline Cross the Line to Child Abuse?
How Child Abuse Affects a Hero, a God, and a Monster in Greek Mythology?
Does Child Abuse Create a Psychopath?
Does Not Get Noticed Enough Around the World Is Child Abuse?
How Can Sexual Child Abuse Affect the Child’s Psychological Development?
How Child Abuse Effects Students Education?
How Do Abuse and Neglect Impact a Child’s Whole Life?
Should Pregnant Drug Abusers Be Charged With Child Abuse?
How Children Carry the Weight of Child Abuse?
Does Child Abuse Cause Crime?
Childhood Essay Topics
Attachment Theory Essay Topics
Child Development Research Ideas
Mental Health Essay Ideas
Child Welfare Essay Ideas
Childcare Research Topics
Alcohol Abuse Paper Topics
Foster Care Titles
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

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114 Child Abuse Research Topics & Essay Examples

📝 child abuse research papers examples, 💡 essay ideas on child abuse.

✍️ Child Abuse Essay Topics for College

🏆 Best Child Abuse Essay Titles

🎓 simple research topics about child abuse, ❓ child abuse research questions.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Effects of Child Sexual Abuse Psychology essay sample: Child sexual abuse is among the common problems facing children. This paper looks at the causes and effects of child sexual abuse, the posttraumatic stress disorder, and its treatment.
Family Violence: Adult-Child Sexual Abuse Psychology essay sample: This paper explores the risk and protection factors for child abuse in the light of Macro-system, microsystem, mesosystems; and programs that target the prevention of child abuse.
Childhood Sexual Abuse and Its Impact on Future Life Psychology essay sample: The paper explores how sibling incest and childhood sexual abuse affect persons’ interpersonal relationships and adulthood sexual functioning.
Child Abuse: Perpetrated by Parents on Children Psychology essay sample: ‘Child neglect’ is an ambiguous and all-encompassing term used to describe actions perpetrated by parents on children which are universally deemed harmful by society.
The Link Between Child Abuse and Delinquency Psychology essay sample: Five elements of parenting that can be positive or negative influences include: Discipline, Monitoring, Reinforcement, Involvement and Problem-solving.
Social and Emotional Outcomes of Child Abuse Psychology essay sample: This can be further and in a meaningful manner determine the results by paying attention to a sound and the experience of the child.
Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect Psychology essay sample: A paper explores reasons for the prevalence of child abuse in society and possible remedies. Child abuse is an activity that subjects a child to physical, emotional, or sexual trauma.
Child Advocacy. Keeping an Eye Out Psychology essay sample: In the current social settings, the voice of young people and particularly children have been occasionally neglected.
Child Sexual Abuse Issue Review Psychology essay sample: Posttraumatic stress disorder, increased stress levels and poor health in individuals are some of the long-term effects of child sexual abuse.
Catholic Church and Child Sexual Abuse Allegations Psychology essay sample: Over the last two years, the Catholic church has come under a lot of criticism due to allegations of its priests sexually assaulting children in their congregation.
Abuse and Neglect: An Orientation Psychology essay sample: Child abuse and neglect are severe issues, affecting the most vulnerable section of the population and often causing permanent trauma.
Bullying Children: The Analysis of Various Examples Psychology essay sample: This discussion provides a detailed analysis of various examples of bullying and some of the evidence-based strategies to prevent the malpractice.
Child Neglect and Abuse: Causes, Effects, Prevention, and Treatment Psychology essay sample: Child maltreatment is a broad and complex concept that entails a wide range of problematic issues, including neglect, sexual, physical, and emotional abuse.
Should There Be a Law Banning Spanking of Children Psychology essay sample: Spanking is a disciplinary method that has over the years been fought against in many countries, spanking has a long-run negative effect on the child.
The Children Abuse and Social Behavior Psychology essay sample: This research paper will define child abuse, review the statistics and other data on the topic and discuss the impact of abuse on the social behavior of children.
The Level of Abuse to Children Psychology essay sample: This paper highlights the extent of child abuse cases in our society with a special focus on its relation to our culture.
The Long-Term Impact of Abuse and Neglect on Children Psychology essay sample: The purpose of this paper is to explain the impact of abuse on children, examine how different types of abuse impact a child’s cognitive and socio-emotional development.
Child Abuse: The Case Study Psychology essay sample: The abused child is vulnerable because he needs parental care more than any sort of support does. In fact, providing support only caters for the physical aspects of the problem.
Neglect and Abuse in "Romanian Orphanage" Video Psychology essay sample: This article focuses on the video "Romanian Orphanage" - a good example of how emotional neglect negatively affects the development of young people.
Child Abuse and Neglect in Daycares Psychology essay sample: Millions of children face acts of negligence in various forms. During the tender age, the child needs and depends on the parent or caregiver critically.
The False Memories of Abuse in Sexual Child Abuse Psychology essay sample: In circumstances where a child is sexually abused theirs follows trauma on the child leading to a series of memories that occur from time to time.
Child Abuse and Elder Abuse Psychology essay sample: Child and elder abuses are worldwide problems that are on the increase. The paper represents two recent criminal cases, one of child abuse and the other of elder abuse.
Child and Elder Abuse Are Underreported Psychology essay sample: Elderly abuse and child abuse take different forms, including physical and psychological. The paper discusses how and why elder abuse and child abuse are underreported.
Childhood Trauma Etiology Associated With Social and Mental Disorders Psychology essay sample: This paper will showcase the five themes that were revealed during the review process to better understand the associations between childhood trauma and various disorders.
Identifying Child Abuse and Neglect: Teacher Training Psychology essay sample: Apart from physical and psychological trauma, the experience of abuse or neglect impacts executive functioning and cognitive skills, potentially causing difficulties in learning.
Child Emotional Neglect and Its Risk Factors Psychology essay sample: Child emotional neglect is a common phenomenon observed in terms of raising healthy children. Negligent parents experience the same attitude from their parents in childhood.
Childhood Traumatic Experience Psychology essay sample: This paper examines the effect of childhood traumas on adulthood, including cognitive abilities, social behavior, and mental health, through the prism of scientific evidence.
Physical Punishment as an Ineffective Way to Influence a Child Psychology essay sample: Physical punishments such as spankings always have a more comprehensive range of consequences that increase aggressiveness and violence.
Child Abuse and Neglect: “A Child Called It” Psychology essay sample: This paper compares symptoms of abuse detailed within the work by Dave Pelzer known as “A child called It” and analyzes them using recognized guidelines for child abuse victims.
Sexual and Emotional Child Abuse Examination Psychology essay sample: This paper focuses on the issues of sexual and emotional aggression towards children in their homes, discussing relevant concepts, and abuse statistics.
Experience of Childhood Trauma from Child Abuse/Maltreatment Psychology essay sample: This paper aims to analyze the experience of childhood trauma from child abuse/maltreatment, outcomes included, and relevant literature search results and annotated bibliography.
Child Abuse and Depression Psychology essay sample: This essay argues that neglect, emotional distress, and limited access to psychological treatment during childhood alleviate depression and other mental conditions.
Childhood Maltreatment and Behavior Problems Psychology essay sample: The research centers on examining whether or not early childhood maltreatment (before the age of four) affected the long-term behavioral deviations.
Early-Life Stress and Behavioral Outcomes Psychology essay sample: The study aims to understand the mechanisms behind the long-lasting consequences of early-life stress exposure. It is accomplished by comparing the results of tests.
Child Abuse: Corporal Punishment, Intimidation Psychology essay sample: The paper describes that the problem of violence and ill-treatment of children in the family today is an issue that needs to be discussed and taken measures to solve.
Suicidal Ideation as a High-Risk Event Psychology essay sample: People with a tendency toward suicidal ideation represent one of the largest high-risk populations because thoughts of death affect a high percentage of humans.
Child Neglect and Its Impact on Self-Esteem of a Young Adult Psychology essay sample: The investigation of the theme of child neglect and its mediating effect on the self-esteem of young adults can be conducted with the help of a quantitative questionnaire.
Spanking as a Punishment Method Psychology essay sample: Raising children is arduous as parents are tasked with introducing their children to society and acceptable norms of behavior in it.
Death Due to Childhood Abuse and Household Dysfunction Psychology essay sample: The paper discusses how health risk behavior and various diseases in adults are related to household dysfunction and different types of abuse during childhood.
Complex a Child Abuse Situation Psychology essay sample: The case of James is a unique illustration of how complex a child abuse situation can become due to the involvement of a multitude of parties.
Experience of Trauma from Child Maltreatment Psychology essay sample: Summing up the findings of various researchers as well as using databases, studies confirm an undeniable influence of maltreatment on the later development and life of a child.
Child Abuse and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Psychology essay sample: The given case illustrates child abuse and neglect as a problem involving not only a child and a parent but also grandparents.

✍️ Abuse Child Essay Examples for College

Child Maltreatment: Background Psychology essay sample: The phenomenon of child maltreatment in the home setting is thoroughly examined by researchers, who intend to present a link between the unhealthy environment in families.
Impacts of Physical Trauma on Children and Family Psychology essay sample: In the presented scenario the main recipient of physical trauma as a result of abuse is Kolomalu. It discusses the short-term impacts of physical abuse.
Profiles of Childhood Trauma and Psychopathology Psychology essay sample: This article presents the results of studying the long-term effects of childhood traumas and reveals a connection between types of traumas and mental disorders.
Child Maltreatment Factor of Personality Formation Psychology essay sample: This research aims to analyze the external factors involved in developing personality formation, particularly race and ethnicity.
Growth Mindset Considering Spanking Issue Psychology essay sample: On the basis of learning, I have changed my belief related to the spanking of children that had been previously regarded as a common and even beneficial practice.
Mental Health of Children: A Study of Human Rights Violations Through Terrorism Psychology essay sample: It can be concluded that there is a direct interlink between terrorist acts and various mental health disorders, including those among children, who are highly prone to mental trauma.
The Problem of Child Abuse and Maltreatment Psychology essay sample: In this paper, the authors focus on how corporal punishment may lead to abusive acts, injury, and maltreatment among children and adolescents.
Preventing Child Maltreatment by Caregivers Psychology essay sample: In the paper, the strategies to reduce maltreatment involving older children by promoting healthier interactions between them and their caregivers.
Long-Term Outcomes of Childhood Sexual Abuse Psychology essay sample: The paper reviews the literature providing information on the psychological, psychiatric, and physical outcomes of child sexual abuse.
Sexual Violence and Mental Health Effects Psychology essay sample: Sexual violence is widespread and is used even against children. There are treatment options for negative mental health effects for sexually abused children.
Childhood Trauma and Attachment Theories Psychology essay sample: Childhood trauma is a life-threatening and violent event in a child's life. It significantly impacts a person's behavioral and emotional functioning.
Bullying: Collaborating with Parents to Increase Proactive Bystander Message Psychology essay sample: Bullying could potentially lead to anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress. These symptoms could be typical also to the bystanders.
Secondary Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Children Psychology essay sample: Understanding child PTSD is fundamental in determining or predicting the future tendencies and outcomes of future life in terms of health, behavior, and social well-being.
Codependence, Narcissism, and Childhood Trauma: Analysis of Article Psychology essay sample: In their research, the authors wanted to test the concept of codependency and how it is relevant to real-life situations.
Childhood Trauma: Causes, Effects, and Preventive Measures Psychology essay sample: It is salient to understand the causative factors and the effects of childhood trauma while also highlighting applicable preventive measures.
The Child Maltreatment and Anxiety Relationship Psychology essay sample: This paper discusses the impact of maltreatment on children's well-being and protects their physical and psychological health and research brings attention to the problem.
Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect Psychology essay sample: Child abuse and neglect are cases when an underaged individual's emotional needs are overlooked and three out of eight children in the United States are affected by this problem.
Spanking Is Detrimental and Should Be Outlawed Psychology essay sample: Spanking teaches children ways of avoiding being caught instead of generating forms of positive behaviors. It is detrimental to children and should be outlawed.
Children’s Mental Health: Codependency and Alcoholic and Narcissistic Parents Psychology essay sample: The concept of codependency is one of the recurring themes in the discussions of childhood struggles, caused by alcoholic and narcissistic parents.
Trauma and Its Effect on Children Psychology essay sample: The paper examines the notion of trauma and its effect on children. Moreover, it looks into the consequences, causes, reactivation of trauma, and prospective treatment.
Child Abuse and Special Needs or Behavioral Challenging Children
Child Abuse Has Severe Negative Psychological Effects on Children
The Characteristics and Forms of Child Abuse: Physical Abuse, Physical Neglect, Sexual Abuse, and Emotional Abuse
Child Abuse Potential: Correlates With Child Maltreatment Rates and Structural Measures of Neighborhoods
Child Abuse and Children Can Be Saved From Experiences
Connection Between Child Sexual Abuse & Dissociative Identity Disorder
The Reasons and Factors Contributing to Child Abuse in Our Society
Child Abuse and Adolescent Dating Violence
Defining Child Abuse With the Aid of a Case Study
Approaching Child Abuse from a Multi-Dimensional Perspective
The Fine Line Between Child Abuse and Parental Punishment with Justification
Behind Closed Doors: The Correlation Between Multiple Personality Disorder and Child Abuse
Protecting Our Children from Domestic Violence and Child Abuse
Juvenile Who Commit Homicide or Parricide and the Presence of Child Abuse
Child Abuse and Children Are Being Abused Each Day
Child Abuse as a Major Social Dilemma Healthcare professionals examine possible signs of child abuse and offer adequate education to empower more members of the community to deal with this problem.
Child Abuse and Neglect: Recognizing the Signs and Symptoms
The Inspiration and Enlightenment from the Film Confronting Child Sexual Abuse
Early-Intervention Service for Non-Abusing Parents of Victims of Child Sexual Abuse
Child Sexual Abuse: The Repressed Memories Recovered
Describing Child Abuse, Its Different Forms, and Solutions to the Problem
Child Abuse and Lack of Communication in Marriages the Main Factors of Failed Family
Long and Short-Term Consequences of Child Abuse and the Different Treatment
Child Abuse and Its Effects on Social And Personality Development
Child Abuse and How it Relates to the Developmental Stages
Child Abuse and Maltreatment Is Not Limited to a Particular Age and Can Occur in the Infant, Toddler, Preschool, and School-Age Years
Dealing with the Growing Concern About Child Sexual Abuse in Our Society
Child Abuse and Its Effects on the Physical, Mental, and Emotional State of a Child
Children are Suffering From a Hidden Epidemic of Child Abuse and Neglect
Family Interventions With Child Physical Abuse and Neglect
Child Abuse and Its Effects on Our Nation’s Most Serious Public Health
Child Sexual Abuse, Sexual Coercion in College, and the Effects of Intervention
Treatment For Women Survivors Of Years of a Child Abuse
International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect
Child Abuse Leads to Anxiety and Social Disorders
Child Abuse Too Much or Too Little Emphasis in Today’s Society
Adverse Effects and Prevention of Child Abuse Social Work
The Difference Between Child Abuse and Child Discipline
Modern Beliefs Regarding The Treatment Of Child Abuse Victims
Mass Media’s Role and Possible Solutions on Child Abuse
The Relationship Between Child Abuse and Adult Psychopathy
Are There Any Biomarkers for Pedophilia and Sexual Child Abuse? A Review.
How Childhood Sexual Abuse Affects the Child Through?
Should Pregnant Drug Abusers Be Charged With Child Abuse?
Why are Child Victims of Sexual Abuse at Greater Risk of HIV?
When Does Discipline Cross the Line to Child Abuse?
How Children Carry the Weight of Child Abuse?
Why Child Abuse Should Be Addressed as a Social Problem?
How the Government and Society have a Responsibility to Help Child Abuse Victims?
What are the Negative Effects of Child Abuse?
When Should Teachers Report Child Abuse?
Why Might the Experience of Child Sexual Abuse Lead to Mental Health Problems in Adulthood?

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PsychologyWriting . "114 Child Abuse Research Topics & Essay Examples." May 24, 2024. https://psychologywriting.com/topics/child-abuse-research-topics/.

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108 Child Abuse Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on child abuse, ✍️ child abuse essay topics for college, 🎓 most interesting child abuse research titles, 💡 simple child abuse essay ideas, ❓ child abuse research questions.

Child Abuse: Risks, Causes, Effects, Treatment
Child Abuse and Preventive Measures
Child Abuse and the Minimalist and Maximalist Perspectives
The Portrayal of Child Abuse and Neglect in Media
Causes and Results of Child Abuse
Problem of Child Abuse in Modern Society
Impact of Child Abuse and Neglect on Perception of Reality in Adulthood
Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect In this paper, attention is paid to Brandon, a 12-year-old boy who survived his father’s sexual abuse at the age of 6 and experiences post-traumatic stress disorder at the moment.
Mandatory Reporting in Child Abuse and Neglect Mandatory reporting is the responsibility given to specific individuals in different states in the United States to report cases of child abuse and neglect to the responsible governmental bodies.
Child Abuse and Neglect in Ukraine This research focuses on child abuse and neglect in Ukraine. Concentrating on statistics will make it clear how widespread the given issue is.
Child Abuse in the Clothing Production Bangladesh’s garment production is projected to quadruple over the next twenty years, which means that millions of new women, young and old, will enter the garment industry.
Advocacy for Negligence and Child Abuse Amongst Black Teenagers Negligence and abuse amongst black teenagers require rehabilitation therapy and parental counseling to prevent further negative effects.
Child Abuse and Neglect in Cleveland, Ohio Adverse health problems in infancy, adolescence, and adulthood are frequently correlated with child maltreatment, which includes neglect, physical, sexual and psychological abuse.
The Problem of Child Abuse A practical approach to dealing with child abuse is to tackle the social, economic, and human factors that contribute to its prevalence.
Different Types of Child Abuse There are different types of child abuse. Only half of all cases are associated with physical violence. Neglect, beatings, and rape are the most common types.
Child Abuse and Its Impact on Society One of the most pressing issues affecting children worldwide is child abuse, which has garnered the attention of countries internationally.
Child Abuse Problem Overview According to social statistics that focus on child abuse and neglect rates in the United States based on victims’ race and ethnicity, it is possible to notice huge disparities.
Child Abuse and Family Violence: A Personal Response In the author’s opinion, child abuse and family violence can be compared with a malignant tumor that slowly poisons and erodes the foundations of society.
Child Abuse: Keep Kids Safe Child abuse is a case when a parent or guardian, regardless of whether through activity or neglecting to act, causes injury, intended damage, or danger of genuine mischief.
Child Abuse Management: Multidisciplinary Approach This paper investigates the efficacy of multidisciplinary and non-multidisciplinary approaches in child abuse management.
Child Abuse and Ways for Its Elimination This paper will discuss the problems of violence in various forms of manifestation to find the causes of their occurrence and a solution for them.
Identifying Child Abuse Scenario It is essential to differentiate between child neglect and child abuse. The World Health Organization puts them under an umbrella term “child maltreatment.”
Medical Examination for Children with Allegations of Child Abuse There are several functions of medical examination. They include collecting and documenting physical evidence of child abuse.
Child Abuse or a Parental Discipline According to the state laws within the United States, physical discipline is recommended if it is solely for discipline and does not lead to the injury of a child.
Shaken Baby Syndrome and Child Abuse The attention of the world was first drawn to the shaken baby syndrome in the widely covered trial of Louse Woodward, a British nanny accused of killing Matthew Eappen, her charge.
Different Factors and Approaches of Child Abuse and Neglect The discussion centers on the 5 articles cited that relate to child abuse and neglect. Important points are provided to identify the ideas of the reporters in the articles accordingly.
Child Abuse and Health of Nation: Cause and Effect The fact is that today, regardless of multiple attempts to create a beneficial environment for children, many of them experience various forms of domestic violence.
The Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse Preventing child abuse or addressing it promptly is much more efficient than handling the consequences which find their way into adulthood.
Child Abuse: Physical, Emotional, Social Effects The effect of child abuse and abandonment is repeatedly debated in regards to physical, emotional, interactive, and social significances.
Health Data Reporting: Child Abuse and Security Breaches The healthcare organization at times are obliged to report not only information related to the health status of a population but also to the security of healthcare data.
Child Abuse Problem and Perspectives on Child Abuse The abuse can be emotional, physical, or sexual. It can be an act of omission or commission that results in harm, potential for harm or threat of harm to a child.
Long-Term Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect Child abuse can be manifested in different forms; however, the most common forms are physical, emotional, and sexual harassment.
Sexual Assault and Child Abuse: A Deep Dive into Victimization The paper analyzes three types of victimization: child abuse, sexual assault and domestic violence. It gives definitions, describes causes and effects of these crimes.
Adverse Effects and Prevention of Child Abuse
Child Abuse and Its Effects on Thousands of Children in the United States and Around the World
Behind Closed Doors: The Correlation Between Multiple Personality Disorder and Child Abuse
Child Abuse and Its Role in “Bastard Out of Carolina” by Dorothy Allison
Approaching Child Abuse From a Multi-Dimensional Perspective
Child Abuse and Lack of Communication in Marriages – The Main Factors of Failed Family
How Child Abuse Affects a Hero, a God, and a Monster in Greek Mythology
Child Abuse and Neglect Is Not About Being Psychical
Physical and Emotional Child Abuse and Neglect: The Effect on Physical, Emotional, and Social Development
Defining Child Abuse and Its Different Forms in the 21st Century
Child Abuse and Neglect: Recognizing the Signs and Symptoms
Localities, Social Services, and Child Abuse: The Role of Community Characteristics in Social Services Allocation and Child Abuse Reporting
Promoting Help for Victims of Child Abuse: Which Emotions Are Most Appropriate to Motivate Donation Behavior
Child Abuse and the Importance of Belonging Discussed in David Pelzer’s “A Child Called It”
How Child Abuse Has Been Conceptualized and Addressed in Terms of Policy and Law Since 1945
When Child Abuse Overlaps With Domestic Violence: The Factors That Influence Child Protection Workers’ Beliefs
The Developments, Forms, and Perception of Physical Child Abuse Through History
Mass Media’s Role and Possible Solutions to Child Abuse in the Philippines
Child Abuse: Cause and Effect on the Rest of Their Lives
Risk Factors for Child Abuse and Neglect Among Former TANF Families: Do Later Leavers Experience Greater Risk?
Child Abuse Prevention and Control: Can Physical, Sexual or Psychological Abuse Be Controlled Within the Household?
The Impact and Consequences of Child Abuse and Its Portrayal in Mark Twain’s Novel “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”
The Social Worker’s Role in Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect
Child Abuse: Too Much or Too Little Emphasis in Today’s Society
How the United States Is Dealing With Child Abuse Problem
Causes and Long-Term Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect
Neighborhood Poverty and Child Abuse and Neglect: The Mediating Role of Social Cohesion
Child Abuse and How It Relates to the Developmental Stages of Erickson
Dealing With the Effects of Child Abuse, Overcoming Obstacles, and Friendship in Barbara Kingsolver’s “The Bean Trees”
Neo-Liberal and Neo-Conservative Perspectives on Child Abuse
Child Abuse and Neglect of a County Welfare Department
The Gap Between Child Abuse and Parental Discipline
Child Abuse and Neglect: The Need for Change
Exposing Child Abuse and Neglect – Physical Violence Against Kids
Child Abuse and Its Effects on the Physical, Mental, and Emotional State of a Child
The Effect of Child Abuse and Neglect in an Urban Community
Child Abuse and Neglect: A Social and Public Health Concern Worldwide
Physical and Behavioral Indicators of Possible Child Abuse
Homosexual: Child Abuse and Sexual Identity
Child Abuse: Protecting Children From Abuse and Neglect
Protecting Our Children From Domestic Violence and Child Abuse
How Sexual Child Abuse Can Affect the Child’s Psychological Development
Child Abuse: Saddest and Most Tragic Problem Today
Juvenile Who Commit Homicide or Parricide and the Presence of Child Abuse
Child Abuse: The Four Major Types of Abuse, Statistics, Prevention, and Treatment
Relationship Between Domestic Violence and Child Abuse and How to Protect the Children From It
How the Government and Society Have a Responsibility to Help Child Abuse Victims
Child Abuse Victims and Whether or Not They Become Abusers in Adulthood
Modern Beliefs Regarding the Treatment of Child Abuse Victims
Children Are Suffering From a Hidden Epidemic of Child Abuse
Does Child Abuse and Neglect Lead to Bullying?
What Are the Negative Effects of Child Abuse?
Is There Correlation Between Child Abuse and Schizophrenia?
How Can Spanking Lead to Child Abuse?
Are Recovered Memories From Child Abuse Reliable?
What Are the Types of Child Abuse and How to Prevent Them?
Does Child Abuse Cause Crime?
What Does Victimology Say About Child Abuse?
How Can the Community Stop Child Abuse and Neglect?
Are There Any Biomarkers for Pedophilia and Sexual Child Abuse?
What Are the Devastating Clinical Consequences of Child Abuse?
Does Child Abuse Create a Psychopath?
How Do Child Abuse and Neglect Affect Childhood?
Why Should Child Abuse Be Addressed as a Social Problem?
How Does Child Abuse Affect Student’s Education?
What Are the Signs or Symptoms of Child Abuse?
How Do Children Carry the Weight of Child Abuse?
Is There a Link Between Child Abuse and Sexual Identity?
What Are the Effects of Child Abuse?
How Can Therapy Help Victims of Child Abuse?
Does Good Child Abuse Lead to Anxiety and Social Disorders?
What Are the Long-Term Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect?
Is There the Gap Between Health Care and Child Abuse?
How Can Child Abuse Be Prevented?
What Is the Connection Between Child Abuse and Delinquency?

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StudyCorgi . "108 Child Abuse Essay Topics." July 14, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/child-abuse-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "108 Child Abuse Essay Topics." July 14, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/child-abuse-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Child Abuse were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 20, 2024 .

How to choose a research topic in the field of child maltreatment

It can be a daunting task to decide on a research topic in the field of child maltreatment given how broad and vast the literature in this field can be. Here are some tips that may be helpful in guiding a research paper for students:

Start broad and then narrow down your topic

It may be helpful to review statistical facts, general information or recent publications about child maltreatment in general or the child welfare system.

Example sources include:

Child Welfare Information Gateway . Provides access to a wide range of child welfare topics, such as child abuse prevention, family preservation, foster care and adoption.
Children's Bureau . “Partners with federal, state, tribal and local agencies to improve the overall health and well-being of our nation's children and families.” Provides support and guidance to programs that focus on: 1) strengthening families and preventing child abuse and neglect, 2) protecting children when abuse or neglect has occurred and 3) ensuring that every child has a permanent family or family connection.
Department of Children & Family Services . Every state has a department. As a sample, this listing directs to the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services, but there are similar departments in every state .
The National Child Traumatic Stress Network . Provides comprehensive information on different types of childhood trauma (e.g., neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, community violence, domestic violence).
The American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children . Provides links to various knowledge bases, websites and journals that deal with child maltreatment.
The National Sexual Violence Resource Center . Provides links to publications organizations and “maintains a library of resources on issues related to sexual violence and its prevention.”
The Pennsylvania Coalition Against Rape . “Works to end sexual violence and advocates for the rights and needs of sexual assault victims.” Their resources webpage consists of e-learning tools and a library of print resources.
The Child Maltreatment Solutions Network . Offers information about awareness events, child welfare, prevention, treatment, policy, research and centers and committees dedicated to the improvement of children's lives.
The Washington State Institute for Public Policy . Reports on the cost-effectiveness of prevention and intervention programs, including child maltreatment prevention programs such as SafeCare and the Nurse Family Partnership.

Reviewing this information may help you identify a broad category you would like to explore further. To narrow your focus, identify what interests you within your chosen topic area and develop a list of key search terms.

Conduct a lit review

Discussing ideas with a mentor and other colleagues can be tremendously helpful as they are likely to have knowledge and expertise in the area beyond your own. Further, reading empirical papers, especially recent ones, at least within the last decade, that interest you can also give you some ideas about a direction for future research, as suggested in the discussion section.

To conduct a broad literature review, try using Google Scholar or another database (e.g., PsychINFO, PubMed). It may also be helpful to search for key terms in important journals in your field (e.g., Child Maltreatment, Child Abuse & Neglect). Start recent. This will give you an idea of the most cutting edge research happening in your field. Pay attention to articles that those authors are citing, you may be stumbling upon some seminal works.

Identify a reason for your study

Finally, once you have reviewed the literature, identify the rationale for your study: what has not been studied about before and why it is important (e.g., public policy impact, addresses a research gap, etc.)?

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Top Hints On Creating A Paper On Maltreatment, Violence, and Neglect

Child abuse topics for a research paper might be covered from different angles. The first thing you need to know to succeed in crafting an essay of this kind is the discipline related to the chosen topic. For example, you can describe the facts and arguments from psychological, medical, sociological, and biological viewpoints, as well as from the human rights perspective.

The basic structure of the essay that covers the research topic on violence or child abuse should contain these elements:

Introduction. Rocket launch your paper with a nice hook. Moreover, it is important to come up with the basic concepts about child abuse and describe its main reasons.
Main part. This part of your essay should have several paragraphs, where each part should be dedicated for one strong argument. Pick up only the most important facts and ideas, use a proper tone and voice to describe this sensitive topic.
Conclusion. It might be a good idea to offer some solutions to the problem of child abuse, as well as make a summary of the entire academic paper.

You can find tons of child abuse and neglect facts and concepts for the research paper online. However, when it comes to choosing a research topic on child abuse, many students are feeling lost and confused. Below you will find the best topics for your essay related to this area divided into different groups.

Best Topics For Child Abuse And Neglect Research Paper

Neglect is a combination of both mental and physical abuse. It is likely to appear when a kid can’t get access to healthcare, adequate nutrition, clothing, schooling, and having a shelter. Child abuse topics of this kind include:

The Problem Of Child Neglect
Indicators Of Neglect
General Neglect And Its Consequences
Severe Neglect And Its Impact On Human Health
Psycho-social Failure To Thrive
The Dangerous Numbers: Child Abuse Statistics
The Behaviors Indicating Child Abuse
Infancy Traumas
Effects Of Neglect In Early Childhood
The Cause Of Childhood Neglect
How To Prevent Childhood Neglect
Toxic Social Behaviors Among Parents
Children Growing In A Neglecting Families
Poor Supervision And Its Impact On Children’s Health
The Later Influences Of Child Neglect
The Problem Of Medical Mistreatment Of The Young Children

Physical Child Abuse Research Topics

Hitting, shaking, burning, and other types of physical injury that lead to bruises, scratches, and broken bones are all about physical abuse. Moreover, being murdered is one of the effects of physical abuse. Unfortunately, physical abuse continues to be one of the most serious issues in the modern society.

Most Common Child Maltreatment Scenarios
Taking Care Of Child Abuse Victims
Ways To Stop Child Abuse Cycles
Maltreatment And Serious Diseases
Family Violence
Bullying And Threatening
Types Of Child Abuse
The Problem Of Child Maltreatment In The U.S.
Is Punishment At Schools Is A Type Of Child Abuse?
The History Of Child Maltreatment
Punishment Vs Child Abuse

Emotional Child Abuse Topics

This type of abuse appears in unhealthy environments and includes verbal assault and humiliation. Ignoring and threatening the child is one of the most important features of emotional abuse. Not only this type of abuse might occur in the family, but it can also be present at school and online. Emotional abuse is the same as serious as physical one since it might cause serious diseases and conditions among young adults.

Critical Analysis Reflection Of Child Maltreatment
Abusive Mothers
Definitions Of Child Abuse
The Social Problem Of Child Abuse
Behavioral Indicators Of Child Abuse: Parents
Behavioral Indicators Of Child Abuse: Children
Verbal Abuse
Emotional Deprivation: The Basic Concepts
Indication Of Emotional Deprivation
Toxic Interaction Between Children And Parents

Sexual Child Abuse

This type of abuse is about any type of sexual contact between kids and adults, as well as between younger and older children. Being one of the most disputable problems in modern world, sexual child abuse is also one of the most popular topics for college essays.

Current Solutions To Sexual Abuse
The Factors That Cause Child Sexual Abuse
The Long-term Effects Of Sexual Child Abuse
Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Programs
Treating Sexually Abused Children
Sexual Abuse Statistics
The Concepts Of Sexual Abuse
Healing Children After Sexual Abuse
The Problem Of Child Sexual Exploitation

Domestic Violence Subtopics For Your Essay

Domestic violence has been a common issue for millions of families throughout the world. This type of abuse has a negative impact on children and teens, as well as might have serious consequences for kids’ health and well-being. Domestic violence is a serious issue everyone should definitely know about.

Children And Domestic Violence
The Effects Of Maltreatment On Kids And Families
Domestic Violence In The Modern World
Domestic Violence In Black Families
Prevalence Of Domestic Violence
Consequences Of Domestic Violence
Preventive Child Maltreatment Programs
Taking Care Of Children Removed From Homes Due To Maltreatment
Child Visiting And Domestic Abuse

Child And Baby Abuse Topics For A Research Paper

Baby abuse and prenatal neglect are also among the posers for millions of families all over the world. The issue can be described from different angles and requires more global publicity.

Prenatal Neglect
Neonatal Babies And Drug Addiction
Shaken Baby Syndrome
Social Support Of The Victims Of Baby Abuse
Baby Neglect And Maltreatment Problems
Levels Of Baby And Child Abuse In Different Countries
Baby Abuse: A Global View
Parent Training For Preventing Child Abuse
Parent-child Aggression
Is Obesity One Of The Forms Of Child Abuse?
Stepchildren Abuse

Trafficking Of Minors

Labor and sex trafficking are common issues for lots of countries, including the United States. Each year, thousands of children and teens are being kidnapped throughout the country for trafficking. Although the government structures are trying to fight this problem, lots of questions remain to be answered.

Children’s Rights
Child Protection In Court
Child Abuse Prevention
The Problem Of Missing Children
Labor Trafficking Of Kids And Teenagers
Sex Trafficking Of Children
Child Trafficking Statistics
International Children Trafficking
The Risks Of Child Trafficking
Preventing Child And Teenage Trafficking
Ways Of Children’s Trafficking
Trafficking Children In Numbers

How to Compose Essays On Child Abuse Topics

Creating an academic paper requires doing lots of research, analyzing various ideas and concepts, as well as choosing the most powerful arguments for an essay. In most cases, your paper should meet the basic requirements of academic writing:

It should be 100% original and have no plagiarism
The content of the essay should correspond to its topic
The paper should be written with the proper voice and tone
The paper should be well-structured and contain proper formatting
It should be error-free and doesn’t contain any typos
The descriptions should be concise and top-notch
The paper should have a traditional essay structure with an introduction, main part, and conclusion
The facts described in the essay should be chosen wisely
The paper shouldn’t contain too many arguments
Introduction and the conclusion should be logically connected
The information described in the paper needs to be fresh and up-to-date
Using only reliable sources is obligatory

Meeting all these requirements might appear to be extremely challenging for many young learners. Unfortunately, spending days and hours writing an essay is a common practice for lots of students. That is why many learners are looking for professional writing assistance. Our education experts are ready to give you a helping hand and create an astonishing essay on any topic, including child abuse and neglection for you. This way, you will get a brilliant academic paper, have lots of free time for personal needs, and improve your academic performance with excellent grades.

REFERENCES:

Books on child abuse
Statistics on child sexual abuse
Examples of child abuse cases
Impact of child abuse on health
Frequently asked questions about child sexual abuse
Child abuse prevention
Child abuse and neglect

Child Abuse - Essay Samples And Topic Ideas For Free

Child abuse encompasses physical, sexual, emotional abuse, or neglect of a child. Essays on child abuse could delve into the statistical understanding of child abuse incidents, the psychological and long-term impacts on survivors, and the various protective measures and legal frameworks in place to combat child abuse. Moreover, discussions could extend to the systemic issues contributing to child abuse and strategies for prevention and support for survivors. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Child Abuse you can find at Papersowl. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Cause and Effect of Child Abuse

Cause and Effect of Child Abuse Abuse impacts an individual negatively and follows them the rest of their life. Child abuse is horrific as the abuse is often from the very person that is supposed to protect the child. The abuse isn't always physical but can be mental, sexual, and neglectful. Many factors can influence a child's reaction to the traumas that they experience such as age, how far developmentally they are, the type of abuse, how long the abuse […]

Family Violence and Child Abuse

Family Violence and Child Abuse Seldomly do people realize how often child are abused by parents, not always through violence, but in other various factors that can traumatize a child. The textbook Heavy Hands written by Denise Kindschi Gosselin has an entire chapter on child abuse and the different types of abuse that are involved against these children. Historical accounts tell us that children have always been abused and neglected by one or both parents; it is not uncommon or […]

The Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse

Abstract This paper discusses the effects that childhood sexual abuse has on children. It states the basics and statistics of sexual abuse in children in our society. The immediate symptoms and signs of childhood sexual abuse are discussed as well as long term emotional effects, long lasting physical effects and psychological disorders due to sexual abuse. The treatment of childhood sexual abuse is also discussed to show how positive resources can help victims of sexual abuse. Introduction In the United […]

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A Report of Child Abuse

A report of child abuse is made every ten seconds meaning there are more than 3 million child abuse reports every year. In one study, 80% of 21-year-olds who reported childhood abuse met the criteria for at least one psychological disorder. What is child abuse you might be asking? Child abuse is a physical maltreatment or sexual molestation of a child. You might not know it but there are many cases of child abuse around us some may include family […]

The First Type of Child Abuse

Globally in 2014, 1 billion children aged 2 to 17 experienced physical, sexual, and emotional types of violence, according to www.compassion.com. Millions of children around the world are being abused by someone they know and are meant to trust. This includes parents, grandparents, siblings, and close family and friends. These children, very young in age, often don't understand why they are being mistreated. There are many different types of abuse. I chose to discuss this topic because I feel deeply […]

Social Problems that Existed in 19th a 20th Century

A social problem basically refers to a state of difficulty experienced by members of a given society which makes them unable to reach their goals as individuals and the society at large. Social problems may have direct or even indirect effects on the people and such problems include substance abuse, poverty, poor hosing infrastructures, criminal activities, and unemployment's, and lack of properly balanced diet leading to malnutrition among others. Between 19th and 20th century, there were many social problems which […]

Child Abuse has been a Major Problem

Child abuse has been a major problem for a long time and most people are completely unaware of this act. This act affects many children and no one really knows what goes on behind closed doors with parents and their child. This is scary to think about, but this is reality and children are put through this everyday. Parents need to be aware that this act is not tolerable and can not be accepted. It is everyone's job in today's […]

Child Abuses Defines the Mistreatment

Child abuses defines the mistreatment of a child. Abuse comes in many different forms (sexual, physical, mental, emotional). While the primary reason for this is unknown, there are many speculations over what causes a parent to act out in such a way of violence, however, it is believed that abuse is a cycle that will never truly end. The mental effects of child abuse can last a lifetime because it manifests itself in many ways such as anxiety, depression and […]

How are Fast Food Advertising and Childhood Obesity Related

By 1950s, fast food industry boom was in full swing. It was secured in 1951. In the 1950s, McDonald has become a staple of the American diet. Fast food restaurants have been grown more and more and by now, there are over one hundred and sixty thousands fast food restaurants in the United States, becoming a one hundred and ten billion dollar industry. One can’t deny that fast food has become really important in American life nowadays. Whether Americans are […]

Child Abuse has Many Impacts

Child abuse has many impacts towards the child and can cause a long term defect for the child's future. Nationwide over 2 million children suffer from child abuse, some will even die from neglect or by unmeasurable physical abuse. The supreme court does not have a constitutional law against child abuse, but they hold each state accountable to make their own child abuse laws (D.O.). Most of the laws set by each state have the same proposal about what is […]

Child Abuse is Widespread

Child abuse is widespread and can occur in any cultural, ethnic, or income group. Child abuse can be physical, emotional, verbal, or sexual. While child abuse is often in the form of an action, there are also examples of inaction that cause harm, such as neglect. Outcomes of child abuse can result in both short and long-term injury, and even death. Child abuse can result from physical, emotional, or sexual harm. Physical abuse involves the intentional harming of a child […]

Children and Domestic Violence

Domestic Violence has effected and still continues to effect the lives of many individuals. Statics on domestic violence states Every 9 seconds in the US a woman is assaulted or beaten Domestic violence is not only found amongst adults but even children and teenagers are victims of domestic violence or are the abuser in an abusive violent relationship .To briefly define and understand Domestic violence, it is an abusive relationship between individuals who abuse one another, aggressively, physically and even […]

Child Abuse and Neglect

English Composition Final Proposal Essay: Child Abuse and Neglect There have been countless studies focused around how the mind of a child is warped when transitioning into their adulthood after experiencing neglect and abuse. It's evidently very difficult for a victim of this certain issue to forget their traumatic experiences, ultimately impacting their physiological and physical health. Child abuse and neglect refer to any harmful behavior by caregivers, parents, legal guardians, and other adults that is outside the norms of […]

Child Abuse VS Discipline

Adults consider having children and acknowledge that it comes with commitments. As parents, one most significant consideration is how to discipline our kids to do what is right and avoid doing wrong. Love, values, and moral ethics are attributes some parents use to discipline their children. Other parents exercise discipline towards their children by assuming the authoritative parenting style whereby they offer the most incredible combination of discipline and love while being compassionate without domineering and yet having firm authority. […]

National Center on Child Abuse

According to the Staus, over 14 out of every 100 American children, ranging from 3 to 17, are subjected to abusive violence each year. This means that approximately six and a half million are abused each year in the United States out of the 46 million children that are categorized into the age group 3 to 17. These statistics are different from the statistic represented by the U.S. National Center on Child Abuse. According to the U.S. National Center on […]

The Effects on Child Abuse

The Effects on Child Abuse in Children Like many children, Pete thought physical abuse he suffered was normal from his mother. In the article, Pete's story, Pete explains his tragic memories from his mother, My earliest memory of my mum's temper is from when I was a toddler, and she was throwing books down the stairs at my dad. I was so young at the time that I thought it was a game. When my dad moved out, when I […]

Childhood Poverty

Abstract Poverty is viewed throughout the world as a large social problem that continues to advance with time. Since 1960, poverty has continued to flourish into a problem that has affected a large majority of the population, including our children. Childhood poverty affects the psychological and biological development, as well as three main levels of social systems: micro, mezzo and macro. Even though there has been active research on poverty, generational poverty and childhood poverty, no active changes have been […]

Child Abuse and Neglect Refers

It is estimated that from 1.2 to 3 million children in the United States have been victims of child abuse and neglect annually, representing 2% to 5% of American children from birth to age 18 (National Research Council). Child abuse and neglect occur during a child's most formative years, affecting the child's growth and development, as well as their social, emotional, and cognitive development. The effects of child abuse and neglect can last into adulthood. By definition, child abuse is […]

Factor of Child Abuse

The uprising in child abuse cases in America is forcing the country to open its eyes and investigate the underlying issue. Psychologist, social workers, law enforcement and researcher are all working hand and hand to combat the dilemma, yet all face the puzzling question “Why does this continue happen? And “Where does the issue stem from?”. These are two question that once solved could substantially decrease cases of child abuse. Erik Erikson in 1963 was one the first to divulge […]

Child Abuse is Happening

Child abuse is happening all over the world.The major abuse in are society is child abuse more than 80 percent has child abuse in are world.America has to stop child abuse in are country.Nearly more than a thousand plus more children was victims of child abuse or neglect.Child abuse has ruined the worlds of little children,More parents are abusing children and hurting their lives with abusing them. Child abuse can be prevented. People can prevent child abuse by training parents,getting […]

Child Abuse: Battling Neglect and Seeking Understanding

"Childhood should be carefree, playing in the sun; not living a nightmare in the darkness of the soul," (Pelzer). A child should never have to question, "Does my mommy or daddy love me?" or "Why was I not good enough?" Those are the questions that ran through the back of my mind for many years. Though I never quite understood why I had these fears of being alone and abandonment. My biological parents brought me home from the hospital when […]

Early Childhood and the Effects of Abuse and Neglect

Child abuse, neglect, or maltreatment and even intimate partner violence are all considered to be factors with negative effects for children. Neglect or maltreatment leads to many forms of abuse. Some of these are domestic violence, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse. These could impact a child's overall health if not treated early. More so, if children are not treated with therapy at an early stage, serious mental health issues could develop when children become adolescents. It has been stated that […]

Child Abuse and Neglect and Negative Physical Health

The topic of the research paper is the child abuse and neglect and negative physical health. Both of these topics are very important to look into and research. One reason would be to find out consequences, because the consequences of child abuse and neglect can be very extensive and may not only affect the victim's mental health, like it is known to do, but also possibly their physical health which may often be overlooked because it can take longer to […]

Child Abuse Means a Physical Maltreatment

Child abuse means a physical maltreatment or sexual molestation of a child. When a child is starting to experience abuse, they change. They suddenly don't show affect for a certain relative or they don't want to go over to that relative's house. They get an attitude or change their behavior. Most people just see this as they are growing up and rebelling. When children start making sexual remarks or start displaying sexual behaviors with other young children, those are signs […]

Catherine Roerva: a Complex Figure in the Narrative of Child Abuse

Catherine Roerva, a name that has become synonymous with the heart-wrenching narrative of child abuse in Dave Pelzer's memoir "A Child Called 'It'," stands as a controversial and complex figure in the realm of autobiographical literature. Pelzer's portrayal of his mother as an abusive figure has sparked discussions and debates about the nature of abuse, the dynamics of family dysfunction, and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity. This essay aims to explore the multifaceted character […]

Child Abuse by Maid: Unmasking a Hidden Threat

Every parent's nightmare? Trust someone with their child, only to discover that trust might've been misplaced. Now, imagine this breach of trust coming from someone right within your home — the maid or nanny you believed would care and nurture. A topic we often tiptoe around, preferring the comfort of ignorance, is child abuse by those entrusted to care for them. Let's shed light on this hushed matter, not to provoke fear but to arm ourselves with awareness and action […]

Adverse Childhood Experiences and their Effects on High School Graduation Rates

Introduction The startling effect adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have on children and adults came to light in a groundbreaking study first published twenty years ago. Andra et al. reported a strong link between exposure to abuse, divorce, substance abuse, and more to several health risk factors in adults (1998). The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study opened our eyes to the long-term impact of direct and indirect abuse and how child did not have to be abused themselves to suffer serious […]

Child Abuse in India: Unveiling the Harsh Realities

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Gap between Health Care and Child Abuse

Disparity: The Gap between Health Care and Child Abuse The disparity gap between health care and child abuse has the potential to impact a professional's life in an emotional way. Besides legal practices and the training undergone to protect a child from child abuse, professionals have gone through previous studies that have determined the emotional and psychological doubts that professionals go through at the time to report child abuse. The three research papers that I have chosen that contribute to […]

Domestic Violence with Children

Even though domestic violence for adults is harmful enough to lead to suicide children play a tremendou role in this by affecting their development growth and high risk of depression, Exposure to domestic violence impact children in different types of ways because children exposed to domestic violence usually never recover from it and can follow up to affect their future family and this affects children's education, social, emotional, and behavioral growth though it's different with every kid. According to the […]

How To Write an Essay About Child Abuse

Understanding child abuse.

Before writing an essay about child abuse, it's essential to understand its forms and implications. Child abuse refers to any emotional, physical, or sexual harm inflicted on a child by an adult or older adolescent. It can also include neglect, where a child's basic needs for safety, affection, and education are not met. Begin your essay by defining the different types of child abuse and their characteristics. Discuss the prevalence of child abuse and the various factors that contribute to it, such as family stress, substance abuse, and historical abuse within the family. Understanding the psychological, physical, and social impact of abuse on children is crucial for a comprehensive analysis of this topic.

Developing a Thesis Statement

A strong essay on child abuse should be centered around a clear, concise thesis statement. This statement should present a specific viewpoint or argument about child abuse. For instance, you might discuss the long-term psychological effects of child abuse, analyze the societal factors contributing to its prevalence, or argue the need for improved child protection policies and interventions. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and provide a structured approach to your analysis.

Gathering Supporting Evidence

To support your thesis, gather evidence from credible sources such as child welfare studies, psychological research, and statistics from child protection agencies. This might include data on the incidence of child abuse, findings from studies on the effects of abuse, or examples of successful intervention programs. Use this evidence to support your thesis and build a persuasive argument. Remember to consider different perspectives and address potential counterarguments to your thesis.

Analyzing the Effects and Responses to Child Abuse

Dedicate a section of your essay to analyzing the effects of child abuse and society’s response to it. Discuss the short-term and long-term impacts on a child's physical health, psychological well-being, and social development. Explore the role of child protective services, legal systems, and non-governmental organizations in responding to and preventing child abuse. Consider both the successes and challenges faced in addressing child abuse.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence provided. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the importance of addressing child abuse both as a societal and individual issue. You might also want to suggest areas for future research, policy development, or public education campaigns to prevent child abuse.

Reviewing and Refining Your Essay

After completing your essay, review and refine it for clarity and coherence. Ensure that your arguments are well-structured and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers, educators, or professionals in the field of child welfare to further improve your essay. A well-written essay on child abuse will not only demonstrate your understanding of the issue but also your ability to engage with a sensitive and complex social problem.

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New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research (2014)

Chapter: summary.

I n the two decades since the National Research Council (NRC) issued its 1993 report Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect , a new science of child abuse and neglect has been launched, yielding findings that delineate a serious public health problem. Fully 6 million children are involved in reports to child protective services, and many more cases go undetected. Nationally, about three-quarters of cases are classified as neglect, and the majority of reports involve children under the age of 5. Important findings on the consequences of child abuse and neglect reveal the problem is not confined to children and childhood; rather, the effects of child abuse and neglect cascade throughout the life course, with costly consequences for individuals, families, and society. These effects are seen in all aspects of human functioning, including physical and mental health, and in important arenas such as education, work, and social relationships. Addressing this public health problem will require an immediate, coordinated research response that is grounded in the complex environments and systems within which child abuse and neglect occurs and that has high-level federal support.

This study was conducted in response to a request from the Administration on Children, Youth and Families (ACYF) within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to update the research highlighted in the 1993 NRC report (see Appendix B for research recommendations from that report). ACYF asked that the updated report “provide recommendations for allocating existing research funds and also suggest funding mechanisms and topic areas to which new resources could be allocated or enhanced resources could be redirected.” Specifically, ACYF asked the expert committee appointed to undertake this study to

• build on a review of the literature and findings from the evaluation of research on child abuse and neglect;

• identify research that provides knowledge relevant to the programmatic, research, and policy fields;

• recommend research priorities for the next decade, including new areas of research that should be funded by public and private agencies; and

• identify areas that are no longer a priority for funding.

The Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the NRC within the National Academies appointed a committee with expertise across a broad array of disciplines associated with child abuse and neglect to carry out this study. The committee commissioned a number of background papers that summarized research findings and detailed research infrastructure needs in key areas of child abuse and neglect research. It held four face-to-face meetings, including two public sessions, and numerous conference calls to review the literature; discuss the current understanding of the extent, causes, and consequences of child abuse and neglect and the effectiveness of intervention programs; and deliberate on its findings, conclusions, and recommendations. The committee also held a workshop on “Research Issues in Child Abuse and Neglect” (IOM and NRC, 2012).

Publications on child abuse and neglect have increased more than threefold over the past two decades, documenting significant advances in the field. Among the findings reported are the following: (1) research on the consequences of child abuse and neglect has demonstrated that they are serious, long-lasting, and cumulative through adulthood; (2) the consequences include effects on the brain and other biological systems, as well as on behavior and psychosocial outcomes; and (3) rigorous research has been conducted on interventions to address the problem. Yet despite these gains in grasping the scope and scale of the problem, as well as identifying some general preventive approaches with proven effectiveness, much of the research evidence also underscores how much remains unknown. The causes of child abuse and neglect need to be understood with greater specificity if the problem is to be prevented and treated more effectively. Also needed is a better understanding of what appear to be significant declines in physical and sexual child abuse but not neglect; why children have differential sensitivity to abuse of similar severity; why some child victims respond to treatment and others do not; how different types of abuse impact a child’s developmental trajectory; and how culture, social stratification, and associated contextual factors affect the causes, consequences, prevention, and treatment of child abuse and neglect.

DESCRIBING THE PROBLEM

A critical step in devising effective responses to child abuse and neglect is reasonable agreement on the definition of the problem and its scope. A key definition of child abuse and neglect is contained in Section 3 of the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) (42 U.S.C. § 5101 note).

At a minimum, any recent act or set of acts or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act or failure to act, which presents an imminent risk of serious harm.

This definition, enshrined in federal legislation, establishes the basis on which all states, as well as American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the District of Columbia, Guam, and the Virgin Islands, develop laws requiring certain professionals to report instances of child abuse or neglect to child protective service agencies.

While the CAPTA definition is a useful benchmark for describing what one looks for in determining instances of child abuse and neglect, child abuse and neglect are defined differently across the various purposes for which information on the problem is collected. Achieving clarity in the area of child abuse and neglect has therefore been a challenge. Legal definitions vary across states; researchers apply diverse standards in determining incidence and prevalence rates in clinical and population-based studies; and substantial obstacles challenge efforts to learn about children’s, especially young children’s, experiences with caregiver-inflicted abuse or neglect. As a result, the characteristics of the problem and determinations regarding its scope will differ depending on the data source used for analysis. This challenge is articulated in the 1993 NRC report and continues to impede a full understanding of the nature of the child abuse and neglect problem.

Despite this definitional challenge, data are available with which to estimate the scope, prevalence, and characteristics of child abuse and neglect across the United States. The National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) is the official child abuse and neglect reporting system for cases referred to state child protection authorities. In fiscal year 2011, all states, the District of Columbia, and all territories contributed counts of the number of cases referred to child protective services, the case characteristics, and the case outcomes. Based on NCANDS data, about three-quarters of reported cases are classified as neglect, about 18 percent as physical abuse, and about 9 percent as sexual abuse (ACF, 2012). The specific rates vary among states but overall reflect the general pattern that a substantial majority of cases are neglect, with physical and sexual abuse

representing much smaller groups. The characteristics of the child victims of abuse and neglect show a gender breakdown that is approximately evenly split between males and females. The highest rates of child abuse and neglect occur among the very youngest children. Perpetrators are mainly parents (81 percent), 88 percent of whom are biological parents (ACF, 2012). Somewhat more than half of perpetrators are female. These same demographic characteristics also are reflected in other research that draws its samples from national incidence studies utilizing different data sources and methodologies.

While some discrepancies exist across data sources, strong evidence indicates that sexual abuse has declined substantially in the past two decades, and the balance of evidence favors a decline in physical abuse, especially the more common and less serious forms. There is no evidence that neglect is declining overall. However, states vary significantly as to whether neglect is increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant. These disparate trends and their causes currently are not well understood. Such understanding is essential to bring clarity to the phenomena of child abuse and neglect and to identify appropriate program and policy responses.

Theoretical models for child abuse and neglect have progressed as the field has matured. Yet hundreds of studies have reported an association or correlation between a variety of potential risk factors and child abuse or neglect without considering these models. Drawing on the work of Brofenbrenner (1979) and Belsky (1980), who identified interrelated but embedded factors that contribute to child abuse and neglect, these risk factors can be organized into individual-level, family, and contextual factors. Contextual factors represent the broader social systems that influence parental functioning, including macrosystem factors representing the social or cultural forces that contribute to and sustain abuse or neglect.

Parental substance abuse, history of child abuse or neglect, and depression appear to have the strongest support in the literature as risk factors for child abuse and neglect. There is also a robust body of knowledge about the role of stressful environments and the impact of poverty. Other candidate risk factors that have received at least some support in the literature for an association with child abuse and neglect include children having a disability, parental psychopathology, early childbearing, low socioeconomic status, and social beliefs about discipline and corporal punishment. Acknowledging that risk factors seldom occur in isolation, some studies have shown that the presence of multiple risk factors can dramatically increase the likelihood of child abuse and neglect. It is important to acknowledge, however, that all of these factors simply describe circumstances surrounding

elevated risk, but that none of these individual or contextual factors has been shown to “cause” child abuse and neglect. There is also a relative lack of understanding of why certain factors result in abuse or neglect in some situations but not others. Further, the complex interaction among multiple risk factors, especially in conjunction with protective factors and resilience, is not clearly understood.

The field’s limited knowledge of causal pathways is due mainly to the fact that research in child abuse and neglect has utilized primarily correlational designs and analyses, relying heavily on cross-sectional studies and retrospective self-reports. Research in the field needs to include models that test causal pathways using rigorous research designs and analyses. This work would ideally involve longitudinal studies starting before the birth of the target children to permit better controlled studies of who does and does not commit child abuse and neglect and under what cultural, social, and individual circumstances. Animal model studies can provide insight on issues difficult to address in human studies.

CONSEQUENCES

Abuse and neglect appear to influence the course of development by altering many elements of biological and psychological development; in other words, childhood abuse and neglect have a profound and often lasting impact that can encompass psychological and physical health, neurobiological development, relational skills, and risk behaviors. The timing of the abuse or neglect and its chronicity clearly matter for outcomes. In particular, the more often children experience abuse or neglect, the worse are the outcomes.

Across human and nonhuman primate studies, perturbations to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) “stress” system often are associated with abuse and neglect and with a range of mental and physical health problems. Abused and neglected children also show behavioral and emotional difficulties that are consistent with effects on the amygdala, a structure in the brain that is critically involved in emotion and associated with internalizing of problems, heightened anxiety, emotional reactivity, and deficits in emotional processing. A number of studies suggest that abuse and neglect are associated with functional changes in the prefrontal cortex and associated brain regions, often affecting inhibitory control. Specifically, children who experience abuse and neglect appear especially at risk for deficits in executive functioning that affect behavioral regulation. Abuse and neglect also increase children’s risk for experiencing academic problems.

The impact of abuse and neglect on relational skills likely operates at least partially through disorganized attachment to the caregiver, which in turn can be predictive of long-term problems. As a result of abusive or

neglectful responses from caregivers, children are at risk for failing to develop effective strategies for regulating emotions in interactions with others. Further, abused and neglected children, like children with a history of institutional care, have problematic peer relations at disproportionately high rates. Similarly, abuse and neglect have been associated with dissociation among preschool- and elementary-aged children, as well as among adults.

Long-term outcomes among adolescents and adults with a history of abuse and neglect include higher rates of alcohol abuse and alcoholism, as well as elevated rates of posttraumatic stress disorder, compared with those without a history of abuse and neglect. Additionally, experiences of abuse and neglect in childhood have a large effect on suicide attempts in adolescence and adulthood. Moreover, children who experience abuse and neglect are more likely to engage in sexual activity at earlier ages than comparison groups. Childhood sexual abuse especially has been associated with heightened risks for a range of adverse outcomes related to sexual risk-taking behaviors.

Regarding impacts on physical health outcomes, at their most extreme, abuse and neglect are associated with stunted growth. The rate of untreated illness and infection is high among abused and neglected children, as has been found consistently among children living with their birth parents, children placed in foster care, and adults years after their experience of abuse or neglect. In various studies, different forms of abuse and neglect also have been linked with increased body mass index and increased rates of obesity in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

THE CHILD WELFARE SYSTEM

Each year, more than 3 million referrals for child abuse and neglect are received that involve around 6 million individual children. Contrary to popular belief, most investigated reports of child abuse and neglect do not result in out-of-home placement; only about 20 percent of investigated cases lead to the removal of a child from his or her home. The risk of placement and length of stay in out-of-home care can vary considerably based on such factors as a child’s age and the family’s race, socioeconomic status, and state of residence. Family-based care—specifically regular foster family care and relative (kinship) care—has been emphasized as the preferred option for the placement of an abused or neglected child. There has also been a policy impetus to limit the number of placements per child. The clinical literature documents that instability in placement has negative effects on children with respect to insecure attachment, psychopathology, and other problematic outcomes.

Since 1993, policy, practice, and program initiatives to improve the public child welfare system—the institution charged with providing soci-

ety’s response to suspected cases of child abuse and neglect formally reported to authorities—have received significant attention. The child welfare system provides four main sets of services: child protection investigation, family-centered services and supports, foster care, and adoption.

Beyond specific federal legislation that has paved the way for practice reforms, states and localities have adopted a number of system-level reforms that at their outset most likely were intended to improve child and family outcomes. These reforms have included differential response, privatization of child welfare services, models of parent and family engagement, and the implementation of practice models. The strongest evidence to date is on the effects of differential response.

Differential response systems have been implemented in 21 states, the District of Columbia, and four tribes to offer multiple pathways for addressing the needs of children and families referred to child welfare services. In its simplest form, differential response entails screening child abuse and neglect reports and, based on level of risk and other criteria, referring cases to either an assessment or a traditional investigation pathway. Results of some evaluations indicate a positive impact of this approach with regard to maintenance of child safety, fewer removals from home, increased access to services, and family satisfaction.

The child welfare system currently faces systemic concerns relating to a lack of organizational capacity to carry out some of the many promising practice and intervention models that are being developed. Barriers to sufficient organizational capacity include issues related to reduced funding; high caseloads; staff who are poorly trained, especially in addressing the social and emotional needs of the children who come in contact with the child protection services system; limited staff supervision; and a culture that does not necessarily support autonomy, quality practice, and critical thinking. Although certain organizational change strategies have been found to be evidence based and effective for improving workforce retention in child welfare, more research is needed in this area, especially research linking practice outcomes and workforce issues. Research also is needed to examine effective strategies for bringing to bear the interdisciplinary knowledge necessary to carry out all the diverse functions of a child welfare agency. And child welfare agencies need to employ more effective quality improvement strategies.

EFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS AND SERVICE DELIVERY SYSTEMS

Since the 1993 NRC report was issued, significant advances have occurred in the development, evaluation, and dissemination of model programs for preventing or treating various forms of child abuse and neglect. In addition to the public child protection and child welfare systems found

in all communities, a variety of treatment programs targeting victims and perpetrators of child abuse and neglect are offered through various mental health and social service agencies. Many communities also have access to primary and secondary prevention services designed to reduce the risk for child abuse or neglect among families experiencing difficulties. Among this growing array of service options, there is strong evidence for the efficacy of an increasing number of interventions.

In the treatment domain, trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy, a brief structured program based on well-established theory and treatment elements, has been tested extensively and found to be effective with children affected by abuse and other traumatic experiences. Equally important has been the successful application of a number of well-established parent management training programs to children and families involved in the child welfare system. Again, these are programs with well-established theory and large bodies of knowledge.

In terms of prevention services, strategies such as early home visiting targeting pregnant women and parents with newborns are well researched and have demonstrated meaningful improvements in mitigating the factors commonly associated with an elevated risk for poor parenting, including abuse and neglect. Promising prevention models also have been identified in other areas, including public awareness campaigns, parenting education programs, and professional practice reforms. In contrast to the reality in 1993, policy makers and practitioners have a much stronger pool of program candidates on which to draw in both remediating the impacts of abuse and neglect and reducing its incidence.

Research suggests that a degree of reciprocity exists between service models and their host agencies. In some instances, the rigor and quality of these innovations may alter the standards of practice throughout an agency, thereby improving the overall service delivery process and enhancing participant outcomes. In other cases, organizations that provide little incentive for staff to adopt new ideas or that reduce the dosage or duration of evidence-based models to accommodate their limited resources contribute to poor implementation and reduced impacts. Maximizing the impact of evidence-based models and proven approaches will require more explicit attention to the organizational strengths and weaknesses of those agencies in which such models and approaches are embedded and to how these factors impact service implementation.

While research carried out since 1993 has generated much knowledge that can inform programs and policies, some notable gaps remain. These include understanding of the underlying reasons why some individuals and families fail to benefit from treatment and prevention programs; of how evidence-based practices and interventions are implemented, replicated, and sustained; of which service attributes are most essential to achieving

the desired impacts and for whom; and of costs for training and supervision, data monitoring, and monitoring of service delivery. Research also is lacking on the question of system reform and the infrastructure required to institutionalize and support such reform. Little research exists that can inform how best to improve interventions and agency performance in the areas of workforce development, data management, and system integration. While some preliminary research has been conducted in the area of system integration, it remains unclear which strategies are most effective in building a collaborative culture and a set of working relationships across public institutions and between these institutions and the community-based agencies that constitute the child abuse and neglect response system.

RESEARCH INFRASTRUCTURE

To be productive, high-quality scientific research requires a sophisticated infrastructure. This is particularly true for research that requires multiple fields, disciplines, methodologies, and levels of analysis to fully address key questions. Research on child abuse and neglect is especially complex, involving diverse independent service systems, multiple professions, ethical issues that are particularly complicated, and levels of outcome analysis ranging from the individual child to national statistics. Moreover, the building of a national research infrastructure designed to adequately address the problem of child abuse and neglect will require a dedicated and trained cadre of researchers with expertise that spans the many domains associated with research in this field and the supports necessary to sustain high-quality, methodologically sound research endeavors. Moreover, the ability of the research to achieve the goal of informing quality programming and policies will be limited if the research fails to address the complex role of culture and context in the causes, consequences, prevention, and treatment of child abuse and neglect, particularly given the increasing heterogeneity of U.S. families.

Research on child abuse and neglect entails a number of challenges. As noted, the problem cuts across a wide range of domains, such as child welfare, medicine, child development, and public health. Services must be evaluated in multiple areas, such as treatment, prevention, and policy. Moreover, children and families receiving services related to child abuse and neglect often are eligible to receive services from other systems, and diversity in the type, timing, and intensity of these additional services can be difficult to account for in research on the effects of child abuse and neglect interventions. Services designed to respond to the problem of child abuse and neglect also are provided through the many systems that interact with abused and neglected children and their families, and these systems often act independently of one another, with little or no coordination. Finally, co-

ordination of research in the field and opportunities for support have been fragmented and generally insufficient to develop and sustain the capacity for a national child abuse and neglect research enterprise.

The formation of child abuse and neglect research centers presents an important opportunity to develop and sustain a volume of high-quality interdisciplinary research on child abuse and neglect. University-affiliated child abuse and neglect research centers also provide opportunities to train and support a new generation of researchers to ensure the growth of the field.

Since the 1993 NRC report was issued, numerous changes have been made to federal and state laws and policies designed to impact the incidence, reporting, and negative health and economic consequences of child abuse and neglect. At its core, the debate around the development of laws and policies to help prevent child abuse and neglect involves questions of public value. It also involves trade-offs entailed in laws and policies between public benefit and private interests. Research evaluating laws and policies on child abuse and neglect can make it possible to anticipate and respond to predictable problems that may occur as a result of their implementation. Research helps address questions whose answers are critical to implementing child protection laws and policies effectively.

The research design needed to evaluate laws and policies is not always the same as the design one would use for the evaluation of child abuse and neglect practice interventions. Although some laws and policies can be evaluated by random assignment (e.g., studying the differential response approach discussed above), random assignment cannot be used if it would differentially affect the legal rights of citizens, if it would subject citizens to unequal treatment under the law, or if it would place children in jeopardy. Furthermore, simply studying the incidence of child abuse and neglect in the aggregate (such as at the state or national level) is unlikely to aid in determining and attributing potential causes.

Another difficulty in evaluating laws and policies related to child abuse and neglect is that adherence to a law, such as one on mandatory reporting, often is predicated on public knowledge, understanding, and support, which frequently vary across practitioner disciplines, as well as within and among states. Finally, much of the evolution in child abuse and neglect law and policy over the last few decades has consisted of incremental changes to existing legislation (such as CAPTA). In these cases, what is needed is research on the implementation and augmentation of the law or policy rather than the core law or policy itself.

Given these complexities in conducting analyses of child abuse and

neglect laws and policies and the fact that the laws and policies vary by state, it is not surprising that little research has been done in this area. A number of federal laws set national standards for confronting child abuse and neglect issues; however, many standards are either further elucidated by or completely derived from state legislation. Research on changes in both state and federal laws and policies has been extremely limited.

The heterogeneity of state laws on child abuse and neglect can be viewed as offering the opportunity for a natural experiment. State variations in such areas as mandated reporters, definitions of abuse and neglect, and the range of penalties provide a myriad of opportunities to examine the impact of policy change. New methods, such as propensity scoring and difference-within-difference analyses, can be powerful tools for examining policy-relevant questions.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The committee formulated a set of recommendations around four pertinent areas, focused on the development of a coordinated research enterprise in child abuse and neglect that is relevant to the programs, policies, and practices that influence children and their caregivers. The four areas are (1) development of a national strategic research plan that is focused on priority topics identified by the committee and that delineates implementation and accountability steps across federal agencies (Recommendations 1-3), (2) creation of a national surveillance system (Recommendation 4), (3) development of the structures necessary to train cohorts of high-quality researchers to conduct child abuse and neglect research (Recommendations 5-7), and (4) creation of mechanisms for conducting policy-relevant research (Recommendations 8-9).

A National Strategic Research Plan

Recommendation 1: Federal agencies, in partnership with private foundations and academic institutions, should implement a research agenda designed to advance knowledge and understanding of the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect, as well as the identification and implementation of effective services for its treatment and prevention. The research priorities listed in Figure S-1 should be considered in this agenda.

Recommendation 2: The Federal Interagency Work Group on Child Abuse and Neglect, under the auspices of the assistant secretary of the Administration for Children and Families, should develop a strategic plan that details a business plan, an implementation strategy, and de-

partmental accountability for the advancement of a national research agenda on child abuse and neglect.

Recommendation 3: The assistant secretary of the Administration for Children and Families should convene senior-level leadership of all federal agencies with a stake in child abuse and neglect research to discuss and assign accountability for the implementation of a strategic plan to advance a national research agenda on child abuse and neglect.

FIGURE S-1 Research priorities in child abuse and neglect.

A National Surveillance System

Recommendation 4: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, in partnership with the Federal Interagency Work Group on Child Abuse and Neglect, should develop and sustain a national surveillance system for child abuse and neglect that links data across multiple systems and sources.

Training of Researchers

Recommendation 5: Federal agencies, in partnership with private foundations and academic institutions, should invest in developing and sustaining a cadre of researchers who can examine issues of child abuse and neglect across multiple disciplines.

Recommendation 6: Federal agencies, in partnership with private foundations and academic institutions, should provide funding for new multidisciplinary education and research centers on child abuse and neglect in geographically diverse locations across the United States.

Recommendation 7: The National Institutes of Health should develop a new child maltreatment, trauma, and violence study section under the Risk, Prevention, and Health Behavior Integrated Review Group.

Mechanisms for Conducting Policy-Relevant Research

Recommendation 8: To ensure accountability and effectiveness and to encourage evidence-based policy making, Congress should include support in all new legislation related to child abuse and neglect, such as reauthorizations of the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, for evaluation of the impact of new child abuse and neglect laws and policies and require a review of the findings in reauthorization discussions.

Recommendation 9: To ensure accountability and effectiveness, to support evidence-based policy making, and to allow for exploration of the differential impact of various state laws and policies, state legislatures should include support in all new legislation related to child abuse and neglect for evaluation of the impact of new child abuse and neglect laws and policies and require a review of the findings in reauthorization discussions.

ACF (Administration for Children and Families). 2012. Child maltreatment, 2011 report . Washington, DC: U.S. Deparment of Health and Human Services, ACF. http://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/cb/cm11.pdf (accessed December 3, 2013).

Belsky, J. 1980. Child maltreatment: An ecological integration. American Psychologist 35(4): 320-335.

Bronfenbrenner, U. 1979. The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

IOM (Institute of Medicine) and NRC (National Research Council). 2012. Child maltreatment research, policy, and practice for the next decade: Workshop summary . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

NRC. 1993. Understanding child abuse and neglect . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Each year, child protective services receive reports of child abuse and neglect involving six million children, and many more go unreported. The long-term human and fiscal consequences of child abuse and neglect are not relegated to the victims themselves—they also impact their families, future relationships, and society. In 1993, the National Research Council (NRC) issued the report, Under-standing Child Abuse and Neglect , which provided an overview of the research on child abuse and neglect. New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research updates the 1993 report and provides new recommendations to respond to this public health challenge. According to this report, while there has been great progress in child abuse and neglect research, a coordinated, national research infrastructure with high-level federal support needs to be established and implemented immediately.

New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research recommends an actionable framework to guide and support future child abuse and neglect research. This report calls for a comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach to child abuse and neglect research that examines factors related to both children and adults across physical, mental, and behavioral health domains—including those in child welfare, economic support, criminal justice, education, and health care systems—and assesses the needs of a variety of subpopulations. It should also clarify the causal pathways related to child abuse and neglect and, more importantly, assess efforts to interrupt these pathways. New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research identifies four areas to look to in developing a coordinated research enterprise: a national strategic plan, a national surveillance system, a new generation of researchers, and changes in the federal and state programmatic and policy response.

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Committee on Child Maltreatment Research, Policy, and Practice for the Next Decade: Phase II; Board on Children, Youth, and Families; Committee on Law and Justice; Institute of Medicine; National Research Council; Petersen AC, Joseph J, Feit M, editors. New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2014 Mar 25.

New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research.

Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

2 Describing the Problem

Child abuse and neglect is well established as an important societal concern with significant ramifications for the affected children, their families, and society at large (see Chapter 4 ). A critical step in devising effective responses is reasonable agreement on the definition of the problem and its scope. Yet achieving clarity in the area of child abuse and neglect has been an ongoing challenge. Legal definitions vary across states; researchers apply diverse standards in determining incidence and prevalence rates in clinical and population-based studies; and substantial obstacles hamper learning about the experiences of children, especially young children, with caregiver-inflicted abuse or neglect. As a result, definitions of the characteristics of the problem and determinations of its scope will differ depending on the data source used for analysis. This challenge was articulated in the 1993 National Research Council (NRC) report ( NRC, 1993 ) and continues to impede a full understanding of the nature of the child abuse and neglect problem. The purpose of this chapter is to describe briefly what is known about the problem from current data sources and to highlight issues that remain problematic, as well as identify areas in which advances have been made. The chapter addresses, in turn, definitions of child abuse and neglect, incidence rates and the problem of underreporting, trends in the incidence of child abuse and neglect, and how cases are determined by medical and mental health professionals and the legal system. The final section presents conclusions.

DEFINITIONS

A key definition of child abuse and neglect is contained in Section 3 of the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) 1 :

At a minimum, any recent act or set of acts or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act or failure to act, which presents an imminent risk of serious harm.

This definition is especially important because it is enshrined in federal legislation. To be eligible to receive funding under Section 106 2 of the act, states must, at a minimum, include the conduct described in Section 3 in their state child abuse and neglect authorizing legislation. All 50 states, as well as American Samoa, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the District of Columbia, Guam, and the Virgin Islands, have mandatory child abuse and neglect reporting laws that define the terms slightly differently for their jurisdiction and lay out the requirements for mandatory reporting ( CWIG, 2011 ). Federal law defines child abuse and neglect and identifies reporting requirements on tribal lands 3 (see CWIG, 2012b , for further information) and on military installations 4 (see Military OneSource, n.d., for further information); in some circumstances, state laws on child abuse and neglect reporting also apply to tribal lands and military installations. The Victims of Child Abuse Act 5 (also see Chapter 8 ) lays out requirements for reporting child abuse that occurs on federal lands and in federal facilities.

The National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) is the official government data source to which all states must contribute information about child abuse and neglect reports. To collect data on reported and confirmed cases of child abuse and neglect uniformly from all states, NCANDS provides the following somewhat more comprehensive definition of child abuse and neglect:

An act or failure to act by a parent, caregiver, or other person as defined under State law that results in physical abuse, neglect, medical neglect, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of harm to a child. ( ACF, 2012 )

Many states, reflecting the words “at a minimum” in CAPTA, have more expansive definitions of the conduct that legally constitutes child abuse and neglect for purposes of mandatory reporting. In some states, for example, only conduct by current caregivers is defined as reportable child abuse and neglect; in other states, the conduct must be reported regardless of the perpetrator's relationship to the child. Pennsylvania, for example, considers only acts of abuse as reportable acts of maltreatment and uses a different mechanism for capturing neglect. CAPTA permits states to limit reporting to “recent” acts, but most states have no time limit on when the conduct occurred for the mandatory reporting requirement to be invoked. A summary of the differences in states' child abuse and neglect reporting laws is available ( CWIG, 2011 ).

How child abuse and child neglect are defined and who is obligated to report them are subject to changes in awareness or level of concern about possible abuse- and neglect-related hazards faced by children. It is common for a specific case, especially one involving an egregious situation not addressed by extant law, to prompt advocacy for legislative change ( Gainsborough, 2010 ). Newly identified problem areas, changes in societal consensus about child protection, and revelations that certain groups of professionals are not included in mandatory reporting laws are typical scenarios for bringing about statutory reforms. In 2012, 107 bills addressing child abuse and neglect reporting were introduced in 30 states and the District of Columbia ( NCSL, 2012 ). For example, a number of states expanded mandatory reporting to apply to university employees in response to the Penn State Sandusky scandal.

In some cases, such changes have unintended consequences. An example is the occasional inclusion of exposure to domestic violence as a statutorily specified form of reportable child abuse and neglect, a result of increasing awareness of the association between domestic violence and child abuse and neglect and concern for the welfare of children exposed to this violence, so that affected children would receive protection and services. The Minnesota state legislature instituted such a change in 1999. The result was a dramatic increase in the number of referrals, emanating mainly from law enforcement officials who responded to reports of domestic violence and, as mandated, reported the family to child protective services. Parents, primarily mothers, who themselves were victims of domestic violence thus became the subjects of neglect reports based on their alleged failure to protect their children from exposure to the violence. This was not the intent of the legislation, and the provision was quickly rescinded ( Edleson et al., 2006 ).

Child abuse and neglect laws are for the most part concerned with parental behaviors of omission or commission that place children in jeopardy. Acts of omission usually are characterized as neglect. They include failing to provide adequate supervision; not protecting children from known dangers; and not providing for basic needs, such as proper medical care, adequate food and clothing, safe/hygienic shelter, and school attendance. Child neglect reports may also be made in some states if a child is born affected by illegal drug or alcohol abuse by the mother or if a child is living where drugs are being manufactured and/or distributed.

Child abuse, on the other hand, refers to acts of commission by a caregiver. Physical abuse encompasses physical assaults that exceed permitted corporal punishment. States may define explicitly the types of behavior that fall in this category. In some cases for example, the age of the child may determine whether a behavior is acceptable discipline (e.g., slapping an infant versus an older child across the face). Sexual abuse generally includes the range of sexual behaviors that are defined by criminal statutes, including sexual exposure, sexual touching, rape, and sexual exploitation. Emotionally abusive behaviors include threatening, terrorizing, or deliberately frightening a child; rejecting, ridiculing, shaming, or humiliating behaviors; extreme isolating or restricting behaviors; and corruption or encouraging involvement in illegal behaviors. However, of the 48 states that mention emotional abuse in law, only Delaware identifies specific emotionally abusive caregiver behaviors; most states define emotional abuse by its impact on the child's mental health ( CWIG, 2011 ). Because the involvement of the child protection system focuses on caregivers, cases of abuse committed by non-family members or siblings may be classified as neglect. In those cases, it is the presumed or alleged failure of the caregiver to protect the child that drives the designation. For example, the majority of sexual abuse and a notable proportion of serious physical abuse cases involve non-family members as perpetrators ( Finkelhor and Dziuba-Leatherman, 1994 ). Instances of abuse committed by a non-family member, a sibling, or another person regularly present in the household are classified as neglect if it is determined that the caregiver failed to protect the child victim from that individual.

As noted, child abuse and neglect laws also vary in how mandated reporters are defined. Some states define all adult citizens as mandated reporters, but most specify certain groups of professionals and others who work with children ( CWIG, 2012a ). State laws usually exempt from a reporting obligation priests acting in the role of receiving confession; states vary, however, as to whether reporting is required of priests or pastors acting in other capacities. Regardless of the groups specified, anyone not listed as a mandated reporter can still make a report. Both mandated reporters and others are legally protected for good faith reports, while mandated reporters who fail to report may be prosecuted for that failure. No evidence-based research has assessed whether the breadth of inclusion in mandatory reporting laws makes a difference in rates of reporting, although it may affect substantiation rates ( McElroy, 2012 ; also see the discussion of mandatory reporting laws in Chapter 8 ).

Some acts of child abuse and neglect are also crimes. The specific statutory definitions and names of those crimes vary by state, but in general, criminal statutes cover the same acts in all states. Sexual abuse is always a crime; most cases are classified as felonies. Physical abuse is a crime unless the behavior falls within the discipline exception for corporal punishment. Most cases of physical abuse are likely to be classified as misdemeanors unless a child is seriously injured or dies. A minority of neglect cases involve criminal conduct. When the failure to supervise, protect, or provide care for a child rises to a certain level of negligent treatment, it may meet the criteria for violation of criminal codes (e.g., child endangerment or criminal neglect) and can be prosecuted. Just because child abuse and neglect falls within the statutory definition of a crime, however, does not mean it will be fully investigated by law enforcement and prosecuted. Law enforcement investigations and prosecutions tend to focus on sexual abuse and on serious physical abuse and very serious neglect that have resulted in a child's experiencing physical harm or death (e.g., starvation, inflicted medical trauma).

As with state laws, child abuse and neglect is defined in various ways for research purposes. The National Incidence Study (NIS)-4 ( Sedlak et al., 2010a ) applies two definitional standards: a harm standard and an endangerment standard. The harm standard is restricted to cases in which children have been harmed by child abuse and neglect, whereas the endangerment standard encompasses children who have not yet been harmed under certain circumstances. The numbers vary depending on which definition is used (NIS-4 harm standard = 1.25 million children; endangerment standard = 3 million children). Under both standards, alleged instances of abuse or neglect are classified according to eight major categories. Table 2-1 lists actions or failures to act that are representative of each type of abuse or neglect and, for the purposes of this chapter, provides examples of how these forms of maltreatment can be defined in a research setting.

National Incidence Study (NIS)-4 Abuse and Neglect Classifications.

A widely used method of defining child abuse and neglect in research is the classification scheme developed by Barnett and colleagues (1993) . Many studies focused specifically on child abuse and neglect use these definitions rather than the officially reported labels (e.g., English et al., 2005 ). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also has recommended a set of uniform definitions for public health purposes to allow for monitoring of incidence over time and detection of trends ( Leeb et al., 2008 ). Notably, both the classification scheme developed by Barnett and colleagues and the CDC recommendations are designed for analysis of existing information from public sources, primarily child protective services case records.

Slack and colleagues (2003) note that research definitions developed for analysis of child protective services case records may not be applicable to survey research. They argue that these definitions may capture risk factors associated with the detection of child abuse and neglect rather than risk factors associated with the commission of child abuse and neglect. They have built on the framework created by Barnett and colleagues (1993) to develop a set of research definitions for neglect that they intend for use in survey research.

Likewise, other investigators develop their own study-specific designations. These definitions vary in comprehensiveness and behavioral specificity. For example, a study not focused specifically on child abuse and neglect but interested in it as one of many independent variables may use a single general question to get at the construct.

Finding: Child abuse and neglect are defined differently for different purposes. Legal definitions at the state level are properly subject to the legislative process. In research, however, the variability in definitions compromises learning the true scope and characteristics of the problem, understanding trends over time, and determining the relationship between child abuse and neglect and various outcomes. Finding: State laws vary in what groups are specified as mandated reporters of child abuse and neglect. No evidence-based research has assessed whether the breadth of inclusion in mandatory reporting laws makes a difference in rates of reporting, although it may affect substantiation rates.

INCIDENCE RATES AND THE PROBLEM OF UNDERREPORTING

Determining the true incidence of child abuse and neglect is problematic for the same reason encountered in attempting to quantify any social problem: discrepancies between actual rates and the number of cases reported to authorities. It is well established that most crimes (the exception being homicide) are not reported ( Langton et al., 2012 ). Data on the incidence of child abuse and neglect are derived from three primary sources: NCANDS, the official reporting system for cases of child abuse and neglect referred to state child protective services; two U.S. government surveys—the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) system, administered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), administered by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) to a large representative sample of U.S. citizens aged 12 and older; and the NIS, a study conducted every decade by the Department of Health and Human Services on a nationally representative sample that captures both cases of abuse and neglect reported to child protective services and unreported cases identified by professionals working with children.

National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System

Each state receiving a federal Basic State Grant for child abuse and neglect prevention and treatment programs is required to submit data annually to NCANDS. 6 In fiscal year (FY) 2011, all states, the District of Columbia, and all territories contributed to NCANDS counts of the number of cases referred to child protective services, the number accepted for investigation, the number substantiated, the case characteristics, and the case outcomes. As previously noted, the definitions of child abuse and neglect used by child protective services vary by state, as do reporting requirements. Because NCANDS collects information from child protective services case files in each state, the data reflect inconsistencies in state-level definitions of types of maltreatment, reporting requirements, and procedures for responding to reports of child abuse and neglect.

NCANDS reports are issued annually. According to the FY 2011 NCANDS report ( ACF, 2012 ), there were 3.4 million referrals involving 6.2 million children; some of the children were the subject of more than one referral. Nationally, more than three-quarters of these cases are classified as neglect, 18 percent as physical abuse, and 9 percent as sexual abuse. The specific rates vary among states but overall reflect the general pattern that a substantial majority of cases are neglect, with physical and sexual abuse representing much smaller groups.

Based on NCANDS, victims of child abuse and neglect are approximately evenly divided between males and females. The highest rates of child abuse and neglect occur among the very youngest children (see Table 2-2 ). Perpetrators are mainly parents (81 percent) and among parents are primarily biological parents (88 percent), which reflects the legal definition for reportable cases. Somewhat more than half of perpetrators are female ( ACF, 2012 ). These demographic characteristics are also reflected in other data sources, such as the NIS-4 ( Sedlak et al., 2010a ).

Child Maltreatment Cases/Victims, Rates per Thousand Population Ages 0-17, by Various Characteristics, 2002-2011.

In FY 2011, NCANDS reported 1,545 child fatalities resulting from abuse and neglect. Again, young children were at greatest risk: 80 percent of victims were less than 4 years old. Deaths were higher among boys than girls. About 70 percent of the fatalities are associated with neglect and nearly half are attributed to physical abuse, either exclusively or in combination. A Government Accountability Office ( GAO, 2011 ) report notes that the NCANDS method relies only on cases reported to child protective services for these figures. The report states that not all child fatalities due to abuse and neglect are known to the child welfare system, suggesting that the actual figure is likely higher, although it acknowledges the difficulty of obtaining an accurate count.

An important limitation of NCANDS is that it does not capture accurate rates of child abuse and neglect among American Indian children. Only states submit information to NCANDS; there are no mechanisms for tribal child welfare systems to submit data to the system. American Indian and Alaska Native families and children whose cases are reported to and investigated by state child protection authorities and who self-identify as American Indian or Alaska Native are included in NCANDS. Children served by tribal child welfare systems, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, or the Indian Health Service are not. Thus, “it is estimated that 40 percent of all cases of child abuse and neglect among American Indian and Alaska Native children are not reported to NCANDS” ( Cross and Simmons, 2008 , p. 3; also see Earle and Cross, 2001 ). NCANDS is further limited in its ability to reveal the levels of abuse and neglect suffered by American Indian and Alaska Native children by the fact that state or county employees, rather than tribal workers, collect the data reported to NCANDS. Therefore, not only does NCANDS lack data on many cases that occur on tribal lands, but the data it does include may be flawed because non-Native workers with American Indian or Alaska Native culture often are tasked with making determinations of abuse or neglect in such settings ( Fox, 2004 ).

U.S. Government Surveys

The U.S. government uses the two surveys noted above to learn about crime rates. The UCR covers crimes reported to police, whereas the NCVS is a household survey of a large representative sample of individuals aged 12 and older that asks about both reported and unreported crimes. Self-reported rates of crime victimization frequently are several times the rates of official reports, with the discrepancies being especially high for sexual assault.

The ability of such surveys to capture cases accurately hinges, in part, on how the question is asked. Using official terminology or labels for acts of child abuse and neglect requires respondents to label their own experiences as abusive or neglectful. In some cases, respondents may not know the official definitions or exactly what they encompass. For example, many children and adults may consider hitting a child with a belt appropriate corporal punishment. In other cases, the victim may be reluctant to define what happened as abusive. For example, evidence suggests that labeling acts as intentionally abusive is associated with increased distress in children ( Kolko et al., 2002 ).

These labeling considerations are particularly acute in cases of sexual assault. Asking a single question—such as “Have you ever been raped?”—yields far fewer responses than a series of behaviorally specific questions about acts that meet the legal definition of sexual abuse and rape. For example, rates of endorsement of child sexual abuse in self-report research vary substantially based on how the question is posed. A meta-analysis of studies that used self-report surveys to examine childhood sexual abuse experiences around the world found that differences in the way sexual abuse was defined and the specific questions asked produced dramatically different rates of sexual abuse prevalence ( Stoltenborgh et al., 2011 ).

In addition to these survey design issues, the point in time and circumstances under which respondents provide information about child abuse and neglect are crucial. Surveys of adults about their childhood experiences may yield very different rates than surveys of children. For example, population-based telephone interviews of youth aged 10 and older provide extensive information about self-reported victimization and exposure to violence ( Finkelhor, 2009 ; Kilpatrick and Saunders, 1995 ). However, the rates of intrafamilial sexual and physical abuse reported in these studies are relatively low compared with the rates reported among adult samples when asked their childhood abuse experiences. Children may be less likely to report intrafamilial crimes when they are still children and are living at home.

Another method of learning about child abuse and neglect is asking adults about their behavior toward their children. Surveys using the Conflict Tactics Scale can provide a picture of self-reported corporal punishment and parental acts that would meet legal criteria for child physical abuse ( Straus and Stewart, 1999 ; Straus et al., 1998 ; Theodore et al., 2005 ). This method has the obvious limitation, however, that even when responding to anonymous surveys, parents may underreport socially undesirable or illegal acts.

Discrepancies between official reports and child and adult self-reports can be in either direction. Children or adults may not define their experiences as child abuse and neglect because they do not know better or believe the conduct was deserved or acceptable, or because of the distress associated with reporting that caregivers are behaving abusively toward them. Adults may not define their own behavior as abusive or neglectful because of fears of being reported, social undesirability, or shame about the conduct. On the other hand, substantial evidence shows that careful and detailed questioning of children about their experiences produces substantially higher rates than official reports. For example, computer-assisted interviews were used to obtain self-reports of abuse and neglect from a sample of youth aged 12-13 enrolled in a prospective study of high-risk and abused children ( Everson et al., 2008 ). This method yielded rates that were four to six times higher than those in the official child protective services records. At the same time, close to half of adolescents in the sample with confirmed child protective services reports failed to note that experience in the interview.

The National Incidence Study

The NIS is a congressionally mandated report on the incidence of child abuse and neglect that has been issued periodically since 1974 ( OPRE, 2009 ). It estimates national rates of reported and unreported child abuse and neglect based on a representative sample of counties. The study uses official data and also collects information from “sentinels” representing community professionals who may encounter child abuse and neglect victims during the course of their work. The methodology of the NIS is explicitly designed to uncover child abuse and neglect that may not have been reported to authorities but was identified by professionals. The most recent report, issued in 2010, is based on data collected in 2005-2006 ( Sedlak et al., 2010a ). As noted above, the NIS defines child abuse and neglect differently from federal and state law, applying both a harm and an endangerment standard. All cases sampled in the study—both those identified by child protective services agencies and those reported by sentinels—are evaluated to determine whether they meet the definitional standards of the NIS for physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and educational neglect. The NIS considers only abuse and neglect perpetrated or permitted by a parent or caregiver, aligning its definitions with those of child protective services.

The primary investigators of the NIS-4 note that findings of differential incidence rates for abuse and neglect of black and white children are limited by the range of risk factors available for analysis in multifactor risk models, which exclude such key elements as neighborhood characteristics, social isolation, substance use, and mental illness ( Sedlak et al., 2010b ). Likewise, many children's records lacked information on socioeconomic status, and the socioeconomic status measures used classified black and white children differently, limiting the utility of the data for examining socioeconomic status as a risk factor for child abuse and neglect.

Reasons for Underreporting

It is well known that not all child abuse and neglect cases come to the attention of authorities at the time they happen. Retrospective reports from adults abused or neglected as children reveal that most cases are not reported to anyone, and fewer still are reported and investigated by child protection workers or law enforcement officials (e.g., Finkelhor, 1994 ; MacMillan et al., 2003 ). Adults abused or neglected as children give a variety of explanations for why they did not tell anyone or make an official report, including not realizing that what was happening was wrong, illegal, or a form of child abuse and having fears or concerns about what would happen if they reported the experience or attempted to seek help.

Child abuse and neglect can sometimes be identified without a child's making a statement about it. Examples include certain types of injuries or medical conditions that are noticed by others or become known to a medical provider. Some types of neglect can also be detected through observable behaviors, such as young children found wandering the streets or coming to school unclean or very disheveled. But detection of many cases of physical abuse and neglect and almost all cases of sexual abuse depends largely on children making statements and adults acting on those statements. The statements may be made spontaneously or may be in response to adult inquiries about behaviors, circumstances, or injuries observed in the children. Once abuse or neglect has been detected, many variables can affect whether adults take action, including personal attitudes and beliefs about what will happen as a result of reporting, the relationship of the adult to the child or the caregiver who may have committed the abuse or neglect, the certainty of the concern about maltreatment, and understanding of the child abuse reporting laws ( Alvarez et al., 2004 ; Khan et al., 2005 ; Sedlak et al., 2010a ).

Therefore, official reports do not capture all instances in which child abuse and neglect is suspected or even is detected and acted upon. For example, adults in a child's life may learn about child abuse and neglect and take informal actions on behalf of the child without necessarily reporting to authorities. Although citizens are protected if they make a good faith report of suspected child abuse or neglect, there are many reasons why they might be hesitant about or deterred from making an official report even if strong evidence or suspicion exists. For example, they may fear retaliation or rejection by the abuser or negative consequences for the child or family. Indeed, despite the fact that relatives, neighbors, and friends are most likely to observe or hear about child abuse or neglect because of their proximity and involvement in children's lives, they account for only a minority (18 percent) of reporters of cases to child protective services ( ACF, 2012 ).

Professionals account for the other three-fifths of child abuse and neglect reports, with teachers (16 percent), law enforcement officials (17 percent), and social service providers (11 percent) making the majority of these reports ( ACF, 2012 ). However, mandated reporters do not always make a report when they suspect child abuse or neglect. Among mandated reporters involved as sentinels in the NIS-4, a significant percentage have had suspicion and not made a report. Professionals identify a variety of reasons for not reporting their suspicions ( Sedlak et al., 2010a ). The most common reasons given are concerns that intervention by child protective services will be more harmful than helpful and the professionals' belief that they can do a better job of addressing the suspected child abuse or neglect on their own without involving the authorities. Rates of reporting also may vary by profession and relationship with the family. In one state survey of pediatricians, only 10 percent had ever not reported a suspected case of abuse or neglect; the most common reason given was not feeling that the evidence for suspicion was strong enough or believing that the case could be better handled by the physician or family without the involvement of child protective services ( Theodore and Runyan, 2006 ). For mental health providers, the dilemma may be more acute. For example, Steinberg and colleagues (1997) found that among psychologists who had made a report to child protective services, 27 percent stated that their client ended the therapy relationship because of the child abuse report.

In addition to the concerns of professionals about the consequences of reporting for themselves and their practice, a lack of clarity exists as to what constitutes reasonable suspicion as defined by the law. There is little dispute about suspicion when the basis for concern is clear-cut (e.g., the child makes a credible statement about being sexually abused or has hand print bruises on the cheek). In many cases, however, the information available to the reporter is vague, inconclusive, or only suggestive. Is it neglect when a child comes to school in dirty clothes and smelling bad? How young a child can be left alone at home? What if a child says, “I am afraid to go home”? If a child is engaging in highly sexualized behavior, is that indicative of abuse? There is a substantial gray area that is open to interpretation with respect to whether a statement or behavior meets criteria for triggering a legally mandated report of child abuse and neglect. A lack of consensus exists even among expert child abuse doctors. Levi and Crowell (2011) found no agreement among experts on how high child abuse and neglect would have to be on the list of differential diagnoses and how certain the provider would have to be that child abuse and neglect accounted for the child's presentation to meet the reporting criterion of reasonable suspicion.

On the other hand, only about 60 percent of referrals to child protection authorities are accepted and screened in for some type of official response ( ACF, 2012 ). Cases may be screened out because they do not meet the legal criteria for child abuse and neglect or state standards for accepting cases, or because information about the case is insufficient to enable completing a report. Among states, screen-in rates range from a low of 25 percent to a high of virtually all referrals ( ACF, 2012 ). Thus citizens and professionals likely recognize many situations in which they suspect child abuse and neglect, but their suspicions do not meet the threshold of concern required by local statute to justify an investigation.

Disproportionality

Concerns have been raised about possible racial and ethnic bias in child abuse and neglect reporting and investigations because African American and American Indian children are referred to child protective services at higher rates than their representation in the population, whereas Asian American and Latino children are referred at lower rates. A recent study used a birth cohort methodology and linked vital statistics and child abuse report records for young children ( Putnam-Hornstein, 2011 ). Prior child abuse reports were associated with an almost sixfold increase in the probability of intentional death and double the rate of unintentional fatal injury; the rates were higher for African American and American Indian children and lower for Asian American and Latino children relative to the general population. In other words, the racial/ethnic patterns of injury and death mirror the child abuse and neglect reporting rates by racial and ethnic group. Moreover, the overall underrepresentation of Latino children in referrals to the child welfare system masks significant differences between the experiences of Latino children of U.S.-born mothers and Latino children of foreign-born mothers, both in rates of referral ( Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013 ) and in type of abuse or neglect ( Dettlaff and Johnson, 2011 ). Authoritative commentators ( Drake et al., 2011 ; Putnam-Hornstein, 2012 ; Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013 ) agree that there are real group differences in the rates of child abuse and neglect and conclude that these differences reflect the higher burden of social ills borne by some groups. As Putnam-Hornstein concludes: “The findings suggest that the overrepresentation of black and Native American children in the child welfare system may be a manifestation of historical and contemporary racial inequities that place these minority children at a disproportionate risk of maltreatment” (2012, p. 171).

Disproportionality extends beyond referrals. Miller (2011) examined disproportionality in Washington state at both the referral point and key decisions points after cases had been screened in (e.g., risk rating, placement, length of time in care). As with other states, disproportional rates of referral were seen. When disproportionality from the point of referral was examined, virtually no differences were found among whites, Asians, and Latinos following case entry into the child welfare system. After case receipt, rates of disproportionality were reduced for African American families at most decision points, with the largest discrepancy remaining in length of time in care. For American Indian cases, the disproportionality continued at every decision point following case acceptance. These results suggest that the observed disproportionality may have a variety of causes, some that reflect larger social forces and others that may be more reflective of professional assumptions and local practices. Disproportionality is discussed further in Chapter 5 of this report.

Finding: According to NCANDS data from FY 2011, there were 3.4 million child abuse and neglect referrals involving 6.2 million children. Nationally, more than three-quarters of these cases are classified as neglect, 18 percent as physical abuse, and 9 percent as sexual abuse. The highest rates of child abuse and neglect occur among young children, specifically those less than 3 years old. Finding: Tribal child welfare systems, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the Indian Health Service do not report to NCANDS and are therefore not included in the datasets, thus limiting the ability to determine levels of abuse and neglect among many American Indian and Alaska Native populations. Moreover, non-Native workers report on cases of child abuse and neglect without familiarity with or consideration of the culture in these communities. Finding: Difficulties arise in determining rates of child abuse and neglect. When researchers attempt to identify instances of child abuse and neglect through survey instruments, results can vary based on the types of questions asked and the point in time and circumstances under which respondents provide the information. Conducting retrospective surveys of childhood experiences, asking children about recent experiences, and surveying parents about their behaviors toward children all can yield different results. Finding: African American and American Indian children are referred to child protective services at disproportionate rates relative to their representation in the general population.

INCIDENCE TRENDS

Questions about whether child abuse and neglect are increasing, decreasing, or being detected and reported more often have become prominent in recent years. At the time of the 1993 NRC report, there was a general consensus that child abuse and neglect was underreported. Since that time, substantial changes have occurred in the social climate with regard to awareness of child abuse and neglect, attitudes toward reporting it, and the availability of programs and services for children and families affected by it. These developments have explicitly been intended to increase reporting of child abuse and neglect by victims, the general public, and professionals. However, establishing whether changes in official reporting represent true changes in incidence is complicated by the limitations of the reporting systems discussed above, as well as the difficulties inherent in ascertaining rates of events that happen to children, many of whom are very young, and that occur mainly in the private context of family life. As revealed by the review below, discrepancies exist in some areas and considerable ambiguity in others regarding the conclusions to be drawn from the available trend data, suggesting outstanding questions that would benefit from more systematic empirical analyses of these trends over time.

Sexual abuse has shown the largest decline in reported rates. NCANDS reports a decline of 62 percent since 1992 ( Finkelhor and Jones, 2012 ). The sharpest declines occurred during the late 1990s, but the downward trajectory has continued, with a 3 percent decline being reported between 2009 and 2010. This same pattern is demonstrated in the NIS-4, issued in 2010, which reported a 47 percent decline from the mid-1990s through 2005, when the data for that report were collected ( Finkelhor and Jones, 2012 ).

Additional information on trends in sexual abuse is derived from surveys of youth. The NCVS documents a 68 percent decrease in reported and unreported sexual assault or rape of 12- to 17-year-olds between 1993 and 2010 ( White and Lauritsen, 2012 ). In a national survey on sexual and reproductive activity, young women (aged 15-24) reported a 39 percent decline in sexual experiences with a partner 3 or more years older before the age of 15 ( Finkelhor and Jones, 2012 ). This survey follows the same pattern as NCANDS, with the declines being steepest in the 1990s and tapering off although still continuing in the 2000s. Finkelhor and colleagues (2010b) compare results from the National Survey of Children Exposed to Violence (NatSCEV) in 2003 and 2008 and find that reports of sexual assault declined from 3.3 percent of all children aged 2-17 in 2003 to 2.0 percent of children in 2008. In contrast, the National Survey of Adolescents (NSA), a survey of a large nationally representative sample of youth, found no decline in self-reported sexual assault between 1995 and 2005 ( Finkelhor and Jones, 2012 ).

The trend data are more ambiguous with respect to physical abuse. NCANDS reports a decline of 56 percent in physical abuse reports from the early 1990s through 2010 ( Finkelhor et al., 2010a ). The decrease for physical abuse began somewhat later than that for sexual abuse but has followed the same slope, with steep declines in the late 1990s that tapered off by 2009. Likewise, the NIS-4 reported a 29 percent drop in endangerment-standard physical abuse starting in the early 1990s ( Finkelhor and Jones, 2012 ).

Survey results produce a somewhat different picture. The NCVS reports a 69 percent decline in aggravated physical assaults on children (aged 12-17) from 1993 through 2008; however, these events are mainly peer and sibling assaults rather than physical abuse by parents ( Finkelhor and Jones, 2012 ). Zolotor and colleagues (2011) compared results from a 2002 survey of parents in North Carolina (Carolina Survey of Abuse in the Family Environment) using the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale with the findings of a Gallup survey completed in 1995 and the results of two National Family Violence Surveys, conducted in 1975 and 1985, that used the same scale. The results show a decline in parental reports of physical abuse. On the other hand, neither the NatSCEV nor the NSA found significant declines in youth-reported physical abuse by caregivers ( Finkelhor and Jones, 2012 ).

Another source of data on physical abuse is admissions to a hospital for abuse-related injury. Physical abuse encompasses a broad range of acts. The most common is striking a child such that bruising results—ranging from relatively minor, temporary, and localized marks caused by pinching or slapping to significant marks caused by whipping or hitting with an object that may leave scars. These types of injuries do not typically entail admission to a hospital or even require medical care. On the other hand, a relatively small percentage of physical abuse cases involve injuries, such as fractures, burns, blunt trauma, and abusive head trauma (formerly known as shaken baby syndrome), that require medical care and possibly hospitalization ( Zolotor and Shanahan, 2011 ). Approximately 1.4 percent of physical abuse cases are estimated to result in hospitalization ( Leventhal et al., 2012 ).

A number of studies have investigated changes in rates of admission for head injuries resulting from child physical abuse—the most common reason for child abuse-related hospital admission. Leventhal and Gaither (2012) found a small but concerning increase in the rate of serious injuries as documented in coding on medical records in a series of children's hospitals (from 6.1 to 6.4/100,000) from 1997 to 2009. Additional studies, attempting to show an association between economic indicators and child abuse, similarly have found increases in rates of injuries coded as child abuse occurring during the 2000s ( Berger and Waldfogel, 2011 ; Berger et al., 2011 ; Wood et al., 2012 ). A national study conducted in Taiwan also found a significant increase from 1996 to 2007, but only for infants and largely accounted for by changes in coding practices since 2003 ( Chiang et al., 2012 ).

Neglect reports show the most mixed trends picture. NCANDS neglect reports declined by 10 percent between 1990 and 2010 ( Finkelhor et al., 2010a ), but there was significant variability across states. From 1992 to 2010, for example, fluctuations ranged from a 90 percent decline in neglect in Vermont to a 189 percent increase in Michigan. These dramatic state variations are not mirrored in the sexual and physical abuse rates, which declined across almost all states over the same period. The NIS-4 found no decline in neglect cases ( Sedlak et al., 2010a ). Self-report survey data are not available for neglect to permit comparisons over time. In part, this is due to the fact that retrospective self-report surveys are poorly suited to gathering information about neglect involving very young children, which is the most frequent form of child abuse and neglect.

Child maltreatment–related fatalities include deaths caused by both physical abuse and neglect, with a majority being attributed to neglect. NCANDS reports an increase of 46 percent in abuse- and neglect-related fatalities between 1993 and 2007 ( Finkelhor and Jones, 2012 ). In contrast, homicide rates for children fell by 43 percent during the same period, with a 26 percent decline for the youngest children (aged 0-5) ( Finkelhor and Jones, 2012 ); between 1980 and 2008, 63 percent of murdered children aged 0-5 were killed by a parent ( Cooper and Smith, 2011 ). It is unclear to what extent cases officially reported by law enforcement as homicides correspond to cases included in the NCANDS child abuse and neglect dataset, most of which, as noted, are attributed to neglect.

Trends in child abuse and neglect occur in the larger context of rates of crime and violence in the United States. The consensus is that crime has decreased substantially, although there are some year-to-year fluctuations and pockets where these results are not seen. Both official reports as reflected in the UCR and population-based counts of reported and unreported crime as determined by the NCVS reveal declines in virtually all crime categories since the mid-1990s ( FBI, 2010 ; Truman and Planty, 2012 ). These declines extend to sexual assault and domestic violence, crimes that share characteristics of child sexual and physical abuse and often involve people in close interpersonal relationships or family members. As with child abuse and neglect, extensive efforts have been undertaken to change the social climate around these crimes, encourage reporting, and expand service availability. The NCVS shows a 68 percent decline in the number of children aged 17 and younger living in households in which someone aged 12 and older was the victim of sexual assault or violent crime between 1993 and 2010 ( Truman and Smith, 2012 ).

In sum, trends are inconsistent across types of child abuse and neglect, and in the case of neglect are inconsistent across states. Sexual abuse reporting appears to indicate a clear decline that is not reflected in only a single data source. Although most sexual abuse is not committed by immediate family members, the declines here appear to extend equally to family and nonfamily sexual assaults. It is worth noting that the declines in child sexual abuse began about the same time as general declines in crime and have followed a similar slope. Physical abuse presents a more complicated picture, with some official sources showing overall declines and several surveys not showing declines. Although physical assaults in general (e.g., nonfamily assault, bullying) appear to be down, it is not clear that these trends extend to intrafamilial physical abuse.

Increases in child abuse-related hospital admissions are especially concerning because these data represent the most severe assaults, even though they make up a very small subgroup of child abuse cases. There are several possible explanations for these increases. First, they may represent actual increases in serious injury. Several studies have directly examined the correlation between the increases in identified cases and larger economic forces ( Berger and Waldfogel, 2011 ; Berger et al., 2011 ; Wood et al., 2012 ). Berger and colleagues (2011) hypothesize an association between the economic recession and rising rates of child abuse-related injury, citing increases in child abuse and neglect reports from the prerecession to the recession period. However, they find no association with local unemployment rates. Wood and colleagues (2012) link data on child abuse-related hospital admissions to mortgage delinquency, foreclosures, and unemployment rates between 2000 and 2009. They find increases in admission rates to be correlated with mortgage foreclosure and delinquency rates but not with unemployment rates. Another possibility is that the increases reflect greater awareness and willingness of health care providers to label injuries as child abuse. The increases coincide with the advent of growing use of hospital diagnostic and billing codes that specify child abuse as the injury cause and a period when a child abuse subspecialty was created in pediatrics. These changes may have contributed to greater willingness to identify child abuse as the cause of injury in official records. Now that abusive head trauma is being captured more accurately in administrative data, it could potentially account for a decline in other forms of head injury ( Leventhal and Gaither, 2012 ). It is also possible that caregivers who inflict severe injuries have more severe psychopathology or are otherwise different from the typical child abuser, and are therefore less amenable to the influences associated with general societal changes and less likely to accept offers of voluntary assistance.

The lack of a significant decline in child neglect and the large jurisdictional variations in this area remain the least understood. The past two decades have seen a growing emphasis on encouraging recognition of neglect as its deleterious effects have increasingly been documented. Awareness campaigns have been undertaken to encourage reporting of neglect, and in some cases its definition has been expanded to incorporate a variety of risky circumstances and conditions. For example, the relationship of parental substance abuse to child abuse and neglect has received widespread attention. These forces may have contributed to increased reporting of a broader spectrum of neglect cases. Greater awareness and expanded definitions may have offset any declines in reports of traditionally defined neglect.

Poverty often is considered a major contributor to neglect, yet there is little empirical support for a strong relationship between changes in indicators of poverty and neglect reporting rates. For example, there was a great deal of concern that welfare reform, especially the timelines for receiving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), would produce an increase in cases of neglect as parents were forced off income support. However, no significant change in neglect rates was seen during this period. And as mentioned, two separate investigations failed to find a relationship between unemployment rates and child abuse and neglect reports.

A better understanding is needed of whether and why rates of physical and sexual abuse are declining while no change in neglect is being observed. Criminologists have focused on understanding the substantial declines in crime rates as well as the occasional fluctuations or stubborn persistence of high crime rates in a few areas. Multiple commentators have examined possible causes and explanations ( Finkelhor et al., 2010b ; Levitt, 2004 ; Oppel, 2011 ; Zimring, 2008 , 2011 ). Other fields, such as medicine, would certainly have devoted extensive scientific inquiry to understanding an epidemiological phenomenon as significant and inconsistent across different forms of the same problem area. Yet there has been no similar focus in the field of child abuse and neglect. Attention to the topic has been limited to a few investigators who have repeatedly reported on trends (e.g., Finkelhor and Jones, 2012 ) and to targeted examinations of specific subareas, such as hospital admissions (e.g., Chiang et al., 2012 ; Leventhal and Gaither, 2012 ). A greater focus on understanding the fluctuations in child abuse reporting data and other indicators of child injury both nationally and within specific communities and populations could have important implications for the design and targeting of intervention and prevention efforts.

Finding: Strong evidence indicates that sexual abuse has declined substantially in the past two decades; the balance of evidence favors a decline in physical abuse, especially its more common and less serious forms. There is no evidence that neglect is declining overall; however, states vary significantly as to whether neglect is increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant. These disparate trends have important implications for understanding the nature of child abuse and neglect and the forces that potentially affect its trends. Social policy endeavors are hampered when insufficient attention is paid to understanding the various aspects of the problem. Finding: Understanding is incomplete with respect to whether and why rates of physical and sexual abuse are declining while no change in neglect is being observed. Research on these trends has received inadequate attention given their important implications for intervention and prevention efforts.

DETERMINATION OF CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT

This section reviews the various methods of determining whether child abuse and neglect has occurred. The basis for the determination can range from a citizen's or family member's simply believing what a child says about being abused or neglected or being convinced by something observed, to a medical examination and diagnosis or the formation of a professional opinion, to the results of administrative or legal procedures. The process for making a determination by medical and mental health professionals is established by professional standards of practice, whereas legal standards of investigative practice, rules of evidence, and burdens of proof govern how legal determinations are made.

Determination by Medical and Mental Health Professionals

Medical determination or diagnosis is relevant in a small but very high-stakes minority of child abuse and neglect cases. A medical opinion is the only way to determine whether certain physical injuries—especially very serious injuries such as head injuries, fractures, and burns—are the result of child abuse and neglect in children who are too young to provide a verbal account of how the injury occurred. In certain cases involving children old enough to say what happened, a medical opinion may be necessary to distinguish accidental from nonaccidental injuries when the children's or parents' accounts are discrepant. In some neglect cases, such as those entailing malnutrition or failure to thrive, a medical opinion may be an essential component of the investigative process.

Taking a medical history is standard practice when medical professionals conduct a medical examination. In situations involving child abuse and neglect, especially when sexual abuse is suspected or the cause of an injury is in dispute, the child's history may be the primary basis for a medical professional's opinion or diagnosis. In such cases, although medical professionals may have specialized expertise in interviewing children, they, like other professionals and ordinary citizens, have no special ability to distinguish true from false or mistaken statements. However, statements made to a health care provider may be admissible in legal proceedings as an exception to the hearsay rule.

Overall, within the child abuse medical subspecialty, substantial consensus exists regarding the diagnostic criteria for forming a medical opinion about whether injuries or medical conditions are attributable to child abuse and neglect. However, there have been high-profile controversies about medical opinions in some child abuse cases. For example, questions have been raised about certain medical diagnoses, such as shaken baby syndrome, which as noted, is now called abusive head trauma. In some cases, child abuse experts have concluded that intentional injury has occurred, but other medical professionals have attributed the injuries to causes such as brittle bones or vitamin deficiencies. In large part, such conflicting opinions are due to the adversarial nature of the U.S. legal system. Opposing experts provide testimony to contradict a child abuse and neglect allegation and opine that alternative medical explanations account for the injuries, often, it has been argued, invoking scientifically unsupported assertions ( Chadwick et al., 1998 ). Although there have been some salient scientific developments in terms of the causes of injuries, in most cases these disputes do not reflect significant scientific uncertainties.

Outstanding questions do remain about the types of tests and procedures that are most appropriate for making a determination of child abuse and neglect. For example, radiographic skeletal survey is the standard procedure for detecting clinically unsuspected fractures in possible child abuse victims since a certain percentage of children will have occult fractures. Standards for additional tests and their timing have not been definitively established. Absent consensus standards, practice shows considerable variability.

Other presentations for which a medical opinion is absolutely necessary include complex conditions such as Munchausen syndrome by proxy, or medical child abuse ( Davis and Sibert, 1996 ; Fisher and Mitchell, 1995 ; Roesler and Jenny, 2008 ). While this condition is very rare (0.5/100,000 children), the potential consequences to children are extreme and severe ( McClure et al., 1996 ). Parents repeatedly take their children to medical providers, often many different ones, with reports of multiple and sometimes extremely serious symptoms or conditions. In some cases, the child has or had a legitimate underlying condition, and the parents have extreme anxiety and repeatedly seek out additional tests and procedures or exaggerate symptoms. In other cases, parents fabricate or cause the medical symptoms to obtain psychological gratification from the attention they receive in the role of concerned parent. Making a determination of medical child abuse in these cases is fraught with complications and frequently cannot occur until the child has suffered significant harm or endured unnecessary tests, procedures, and even surgeries. Suspicion does not even arise until the pattern of visits, procedures, and contacts with multiple providers emerges. Child abuse doctors face a daunting task in challenging the opinions and practices of other medical providers who may have been mistaken, but genuinely believed the child had a serious medical condition.

In sexual abuse cases, although medical assessment is the standard of care, medical diagnosis is relevant in only a small subset of cases. Physical signs or symptoms, such as genital changes or injuries, sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy, or the presence of seminal fluids or sperm, are present in only about 4 percent of cases; the vast majority of children medically evaluated for sexual abuse have normal exams ( Heger et al., 2002 ). Even when there are genital findings, most are nonspecific and cannot be linked conclusively to sexual assault ( Heger et al., 2002 ). Cases with definitive medical evidence, such as the presence of semen or pregnancy, are exceedingly rare. Standards for making a medical determination of sexual abuse have been published ( Kellogg and Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect, 2005 ).

There are two important reasons beyond medical diagnosis why medical assessment of children who may have been or report being sexually abused is the standard of care. One purpose is to allay the child's and parents' worries about the potential physical effects of sexual contact. A visit with a medical provider creates a nonstigmatizing opportunity for support and validation, psychoeducation about the impact of sexual abuse, and encouragement to engage in available treatment services. The second is that citizens, judges, and juries assume that medical findings will be present in sexual abuse cases, even though this frequently is not the case. Child protection and criminal legal professionals believe it is often necessary to have a medical exam and expert medical testimony primarily to counter this widespread misconception.

Mental health professionals may be asked by parents or other professionals to provide a professional opinion as to whether a child was abused. Most such requests involve concern about sexual abuse. A diagnosis is not made because sexual abuse is an event, not a medical or psychiatric condition. In many cases, the mental health professional's opinion is sought in a forensic context when a report has been made to authorities or a legal action has been initiated, and the opinion is expected to help guide legal decision making or provide the basis for expert testimony in a legal proceeding. In other cases, however, the opinion is sought to determine whether to initiate reporting or other legal actions.

Typically in these situations, mental health providers consider a range of information, including what the child says in an interview, what the child has told others, the circumstances of the discovery of abuse concerns, results of medical examinations, and the emotional and behavioral functioning of the child based on a psychosocial assessment or administration of a standardized checklist of tests. The degree of thoroughness and the formality of the process depend largely on the purpose the opinion will serve.

Whereas child abuse mental health professionals do bring specialized expertise, knowledge, and skills to the evaluation process, there are scientific limits on the conclusions that can be drawn about whether an event occurred based on psychosocial assessment. No psychological profile has sufficient specificity to permit conclusions about an event as the cause of a presentation ( APA, 2013 ). In addition, the emotional and behavioral consequences of child abuse and neglect are varied and nonspecific (see Chapter 4 ). Conditions typically associated with child abuse and neglect, such as posttraumatic stress, anxiety, depression, and behavioral problems, are common mental health problems for children and have many other causes. The only behavioral problem that has a specific and significant relationship with child abuse and neglect is inappropriate sexual behavior. However, the majority of sexually abused children do not have sexual behavior problems, and there are other potential causes for sexual behavior in children ( Friedrich, 1993 ; Friedrich and Trane, 2002 ; Friedrich et al., 1998 , 2003 ).

To a large extent, professional opinions on child abuse and neglect rely heavily on determinations about the credibility of children's statements. There is no reason to believe that children cannot give reliable and accurate information about events or that they are prone to making false complaints about abuse ( Brown et al., 2007 ; Cederborg et al., 2008 ; Lamb et al., 2007 ; Lyon, 1999 ). On the other hand, it is well established that memory, especially in young children, is susceptible to error and distortion, and that children can form false beliefs that they have experienced events ( Cederborg et al., 2008 ; Lyon, 1999 ). It turns out that the characteristics of true and untrue statements have many commonalities; some true statements are not very credible, and some untrue statements are highly detailed and convincing. Mechanisms devised for rating child reports about abuse and neglect and classifying them as accurate or inaccurate have not proven reliable ( Hershkowitz et al., 2007 ). In other words, professionals have no special ability to detect truthfulness, nor is there a scientifically reliable method for doing so. This is why courts generally do not permit professionals to opine about the credibility of witnesses, but reserve that function for the fact finder ( Myers, 2012 ).

Standards have been established for conducting forensic assessments for purposes of providing an opinion about possible sexual abuse (e.g., Kuehnle and Connell, 2009 ; Sparta and Koocher, 2006 ). The standards cover the assessment process, interviewing approaches, the proper use of psychosocial information, and limits on the accuracy of opinions based largely on statements that cannot be verified and behaviors that are nonspecific. Unfortunately, the types of cases for which such assessments are sought are those that are most ambiguous and complex, such as when children are unable or unwilling to give a clear and credible history, they are very young, they have not made statements, their statements are vague or inconsistent, or they suffer from emotional and behavioral problems that affect their credibility.

Mental health professionals routinely form opinions on the basic truth of reports about historical events that are potentially relevant in explaining why clients present with emotional and behavioral problems. Mental health providers commonly inquire about a range of past events, such as child abuse and neglect; other forms of trauma; events and experiences such as divorce, family moves, and experiences at school or with peers; illness and hospitalization; and other relevant life experiences. This information is integrated with information derived from clinical observation and the results of assessment measures with respect to symptoms and behaviors. Except for what providers observe directly in session, nearly all the information that serves as the basis for an opinion about events and mental health problems is derived from self-reports. Reliance on self-reports, including reports of child abuse and neglect, is therefore a cornerstone of standard clinical practice.

Determination by the Legal System

Legal investigations.

Before a child abuse and neglect case arrives before a legal fact finder (judge or jury), an arm of the government investigates the case. Child protective services and law enforcement conduct the investigations that serve as the basis for the state's actions regarding dependency or prosecution. In many cases, the parents or defendants come to an agreement with the government, and no actual fact-finding hearing takes place. If it does, the official legal determination is made by civil or criminal court.

Child protective services usually is responsible for investigating civil dependency cases; such cases are screened in by the child welfare system, and they fall under the jurisdiction of the juvenile court. Given that the greatest number of reported cases involve neglect, and most do not involve criminal conduct, the child protective services investigation is the only process applied to making a determination about child abuse and neglect in the majority of cases. Caseworkers make home visits and observe the safety and hygiene status of the household; inspect bruises and injuries; and conduct interviews with children (when appropriate), caregivers, reporters, and others who may have relevant information (such as relatives, teachers, and health care providers). They then draw conclusions about whether the information and evidence thus obtained meet the legal standards for child abuse and neglect.

Law enforcement officials investigate crimes. They generally engage in the same activities as child welfare system caseworkers (e.g., interviewing victims and witnesses, examining home conditions); they may also collect evidence from crime scenes, undertake forensic analyses, and interrogate suspects. In many jurisdictions, child protective services and law enforcement officials conduct joint investigations ( Cross et al., 2005 ).

A key activity in many child abuse and neglect dependency and criminal investigations, especially in cases involving sexual abuse and some involving physical abuse, is interviewing the child. Interviewing methods most likely to lead to accurate and complete reports have been extensively investigated (e.g., Cronch et al., 2006 ; Lamb et al., 2009 ; Larsson and Lamb, 2009 ; Saywitz et al., 2002 ). The protocol of the National Institute for Child Health and Development (NICHD) is the approach that has been the most researched in real-life settings and in laboratory analogue experiments, and serves as the model for the current standard of practice ( Lamb et al., 2007 ). Other extant models, none of which has undergone the same level of empirical evaluation, share almost all the same procedures and practices as the NICHD protocol ( Anderson et al., 2010 ).

Legal Determinations

A legal determination of child abuse and neglect is based on the weighing of admissible evidence that is collected following the accepted procedures for the specific legal arena. The common law legal system in the United States is adversarial and is based on principles that protect the due process rights of those who are accused and risk loss of liberty, access to their children, or assets. The legal contexts vary by whether they are criminal or civil, the intended outcomes of the case, and the standard of proof that applies.

The two primary legal systems that make determinations about child abuse and neglect are the child protection system and the criminal justice system ( Myers, 2012 ). The child protection system carries out an administrative and civil justice process that involves the state's seeking to intervene in families, often but not always to assume temporary custody of children (e.g., establishing child abuse or neglect and then obtaining authority of the court for the child's placement) or in a small fraction of cases to terminate parental rights. In these court cases (often called dependency cases), the standard of proof typically is more probable than not; in a case involving termination of parental rights, a higher standard of clear and convincing evidence has been set by the U.S. Supreme Court. The goals of the criminal justice system are to hold lawbreakers accountable and punish them, to bring justice for victims, and to protect the community. The standard of proof here is the highest (beyond a reasonable doubt) because the case involves the government's restricting an adult's liberty, including the possibility of incarceration. Child abuse and neglect also may be addressed in family court custody matters when it is alleged by one parent seeking to restrict the other parent's access to the child. In addition, civil tort actions may be brought in which a child, or someone on his/her behalf, sues a caregiver, the government, or another entity for negligence, seeking monetary damages.

The large majority of both civil and criminal proceedings regarding child abuse and neglect do not progress to a formal fact-finding hearing or a trial. In many child protection cases, usually those not requiring a court order to remove a child from home against parental wishes, no formal legal process is even initiated; the family agrees to a voluntary service plan that is overseen by the state. Even when a dependency petition is filed in court, in the large majority of cases the parent reaches an agreement or case settlement regarding dependency, often without admitting to having committed an act of child abuse and neglect. On the criminal side, charges are not filed in many cases, even when prosecutors may believe a crime occurred, because of difficulties entailed in proving the case and in meeting the legal standard of proof of beyond a reasonable doubt. In the majority of cases when charges are filed, the accused pleads guilty to the crime or to a lesser crime.

Substantiation

The child protection system's classification of a child abuse and neglect case as substantiated is an administrative procedure for making a formal recorded determination about the validity of a child abuse and neglect report. In most states, the result of an investigation of a report is classified as substantiated or unsubstantiated, although some states use other terminology (e.g., founded/unfounded) to describe the investigative outcome. In 2011, approximately 19 percent of screened-in cases were substantiated, or “indicated” ( ACF, 2012 ). Substantiation can be legally disputed because the consequences of a substantiated report can be significant for caregivers (e.g., job loss or being barred from certain professions or by certain employers) ( CWIG, 2013 ; McCarthy et al., 2005 ).

No formal conclusion about whether child abuse and neglect occurred is recorded in cases that are referred for an alternative response (sometimes called a family assessment or differential response) and not formally investigated ( CWIG, 2013 ). In 2011, about 10 percent of all cases reported to NCANDS received an alternative response ( ACF, 2012 ), but that percentage is increasing. As of 2011, 17 states were implementing differential response at some level, and 6 states planned to implement it in the near future.

Rates of substantiation vary dramatically across states ( ACF, 2012 ), and there is little consensus on what accounts for this variation. Overall, every method used to determine the accuracy of child abuse and neglect allegations has weaknesses and cannot be considered definitive. To some extent, this does not matter as long as the victims are safe and receive needed services. For example, most crimes will not be reported or prosecuted or result in conviction of the perpetrator; however, crime victims will still have access to many services designed to help them recover from the effects of the crime, and most can take at least some steps toward protecting themselves from the perpetrator. Although child abuse victims are dependent on caregivers for future protection, many parents can and do take steps to protect their children from known perpetrators or correct their own neglectful or abusive behavior. In terms of access to needed services, what happens officially in a case is unrelated to receipt of services in the child welfare system. The National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being, a large longitudinal study of a nationally representative sample of cases reported to child protective services, produced illustrative results. Comparisons of cases that were closed or kept open, or were substantiated or not, revealed no difference in key variables related to services or outcomes ( Hussey et al., 2005 ; Kohl et al., 2009 ).

The difficulty of ascertaining the validity of cases using official reporting or procedural outcomes may have more of an effect on research and interpretation of findings than on the lives of children who enter the child welfare system. For example, Kohl and colleagues (2009) argue that if substantiation does not discriminate true from untrue cases of child abuse and neglect, it is not a meaningful or accurate way of learning about the characteristics of actual abuse and neglect and its relationships to outcomes since the comparison group of unsubstantiated cases will contain many true cases. Therefore, child abuse research may benefit if consensus is achieved not only on definitions, but also on the meaning of different classification mechanisms for child abuse and neglect reports.

Finding: Significant advances have been made in dealing with children who may have been abused and neglected when they come in contact with medical, mental health, or social services professionals. It has become more common for these professionals to screen children routinely for abuse and other traumatic experiences. The children's accounts are generally accepted, at least for purposes of meeting the “reasonable suspicion” standard for making a child abuse report, except when there is significant evidence for coercion or contamination of their statements. Children who are suspected of being abused are commonly referred for specialized assessment, as well as clinical and support services. Finding: Overall, substantial improvements have been achieved in the assessment and investigative procedures for determining whether child abuse and neglect has occurred since the 1993 NRC report was issued. Widely accepted standards for proper interviewing have been adopted by child protective services, law enforcement officials, and forensic evaluators and are well known even among general health, mental health, and other professionals ( Lamb et al., 2007 ). Finding: Rates of substantiation of child abuse and neglect allegations by child protective services vary dramatically across states, and there is little consensus on what accounts for this variation. Overall, every method of determining the accuracy of child abuse and neglect allegations has weaknesses, and no method can be considered definitive. This limits the substantiation classification as a meaningful way to learn about the characteristics of actual abuse and neglect and their relationships to outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Child abuse and neglect is a pervasive societal problem, with recent NCANDS data indicating that 3.4 million child abuse and neglect referrals involving 6.2 million children were made in a single year across the United States and its territories. As will be discussed in Chapter 4 , these incidents of child abuse and neglect entail a substantial risk for deleterious consequences that can hinder child development and lead to problems that persist across the life course.

Cases of child abuse and neglect are referred to child protective services based on mandatory reports by professionals such as teachers, law enforcement officials, social service providers, and physicians, as well as good-faith reports by citizens. Not all cases of child abuse and neglect are reported, and standards for reasonable suspicion of abuse and neglect are not always clear-cut. Therefore, official reports do not capture all cases in which child abuse and neglect is suspected or even is detected and acted upon. For research purposes, then, sole reliance on referral data from child protective services cannot capture the full scope of child abuse and neglect. Incorporating data from additional sources is necessary to determine the true incidence of the problem.

In addition, child abuse and neglect are defined differently for the varying purposes for which related information is collected, confounding attempts to portray the scope of the problem accurately or examine the surrounding circumstances. Results across studies based on surveys also may vary according to the survey methodology employed. Movement toward a reasonable degree of standardization in these areas is therefore needed.

Difficulties in ascertaining the scope of child abuse and neglect have contributed to uncertainties regarding whether the incidence of the problem is increasing or decreasing or cases are being detected and reported more frequently. Available trend data provide strong evidence that sexual abuse has declined substantially in the past two decades; the balance of evidence favors a decline in physical abuse, especially its more common and less serious forms. There is no evidence that neglect is declining overall. However, states vary significantly as to whether neglect is increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant. Discrepancies and ambiguity across analyses of different data sources highlight a need for more systematic empirical analyses of these trends over time. Research is needed to learn more about trends in child abuse and neglect and the variables that may account for decreases in the incidence of the problem or the lack thereof.

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42 U.S.C. § 5101 note.

42 U.S.C. § 52016a.

25 U.S.C. § 1169.

10 U.S.C. § 1787.

42 U.S.C. § 13001, et seq.

42 U.S.C. § 5106a(d).

Cite this Page Committee on Child Maltreatment Research, Policy, and Practice for the Next Decade: Phase II; Board on Children, Youth, and Families; Committee on Law and Justice; Institute of Medicine; National Research Council; Petersen AC, Joseph J, Feit M, editors. New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2014 Mar 25. 2, Describing the Problem.
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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Child Abuse — Child Abuse: Forms, Causes, Consequences, Prevention

Child Abuse: Forms, Causes, Consequences, Prevention

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References:

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2018). Child Maltreatment 2018. Retrieved from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/research-data-technology/statistics-research/child-maltreatment
Stith, S. M., Liu, T., Davies, L. C., Boykin, E. L., Alder, M. C., Harris, J. M., ... & Dees, J. E. M. (2009). Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(1), 13-29.
Wekerle, C., & Wall, A. M. (2003). The impact of childhood maltreatment on adolescent school performance: A multilevel model. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(5), 155-171.

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CAPSTONE Centers for Multidisciplinary Research in Child Abuse and Neglect

Topic areas, current sites, more information.

NIH has funded research on the prevalence, causes, course, and immediate and long-term consequences of physical, sexual, and emotional child abuse and neglect—now called child maltreatment—for the past few decades. Results of these efforts indicate that child and adolescent victims of abuse are likely to have a legacy of physical and mental problems well into adulthood. Additionally, survivors of disabling head trauma/traumatic brain injury are typically affected by numerous, long-term cognitive and neurologic conditions, including motor and visual deficits, epilepsy, and speech, language, and behavioral problems.

These research findings confirm that child maltreatment in all its forms constitutes a life-long significant public health concern. They also highlight the need for more comprehensive multidisciplinary approaches to address different aspects of this issue, and for greater collaboration among researchers, physicians, nurses, psychologists, social workers, teachers, legal professionals, medical examiners, and other members of the child protection community.

To address these findings and generate new data, NICHD funds the CAPSTONE Centers for Multidisciplinary Research in Child Abuse and Neglect through its Pediatric Trauma and Critical Illness Branch . These centers conduct:

Innovative and high-quality efficacy and effectiveness trials of child abuse and neglect interventions
Prospective studies examining the long-term effect of specific and understudied types of maltreatment, including abusive head trauma, sexual abuse, and medical child abuse and neglect
Studies examining the neurobiology of abuse and neglect
Studies to develop and test screening tools and assessment measures for early identification and treatment of specific types of abuse and neglect to decrease morbidity and mortality and to identify potential comorbidities

The centers also provide opportunities for community members, students, and faculty at all levels, to gain experience with cutting-edge educational tools and technologies, research, and clinical expertise within the field of child maltreatment.

CAPSTONE centers focus on multidisciplinary projects related to broad themes, such as diagnostic and clinical approaches, long-term impact and outcome studies, and context and culture. They conduct clinical trials, longitudinal, prospective, and other studies on the following topics:

Efficacy and effectiveness of clinical interventions
Long-term effects of specific and understudied types of maltreatment, including abusive head trauma, medical child abuse and neglect, chronic sexual abuse
Neurobiology of abuse and neglect and implications for health outcomes
Validity of screening tools and clinical assessment measures for early identification and treatment of specific types of abuse and neglect
Methods and mechanisms to decrease morbidity and mortality and identify potential comorbidities
RFA-HD-23-007 : CAPSTONE Centers for Multidisciplinary Research in Child Abuse and Neglect (P50) (Clinical Trial Optional)
Press Release: NIH Funds Specialized Centers in Child Maltreatment Research (October 4, 2018)
NICHD Contact: Valerie Maholmes

Understanding and Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect

Child maltreatment is a caretakers act that results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm.

Physical Abuse and Violence
Sexual Assault and Harassment

The Child Abuse and Prevention Treatment Act defines child abuse and neglect or child maltreatment as:

Any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm.

Neglect is a failure to meet the child’s basic needs, e.g., not providing enough food, shelter or basic supervision, necessary medical or mental health treatment, adequate education or emotional comfort.

Physical abuse refers to the injury of a child on purpose, e.g., striking, kicking, beating, biting or any action that leads to physical injury.

Sexual abuse is the use, persuasion or forcing of a child to engage in sexual acts or imitation of such acts.

Abuse and neglect of children occurs in families from all walks of life, of all incomes, religions and ethnicities. There is no single cause of child maltreatment; rather, it occurs as a result of many forces working together to impact the family.

Parent or caregiver risk factors

Low self-esteem, poor impulse control, depression, anxiety or antisocial behavior.

Experiencing or witnessing violence as a child, which teaches violent behavior or justifies it as proper behavior.

Substance abuse, which interferes with mental functioning, judgment, self-control, ability to be protective of one’s child and making the child’s needs a priority.

Lack of knowledge about normal child development and unrealistic expectations, frustration and/or inappropriate methods of discipline.

Family risk factors

Children living with single parents are more likely to live in poverty with fewer social supports, which may contribute to stress and increase risks of maltreatment.

Children in violent homes may witness intimate partner violence, may be victims of physical abuse themselves and may be neglected by parents or caregivers who are focused on their partners or unresponsive to their children due to their own fears.

Stressful life events, parenting stress and emotional distress (e.g., losing a job, physical illness, marital problems or the death of a family member) may worsen hostility, anxiety or depression among family members and increase the level of family conflict and maltreatment.

Maltreating parents or caregivers are less supportive, affectionate, playful and responsive with their children and are more likely to use harsh discipline and verbal aggression than positive parenting strategies (e.g., using time outs, reasoning, and recognizing and encouraging the child's successes).

Child risk factors

Infants and young children, because they are small and need constant care, are more likely to experience certain forms of maltreatment such as being shaken by parents or caregivers frustrated or overwhelmed by persistent crying. Teenagers, on the other hand, are at greater risk for sexual abuse.

Children with physical, cognitive and emotional disabilities or chronic illnesses may be at greater risk of maltreatment. Parents or caregivers of children with disabilities are more likely to experience high levels of stress, depression and anger. Children with disabilities may not understand that abusive behaviors are inappropriate and are unable to defend themselves.

Aggression, attention deficits, difficult temperaments and behavior problems in children have been associated with increased risk for maltreatment, especially when parents have poor coping skills, are unable to empathize with the child or have difficulty controlling emotions. Maltreatment often exacerbates the problem. A physically abused child may develop aggressive behaviors that lead to recurring maltreatment.

Environmental risk factors

The vast majority of parents or caregivers who live in these types of environments are not abusive. However, these stresses can increase the risk of abuse for some:

Poverty and unemployment can increase the likelihood of maltreatment, especially in combination with family stress, depression, substance abuse and social isolation.

Parents with less material and emotional support and who do not have positive parenting role models feel less pressure to conform to conventional standards of parenting behaviors.

Children living in dangerous neighborhoods are at higher risk than children from safer neighborhoods for severe neglect, physical abuse and sexual abuse. It is possible that violence may seem an acceptable response or behavior to individuals who witness it more frequently.

Child abuse and neglect can result in physical and psychological developmental delays. A neglectful mother may not feed her baby properly, which can slow brain development, or an emotionally abusive father may damage his child’s ability to form trusting relationships. Abused or neglected children can see the world as an unstable, frightening and dangerous place, which can undermine their sense of self-worth and their ability to cope with and adapt to their environments as they grow up. If unaddressed, maltreatment may contribute to later problems, such alcoholism/substance abuse, depression, domestic violence, multiple sexual partners and exposure to sexually transmitted diseases, suicidal thoughts and attempts.

The impact of abuse can vary depending on:

Age and developmental status of the child when the abuse or neglect occurred,

Type of abuse (physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, etc.),

Frequency, duration and severity of abuse,

Relationship between the victim and his or her abuser.

Children’s optimism, high self-esteem, intelligence, creativity, humor and independence, which enhance their coping skills in the face of adversity.

The acceptance of peers and positive influences such as teachers, mentors and role models

The family’s access to social supports, neighborhood stability and access to safe schools and adequate health care

The child's experience of love, acceptance, positive guidance and protection from a caring adult, which encourages trust that their parents or caregivers will provide what they need to thrive

Parent's or caregiver’s respectful communication and listening, consistent rules and expectations, and safe opportunities that promote independence

Parents or caregivers who can cope with the stresses of everyday life and have the inner strength to bounce back when things are not going well.

Parents or caregivers with a social network of emotionally supportive friends, family and neighbors

Families who can meet their own basic needs for food, clothing, housing and transportation and know how to access essential services such as childcare, health care and mental health services

Psychologists are heavily involved in the development and implementation of prevention programs for child abuse and neglect. Primary prevention programs raise awareness among the public, service providers and policymakers about the scope of issues involved in child maltreatment. Secondary prevention programs target populations with one or more risk factors for child maltreatment.

Tertiary prevention programs target families where maltreatment has already taken place and aim to reduce the impact and prevent it from reoccurring.

If you suspect someone is abusing or neglecting a child, take action:

Child Welfare Information Gateway Children's Bureau/ACYF 1250 Maryland Avenue, SW Eighth Floor Washington, DC 20024 (800) 394 3366

Child Help USA 15757 North 78th Street Scottsdale, AZ 85260 (800) 4-A-CHILD

American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children 350 Poplar Avenue Elmhurst , IL 60126 (877) 402 7722

Tennyson Center for Children 2950 Tennyson Street Denver, CO 80212 (877) 224 8223

Rape, Abuse, and Incest National Network 2000 L St., NW Suite 406 Washington, DC 20036 (800) 656-HOPE

APA—Resolution on Psychological Issues Related to Child Abuse and Neglect

APA—What is child abuse and neglect? Understanding warning signs and getting help

Child Welfare Information Gateway—Child Abuse and Neglect

Medline Plus—Child Abuse

Information

APA: Act Against Violence Program

APA Topics: Sexual assault and harassment

APA Violence Prevention Office

Find a Psychologist

Love Doesn’t Have to Hurt Teens (PDF, 640KB)

What is child abuse and neglect? Understanding warning signs and getting help

Report of the Working Group on Child Maltreatment Prevention in Community Health Centers

Resolutions

Bullying Among Children and Youth (PDF, 38KB)

Psychological Issues Related to Child Abuse and Neglect

Resolution Opposing Child Sexual Abuse

More Children, Youth and Families Resources

Adults and Children Together Against Violence

Contact the Office on Children, Youth, and Families

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2024 NIDA International Forum Executive Summary

June 14-15, 2024 Montreal, Canada

After three years of virtual meetings, the 2024 NIDA International Forum returned to an in-person format. The meeting, which was held on June 14 and 15 in Montreal in conjunction with the College on Problems of Drug Dependence (CPDD) Annual Scientific Meeting, was cochaired by NIDA International Program’s leadership, Dr. Tom Clarke and Dr. Lindsey Friend. It was attended by over 200 individuals from 73 countries. The meeting included several plenary sessions, four breakout sessions, and an international research poster session featuring 90 posters presented by substance use and addiction researchers from 26 countries.

The Forum began on June 14 with two sessions on advancing quality of addiction study programs and on addiction neuroscience research in Bulgaria, as well as a workshop on how to get addiction research published in peer-reviewed journals.

Day 2 started with the official welcome and updates on NIDA’s programs. This was followed by four breakout sessions on addiction treatment and criminal justice systems, professional healthcare education regarding medical cannabis, addressing opioid stigma in pharmacies, and effective interventions to increase treatment access and intake in real-world settings across the globe. The meeting concluded with two plenary sessions that discussed substance use and associated health problems in humanitarian settings and addressed two current global topics, namely, emerging synthetic drugs in Latin America and the Caribbean and the treatment of children with substance use problems. Rounding out the program were a joint workshop conducted by NIDA staff and staff from the CPDD, as well as a poster session.

Following are brief summaries of the topic sessions presented at this year’s International Forum.

Welcome and NIDA Update

Dr. Clarke provided a high-level overview of NIDA’s research priorities. In the United States, the most pressing problem continues to be the opioid overdose crisis, which is currently driven by co-use of fentanyl and stimulants and disproportionately affects American Indian/Alaska Native and Black communities. Also highly concerning are continued high rates of unintentional fentanyl-related overdose deaths in youths ages 15-19. In response, NIDA’s 2022 to 2026 strategic plan has identified five core research priorities, including (1) understanding drugs, the brain, and behavior; (2) prevention, treatment, and recovery; (3) the intersection of substance use and HIV; (4) implementation science; and (5) innovative heath applications.

Dr. Clarke also introduced several large programs that NIDA supports — partly together with other NIH Institutes — to address the opioid public health crisis. One of these efforts is the Helping to End Addiction Long-term® Initiative, or NIH HEAL Initiative® — an NIH-wide effort to speed scientific solutions to the opioid health crisis that is jointly led by NIDA and the National Institute on Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Other major NIDA-supported research efforts include the longitudinal HEALthy Brain and Child Development (HBCD) and Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) studies, the HEALing Communities Study, the Justice Community Opioid Innovation Network (JCOIN), the Harm Reduction Research Network, and the NIDA Clinical Trials Network. Together, these efforts address challenges, such as emerging drugs (e.g., xylazine), increasing fentanyl and polysubstance use, persistent stigma, better care for hard-to-reach and underserved populations, continuity of care for substance use disorders (SUDs), and novel harm reduction approaches.

Dr. Friend summarized the activities of the NIDA International Program and its role in international policy development, information, exchange, research, and training. In particular, NIDA supports international research through grants awarded to U.S. researchers partnering with foreign investigators. NIDA’s international training and research programs include INVEST postdoctoral fellowships and Hubert H. Humphrey Fellowships. INVEST fellowships offer a 12-month postdoctoral research training with a NIDA grantee that includes professional development activities to establish personal relationships between the fellows and NIDA grantees and NIDA officials. They are for international researchers with a doctoral degree and a minimum of 2 years postdoctoral experience. Hubert H. Humphrey Fellowships are mid-career fellowships to approximately 12 individuals per year that include a 10-month research fellowship at Virginia Commonwealth University as well as 6-week professional affiliations, allowing fellows to make connections to advance their ongoing work. Additionally, NIDA offers the Distinguished International Scientist Collaboration Awards (DISCA) that fund innovative collaborations between international and NIDA-funded senior researchers. Dr. Friend also highlighted NIH’s Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tool, NIH RePORTER ( https://reporter.nih.gov ), as an excellent tool for learning about NIDA-funded projects or investigators funded in other countries.

Addiction Treatment and Criminal Justice Systems: Drug Policy Reforms and Implications

This breakout session was chaired by Dr. Gregory Bunt from the International Society of Addiction Medicine (ISAM), who introduced the International Consortium for Alternatives to Incarceration (ICATI). ICATI works with countries, organizations, professionals, and program sites to support the global development of treatment, care, and accountability as alternatives to incarceration for individuals who use drugs and become involved with the justice system. At various stages in the judicial process, the justice system can divert people to treatment and services in the community instead of incarcerating them. This has been shown to reduce recidivism. To help adopt and implement such measures, ICATI promotes and supports all phases of national and regional planning, training, technical assistance, evaluation, and implementation; identifies, develops, and provides resources; and helps establish international networks.

In lieu of Dr. Carl Erik Fisher from Columbia University in New York, who was not able to attend the meeting, Dr. Bunt also gave Dr. Fisher’s presentation on the “Portuguese model” of decriminalization as an alternative harm reduction approach for treating SUDs in minoritized communities. Decriminalization means elimination of criminal penalties for drug possession for personal use; it differs from depenalization, which generally means that criminal penalties are reduced or not enforced but are not legally eliminated, and from legalization of drug use. This approach was first implemented in Portugal, where drug possession was decriminalized in 2001 but people carrying a personal drug supply had to get mandatory treatment. This was accompanied by several other socio-medical and harm-reduction interventions for a holistic approach with wrap-around services. However, because existing laws against personal drug use had already been only loosely enforced, decriminalization may ultimately have formalized existing practices rather than drive new norms and attitudes. In the United States, a similar approach has been implemented in Oregon but has been less successful because people were not diverted to effective treatment. This suggests that even the best reform programs do not guarantee success because drug-related problems are shaped by additional factors, such as cultural attitudes, social support networks, or mental health resources.

Dr. David Martell from the Canadian Society of Addiction Medicine reported on Canada’s drug decriminalization efforts. Canada has a history of targeted exemptions from penalizing drug use, from prescription maintenance programs and wide availability of opioid agonist therapy to supervised consumption sites and drug checking programs. Dr. Martell also listed various legislative approaches to drug decriminalization, such as the 2017 “Good Samaritan Drug Overdose Act” or cannabis legalization in 2018, which legalized personal use but maintained criminal penalties for certain offenses. This legalization resulted in increased cannabis use for most age groups and a temporary increase in the cannabis industry, but more Canadians now get cannabis legally. A newer decriminalization pilot program started in 2023 decriminalizes use of small amounts of opioids, crack, cocaine, methamphetamine, or MDMA at certain sites (e.g., private residences, but also overdose prevention, drug checking, or supervised consumption sites). The aim is to eliminate the harms associated with drug seizure, help connect people who use drugs to services and support, and enhance public awareness and understanding. However, over the first 12 months, the project has not yielded benefits, and many issues are also still unaddressed. Dr. Martell concluded that Canada’s national drug policy landscape is still fragmented and the search for the best approach continues.

Dr. Hamed Ekhtiari from the University of Minnesota and ISAM Regional Council chair, discussed how the ISAM Global Expert Network (ISAM GEN) can contribute to global drug policy reforms. ISAM’s organizational hierarchy allows for representation and policy involvement across the globe through regional representatives, national ambassadors, addiction medicine societies, and 10 country experts for each country who represent the ISAM GEN. By eliciting information from these experts and conducting a range of global surveys, ISAM GEN can help map and reshape global policies. ISAM GEN has established a well-honed road map for conducting their surveys, from idea development and steering committee formation all the way to manuscript submission. ISAM GEN’s first global survey assessed treatment service provision for opioid use disorder by querying national addiction societies and organizations in 39 countries from six continents. It gathered valuable information on availability of different types of opioids and availability of different types of treatment services for opioid use disorder, harm reduction facilities, and 12-step programs. Researchers interested in establishing their own international working groups or developing surveys can contact ISAM for further information.

Medical Cannabis in Professional Healthcare Education: Multinational Policies, Perspectives, and Competencies

In this breakout session, which was moderated by Dr. Richard Isralowitz from the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev—RADAR Center in Israel, Dr. Richard Rawson, professor emeritus from the University of California, Los Angeles, first provided a historical overview of substance use training in professional curricula. He noted that information on substance use and its impact has only recently been integrated into professional healthcare training rather than being covered only in ad-hoc separate training events. Since 2000, training in substance use and its treatment has become more formalized, with exams and certification processes offered by national and international certification organizations. International training activities are coordinated by the International Consortium of Universities for Drug Demand Reduction (ICUDDR), which facilitates networking among universities to promote high-quality education and training for prevention, treatment, and public health intervention purposes. As a result, many universities now integrate alcohol, tobacco, and other drug content into their curricula, often within many specialty areas; however, cannabis and medical marijuana remain a new curriculum topic.

Dr. Yuval Zolotov from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in the Bronx, New York, summarized the results of an international survey among healthcare professions’ students in Israel, Malta, Greece, Cyprus, Russia, Belarus, Thailand, and the United States regarding their attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge about medical cannabis. Participants were 4,427 students (70% female) of medicine, nursing, social work, and psychology; 74% came from countries where medical cannabis was legal. Dr. Zolotov reported that, overall, respondents expressed relatively high levels of support for medical cannabis, but also concerns about potential risks and harms. Almost all respondents believed that medical cannabis should be included in their education and practical experiences, but almost 87% reported receiving no formal education in this area. As a result, about 70% of respondents felt unprepared to answer patient questions about medical cannabis. Dr. Zolotov concluded that a great need for formal education in medical cannabis exists and that standardized curricula can help bridge the existing gaps.

Dr. Mazen Sakka from the Substance Abuse Research Center, Palestine, summarized a similar survey among medical staff at two hospitals and students at four universities in the Palestinian territories (West Bank, Gaza Strip) about their knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes regarding medical cannabis. The survey also explored the roles of gender, religiosity, and legal status of medical cannabis on these domains. In the Palestinian territories, cannabis is considered a schedule I substance, together with other addictive drugs. The survey found that while most medical staff and many students believed that medical cannabis can help certain patients, they also saw a high risk of mental and physical health problems. However, many respondents had only limited knowledge on the subject. Additionally, attitudes and beliefs differed somewhat between males and females and were affected by religious views and the fact that cannabis is considered an illegal drug. Nevertheless, Dr. Sakka noted that most respondents seemed open to more information or training on medical marijuana, supporting efforts to enhance such activities.

Given the apparent need for and interest in professional healthcare education on medical cannabis, Dr. Mikhail Kogan from George Washington University and Dr. Leslie Mendoza Temple from the University of Chicago described a Delphi process to identify teaching standards and essential medical cannabis education competencies. The Drug Enforcement Agency in the United States is set to reschedule cannabis to a lower status, which would require all pharmacies in the United States to carry cannabis products. After a 2021 scoping review found that healthcare trainees lack proper education and knowledge about medical cannabis, implementation of expanded competencies-based curricula is essential. Drs. Kogan and Temple described the Delphi process methodology, which relies on synthesizing opinions among a group of experts via repeated rounds of discussion until a consensus is reached. In this case, the process involved 23 experts with different areas of expertise, who identified six core competencies to guide development of medical school curricula in the United States and Canada. These included (1) understanding the basics of the endocannabinoid system, (2) describing the main components of the cannabis plant and their effects, (3) reviewing the legal and regulatory landscape on cannabis in the United States, (4) describing the evidence base for health conditions that are commonly managed with cannabis, (5) understanding the potential risks of medical cannabis use, and (6) understanding basic clinical management with medical cannabis.

Addressing Opioid Stigma in Pharmacies — Developing Strategies for Pharmacy Professionals

This breakout session with Dr. Beth Sproule and Dr. Braiden Cutmore from the Canadian Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and Dr. Sarah Bhatti from the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) centered on the stigma that people who use drugs and people with chronic pain frequently face. The session focused specifically on stigma from pharmacy professionals. As Dr. Bhatti noted, experiences of stigma may decrease use of treatment and social services as well as quality of care. A 2019 report by the Canadian Chief Public Health Officer concluded that responding to stigma in the health system requires a comprehensive approach through education, training, practice, and policy. PHAC conducted a literature review to clarify the nature and manifestations of stigma; assess stigma related to treatment with naloxone, opioid agonist therapy, harm reduction approaches, and opioid treatment for pain in pharmacy professionals; as well as anti-stigma approaches. The review identified several key ingredients for anti-stigma programs, such as repeated social contact, demonstration of recovery, myth busting, and enthusiastic facilitation. Dr. Bhatti also indicated that targeted education is more successful than general education.

Dr. Cutmore described several stakeholder roundtables organized by PHAC that discussed definitions of stigma, experiences of stigma, positive experiences with pharmacies, and potential messages for pharmacy professionals. The roundtables included people with opioid use disorder, people with chronic pain, and pharmacy professionals, respectively. Based on the feedback from the three stakeholder groups, six messages for pharmacists were drafted that addressed the main themes raised — for example, that pharmacy professionals need to see patients as a whole person and treat them with dignity and respect, that they need to understand the patient’s opioid medication experience and act as allies to support patients, or that they need to proactively engage and empower patients through education. Agreement with these messages was then assessed in an anonymous survey among roundtable participants. According to Dr. Cutmore, the roundtables and resulting messages highlighted that it is crucial for pharmacy professionals to challenge negative attitudes and beliefs by reflecting on their assumptions toward people taking opioids and recognize their impact. Additionally, they need to help empower through communication their patients who are prescribed opioids.

Dr. Sproule then presented a newly developed tool kit delineating strategies for pharmacy professionals to address opioid stigma in pharmacies. It highlights eight key strategies to support people who use opioids, such as respecting all customers equally, getting to know customers, offering support through education, explaining and reviewing pharmacy process, providing harm reduction services, delivering compassionate healthcare, respecting the right to privacy, and raising public awareness. The toolkit also provides tips on how to put those strategies into practice. One concept Dr. Sproule highlighted is the idea that “words matter” — that how one talks to or about people who use substances can either reinforce or, in contrast, counter stigmatizing attitudes, views, and actions. The toolkit also includes social media assets and posters to raise awareness of and address opioid stigma in pharmacies. Infographics, videos, courses, and other resources are also available. The toolkit was launched in February 2024 with a webinar attended by more than 250 pharmacy professionals and other stakeholders.

Successful Real-World Evidence-Based Interventions That Have Increased Treatment Access and Intake in Different Countries

This breakout session was chaired by Dr. Adrian Abagiu from the Romanian National Institute for Infectious Diseases and Dr. Matei Bals from the ARENA OST Center in Romania. Dr. Abagiu reported on a program in Romania to increase adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among people living with HIV (PLWH) who were incarcerated. He described that some of these individuals refused ART due to restrictions according to detention regulations. To improve ART adherence, they developed an information program involving a 20-minute PowerPoint presentation, a 10-minute Q&A session, and information leaflets for small groups of PLWH at one of the prisons. The intervention improved adherence, but the effect declined after 4 months. As a result, the program was refined further and assessed in a study comparing 100 PLWH who received the intervention with 50 PLWH who did not in one jail. Before the intervention, ART refusal rates were the same in both groups. After the intervention, refusal rates declined in the intervention group, but remained relatively stable in the control group; again, the effect was lost at 4 months after the intervention. Based on these findings, the intervention was delivered every 2 months to all new PLWH arriving at the prison, and while it had to be halted during the COVID-19 pandemic, it was resumed after the end of the pandemic.

Next, Dr. Dace Svikis from Virginia Commonwealth University described the Expanding Medical Prevention and Outreach While Enhancing Recovery and Retention (EMPOWER) project that seeks to increase engagement and retention in SUD and HIV treatment for underserved Black people in Baltimore, Maryland. Dr. Svikis explained that Baltimore has one of the highest rates of new HIV cases and also has the highest fatal overdose rates among large cities in the United States, but is also a leader in SUD treatment and harm reduction approaches. EMPOWER was assessed within the Recovery Enhanced by Access to Comprehensive Healthcare (REACH) Health Services Program that offers comprehensive outpatient SUD treatment as well as mental health counseling. However, Black individuals in the program were less likely to engage in SUD treatment, more likely to drop out of care, and thus less access to HIV-related testing and care. The EMPOWER program seeks to address these disparities using tailored, patient-focused, evidence-based interventions to engage and retain Black individuals in treatment. Importantly, the EMPOWER team includes people who have lived experience and represent the population of focus, such as peer recovery specialists and nurse care managers. EMPOWER uses evidence-based interventions, such as motivational interviewing, continency management, safer sex skill building, and Seeking Safety, a cognitive behavioral therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder and SUD. The EMPOWER program started recruitment in February 2024 and will last 6 months, after which regular REACH services will continue. Preliminary findings indicate that EMPOWER can increase treatment retention at 3 months compared with the normal REACH program; additional data will be gathered in the coming months.

The third presenter was current Hubert H. Humphrey Fellow Thinzar Tun from Myanmar, director of the Asian Harm Reduction Network (AHRN) and Best Shelter Myanmar, who reported on a program she is spearheading to increase treatment access and intake for people who use drugs (PWUD) or inject drugs (PWID). She explained that Myanmar has about 93,000 PWID, about 35% of whom have HIV. AHRN provides facility-based harm reduction, treatment, and care, whereas Best Shelter offers community-based harm reduction, prevention, referral, and care. Specific services include outreach, health education, self-help groups, job creation efforts, peer education, counseling, and treatment. Some services are specifically aimed at women as a particularly vulnerable population, such as services to improve sexual and reproductive health, as well as pre- and postnatal care, and services to curb gender-based violence. Ms. Tun specifically described their needle and syringe programs, including efforts to return and safely dispose of used needles and syringes, as well as HIV testing and treatment. These are implemented either during outreach with mobile units or at fixed locations in clinics or in the community. Ms. Thun reported that for 2022, about 18 million needles and syringes were distributed, with a return rate of 86%. For HIV testing, the program brought testing closer to the PWID and their families, allowed for effective linkage to care and rapid ART initiation, as well as testing and treatment in hard-to-reach locations. The program reduced the proportion of PWID who were HIV positive and achieved high linkage to treatment and ART initiation for both PWUD and PWID and their sexual partners. Ms. Tun concluded that to address drug use and HIV in countries such as Myanmar, understanding the context and needs of clients is essential, and that community inclusion and harm reduction approaches work.

Substance Use and Associated Health Problems in Humanitarian Settings — Responding to the Needs of Affected Populations

This plenary session was started by Dr. Anja Busse from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), who provided an update on addressing substance use in humanitarian emergencies. Dr. Busse explained that humanitarian emergencies (e.g., disasters, armed conflicts, epidemics) threaten the lives and well-being of very large numbers of people or a very large percentage of a population, often result in displacement, and require assistance from multiple sectors. There is only limited evidence on substance use among displaced persons; however, there seem to be regional differences regarding the most commonly used substances. Displaced populations or people in humanitarian emergencies may face particular challenges related to drug use, such as sudden interruptions of patterns of drug use, disruption of treatment services, and resumption of drug use with increased risk of overdose; these compound social and mental health problems associated with humanitarian crises. Dr. Busse noted that substance use is included in humanitarian health guidance as part of mental health interventions. A Desk Review by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) found that community-based, peer-led programs and training of healthcare workers in SUD treatment are feasible in low-resource and refugee settings and that brief interventions have significant potential. Opioid agonist therapy may also be possible in humanitarian settings with support from international donors and organizations. Several international policy documents have provided policy direction for addressing SUDs in humanitarian emergencies. UNODC and the World Health Organization (WHO) have a joint program for such situations, and the UNODC/WHO International Standards for Treatment of Drug Use Disorders can be adapted for humanitarian emergencies. A handbook by UNODC, UNHCR, and WHO will soon be published, disseminated, and field-tested. It creates an implementation framework for both the acute phase and the protracted phase of the emergency. It has identified two main principles — saving lives first (i.e., addressing life-threatening concerns such as overdose and withdrawal first), and full inclusion of people with SUD in other support available.

Dr. Dzmitry Krupchanka from the WHO described the organization’s approach to addressing substance use during humanitarian emergency responses. He noted that people in humanitarian settings have much higher rates of mental health problems than other populations; moreover, mental and physical health conditions are often comorbid with SUDs. Dr. Krupchanka mentioned a 2024 WHO draft resolution on strengthening mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) before, during, and after humanitarian emergencies. The resolution includes MHPSS as an integral component of preparedness, response, and recovery activities in all emergencies. He then reviewed the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings, which delineate key actions to minimize harm related to alcohol and other substance use. These measures aim to conduct rapid assessments, prevent harmful alcohol and other substance use and dependence, facilitate harm reduction interventions in the community, and manage withdrawal and other acute problems. An open, free course is available to learn about this, as well as some cultural adaptations. Additionally, several WHO resources to address substance use and its consequences in humanitarian settings will be forthcoming.

Dr. Karen Paul from the IASC Reference Group for Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergencies talked about interagency collaboration regarding substance use and SUD in humanitarian emergencies. She emphasized that a multi-sector response is needed in such situations, and some of these sectors are also addressed in the IASC Guidelines mentioned by Dr. Krupchanka. Dr. Paul also described the IASC MHPSS Reference Group, which is cochaired by WHO, UNODC, and UNHCR and involves over 11 member agencies as well as five observers. Their current priority is developing materials for training and orienting various groups of humanitarian workers on substance use, from materials for basic communication to materials on advanced interventions. For example, orientation materials are being developed on SUDs as health conditions, how to provide support, life-threatening conditions related to substance use, and similar topics. These materials are currently being field tested, with an eye to adapting them to various cultures and contexts. A substance use module for integrating MHPSS into disaster risk management and preparedness training is also being developed, including a framework for assessment and action.

Finally, Dr. Mustafa al’Absi from the Duluth Global Health Research Institute and the University of Minnesota discussed the implications of traumatic stress and substance use in the context of humanitarian emergencies. He noted that trauma exposure, particularly in children and adolescents, is associated with an increased risk for SUD; moreover, substance use can impact the course and severity of traumatic stress symptoms. Increases in political conflicts as well as natural disasters have led to rising mental health and substance use problems. Consequently, it is important to integrate mental health and substance use services in emergency responses and increase capacity for trauma-informed care among humanitarian workers. Dr. al’Absi presented case studies from recent conflicts and natural disasters, such as the conflicts in Syria, Yemen, and Afghanistan, or the an earthquake in Turkey. Each of these has unique features regarding substance use that need to be considered. The crisis in Afghanistan also provided an example of partnerships between WHO, UNODC, and others for treatment of SUDs to improve the health and well-being of vulnerable populations. Dr. al’Absi concluded that guidelines informed by epidemiological, intervention, and implementation knowledge are needed to address the challenge of SUD in humanitarian settings. He also issued a call to action for improving substance use services capacity and integration in humanitarian emergencies in order to help prioritize the well-being of affected populations in emergency response efforts. These efforts also must address the issue of stigma in order to be effective.

Current Global Topics: Synthetic Drugs in Latin America and the Caribbean and Treating Children for Substance Use Problems

In this session moderated by Dr. Andrew Thompson from the Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL), Dr. Marya Hynes from the Inter-American Observatory on Drugs reported on emerging synthetics and new psychoactive substances (NPS) in Latin America and the Caribbean. She noted that synthetic drugs have proliferated in those drug markets, particularly since 2013, and that NPS also have become more common. Of concern are amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS), such as amphetamines and prescription stimulants, methamphetamine, synthetic hallucinogens, and synthetic opioids. Information on NPS is coming from drug seizures and early warning data that are reported to the Early Warning System for the Americas. These notifications have highlighted several trends, such as appearance of “pink cocaine” (a mixture of various synthetic compounds); increasing prevalence of benzodiazepines in females in every population studied; greater presence of stimulants, particularly among females; synthetic cannabinoids; and a variety of synthetics sold as other drugs. As Dr. Hynes emphasized, even at low prevalences, these trends are concerning because they indicate that people are using more and more mixed and adulterated substances that have unknown composition, unknown effects, often high potency, and often rapid onset and long duration of effects. The most severe implications are for countries with fragile health care systems. These developments affect particularly teenagers and young adults, including health risks and mental health issues that drive drug use and are themselves driven by drug use. These developments need to inform efforts for detection, treatment, and prevention.

Dr. Antonio Pascale from the University of Montevideo further described the health impacts of NPS and increasing availability of adulterated drugs among younger users. For example, adulterants may potentiate the toxicity of the original drugs or induce unintended toxic effects. ATS are associated with harmful effects, such as hyperthermia, which can be exacerbated by the settings where these drugs are often consumed (e.g., clubs with high temperatures, poor ventilation, and intense physical activity); serotonergic syndrome; and hyponatremia. Synthetic cannabinoids, which are increasingly used by young people as well as other vulnerable populations, can be associated with acute toxicity as well as greater morbidity and mortality in the context of polydrug use. Synthetic opioids (e.g., fentanyl and its analogues, nitazenes) are an increasing problem in Latin America with the associated acute toxicity and risk of fatal overdoses. An emerging concern is illicit use of benzodiazepines (often as adulterants of other drugs), which is associated with acute intoxication and altered consciousness that increases vulnerability to sexual crimes and other harms. Dr. Pascale concluded that to address this public health problem effectively, it is essential to strengthen networks involving government agencies, clinical and forensic laboratories, universities, toxicology centers, and nongovernment agencies with access to PWUD.

Dr. Hendrée Jones from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill provided an overview of the Child Intervention for Living Drug-free (CHILD) program to treat children under age 12 for substance use problems. Dr. Jones explained that children are increasingly victims of drug trafficking and drug use within their families and communities, leading to children as young as 5-12 years having an SUD. The CHILD intervention was developed to respond to this growing threat. It is a global, evidence-based program with an integrated health approach, full spectrum of services, and family involvement. It includes professional development and a tailored program for each country that uses techniques (e.g., motivational interviewing, mindfulness, dialectic behavior therapy, art therapy) that can be translated into language and activities appealing to children. The program has been disseminated to numerous countries through “training of trainers,” webinars, and “Echo” training. Dr. Jones also shared information on a randomized clinical trial of the CHILD intervention in children ages 7-12 in India. Preliminary results indicate that it reduces substance use in these children at 12 months after treatment better than usual care.

Advancing Quality in Addiction Studies Programs

In this session chaired by Dr. Carly Searcy from ICUDDR, Mr. Jordan Turner, also from ICUDDR, provided an overview of the current state of quality assurance in specialty addiction studies programs. He shared results from a survey of 322 ICUDDR members that assessed program quality along six dimensions of care in members’ curricula. Among the 88 respondents, 63% addressed quality improvement through their curriculum plans. However, qualitative data indicated a minimal focus on quality of care among institutions; barriers within member institutions that prevented quality of care to be addressed, and a need for ICUDDR’s assistance in curriculum building. Mr. Turner concluded that the study positioned ICUDDR to work with members to create frameworks for addressing quality and quality improvement.

Dr. Amelie Lososová from the Charles University in Prague presented previous research on establishing quality assurance at the university level. Several organizations, such as the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, American Society of Addiction Medicine, and American Psychiatric Association in the United States, as well as the WHO have addressed quality standards in education programs. Similarly, two projects (WAVE project and FENIQS-EU project) have been conducted in Europe, and for the WAVE project, several project papers will be published soon. Dr. Lososová noted the importance of making education a research focus and highlighted several future research questions and challenges—for example, whether international standards are really needed, what areas of addiction research should be included; which educational programs should apply the standards; and how regional, cultural, and communication differences can be accommodated.

Dr. Dennis McCarty from the Oregon Health & Science University discussed what kind of research is needed. Examples included integration of research into educational standard development, integration of outcome measures into training processes and systems of care, assessments of the impact of standards on care delivery and outcomes, and cross-national comparisons of training and training standards. Dr. McCarty pointed out that each country is unique, and it is therefore important to determine which facets of addiction studies programs are replicable and generalizable. The relatively new areas of dissemination and implementation research are also crucial to determine how research findings can be translated into standards of practice on an international scale.

In the final presentation, Dr. Victor Capoccia from the Technical Assistance Collaborative discussed the development a certification framework for addiction studies programs as a documentation of program quality. He also highlighted questions that would need to be addressed in this process. For example, what should be included in a certification according to international standards (e.g., minimum content for the curriculum, minimum hours of exposure to content, number and qualifications of faculty). Equally important is an understanding of factors that drive differences in standards across the globe. Levels of education and credentialing desired (e.g., nondegree certification, associate, baccalaureate, master’s), cultural and historical contexts of drug use, governmental/legal context, health system infrastructure, and medical traditions all need to be considered. In fact, one set of standards may not be appropriate for all international scenarios. Thus, development of any certification or accreditation process must first determine what components are nonnegotiable and must be uniform and what country or regional characteristics might be accommodated in variations from the standards.

Twenty Years of Addiction Neuroscience Research in Bulgaria: Lessons Learned and Future Directions

This session presented the results of three sets of studies conducted by a large multinational team of researchers in Bulgaria over the past 20 years. As the first presenter, Dr. Jasmin Vassileva from Virginia Commonwealth University, explained, Bulgaria is well suited for their studies of people who use opiates and stimulants because it is located on one of the main heroin trafficking routes into Europe and is a major center for amphetamine production. Dr. Vassileva is investigating which dimensions of impulsivity are associated with addiction in general or specific drug classes. Her team used computational approaches to address this question, including data-driven, machine learning processes for classification and prediction, as well as theory-driven cognitive modeling to increase precision of neurocognitive phenotyping. Dr. Vassileva presented results of several of their studies that have been published in recent years. The findings indicated that some dimensions of impulsivity are common across addictions, whereas others are unique to specific drug classes. The studies also demonstrated that computational approaches have significant potential as phenotyping tools, for identifying markers for addictions, for increasing precision of neurocognitive assessments, and for prognosis and diagnosis. They may also help refine neurocognitive phenotypes and identify different biotypes of addictions with different underlying mechanisms, which may have implications for prevention and intervention.

Dr. Elena Psederska from the New Bulgarian University presented on studies assessing the interplay of personality and neurocognitive function in stimulant and opioid use disorders. Specifically, the team studied the effects of psychopathy on neurocognitive domains of impulsivity in people who previously had used heroin and amphetamine. They assessed the effects of the interpersonal/affective domain and the impulsive/antisocial domain of psychopathy on impulsive choice and impulsive action in both groups. The analyses identified an interaction between the two dimensions of psychopathy and dependence on specific classes of drugs. Some profiles were common across SUDs, whereas others were unique for specific drugs. Another investigation assessed neurocognitive impulsivity in people who used heroin at different times of abstinence. These analyses demonstrated that while some deficits in impulsive choice and impulsive action may only occur in early abstinence, others may persist even with sustained periods of abstinence. Overall, Dr. Psederska concluded that personality influences both common and unique profiles of impairments in neurocognitive impulsivity in people who use opioids or stimulants, and that these impairments may persist even with sustained abstinence. Thus, extended treatment and rehabilitation approaches that are tailored to individual personality profiles are needed.

The final presentation by Dr. James Bjork from Virginia Commonwealth University addressed similarities and differences in brain recruitment by reward, inhibition, and memory in people with different SUDs. The study included individuals with opioid, stimulant, or polysubstance use disorder as well as controls and compared individual differences in brain activation as measured by MRI while participants were conducting three different tasks. The study is still ongoing, but there is preliminary evidence that brain areas activated by specific tasks can be correlated with characteristics determined in addictions neuroclinical assessments, such as emotion-related impulsivity, cognitive difficulties in daily life, or inattention.

Publishing Workshop: How to Get Your Addiction Research Published in Peer-Reviewed Journals

In this workshop, Adam Gordon and Casy Calver from the International Society of Addiction Journal Editors (ISAJE) highlighted three essential aspects to publishing addiction research: choosing a journal, submission and peer review, and authorship. They noted that there are over 100 peer-reviewed addiction journals, and journals from other disciplines also publish addiction articles. They listed 15 factors to consider when choosing a journal as well as questions to ask of a journal (e.g., whether it reaches the specific audience authors want to target, the journal’s mission and content area). Practical aspects, such as editorial support provided or cost of publication/open access, are also important, as are various metrics associated with the journal. These include journal metrics (e.g., impact factor), public impact metrics (e.g., Altmetric attention score), editorial efficiency metrics (e.g., time to first decision, acceptance rate), and author metrics.

For submitting manuscripts, authors first need to check author guidelines, select an appropriate article type, and obtain approval from all authors to submit. Once a manuscript is submitted, a multistep peer-review process follows that may include one or more author revision steps. Peer review is essential to advise the editorial decision-making process, justify rejections, improve the quality of acceptable manuscripts, and identify instances of ethical or scientific misconduct. While the reviewers make recommendations, the editors make the final decision and may even disagree with reviewer recommendations. If the decision is to revise and resubmit the paper, authors should decide if they want to resubmit the paper and, if so, respond to each criticism by either modifying the manuscript or debating/refuting the criticism.

The issue of authorship is increasingly important. The authors on a manuscript certify a public responsibility for the truth of the publication. Authorship also is an indicator of productivity, promotion, and prestige, and credit should be assigned equitably. Especially in addiction research, inclusion of people with lived experience (e.g., patient coauthors in case studies) is important but authors also need to be aware of and sensitive to ethical considerations. Several measures can be taken to avoid authorship problems (e.g., early agreement on the precise roles of all contributors; periodic review of authorship credit status, and adherence to authorship guidelines). Overall, authors must avoid the “seven deadly sins” of carelessness, redundant publication, unfair authorship, undeclared conflict of interest, human subjects’ violations, plagiarism, and other fraud. To avoid plagiarism, all sources must be appropriately acknowledged and permission for use of large amounts of others’ written or illustrative materials obtained. This also applies to self-plagiarism, as authors are not allowed to reuse previously published materials when rights have been assigned to the publisher. The ISAJE provides author resources on their website ( https://www.isaje.net/ ); additional information is available in the JAMA Users’ Guide to Medical Literature and from the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) ( https://publicationethics.org ).

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127 Child Abuse Research Topics & Free Essay Examples
Here are some child abuse essay topics that we can suggest: The problem of child abuse in the US (Canada, the UK) Child abuse: Types and definitions. Child neglect crimes and their causes. Current solutions to the problem of sexual abuse of children. The importance of child maltreatment prevention programs.
114 Child Abuse Research Topics & Essay Examples
Psychology essay sample: The purpose of this paper is to explain the impact of abuse on children, examine how different types of abuse impact a child's cognitive and socio-emotional development. Child Abuse: The Case Study. Psychology essay sample: The abused child is vulnerable because he needs parental care more than any sort of support does.
108 Child Abuse Essay Topics & Research Titles at StudyCorgi
A practical approach to dealing with child abuse is to tackle the social, economic, and human factors that contribute to its prevalence. There are different types of child abuse. Only half of all cases are associated with physical violence. Neglect, beatings, and rape are the most common types.
How to choose a research topic in the field of child maltreatment
Child Welfare Information Gateway. Provides access to a wide range of child welfare topics, such as child abuse prevention, family preservation, foster care and adoption. Children's Bureau. "Partners with federal, state, tribal and local agencies to improve the overall health and well-being of our nation's children and families.".
Improving measurement of child abuse and neglect: A systematic review
A notable difference was in the treatment of spanking on a child's bottom: seven studies excluded "spanking on your bottom" from the definition of physical abuse [47-50,53,62,66]; four studies included spanking with a bare hand as physical abuse [46,54-56]; and four studies included as physical abuse being hit or spanked on the bottom ...
Child abuse: A classic case report with literature review
Abstract. Child abuse and neglect are serious global problems and can be in the form of physical, sexual, emotional or just neglect in providing for the child's needs. These factors can leave the child with serious, long-lasting psychological damage. In the present case report, a 12-year-old orphaned boy was physically abused by a close ...
Top 80 Child Abuse Topics For Your Essay
Child abuse topics for a research paper might be covered from different angles. The first thing you need to know to succeed in crafting an essay of this kind is the discipline related to the chosen topic. For example, you can describe the facts and arguments from psychological, medical, sociological, and biological viewpoints, as well as from ...
≡Child Abuse Essays & Topics
2 pages / 778 words. Child abuse is a topic that often evokes strong emotions and deep concern. It is a disturbing reality that affects millions of children worldwide, cutting across geographical, cultural, and socioeconomic boundaries. This essay aims to shed light on the issue of child abuse, exploring its...
1 INTRODUCTION
In 1990, over 2 million cases of child abuse and neglect were reported to social service agencies. In the period 1979 through 1988, about 2,000 child deaths (ages 0-17) were recorded annually as a result of abuse and neglect (McClain et al., 1993), and an additional 160,000 cases resulted in serious injuries in 1990 alone (Daro and McCurdy, 1991).
Child Abuse & Neglect
Official Publication of the International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. Child Abuse & Neglect is an international and interdisciplinary journal publishing articles on child welfare, health, humanitarian aid, justice, mental health, public health and social service systems. The journal recognizes that child protection is a global concern that continues to evolve.
Future Directions in Child Maltreatment Research
ABSTRACT. Child maltreatment (or child abuse and neglect) is a common area of interest in clinical child psychology. Research has examined the causes and consequences as well as the myriad risk factors and interventions that are effective in supporting child maltreatment victims and families. Child maltreatment is unique, however, from the ...
Child Abuse
Child Abuse is Widespread. Words: 1116 Pages: 4 5412. Child abuse is widespread and can occur in any cultural, ethnic, or income group. Child abuse can be physical, emotional, verbal, or sexual. While child abuse is often in the form of an action, there are also examples of inaction that cause harm, such as neglect.
New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research
Summary. I n the two decades since the National Research Council (NRC) issued its 1993 report Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect, a new science of child abuse and neglect has been launched, yielding findings that delineate a serious public health problem. Fully 6 million children are involved in reports to child protective services, and many ...
New Directions in Child Abuse and Neglect Research
A widely used method of defining child abuse and neglect in research is the classification scheme developed by Barnett and colleagues (1993).Many studies focused specifically on child abuse and neglect use these definitions rather than the officially reported labels (e.g., English et al., 2005).The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also has recommended a set of uniform ...
Research Paper The impact of childhood trauma on children's wellbeing
Childhood trauma has been linked to the development of anxiety and depression in later life (Hovens et al., 2010) and a history of abuse may be more identifiable by adulthood as emotional and behavioral patterns have evolved by this period. As of this, various disorders are likely to arise among childhood abuse victims (Lindert et al., 2014).
Child Abuse Essays: Examples, Topics, & Outlines
Child abuse encompasses all forms of physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, neglect or child exploitation that causes potential or actual harm to a child's well-being, dignity and development (Smith & Fong, 2004). According to Scannapieco & Connell-Carrick (2005), child maltreatment is a stern problem capable of causing harmful effects ...
The Challenges of Working with Child Abuse and Neglect: Barriers to
The five original articles in this issue of Child Abuse Review present an eclectic mix of original research, examining issues around the disclosure of sexual abuse, the willingness of adults to intervene in situations of possible abuse or neglect, and different aspects of adverse outcomes for abused and neglected children, both fatal and long-term. . In addition, we publish a letter to the ...
Child Abuse: Effects and Preventive Measures
Child abuse is any action by another. person - adult or child - that causes significant harm to a child. Child abuse can result from. physical, emoti onal, or sex ual harm. W hile child abuse ...
(PDF) Child Abuse and Neglect
Child Abuse and Neglect. Charles H. Zeanah, MD, and Kathryn L. Humphreys, PhD, EdM. Physical, sexual, and emotional abuse and various forms of neglect of children are associated with substantially ...
Child Abuse and Neglect
Child Abuse and Neglect. Children who experience physical or mental abuse or neglect face numerous challenges as they develop, and these difficulties often worsen if and when they reach adulthood. RAND research on child abuse and neglect includes studies on the physical and mental effects on children, preventing and reporting child abuse ...
Child Abuse: Forms, Causes, Consequences, Prevention
Physically, child abuse can result in injuries such as bruises, fractures, and internal organ damage. Long-term health consequences may include chronic pain, developmental delays, and even increased risk of chronic diseases. Emotionally, child abuse can lead to psychological trauma, anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem.
CAPSTONE Centers for Multidisciplinary Research in Child Abuse and
Overview Topic Areas Current Sites More Information Overview NIH has funded research on the prevalence, causes, course, and immediate and long-term consequences of physical, sexual, and emotional child abuse and neglect—now called child maltreatment—for the past few decades.
Understanding and Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect
Neglect is a failure to meet the child's basic needs, e.g., not providing enough food, shelter or basic supervision, necessary medical or mental health treatment, adequate education or emotional comfort. Physical abuse refers to the injury of a child on purpose, e.g., striking, kicking, beating, biting or any action that leads to physical injury.
2024 NIDA International Forum Executive Summary
June 14-15, 2024 Montreal, Canada. After three years of virtual meetings, the 2024 NIDA International Forum returned to an in-person format. The meeting, which was held on June 14 and 15 in Montreal in conjunction with the College on Problems of Drug Dependence (CPDD) Annual Scientific Meeting, was cochaired by NIDA International Program's leadership, Dr. Tom Clarke and Dr. Lindsey Friend.

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108 Child Abuse Essay Topics

How to choose a research topic in the field of child maltreatment

Start broad and then narrow down your topic

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