case study in emotional intelligence

Learn about our range of Emotional Capital Reports - the world's most advanced assessments for measuring Emotional Intelligence.

Measure EQ skills against the world's top performing leaders with the ECR Self.

Run comprehensive 360° Emotional Intelligence assessments with the ECR 360.

Build a winning mindset with the Emotional Intelligence Sport Inventory (ESi).

Enhance the Emotional Intelligence of young people with the ECR Youth.

Learn about our world-class Emotional Intelligence training programmes and courses.

Assess and develop the Emotional Intelligence of your leaders with the ECR.

Immerse your team with Emotional Intelligence training workshops.

Build your Emotional Intelligence measurably with SmartCoach online training.

Discover our world-class educational books.

Learn about the different ways you can become a certified Emotional Intelligence practitioner with RocheMartin's training courses.

Discover our 4 session webinar-based Emotional Intelligence certification training.

Equip yourself with the skills you need to deliver structured Emotional Intelligence workshops with the ECR.

Learn about our 8 session fully comprehensive webinar-based Emotional Intelligence certification.

Discover the many different ways Emotional Intelligence can be used to improve performance and well-being.

Build an emotionally intelligent organisation with RocheMartin's EQ training solutions.

Help clients achieve long-term success with Emotional Intelligence coaching.

Cultivate Emotional Intelligence throughout the educational journey.

Harness the pressure of elite sports with Emotional Intelligence.

Learn how to boost your own Emotional Intelligence skills and perform at your peak.

Meet our team and discover how we became global pioneers in the field of Emotional Intelligence.

Learn about our proprietary Emotional Capital framework, how it relates to EQ and why it's a critical skillset for leaders.

Discover our partner training organisations and Certified Practitioners who use RocheMartin products in their businesses.

Explore our ultimate guide to leadership’s most powerful toolkit - Emotional Intelligence.

Browse our library of blogs, videos and case studies covering Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Development.

Read our latest insights and thoughts from the world of Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Development.

Learn how our EQ solutions are being used successfully by organisations and coaches around the world.

Watch our latest videos and blogs featuring some of the world's most influential EQ experts.

Dr Martyn Newman discusses the importance of Emotional Intelligence in personal and professional life in our podcasts.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE CASE STUDIES .

Explore how our Emotional Intelligence solutions have developed the EQ of leaders, managers, and employees in many of the world's leading organisations.

Company: Sky Industry: Media RocheMartin solution used: Tailored EQ Leadership Development

Sky was struggling to attract and retain talent and, in the face of an increasingly competitive landscape, it needed its employees to develop an innovative and growth mindset.

The goal was to help leaders to become better at influencing others and making decisions. Sky also wanted to build a culture where people felt the dedication and drive for exceptional performance in a way that was sustainable and created real value for all stakeholders.

Increase in empathy

Improvement in relationship skills

Overall increase in emotional capital

We’re making better business decisions. We’re drawing more from the breadth and depth of the organisation; we’re managing tensions much better today than in the past. But, secondly, it’s had a big effect on the internal dynamic of the business. It’s a better place to work. And, when you put those things together it starts to sustain and repeat.

Jeremy Darroch, Group CEO, Sky

Company: Optus Industry: Telecommunications RocheMartin solution used: Tailored EQ Leadership Development

Optus, a leading telecommunications organisation, required greater levels of leadership across the organisation to establish cultural change and innovation.

As part of its succession and leadership development efforts, Optus wanted to identify people that were likely to move into key leadership roles and those that needed to advance their leadership skills.

Increase in leadership

Increase in engagement

Increase in customer focus

We started making fundamental changes in the way that the organisation behaves and what the organisation values in a culture...And looking six months later, the organisation worked better together and people were finding it easier to work together because they saw that we trusted each other. It pervaded the organisation. We moved the organisation forward this way and it was hugely successful.

Karim Nejaim, Engineering Director, Optus

Company: Boeing Industry: Aerospace RocheMartin solution used: Tailored EQ Leadership programme

Boeing was experiencing significant levels of executive burnout and high turnover rates. The cost of this turnover to the business was substantial, impacting the organisation's capabilities and its culture.

Exit interviews indicated that the number one reason for staff departures was poor relationships with managers and supervisors. With competition intensifying for highly skilled people, the organisation could not afford to continue with the status quo.

• Increased levels of openness, adaptability and empathy.
• Increased flexibility which encouraged greater creativity and empowerment.
• Reduced stress.

Improving leaders’ emotional intelligence can make a big difference to the atmosphere at work but change will not happen overnight. Engineers and technical folk respond well to objective data, not general statements. [The programme] took what is an academic concept and broke it down into manageable chunks of information . . . It took a technical approach in that the skills were broken down into components and explained in a way that made sense to them.

Sandra James, Senior Manager, Boeing Defence Australia

Company: Oracle Industry: Software RocheMartin solution used: Tailored Sales EQ Development

Oracle, an international software company, recognised the need to improve the soft skills  and relationship-building capabilities of its salesforce.

They believed that people buy from people they like, know and trust, and so they wanted their sales teams to better understand customer behaviours and emotional drivers. To support this, Oracle also wanted their salesforce to better understand their own emotional skills and to build stronger business relationships.

Increase in positivity

Increase in confidence

The RocheMartin Emotional Intelligence platform has completely transformed our business development culture. Our sales team are more confident in their approach and this has led to exceptional commercial results.

Daniel Van den Broeck, Senior Vice President, Applications Northern Europe

Company: People Resources Industry: Consultancy RocheMartin solution used: The ECR

People Resources founder Deirdre Murray was first introduced to Emotional Intelligence more than 20 years ago. As her career developed and she specialised in organisational behaviour, she recognised the impact EQ could have on corporate leaders.

Initially certified with another EQ framework, she found that it was not specific to leadership and the daily challenges senior leaders face. She was searching for a user-friendly, well organised, and easy-to-follow   EQ framework   that offered instant credibility with both senior leaders and the HR teams of multinational organisations. RocheMartin’s   Emotional Capital framework , and its suite of ECR tools, fit the bill perfectly.

• Our framework provided the credibility and impact needed to secure the future of People Resources.
• Using the ECR has helped them to expand at a rapid rate. 
• They have secured long-term client engagements.

Emotional Intelligence training is key imperative for business leaders. EQ encourages leaders to develop self-awareness of their own emotional intelligence and develop their teams in a much more responsive way. Leadership development programmes that don’t have EQ as a key component are missing out on something essential.” Working with RocheMartin over the last 20 years and its solutions has been excellent. Dr Martyn Newman is inspirational. He’s developed all the products and made them very user-friendly .

Deirdre Murray, Founder, People Resources

Company: Diadem Performance Industry: Coaching RocheMartin solution used: The ECR

Diadem Performance specialises in training and coaching middle and senior management from small to large organisations to develop their commercial soft skills. They have identified several core competencies that are crucial to success when you are developing skills in negotiation ,  sales ,  management  and  leadership .

However, Diadem needed a way to codify those skills and provide a measurable framework against which its clients could track their progress.

• Certification unlocked new sales opportunities and strengthened their market positioning.
• They are able to offer effective coaching and guidance to professionals at all stages of their careers.
• They joined a coaching network to share best practices and peer-to-peer advice. 

One of the best features of the ECR lies in its accessibility. So many reports tend to overcomplicate things, whereas the ECR makes it easy for the user to gain real insight and understanding. Rather than focusing on the theory, the ECR gives them the information they need to move forward in their learning, either independently or with the support of a coach.

Nicole Soames, Founder, Diadem Performance

Company: People Dimensions International  Consultants Industry: Consultancy RocheMartin solution used: The ECR

PDI needed a new tool to facilitate leadership growth and transform performance across its leadership journey modules. But its diverse client base meant that finding an appropriate tool was not straightforward. PDI had strict criteria to satisfy. First, its chosen tool had to enjoy scientific validity and global recognition. This was essential in building credibility with its clients. The chosen tool also had to be able to cascade culturally across an entire organisation and still maintain relevance in different regions in the world. PDI turned to the ECR – and hasn’t looked back.

• Thye secured the backing of C-suite figures and company-wide engagements.
• PDI coachees developed a confident, optimistic, and positive attitude towards learning.
• The ECR helped them to grow their business over time.

“The experience of working with RocheMartin has been seamless. The team there is highly collaborative, very engaged, and it’s very easy to work with them. On top of that, the ECR speaks for itself. It’s user-friendly, the validations are strong, it gives really good quality information and data, and the different content you get from the ECR 360 gives you great material to develop rich coaching conversations. It’s definitely our tool of choice.”

Tony O’Connor, Founder, People Dimensions International

Get in touch today

Talk to our team today and learn how we can help individuals across all levels of business improve performance with our Emotional Intelligence solutions.

• Classroom Programme
• Interview Guidance
• Online Programme
• Drishti Store
• My Bookmarks
• My Progress
• Change Password
• From The Editor's Desk
• How To Use The New Website
• Help Centre

Achievers Corner

• Topper's Interview
• About Civil Services
• UPSC Prelims Syllabus
• GS Prelims Strategy
• Prelims Analysis
• GS Paper-I (Year Wise)
• GS Paper-I (Subject Wise)
• CSAT Strategy
• Previous Years Papers
• Practice Quiz
• Weekly Revision MCQs
• 60 Steps To Prelims
• Prelims Refresher Programme 2020

Mains & Interview

• Mains GS Syllabus
• Mains GS Strategy
• Mains Answer Writing Practice
• Essay Strategy
• Fodder For Essay
• Model Essays
• Drishti Essay Competition
• Ethics Strategy
• Ethics Case Studies
• Ethics Discussion
• Ethics Previous Years Q&As
• Papers By Years
• Papers By Subject
• Be MAINS Ready
• Awake Mains Examination 2020
• Interview Strategy
• Interview Guidance Programme

Current Affairs

• Daily News & Editorial
• Daily CA MCQs
• Sansad TV Discussions
• Monthly CA Consolidation
• Monthly Editorial Consolidation
• Monthly MCQ Consolidation

Drishti Specials

• To The Point
• Important Institutions
• Learning Through Maps
• PRS Capsule
• Summary Of Reports
• Gist Of Economic Survey

Study Material

• NCERT Books
• NIOS Study Material
• IGNOU Study Material
• Yojana & Kurukshetra
• Chhatisgarh
• Uttar Pradesh
• Madhya Pradesh

Test Series

• UPSC Prelims Test Series
• UPSC Mains Test Series
• UPPCS Prelims Test Series
• UPPCS Mains Test Series
• BPSC Prelims Test Series
• RAS/RTS Prelims Test Series
• Daily Editorial Analysis
• YouTube PDF Downloads
• Strategy By Toppers
• Ethics - Definition & Concepts
• Mastering Mains Answer Writing
• Places in News
• UPSC Mock Interview
• PCS Mock Interview
• Interview Insights
• Prelims 2019
• Product Promos

Case Studies

Make Your Note

Case Study - 27: Emotional Intelligence in Corporate Offices

• 15 Oct 2022

Ranbir is the Chief executive officer of a company. The Company has been growing and has recruited quite a few specialists recently. The functional heads in the company have to meet their staff in an open meeting every two months. Ranbir detested these meetings. It was open to everyone in the office. The staff came up with a long list of trivial and tiresome complaints and grievances. They repeated the same things and spoke at length. Even when the staff knew of the constraints, they went on with their complaints. They wanted more space for lounge, for bathrooms and crèche. Ranbir pointed to lack of space, and yet the staff continued to complain. Ranbir cultivated a habit of sitting through the meeting with a cheerful face, but with his mind switched off from the proceedings. The meeting became a tiresome ritual he had to get through.

Due these issues many employees had left the company and its further hampering the Business of the company.

Q. In Ranbir’s situation what action would you have taken and why?

The question focuses on understanding the needs of a team and the leader’s role in resolution of mundane problems of the team members. The source of the problem in this case is perhaps rooted in the fact that success of the company has brought forth induction of new team members and the present accommodation has thereby become inadequate and the situation had become worse due to Ranbir's attitude towards the grievances of the employees, lackadaisical approach towards the meeting with the employees.

Stakeholders involved in the case are:

• Company’s Ceo
• Employees of the Company
• New & old employees
• Shareholders of the Company

The situational challenges that are faced by the CEO are:

• Crisis Management: Handling crisis efficiently with limited resources and without or minimum adverse effects on the employees.
• Timely decision making to prevail the healthy work culture in the office and trust among the public for efficient decision making.
• Conflict management: Conflict management is another skill that managers need. The conflicts here mean the quarrels and disputes which frequently arise in organizations.

Ethical Components that could be utilised:

• Emotional Intelligence: Emotional intelligence refers to ‘the ability to identify one’s own emotions and those of others, harness and apply them to tasks, and to regulate and manage them.
• Emotional Quotient (EQ): It is a measure of one’s EI i.e., through a standardized test, one’s awareness of emotions in relation to self and others is known.
• Empathy: It is an awareness of the needs and feelings of others both individually and in groups, and being able to see things from the point of view of others.
• Social Skills: It is applying empathy and balancing the wants and requirements of others with one’s. It includes building good rapport with others.

CEO’s course of action to resolve the issue,

• Cleaning Toilet : Taking very small steps to impress the employees like cleaning toilet on regular basis, but the problem is of space and not cleanliness, this step could impress the employees for few days but it would not be the final solution.
• By Carefully listening to the employee’s and then solving their problem are marks of sincere concern for any individual or group as a whole. Leaders in office need to show this quality. So, he has to be attentive however much he dislikes the grievances or narration thereof in the meetings.
• He need not switch off in the meeting, rather he should listen to the grievances of the employees more empathically. These meetings serve a purpose. If he ignores all that the staff members have to say, the present employees could also resign. He has also to be responsive to what staff members say.
• Ignoring their Demands: He can ignore their demand and work as nothing has happened, but this step could hamper the productivity and future prospect of the company.
• Work from Home alternative: This step could be the possible alternative, as by providing hybrid model of work, it will ease the problem of space as employees can easily work from home and some employees can still come to office, so it eases the pressure on the office infrastructure.
• Allocation of office space on rent: By allocating a separate rental office space nearby only for temporary period till the proper office space is not required could solve the problems of faced by employees and satisfy all the parties to the dispute.

The conflict can only be resolved through the collective effort by all the stakeholders involved in the situation, where the company need to take initiatives to improve emotional intelligence, empathy and emotional quotient among its CEO, employees and other staff, so, there could be an open discussion and employees can freely express their concerns and CEO and management of the company should listen to the problems more attentively and should take proper measures to address the issues in due time.

50 Practical Examples of High Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) or Emotional Quotient (EQ) is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to manage and monitor one’s own as well as other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions (Salvoy & Mayer, 1990).

Daniel Goleman’s work in emotional intelligence has outlined five main areas of this intelligence.

They are self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills.

These areas can be consciously cultivated to create spaces where more people can be productive, as their emotions will not rule over their reactions and interaction with the world around them. The higher the emotional intelligence, the more cooperation can be fostered. Emotional Intelligence is the new “smart.”

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will not only enhance your ability to understand and work with your emotions but will also give you the tools to foster the emotional intelligence of your clients, students or employees.

This Article Contains

Examples of emotional intelligence in the workplace, examples of high emotional intelligence in leadership, real-life examples of using ei in education, 5 emotional intelligence examples from movies, general examples of low eq, an interesting case study, a take-home message.

As personalities differ from person to person, the creation of emotional intelligence in the workplace takes effort. Anyone who has ever worked in a toxic work environment can attest to the importance of increasing empathy in this space. People with high emotional intelligence can lead the charge to multiply examples of EI in the workplace.

Here are some examples of what emotional intelligence in the workplace looks like:

• People express themselves openly and respectfully without fear of offending coworkers.
• Resilience is evident when new initiatives are introduced.
• Flexibility is present.
• Employees spend time together outside of work.
• Freedom of creativity is celebrated and consistent.
• Active listening in meetings is the norm.
• Employees will find a compassionate ear when needed, as we all have bad days.

An archaic perception of leadership would be that a leader must squash their emotions. In today’s workplace, an effective leader can monitor and utilize emotions in such a way to regulate and motivate not only themselves but those around them (Madrid, Niven, & Vasquez, 2019). Healthy workplace environments don’t happen by accident; they are intentional because leaders are intentional.

America’s old and ingrained belief that a good CEO or Executive level leader is ruthless has been replaced with the rise of humanity conscious leaders. New leaders in various industries have embraced a human-centered approach to leading their companies (Kennedy, Campis, & Leclerc, 2020; Pirson & Von Kimakowitz, 2010).

When employees are more deeply connected to a vision for their company, and they are cared for in a broad sense rather than just their production value, better working environments are created.

A leader could be the most intelligent person in the room, but without a high EI score, this leader may fail to motivate employees. The presence of positive mood in leaders at work creates more effective and broader thought processes in certain types of decision-making abilities (George, 2000). Conversely, negative moods foster improved systematic information processing.

A leader with high-level emotional intelligence can navigate not just motivating and empowering employees, but also navigating complex and challenging decision making with the mastery of emotional response (Rausch, Hess, & Bacigalupo, 2011).

In other words, a leader must have the ability to process emotion to make sound decisions. It doesn’t mean that the leader will always be in a positive mood. It means that when a complicated issue erupts, that leader may have an adverse reaction that can aid them in making a good decision despite that negative reaction.

An example of where a leader may have a negative reaction would be to the presence of sexual harassment in their workplace. Having an angry response to the knowledge of its existence gives the leader the ability to focus and affect change.

With such a complex and high-risk decision-making need, a leader must effectively process that anger to make the best decision possible for the office as a whole.

Leaders are generally responsible for the following:

• development of a collective sense of goals, and a strategic plan for achieving them
• instilling in others knowledge and appreciation of the importance of work activities and behaviors
• generating and maintaining enthusiasm, confidence, and optimism as well as fostering cooperation and trust
• encouraging flexibility in decision making and embracing change
• establishing and maintaining a more profound, meaningful identity for the organization

Different emotions and moods serve different types of leadership situations. Developing a vision for an organization is a creative process. Positive affect enables the initiation of higher abilities for the utilization of creativity. Being able to communicate that vision to employees effectively is another use for emotional intelligence in leadership.

Here are four practical steps to creating vision in leadership:

• Be crystal clear about the desired destination, and identify values.
• Make the dream large. A good example is Disney; their vision is To Make People Happy.
• Communicate a strong purpose on multiple levels. Not all employees will feel the same about purpose. Offering various perspectives increases chances of organizational cultural connection.
• Set a strategic path for goal achievement.

When instilling the appreciation for work behaviors in employees, several levels are at play. A leader must be effective at communicating the problems being faced, in addition to relaying the confidence placed in those employees to solve problems within the bigger vision of the organization.

There are subtle emotional differences needed when interacting and communicating these with employees. A negative affect may allow for deeper reasoning when complex problems arise.

Here are four practical steps to help employees see the appreciation for their work behaviors:

• Create a focus on employee development. Employees will feel more purpose after skill mastery.
• Reinforce and reward learning behavior.
• Leaders show their own areas of development to lead the way.
• Encourage autonomy. Trust can develop when employees are allowed to make their own decisions in their work activities.

Generating enthusiasm in a workplace can be a difficult task as not all people are motivated and enthusiastic in the same way or on the same level. A leader with high emotional intelligence can read their employees’ accurate reactions well.

There’s no faking it where this generation is concerned. If people aren’t genuinely engaged in working for the vision, ambivalence and apathy can erupt.

Here are four practical steps to effectively build enthusiasm in an organization:

• Leaders share their optimism and belief in the “why” or vision with absolute passion.
• Create an environment where people want to give their very best effort.
• Allow space for employees to talk about their needs and desires concerning the company’s growth.
• Attitude will determine direction.

Leaders who have high levels of emotional intelligence will understand the derivation of emotion and will, therefore, flex when a different perspective is warranted. Having the ability to know that an activity that warrants different emotional states gives a leader the ability to show up with what is needed, when it is needed (Griffith, Connelly, Thiel, & Johnson, 2015).

The organization won’t benefit when a leader shows up to a creative meeting in a negative state. It will also not help when a leader shows up to excite the room, and the employees’ feelings and emotions are not being accurately assessed.

Here are four practical ways to build flexible thinking:

• Cultivate new experiences (daydreaming, etc.).
• Active listening and gathering opposing opinions.
• Be a participant in the cultivation, not just a spectator. Team effort counts.
• Engaging with employees and practicing flexible scenarios.

Culture is key for organizations. Volkswagen’s recent ad campaign for the Women’s World Cup is a great example. Their donation of ad space for meaningful causes shows the powerful connection the company has with purpose and that culture motivates employees to show up to create something emotionally charged.

Without culture, an organization will feel like work. With rich, deep, emotionally accurate culture, motivation is shared, and jobs aren’t so much work, as they are a purpose.

Here are four practical ways to improve culture:

• Utilize the performance/ values matrix with all employees (Edmonds, 2017).
• Demonstrate trust and respect for team members.
• Make values as important as results. For instance, integrity, kindness, and citizenship should be a part of the daily reality of the organization.
• Create an organizational constitution with a “servant” mentality in mind.

Download 3 Free Emotional Intelligence Exercises (PDF)

These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients understand and use emotions advantageously.

Download 3 Free Emotional Intelligence Tools Pack (PDF)

By filling out your name and email address below.

There are many practical examples of how EI can be used in schools. We list a few ideas below.

Self-Awareness and Emotion Management

Creating a “take a break” or “feelings” corner of a classroom can enable young students to step away to identify and explore their emotions. This allows kids to step away before an outburst or a situation where the child can no longer be kind occurs. Students can develop the self-awareness needed to create a safe and productive classroom.

For Middle and High School students creating opportunities for metacognition is very beneficial not only for their education but also their wellbeing. A great example of this is having students create autobiographies. Cultivating opportunities for the connection of adolescent life to educational materials is powerful.

Create an atmosphere where empathy is celebrated. Provide opportunities for real-life practice of empathy, for example: sitting with someone new at lunch, interviewing classmates, or a classroom charity project.

Random Acts of Kindness groups are becoming more and more popular in schools. With an adult supervising and ensuring mindfulness and thoughtfulness, it can be a fantastic way for kids to act on empathy. Both the group and its recipients benefit from the acts of kindness.

Communication Skills

Teaching effective ways for students to communicate in the classroom is a great way to foster emotional intelligence. When kids have appropriate assertive abilities, their values are communicated, and their needs are met.

Cooperation

A fantastic example of fostering a culture of collaboration in education is a character checklist. For the classroom, create a chart of desired cooperative behavior. When a student behaves in one of these desired ways, a check would be placed in the chart.

Setting weekly cooperation goals for the entire classroom by increasing these behaviors class-wide is something to celebrate!

Here are some examples of desired cooperative behavior.

• Listen for understanding
• Sharing with others
• Taking turns
• Compromise during conflict
• Volunteering to do your part
• Being an encourager
• Showing people they’re needed
• Being an includer

Conflict Resolution

Calling on emotional intelligence when in conflict is a difficult task for many students. Improving communication skills aids in improving conflict resolution, but having a construct for what resolutions look like will help kids know what is expected.

A proven example of conflict resolution is allowing kids to write out the conflict, instead of verbalizing their sides. It allows kids to cool down and more accurately communicate their complaint and their needs.

This example also allows kids to be heard, as there will be no instances of interrupting when they are communicating in writing.

Recommended read: Conflict Resolution Training: 18 Best Courses and Master’s Degrees

World’s Largest Positive Psychology Resource

The Positive Psychology Toolkit© is a groundbreaking practitioner resource containing over 500 science-based exercises , activities, interventions, questionnaires, and assessments created by experts using the latest positive psychology research.

Updated monthly. 100% Science-based.

“The best positive psychology resource out there!” — Emiliya Zhivotovskaya , Flourishing Center CEO

There are plentiful examples of emotional intelligence in the movies. Here are some specific examples and the areas of emotional intelligence represented in several genres. It’s so powerful when a movie can evoke emotion, but also make you think about what it’s like to manage that emotion in real life.

1. Inside Out

This Pixar masterpiece is an incredible display of emotional intelligence. The colorful characters all represent the core emotions of a young girl handling a difficult time in her life.

The richness of the emotional content in this film could be a perfect lesson in teaching emotional intelligence .

Emotions matter, and it’s ok not to be ok sometimes. Kids knowing that emotions are there for a reason is an excellent introduction to learning how to self manage.

2. In the Pursuit of Happyness

This movie is based on a true story and displays some brilliant examples of emotional intelligence. The characters show self-management, commitment, empathy, social skills, and relationship building throughout the entire film. The main character’s ability to overcome circumstances that were so dire shows incredible perseverance.

There were also examples of low emotional intelligence in the film. The lack of empathy from his wife when she left them to take care of herself is a prime example. Several outbursts were understandable, yet good examples of when emotions overtake someone in crisis.

This American classic shows empathy, relationship management, social skills, communication, and cooperation throughout its brilliant coverage of interaction with a lovable alien.

Young Elliott navigates the post-divorce realm of a kid trying to find his way through Middle School. The wealthy family interaction and the friendly cooperation that ensues throughout an unexpected and stressful interaction with the Government villains is emotional intelligence leadership in action.

This haunting film portrays resilience, empathy, and self-management. The main character creates a safe environment for her offspring by self-managing her emotional reactions to the horrifying situation in which they both find themselves. The mother was self-aware and able to protect her son while managing to persevere through impossible circumstances.

Throughout this film, self-awareness is a consistent example. The main character exhibits very low levels of self-awareness throughout his journey to reclaim his former glory. Personal growth arises from the bedrock of self-awareness, and without it, cultivating emotional intelligence is impossible.

When someone exhibits low measures of EQ, there are many ways it can be behaviorally visible. Here are a few examples of what it looks like when someone is operating with low levels of EQ.

• A person with low EQ will likely have emotional outbursts, typically out of proportion to the situation at hand.
• People with low EQ also have difficulty listening to others.
• Becoming argumentative is another example of behavior that is elicited from someone with low EQ.
• Another sign of low EQ is blaming others.
• Another example is believing that others are overly sensitive because the person with EQ cannot understand how others feel.
• Difficulty maintaining friendships and other relationships with others is another sign.
• Stonewalling, or refusing to see other’s points of view, is another example.

Are you able to cultivate an awareness of your emotions?

After noticing and understanding your emotions, think about how to deal with or regulate your emotions. A good place to start is to ask yourself the questions in our emotional regulation checklist.

The more you challenge yourself to answer these important questions, the better you’ll be able to attend to emotions effectively.

This idea has been termed “learned resourcefulness”.

People who have learned to be resourceful in this way have a more diverse range of emotional-regulation strategies in their toolkit to manage a difficult situation and select an appropriate strategy.

These strategies are equally relevant when regulating positive emotions, such as happiness, excitement, and optimism. One may engage in techniques to prolong positive emotions to feel better for longer, or even inspire motivation and other adaptive behaviors.

A case study (Dearborn, 2002) done to validate the work of Daniel Goleman in emotional intelligence. The research supports the need to increase Return On Investment (ROI) for individualized training in the concepts of emotional intelligence for improved leadership capabilities.

The need for self-directed learning of emotional intelligence abilities is highlighted. A traditional training setting was found to be less effective than an approach that is individually focused. The development of emotional intelligence is subjective and also depends on the organizational culture.

The research of Rutgers professor Goleman has created a framework for the development of emotional intelligence usage in organizations. Developing leaders and understanding what information they put into action in their organization is vital to initiative success. What was found was that most leaders would attend training, get energized, and then return to their organization without changing much of their approach.

With individualized assessment and prospective development, a better ROI can be achieved. When the people and interconnective effort of an organization starts to matter more than the bottom line, something organic occurs. When a vision is caught by more than just the leaders, and the employees adopt the vision as a mission, the organizational design is more likely to produce the desired outcome.

17 Exercises To Develop Emotional Intelligence

These 17 Emotional Intelligence Exercises [PDF] will help others strengthen their relationships, lower stress, and enhance their wellbeing through improved EQ.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Increasing emotional intelligence in any setting will deepen levels of human understanding and functionality. Improvements in empathy, social skills, self-awareness, motivation, and self-regulation will serve everyone. Being intelligent is great, but knowing how to use that intelligence is something even more impactful.

The fact that these abilities can be cultivated and nurtured is an exciting concept. A culture with more individuals who score high in emotional intelligence would see less violence and dysfunction. This culture would instead see higher levels of cooperation and human connection. A high EI culture would be able to resolve conflicts and have functional communication between human beings.

An effort to increase these abilities should be a foundational part of every organization and family. Feelings should not be ignored, but rather taught as signals to cue appropriate response and behavior. Imagine the possibilities if a culture embraced emotions not as indulgent, but rather as information to make better decisions.

Thanks for reading.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free .

• Dearborn, K. (2002). Studies in emotional intelligence redefine our approach to leadership development.  Public Personnel Management ,  31 (4), 523-530.
• Edmonds, S. C. (2017). Building a purposeful, positive, productive culture. Leader to Leader, 2017 (84), 42-47.
• George, J. M. (2000). Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence.  Human Relations ,  53 (8), 1027-1055.
• Griffith, J., Connelly, S., Thiel, C., & Johnson, G. (2015). How outstanding leaders lead with affect: An examination of charismatic, ideological, and pragmatic leaders.  The Leadership Quarterly ,  26 (4), 502-517.
• Kennedy, K., Campis, S., & Leclerc, L. (2020). Human-centered leadership: Creating change from the inside out. Nurse Leader ,  18 (3), 227-231.
• Madrid, H. P., Niven, K., & Vasquez, C. A. (2019). Leader interpersonal emotion regulation and innovation in teams. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 92 (4), 787-805.
• Pirson, M., & Von Kimakowitz, E. (2010). Towards a human centered theory and practice of the firm.  Fordham University Schools of Business Research Paper (2010-006).
• Rausch, E., Hess, J. D., & Bacigalupo, A. C. (2011). Enhancing decisions and decision‐making processes through the application of emotional intelligence skills. Management Decision, 49 (5), 710-721.
• Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence.  Imagination, Cognition and Personality ,  9 (3), 185-211.

Share this article:

Article feedback

What our readers think.

Interesting

According to. me Most important part of the para is ‘ being intelligent is great but, knowing how to use that intelligence is even more impactful’ Just loved it

Very much interested in learning new techniques to boost EI among my team

Really enjoyed reading. Very much informative and real which is thought by lot of us who have read it but could not bring it to terms or could not explain it to anyone else in the way it is presented in the above context

What a great description and delivery of EI from that perspective of movies – love it – thanks for sharing.

Thank you, a very useful article.

Hi i am interested EI program. Please send me program details.

Thank you for your interest in our Emotional Intelligence Masterclass. You can learn more about this course here . It includes a series of video lessons for yourself as well as everything you need to carry out emotional intelligence training with those you serve. We now also offer 9 continuing education credits for those who complete the course if this is useful to you.

Let us know if you have any questions 🙂

– Nicole | Community Manager

Let us know your thoughts Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Related articles

Cultivating Emotional Literacy in Adults

Emotional literacy, the ability to understand, express, and manage emotions effectively, is a critical skill for adults in both personal and professional contexts. This article [...]

Understanding the Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotion: 3 Examples

We describe ourselves as seeing red when angry, turning green with disgust, or flustered when excited. But how do we define emotions, comprehend their cognitive [...]

What Is Emotional Awareness? 6 Worksheets to Develop EI

Many argue that emotional intelligence (EI) is more important than traditional intelligence, boosting academic and career success, leadership skills, and mental and physical wellbeing (Larsen, [...]

Read other articles by their category

• Body & Brain (52)
• Coaching & Application (39)
• Compassion (23)
• Counseling (40)
• Emotional Intelligence (21)
• Gratitude (18)
• Grief & Bereavement (18)
• Happiness & SWB (40)
• Meaning & Values (26)
• Meditation (16)
• Mindfulness (40)
• Motivation & Goals (41)
• Optimism & Mindset (29)
• Positive CBT (28)
• Positive Communication (23)
• Positive Education (36)
• Positive Emotions (32)
• Positive Leadership (16)
• Positive Parenting (14)
• Positive Psychology (21)
• Positive Workplace (35)
• Productivity (16)
• Relationships (46)
• Resilience & Coping (38)
• Self Awareness (20)
• Self Esteem (37)
• Strengths & Virtues (29)
• Stress & Burnout Prevention (33)
• Theory & Books (42)
• Therapy Exercises (37)
• Types of Therapy (54)

3 Emotional Intelligence Exercises (PDF)

• Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence Case Study: Magic Johnson Quits

Unpacking this shocking news with the ei competencies behind the tough decision..

Posted April 28, 2019

What can we learn about his tough decision and the emotional intelligence competencies, values, and courage to escape what felt like handcuffs for him?

• What are you clinging to that you no longer want to tolerate?
• What would you like to move on from or just quit?

Three Emotional Intelligence actions for more freedom are below.

In a surprise move Earvin “Magic” Johnson resigned from his position as President of Basketball Operations for the Los Angeles Lakers after two years. He felt handcuffed by the job’s restrictions and limiting his ability to help others and truly be himself.

As a basketball fan this was shocking as I thought he would be enjoying the position, power, influence and contributions to creating the best Laker team, which he so loves. They just finished a frustrating losing season even with the addition of Lebron James to their team. There certainly is information that went on behind the scenes that the public is not privy to that played a role.

It must have taken all of his Emotional Intelligence (EI) competencies to make this hard decision, which obviously let down millions of fans and the Laker ownership, especially Jeanie Buss. What can we learn from his experience to help us break free from our shackles.

• What are you not happy enough with?
• What are you just tolerating?
• What is your intuition craving for?
• What do you need to take the brakes off for?

Here are the top 3 Emotional Intelligent learnings we can take away from Magic’s decision.

1. Values: Are you living your values?

Magic said he was happier in his life before this job and wanted to return to his previous life. What values conflict was he experiencing daily? Here are some that seem apparent.

Mentoring, giving back and autonomy: The obvious values of being able to help others as a mentor, giving back to others along with the value of being autonomous or unconstrained.

Magic had just received a request from Serena Williams, the tennis star, to mentor her, which he didn’t have the time to do. Then Ben Simmons from the Philadelphia 76ers also asked Magic for mentoring. The National Basketball Association (NBA) has rules from doing anything that might entice a player away from another team they're under contract with. Mentoring another basketball player can be construed as tampering.

Even complementing other players is forbidden as tampering. Magic had received a $50,000 fine for praising Milwaukee Bucks player Giannis Antetokounmpo. Another NBA restriction was not tweeting, where Magic has 4,722,000 followers. Once he quit, he was free to be an enthusiastic basketball fan watching the playoffs.

Harmony: This must be another key value as he stated he didn’t like having to fire people and changing their lives. When I think of him I picture him with that big smile slapped on his face and connecting with others.

Dealing with conflict was uncomfortable for him with the whispering and backstabbing he felt in his leadership position.

Actions: In our consulting and coaching we ask people to identify their top five idea values, what do you want to move toward? Write them down. Then identify what are your realistic values the ones which you actually do every day. For example, ideal values maybe leadership, excellence and connection, while each day you may instead be living in management, mediocrity and superficiality. Notice are your five the same or is there a gap?

If this gap is continually draining for you, this is information you may want to take action on to lessen the gap. You can speak with your significant other, boss or a coach to design actions.

2. Emotional Self-Awareness: Are you aware of your emotions?

Magic had to evaluate daily how he was feeling and could he make it better in the position or by leaving the position. This often is a coaching strategy with executives and leaders who are not as happy as they want with their position. What can they change first within their position, second to explore options outside of the position? This process can feel more empowering than feeling stuck or being handcuffed.

Being aware of what is going on with you emotionally is the start and not always easy. We operate on autopilot about 95% of the time. Plus, we don’t like to think deep or long on things. It is too easy to avoid uncomfortable situations, “grin and bear it” or just take short cuts.

In the Emotional Intelligence research, Emotional Self- Awareness not only is the best place to start raising your EI, but Emotional Self-Awareness influences and improves the other competencies.

In a study of 4322 participants from 283 global clients, the Hay Group reported that, "participants with high Emotional Awareness display more of all the Emotional Social Competency Inventory (ESCI) competencies at a strength or top 10% level. These findings led to the assertion that "Self-Awareness lies at the heart of Emotional Intelligence." (Korn Ferry Hay Group, 2013)

Actions: The first step is to notice and name what is going for you. What feeling is most common for you? Which ones would you like to experience more? Can you name it? How fluent are you in the variety of emotions we have? The Yale University Mood Meter app helps you name and differentiate the nuances and intensity of the emotion , on energy level and pleasantness. https://moodmeterapp.com/

3. Courage: Are you in your comfort zone?

In Magic’s press conference he talked about how he was frightened to face Jeanie Buss, the owner, as she was a sister to him. His decision though was for himself and his family, in spite of disappointing many. Even though harmony is a key value for him, this decision took precedence. Think of his courage to pull the bandage off now rather than continue with deal with the daily cuts to his energy and happiness .

He stated. “"What am I doing? I've got a beautiful life," said Johnson, laughing . "So, I'm gonna go back to that beautiful life."

In Brene Brown’s new book Dare to Lead, she states to get to courage you have to walk through vulnerability. She defines vulnerability as dealing with Uncertainty, Risk and Emotional Exposure. Magic’s decision certainly embodied all three emotions. It took courage to be seen, heard and be for himself.

Vulnerability takes many of the EI competencies such as emotional self-awareness, accurate self-assessment, self-actualization, emotional expression, confidence or courage, self-compassion, assertiveness and initiative to get what you want. Are you choosing comfort or courage as Brown speaks about?

Actions: Think about these questions and subsequent actions below:

• What are tolerating that you know deep in your heart could be better?
• Who or what are your top Brain Gains – you get energy from them?
• Who or what are top Brain Drains that zap your energy?
• How can you increase time with gains and decrease time with drains?
• In one year from now how might you look back on this time? What would you have wanted to change?

In summary, use Magic’s story as motivation for you to take your shackles off and move toward your goals and more happiness regardless how challenging it may seem. For more information on Magic’s EI, I profile him in my Leading with Emotional Intelligence book.

References:

Zes, D. and Landis, D (2013) A better return on self-awareness, KornFerry Institute

Brown, B. (2018) Dare to Lead. New York: Random House

Nadler, R (2011) Leading with Emotionally Intelligence. New York: McGraw- Hill

Relly Nadler, M.C.C., is a licensed psychologist, author and Master Certified Coach (MCC) for executives and executive teams.

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Online Therapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Self Tests NEW
• Therapy Center
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

It’s increasingly common for someone to be diagnosed with a condition such as ADHD or autism as an adult. A diagnosis often brings relief, but it can also come with as many questions as answers.

• Gaslighting
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

Emotional intelligence

• Managing yourself
• Authenticity
• Business communication
• Continuous learning

Make Mindfulness a Habit

• Matthias Birk
• November 20, 2020

Leadership in Literature

• Diane Coutu
• From the March 2006 Issue

Maintain Your Mental Well-Being

• June 03, 2011

Why CEOs Should Model Vulnerability

• Jeffrey Cohn
• U Srinivasa Rangan
• May 11, 2020

How to Raise a Difficult Issue in a One-on-One with Your Boss

• Steven G. Rogelberg
• January 09, 2024

How to Overcome Your Obsession with Helping Others

• Ron Carucci
• February 18, 2020

Here’s What Mindfulness Is (and Isn’t) Good For

• Daniel Goleman
• September 28, 2017

How to Stop Dwelling on Your Stress

• Jenny Taitz
• January 30, 2024

4 Ways to Communicate with More Empathy

• Joel Schwartzberg
• August 10, 2022

Build Self-Awareness with Help from Your Team

• Audrey Epstein
• August 13, 2018

Let Your Team Have That Heated Conversation

• Liane Davey
• December 23, 2019

Social Intelligence and Leadership

• August 11, 2008

A Simple Way to Stay Grounded in Stressful Moments

• November 18, 2016

Being Happy at Work Matters

• Annie McKee
• November 14, 2014

How to Become More Adaptable in Challenging Situations

• Jacqueline Brassey
• Aaron De Smet
• March 03, 2023

What to Say When Someone Cries at Work

• Deborah Grayson Riegel
• June 29, 2020

Keeping Your Spirits Up When You Really Need a Win at Work

• July 13, 2023

5 Ways to Boost Your Resilience at Work

• Rich Fernandez
• June 27, 2016

How Are You Perceived at Work? Here's an Exercise to Find Out

• Kristi Hedges
• December 19, 2017

Emotional Agility

• Susan David
• Christina Congleton
• From the November 2013 Issue

What High Achievers Need from Their Mentors

• Ruth Gotian
• Andy Lopata
• August 19, 2024

Stop Playing Favorites

• Ginka Toegel
• Jean-Louis Barsoux
• From the July–August 2024 Issue

When Your Employee Feels Angry, Sad, or Dejected

• Christina Bradley
• Lindy Greer
• Jeffrey Sanchez-Burks

3 Exercises to Boost Your Emotional Intelligence, According to Research

• Emma Seppälä
• June 26, 2024

The Art of Asking Smarter Questions

• Arnaud Chevallier
• Frédéric Dalsace
• From the May–June 2024 Issue

Life’s Work: An Interview with Hernan Diaz

• Alison Beard

Are You Being Emotionally Manipulated at Work?

• Luis Velasquez
• February 23, 2024

People Probably Like You More Than You Think

• Erica Boothby
• Adam Mastroianni
• Andrew Reece
• Gillian Sandstrom
• February 14, 2024

How Curiosity Can Make Your Meetings — and Team — Better

• Sabina Nawaz
• January 29, 2024

How to Challenge Your Organization’s Status Quo — Productively

• Timothy R. Clark
• December 07, 2023

How to Self-Promote — Without Sounding Self-Centered

• Eric M. VanEpps
• Maurice Schweitzer
• November 20, 2023

Preparing for Your Next Career Move

• November 14, 2023

What We Get Wrong About Empathic Leadership

• Olga Valadon
• October 17, 2023

Do You Understand Why You Catastrophize?

• October 04, 2023

4 Ways to Make Work More Meaningful

• John Coleman
• October 02, 2023

Getting Out of a Creative Slump: Our Favorite Reads

• Rakshitha Arni Ravishankar
• September 28, 2023

3 Ways to Live Out Your Values at Work

• Lakshmi Ramarajan
• Brianna Barker Caza
• September 27, 2023

Leading Change May Need to Begin with Changing Yourself

• Narayan Pant
• September 20, 2023

Energy Rising: The Neuroscience of Leading with Emotional Power

• Julia DiGangi
• September 26, 2023

HBR's 10 Must Reads on Emotional Intelligence (with featured article "What Makes a Leader?" by Daniel Goleman)

• Harvard Business Review
• Richard Boyatzis
• Sydney Finkelstein
• May 05, 2015

HBR's 10 Must Reads on Trust (with bonus article "Begin with Trust" by Frances X. Frei and Anne Morriss)

• Frances X. Frei
• Anne Morriss
• Robert M. Galford
• March 14, 2023

Next-Level Negotiating (HBR Women at Work Series)

• Deborah M. Kolb
• Suzanne de Janasz
• Deepa Purushothaman
• December 13, 2022

HBR Guide to Better Mental Health at Work

• September 27, 2022

Happiness (HBR Emotional Intelligence Series)

• Daniel Gilbert
• Gretchen Spreitzer
• Teresa M. Amabile
• May 09, 2017

Act Like a Leader, Think Like a Leader, Updated Edition of the Global Bestseller, With a New Preface

• Herminia Ibarra

Li Fen: The Plight of an HR Manager

• Flora F.T. Chiang
• May 31, 2022

Getting Along: How to Work with Anyone (Even Difficult People)

• September 13, 2022

Focus (HBR Emotional Intelligence Series)

• Heidi Grant
• Rasmus Hougaard
• December 04, 2018

HBR's 10 Must Reads on Negotiation (Paperback + Ebook)

• Daniel Kahneman
• Deepak Malhotra
• Max H. Bazerman
• May 21, 2019

Mental Toughness Collection

• June 15, 2018

Emotionally Intelligent Leadership eBook Collection + HBR IdeaCast Audio Interviews (HBR Emotional Intelligence Series)

• January 17, 2018

The Microstress Effect: How Little Things Pile Up and Create Big Problems--and What to Do about It

• Karen Dillon
• April 18, 2023

Overcoming Ageism (HBR Women at Work Series)

• Dorie Clark
• Heidi K. Gardner
• Lynda Gratton
• February 27, 2024

Building a 'Dream Team': Cross-Cultural Entrepreneurship at QuikForce (A)

• May 21, 2016

Bosses, Coworkers, and Building Great Work Relationships (HBR Work Smart Series)

• Eliana Goldstein
• Melody Wilding
• May 14, 2024

How Leaders Learn: Master the Habits of the World's Most Successful People

• David Novak
• June 04, 2024

HBR Guide to Being a Great Boss Toolkit

• April 20, 2022

HBR's 10 Must Reads for New Managers (Paperback + Ebook)

• Linda A. Hill
• Robert B. Cialdini
• February 28, 2017

How to Recover from Failure (HBR Special Issue)

• May 10, 2022

Popular Topics

Partner center.

Login to your account

Change password, your password must have 8 characters or more and contain 3 of the following:.

• a lower case character, 
• an upper case character, 
• a special character 

Password Changed Successfully

Your password has been changed

Create a new account

Can't sign in? Forgot your password?

Enter your email address below and we will send you the reset instructions

If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to reset your password

Request Username

Can't sign in? Forgot your username?

Enter your email address below and we will send you your username

If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username

• This Journal
•   
• Institutional Access

Cookies Notification

Our site uses javascript to enchance its usability. you can disable your ad blocker or whitelist our website www.worldscientific.com to view the full content., select your blocker:, adblock plus instructions.

• Click the AdBlock Plus icon in the extension bar
• Click the blue power button
• Click refresh

Adblock Instructions

• Click the AdBlock icon
• Click "Don't run on pages on this site"

uBlock Origin Instructions

• Click on the uBlock Origin icon in the extension bar
• Click on the big, blue power button
• Refresh the web page

uBlock Instructions

• Click on the uBlock icon in the extension bar

Adguard Instructions

• Click on the Adguard icon in the extension bar
• Click on the toggle next to the "Protection on this website" text

Brave Instructions

• Click on the orange lion icon to the right of the address bar
• Click the toggle on the top right, shifting from "Up" to "Down

Adremover Instructions

• Click on the AdRemover icon in the extension bar
• Click the "Don’t run on pages on this domain" button
• Click "Exclude"

Adblock Genesis Instructions

• Click on the Adblock Genesis icon in the extension bar
• Click on the button that says "Whitelist Website"

Super Adblocker Instructions

• Click on the Super Adblocker icon in the extension bar
• Click on the "Don’t run on pages on this domain" button
• Click the "Exclude" button on the pop-up

Ultrablock Instructions

• Click on the UltraBlock icon in the extension bar
• Click on the "Disable UltraBlock for ‘domain name here’" button

Ad Aware Instructions

• Click on the AdAware icon in the extension bar
• Click on the large orange power button

Ghostery Instructions

• Click on the Ghostery icon in the extension bar
• Click on the "Trust Site" button

Firefox Tracking Protection Instructions

• Click on the shield icon on the left side of the address bar
• Click on the toggle that says "Enhanced Tracking protection is ON for this site"

Duck Duck Go Instructions

• Click on the DuckDuckGo icon in the extension bar
• Click on the toggle next to the words "Site Privacy Protection"

Privacy Badger Instructions

• Click on the Privacy Badger icon in the extension bar
• Click on the button that says "Disable Privacy Badger for this site"

Disconnect Instructions

• Click on the Disconnect icon in the extension bar
• Click the button that says "Whitelist Site"

Opera Instructions

• Click on the blue shield icon on the right side of the address bar
• Click the toggle next to "Ads are blocked on this site"

System Upgrade on Tue, May 28th, 2024 at 2am (EDT)

Emotional intelligence impacts on work performance: the case in telecommunication malaysia research company.

• Mohd Shazni Suhairy , 
• Norliza Mohamed , 
• Norulhusna Ahmad , 
• Hazilah Mad Kaidi , 
• Rudzidatul Akmam Dziyauddin , and 
• Suriani Mohd Sam

Razak Faculty of Technology and Informatics, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, Kuala Lumpur 54100, Malaysia

Search for more papers by this author

E-mail Address: [email protected]

Corresponding Author.

The study of the correlation between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and work performance is crucial for the organisation. Some of the organisations do not consider EI skills as the work performed. This study investigates the correlation between EI and the work performance of a telecommunication research company in Malaysia. There are 66 participants involved in this study: senior researchers and researchers. A set of questionnaires was distributed to assess their employees’ background, EI, and work performance. As a predictor of research employees’ work performance and EI, the results show that EI had a significant positive relationship with work performance. The findings also show that employees with high EI experience a greater level of task performance. Moreover, the authors also present the relationship of EI with work performance over employees’ background such as gender, marital status, age and work experience. It was found that married employees have a higher correlation than single employees. The study recommends that organisations introduce EI development programs for existing staff to improve their performance at work.

• Emotional intelligence
• work performance
• correlation
• Abraham, J. [ 2017 ] Emotional intelligence: The context for successful nursing leadership: A literature review . Nursing & Care Open Access Journal , 2 , 6: 160–164. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Acikgoz, A. and Latham, G. P. [ 2020 ] The relationship of perceived emotional intelligence with adaptive performance in new product development teams . International Journal of Innovation Management , 24 , 5: 2050041. Link ,  Google Scholar
• Adams, A. and Bond, S. [ 2000 ] Hospital nurses’ job satisfaction, individual and organizational characteristics . Journal of Advanced Nursing , 32 : 536–543. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Ain, N. U., Munir, M. and Suneel, I. [ 2021 ] Role of emotional intelligence and grit in life satisfaction . Heliyon , 7 , 4: e06829. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Alheet, A. F. and Hamdan, Y. [ 2021 ] Exploring the relationship between emotional intelligence and job performance: A study of jordanian retail industry . International Journal of Entrepreneurship , 25 : 1–16. Google Scholar
• Allahyari, E. [ 2020 ] Differential item functioning analysis of the Bar-On emotional quotient inventory (EQ-i) across gender and age groups . Psychologia , 14 , 2: 95–105. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Almahamid, S. M., Al-Jayyousi, O. R., Alalawi, A. I. and Alqarny, A. S. [ 2021 ] Knowledge management processes and service innovation: Key insights from Saudi International Airports . International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management , 18 : 2150014. Link ,  Google Scholar
• Ángel, S. C. M. and Ignacio, D. D. V. [ 2017 ] Is emotional intelligence the panacea for a better job performance? A study on low-skilled back office jobs . Employee Relations , 39 , 5: 683–698. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Asrar-ul Haq, M., Anwar, S. and Hassan, M. [ 2017 ] Impact of emotional intelligence on teacher’s performance in higher education institutions of Pakistan . Future Business Journal , 3 , 2: 87–97. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Bar-On, R. [ 2006 ] The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence . Psicothema , 18 : 13–25. Google Scholar
• Batool, S. and Khalid, R. [ 2011 ] Development of indigenous scale of emotional intelligence and evaluation of its psychometric properties . Pakistan Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 9 : 66–72. Google Scholar
• Bieńkowska, A. and Tworek, K. [ 2020 ] Job performance model based on employees’ dynamic capabilities (EDC) . Sustainability , 12 , 6: 2250. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Boyatzis, R. (2007). The creation of the emotional and social competency inventory (ESCI). Report, Hay Group Research Report. Google Scholar
• Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., Shiffman, S., Lerner, N. and Salovey, P. [ 2006 ] Relating emotional abilities to social functioning: A comparison of self-report and performance measures of emotional intelligence . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 91 , 4: 780–795. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Cabello, R., Gómez Leal, R., Gutiérrez Cobo, M. J., Megías Robles, A., Salovey, P. and Fernández-Berrocal, P. [ 2021 ] Ability emotional intelligence in parents and their offspring . Current Psychology , 1–8. Google Scholar
• Campbell-Smith, D. (2008). Opening up how r&d is changing in the telecommunications sector today. Report, The Economis. Google Scholar
• Charbonneau, D. and Nicol, A. [ 2002 ] Emotional intelligence and leadership in adolescents . Personality and Individual Differences , 33 : 1101–1113. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Cherniss, C. [ 2000 ] Emotional intelligence: What it is and why it matters . Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations , 15 : 1–14. Google Scholar
• Cherniss, C. and Goleman, D. [ 2002 ] The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for, measure, and improve emotional intelligence in individuals, groups, and organizations . Administration in Social Work . Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar
• Chib, R. and Sharma, V. [ 2017 ] Analysis on emotional intelligence among telecom employees . International Journal of Engineering and Computer Science , 3 , 6: 6572–6577. Google Scholar
• Cui, Y. [ 2021 ] The role of emotional intelligence in workplace transparency and open communication . Aggression and Violent Behavior , 1–10. Google Scholar
• Deshmukh, G. [ 2016 ] Mapping relationship between employee performance and emotional intelligence : A study . Pacific Business Review International , 8 , 9: 11–15. Google Scholar
• Dhani, P. and Sharma, T. [ 2017 ] Effect of emotional intelligence on job performance of it employees: A gender study . Procedia Computer Science , 122 : 180–185. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Elfenbein, H. A. and MacCann, C. [ 2017 ] A closer look at ability emotional intelligence (EI): What are its component parts, and how do they relate to each other? Social and Personality Psychology Compass , 11 , 7: e12324. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Farmer, S. (2013). EI questionaire. Report, UT Southwestern’s Office of Development and Training. Google Scholar
• Fernández-Berrocal, P. and Extremera, N. [ 2016 ] Ability emotional intelligence, depression, and well-being . Emotion Review , 8 , 4: 311–315. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Freedman, J. and Everett, T. (2010). The business case for emotional intelligence. White paper. Six Seconds. Google Scholar
• Garris, L. (2013). Emotional intelligence: Can companies really feel their way to success? Report, The Association for Talent Development (ATD). Google Scholar
• Gibbs, N. [ 2011 ] The EQ factor . Time Reports , http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,133181,00.html . Google Scholar
• Gilar-Corbi, R., Valdés, M.-V., Navas, L., Holgado-Tello, F. P. and Castejón, J.-L. [ 2021 ] Validation of the Bar-On EQ-i: YV (S) Inventory in its Spanish Version: Gender-based invariance analysis . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 18 , 4: 1643. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Goh, S.-K. and Lim, K.-Y. [ 2014 ] Perceived creativity: The role of emotional intelligence and knowledge sharing behavior . Journal of Information & Knowledge Management , 13 , 4: 1450037. Link ,  Google Scholar
• Goleman, D. [ 1996 ] Emotional intelligence. Why it can matter more than IQ . Learning , 24 , 6: 49–50. Google Scholar
• Goleman, D. [ 1998 ] Working with Emotional Intelligence. Bantam, New York. Google Scholar
• Goleman, D. [ 2001 ] An EI-based theory of performance . The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace: How to Select for, Measure, and Improve Emotional Intelligence in Individuals, Groups, and Organizations , 1 : 27–44. Google Scholar
• Goleman, D. [ 2004 ] What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review , 82 , 1: 82–91. Google Scholar
• Goleman, D. and Boyatzis, R. E. [ 2017 ] Emotional intelligence has 12 elements. Which do you need to work on? Harvard Business Review , 84 : 2–5. Google Scholar
• González Yubero, S. et al. [ 2019 ] Trait and ability emotional intelligence as predictors of alcohol consumption in adolescents . Psicothema , 31 , 3: 292–297. Google Scholar
• Gross, J. J. [ 1998 ] Antecedent-and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 , 1: 224. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Hakkak, M., Nawaser, K., Vafaei-Zadeh, A. and Hanifah, H. [ 2021 ] Determination of optimal leadership styles through knowledge management: A case from the automotive industry . International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management , 18 : 2150012. Link ,  Google Scholar
• Halbesleben, J. R. and Bowler, W. M. [ 2007 ] Emotional exhaustion and job performance: The mediating role of motivation . Journal of Applied Psychology , 92 : 93. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Heckemann, B., Schols, J. M. and Halfens, R. J. [ 2015 ] A reflective framework to foster emotionally intelligent leadership in nursing . Journal of Nursing Management , 23 , 6: 744–753. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H. and Zenasni, F. [ 2017 ] How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis . Emotion Review , 10 , 2: 138–148. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Javed, B., Bashir, S., Rawwas, M. Y. and Arjoon, S. [ 2017 ] Islamic work ethic, innovative work behavior, and adaptive performance: The mediating mechanism and an interacting effect . Current Issues in Tourism , 20 , 6: 647–663. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Jorfi, H., Yaccob, H. F. B. and Shah, I. M. [ 2011 ] The relationship between demographics variables, emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, motivation, and job satisfaction . International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences , 1 , 1: 17. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Judge, T. A. and Zapata, C. P. [ 2015 ] The person-situation debate revisited: Effect of situation strength and trait activation on the validity of the big five personality traits in predicting job performance . Academy of Management Journal , 58 : 1149–1179. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Kanesan, P. and Fauzan, N. [ 2019 ] Models of emotional intelligence: A review . Journal of Social Science and Humanities , 16 , 7: 1–9. Google Scholar
• Kartchava, E. and Nassaji, H. [ 2019 ] The role of task repetition and learner self-assessment in technology-mediated task performance . ITL-International Journal of Applied Linguistics , 170 , 2: 180–203. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Khalili, A. [ 2011 ] Gender differences in emotional intelligence among employees of small and medium enterprise: An empirical study . Journal of International Management Studies , 6 , 2: 184–193. Google Scholar
• Knight, C. and Parker, S. [ 2019 ] How work redesign interventions affect performance: An evidence-based model from a systematic review . Human Relations , 74 : 69–104. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Koopmans, L., Bernaards, C., Hildebrandt, V., Buuren, S., Van Der Beek, A. and De Vet, H. [ 2013 ] Development of an individual work performance questionnaire . International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management , 62 : 6–28. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Koopmans, L., Bernaards, C., Hildebrandt, V., Schaufeli, W., De Vet, H. and Van Der Beek, A. [ 2011 ] Conceptual frameworks of individual work performance . Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine/American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine , 53 : 856–866. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Krejcie, R. V. and Morgan, D. W. [ 1970 ] Determining sample size for research activities . Educational and Psychological Measurement , 30 , 3: 607–610. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Leblanc, V. R. [ 2009 ] The effects of acute stress on performance: Implications for health professions education . Academic Medicine , 84 : S25–S33. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Lee, Y. H. and Chelladurai, P. [ 2017 ] Emotional intelligence, emotional labor, coach burnout, job satisfaction, and turnover intention in sport leadership . European Sport Management Quarterly , 18 , 4: 393–412. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Lopes, P. N. [ 2016 ] Emotional intelligence in organizations: Bridging research and practice . Emotion Review , 8 , 4: 316–321. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• MacCann, C., Jiang, Y., Brown, L. E., Double, K. S., Bucich, M. and Minbashian, A. [ 2020 ] Emotional intelligence predicts academic performance: A meta-analysis . Psychological Bulletin , 146 , 2: 150. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Malik, S. Z. and Shahid, S. [ 2016 ] Effect of emotional intelligence on academic performance among business students in Pakistan . Bulletin of Education and Research , 38 : 197–208. Google Scholar
• Marques-Quinteiro, P., Vargas, R., Eifler, N. and Curral, L. [ 2019 ] Employee adaptive performance and job satisfaction during organizational crisis: The role of self-leadership . European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology , 28 , 1: 85–100. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Mathieu, C. [ 2021 ] Chapter 7 — Negative attitudes, counterproductive work behavior, and corporate fraud . Dark Personalities in the Workplace. Academic Press, London, UK, pp. 147–167. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R. and Salovey, P. [ 2016 ] The ability model of emotional intelligence: Principles and updates . Emotion Review , 8 , 4: 290–300. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Mayer, J. D. and Salovey, P. [ 1997 ] What is Emotional Intelligence? Basic Books, New York, USA, pp. 3–34. Google Scholar
• Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., Caruso, D. R. and Sitarenios, G. [ 2001 ] Emotional intelligence as a standard intelligence . Emotion , 1 , 3: 232–242. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., Caruso, D. R. and Sitarenios, G. [ 2003 ] Measuring emotional intelligence with the MSCEIT V2. 0 . Emotion , 3 , 1: 97. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Mehta, S. and Singh, N. [ 2013 ] A review paper on emotional intelligence: Models and relationship with other constructs . International Journal of Management & Information Technology , 4 : 342–353. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Miao, C., Humphrey, R. H. and Qian, S. [ 2017 ] A meta-analysis of emotional intelligence and work attitudes . Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology , 90 , 2: 177–202. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Mishra, P. S. and Mohapatra, A. K. [ 2010 ] Relevance of emotional intelligence for effective job performance: An empirical study . Vikalpa , 35 : 53–61. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Mohamad, M. and Jais, J. [ 2016 ] Emotional intelligence and job performance: A study among Malaysian teachers . Procedia Economics and Finance , 35 : 674–682. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Morgeson, F. P., Reider, M. H. and Campion, M. A. [ 2005 ] Selecting individuals in team settings: The importance of social skills, personality characteristics, and teamwork knowledge . Personnel Psychology , 58 : 583–611. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Motowidlo, S. J. and Kell, H. J. [ 2012 ] Job performance. Handbook of Psychology . John Wiley & Sons, New York. Google Scholar
• Mysirlaki, S. and Paraskeva, F. [ 2020 ] Emotional intelligence and transformational leadership in virtual teams: lessons from MMOGs . Leadership & Organization Development Journal , 41 , 4: 551–566. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Nelis, D., Quoidbach, J., Mikolajczak, M. and Hansenne, M. [ 2009 ] Increasing emotional intelligence: How is it possible? Personality and Individual Differences , 47 : 36–41. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• O’Boyle, E. H., Jr. , Humphrey, R. H., Pollack, J. M., Hawver, T. H. and Story, P. A. [ 2011 ] The relation between emotional intelligence and job performance: A meta-analysis . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 32 , 5: 788–818. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• O’Connor, P. J., Hill, A., Kaya, M. and Martin, B. [ 2019 ] The measurement of emotional intelligence: A critical review of the literature and recommendations for researchers and practitioners . Frontiers in Psychology , 10 : 1116. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Odame, C., Pandey, M. and Pathak, P. [ 2020 ] Emotional Intelligence and its Importance in Sustainable Development of Human Resources: A Conceptual Model . Springer, Singapore, pp. 273–287. Google Scholar
• Ode, E. and Ayavoo, R. [ 2020 ] The mediating role of knowledge application in the relationship between knowledge management practices and firm innovation . Journal of Innovation and Knowledge , 5 : 210–218. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Ouyang, Z., Sang, J., Li, P. and Peng, J. [ 2015 ] Organizational justice and job insecurity as mediators of the effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction: A study from China . Personality and Individual Differences , 76 : 147–152. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Petrides, K. V. and Furnham, A. [ 2001 ] Trait emotional intelligence: psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies . European Journal of Personality , 15 , 6: 425–448. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Pradhan, R. K. and Jena, L. K. [ 2017 ] Employee performance at workplace: Conceptual model and empirical validation . Business Perspectives and Research , 5 , 1: 69–85. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Rahim, N. A., Mohamed, Z., Amrin, A. and Masrom, M. [ 2021 ] Impact of self-regulated learning on entrepreneurial opportunity recognition and academic entrepreneurship performance . International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management , 18 : 1–30. Google Scholar
• Ramos-Villagrasa, P. J., Barrada, J. R., Río, E. and Koopmans, L. [ 2019 ] Assessing job performance using brief self-report scales: The case of the individual work performance questionnaire . Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones , 35 : 195–205. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Ronquillo, F. and Alfredo, M. [ 2019 ] Self-regulation as a basic competence in the productive development of micro entrepreneurs in depressed environments: Case province of Guayas — Ecuador . In Proceedings of the 52nd International Academic Conference , Barcelona , 23–26 Septemper 2019 , p 140. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Runge, J. M., Lang, J. W., Zettler, I. and Lievens, F. [ 2020 ] Predicting counterproductive work behavior: Do implicit motives have incremental validity beyond explicit traits? Journal of Research in Personality , 89 : 104019. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Sadovyy, M., Sanchez-Gomez, M. and Bresó, E. [ 2021 ] Corrigendum to “COVID-19: How the stress generated by the pandemic may affect work performance through the moderating role of emotional intelligence” . Personality and Individual Differences , 182 : 110986. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Salgado Velo, J. F. [ 2011 ] Performance appraisal in the public administration of the principality of asturias: An analysis of psychometric properties . Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology , 27 : 75–91. Google Scholar
• Salovey, P. and Mayer, J. D. [ 1990 ] Emotional intelligence . Imagination, Cognition and Personality , 9 , 3: 185–211. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Sarkar, M. P. and Oberoi, S. [ 2020 ] Emotional intelligence: An extensive literature review . Global Journal of Enterprise Information System , 10 , 4: 84–95. Google Scholar
• Saunders, M., Philips, L. and Thornhill, A. [ 2016 ] Research Methods for Business Students . Pearson Education, United Kingdom. Google Scholar
• Schlegel, K. and Mortillaro, M. [ 2019 ] The geneva emotional competence test (GECo): An ability measure of workplace emotional intelligence . Journal of Applied Psychology , 104 , 4: 559. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., Golden, C. J. and Dornheim, L. [ 1998 ] Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence . Personality and Individual Differences , 25 , 166–177. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Shahhosseini, M., Silong, A. and Uli, J. [ 2012 ] The role of emotional intelligence on job performance . International Journal of Business and Social Science , 3 , 21: 241–246. Google Scholar
• Shahzad, K., Sarmad, D., Abbas, M. and Khan, M. [ 2011 ] Impact of emotional intelligence (EI) on employee’s performance in telecom sector of Pakistan . African Journal of Business Management , 5 : 1225–1231. Google Scholar
• Shukla, A., Srivastava, R. and Nisar, T. [ 2016 ] Examining the effect of emotional intelligence on socio-demographic variable and job stress among retail employees . Cogent Business & Management , 3 , 1: 1201905. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Spector, P. E. and Fox, S. [ 2002 ] An emotion-centered model of voluntary work behavior: Some parallels between counterproductive work behavior and organizational citizenship behavior . Human Resource Management Review , 12 , 2: 269–292. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Stys, Y. and Brown, S. (2004). A review of the emotional intelligence literature and implications for corrections. Report 2004 No R-150, Research branch correctional service of Canada. Google Scholar
• Thamhain, H. J. [ 2003 ] Managing innovative R&D teams . R&D Management , 33 , 3: 297–311. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Vardarlier, P. and Ozsahin, M. [ 2021 ] Digital transformation of human resource management: Social media’s performance effect . International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management , 18 : 2150005. Link ,  Google Scholar
• Willam, R. [ 2008 ] Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Style: An Investigation Within A Major Telecommunications Company. VDM Verlag, Germany. Google Scholar
• Xie, X., Zang, Z. and Ponzoa, J. M. [ 2020 ] The information impact of network media, the psychological reaction to the COVID-19 pandemic, and online knowledge acquisition: Evidence from Chinese college students . Journal of Innovation and Knowledge , 5 : 297–305. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Zhang, L., Cao, T. and Wang, Y. [ 2018 ] The mediation role of leadership styles in integrated project collaboration: An emotional intelligence perspective . International Journal of Project Management , 36 , 2: 317–330. Crossref ,  Google Scholar
• Employees’ Types of Intelligence Assessment Method in Accordance with the Elements of the Five-Factor Model Considering Life Cycle Stages LIANA CHERNOBAI, ELIZABETH KARSKA and YULIIA SHIRON 29 September 2022 | Economics Entrepreneurship Management, Vol. 9, No. 1

Recommended

Received 5 August 2021 Revised 17 December 2021 Accepted 20 December 2021 Published: 29 April 2022

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

The Measurement of Emotional Intelligence: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners

Peter j. o'connor.

1 School of Management, QUT Business School, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Andrew Hill

2 Clinical Skills Development Service, Metro North Hospital and Health Service, Queensland Health, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

3 School of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia

4 School of Advertising, Marketing and Public Relations, QUT Business School, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Brett Martin

Emotional Intelligence (EI) emerged in the 1990s as an ability based construct analogous to general Intelligence. However, over the past 3 decades two further, conceptually distinct forms of EI have emerged (often termed “trait EI” and “mixed model EI”) along with a large number of psychometric tools designed to measure these forms. Currently more than 30 different widely-used measures of EI have been developed. Although there is some clarity within the EI field regarding the types of EI and their respective measures, those external to the field are faced with a seemingly complex EI literature, overlapping terminology, and multiple published measures. In this paper we seek to provide guidance to researchers and practitioners seeking to utilize EI in their work. We first provide an overview of the different conceptualizations of EI. We then provide a set of recommendations for practitioners and researchers regarding the most appropriate measures of EI for a range of different purposes. We provide guidance both on how to select and use different measures of EI. We conclude with a comprehensive review of the major measures of EI in terms of factor structure, reliability, and validity.

Overview and Purpose

The purpose of this article is to review major, widely-used measures of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and make recommendations regarding their appropriate use. This article is written primarily for academics and practitioners who are not currently experts on EI but who are considering utilizing EI in their research and/or practice. For ease of reading therefore, we begin this article with an introduction to the different types of EI, followed by a brief summary of different measures of EI and their respective facets. We then provide a detailed set of recommendations for researchers and practitioners. Recommendations focus primarily on choosing between EI constructs (ability EI, trait EI, mixed models) as well as choosing between specific tests. We take into account such factors as test length, number of facets measured and whether tests are freely available. Consequently we also provide recommendations both for users willing to purchase tests and those preferring to utilize freely available measures.

In our detailed literature review, we focus on a set of widely used measures and summarize evidence for their validity, reliability, and conceptual basis. Our review includes studies that focus purely on psychometric properties of EI measures as well as studies conducted within applied settings, particularly health care settings. We include comprehensive tables summarizing key empirical studies on each measure, in terms of their research design and main findings. Our review includes measures that are academic and/or commercial as well as those that are freely available or require payment. To assist users with accessing measures, we include web links to complete EI questionaries for freely available measures and to websites and/or example items for copyrighted measures. For readers interested in reviews relating primarily to EI constructs, theory and outcomes rather than specifically measures of EI, we recommend a number of recent high quality publications (e.g., Kun and Demetrovics, 2010 ; Gutiérrez-Cobo et al., 2016 ). Additionally, for readers interested in a review of measures without the extensive recommendations we provide here, we recommend the chapter by Siegling et al. ( 2015 ).

Early Research on Emotional Intelligence

EI emerged as a major psychological construct in the early 1990s, where it was conceptualized as a set of abilities largely analogous to general intelligence. Early influential work on EI was conducted by Salovey and Mayer ( 1990 ), who defined EI as the “the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions” (p. 189). They argued that individuals high in EI had certain emotional abilities and skills related to appraising and regulating emotions in the self and others. Accordingly, it was argued that individuals high in EI could accurately perceive certain emotions in themselves and others (e.g., anger, sadness) and also regulate emotions in themselves and others in order to achieve a range of adaptive outcomes or emotional states (e.g., motivation, creative thinking).

However, despite having a clear definition and conceptual basis, early research on EI was characterized by the development of multiple measures (e.g., Bar-On, 1997a , b ; Schutte et al., 1998 ; Mayer et al., 1999 ) with varying degrees of similarity (see Van Rooy et al., 2005 ). One cause of this proliferation was the commercial opportunities such tests offered to developers and the difficulties faced by researchers seeking to obtain copyrighted measures (see section Mixed EI for a summary of commercial measures). A further cause of this proliferation was the difficulty researchers faced in developing measures with good psychometric properties. A comprehensive discussion of this issue is beyond the scope of this article (see Petrides, 2011 for more details) however one clear challenge faced by early EI test developers was constructing emotion-focused questions that could be scored with objective criteria. In comparison to measures of cognitive ability that have objectively right/wrong answers (e.g., mathematical problems), items designed to measure emotional abilities often rely on expert judgment to define correct answers which is problematic for multiple reasons (Roberts et al., 2001 ; Maul, 2012 ).

A further characteristic of many early measures was their failure to discriminate between measures of typical and maximal performance. In particular, some test developers moved away from pure ability based questions and utilized self-report questions (i.e., questions asking participants to rate behavioral tendencies and/or abilities rather than objectively assessing their abilities; e.g., Schutte et al., 1998 ). Other measures utilized broader definitions of EI that included social effectiveness in addition to typical EI facets (see Ashkanasy and Daus, 2005 ) (e.g., Boyatzis et al., 2000 ; Boyatzis and Goleman, 2007 ). Over time it became clear that these different measures were tapping into related, yet distinct underlying constructs. Currently, there are two popular methods of classifying EI measures. First is the distinction between trait and ability EI proposed initially by Petrides and Furnham ( 2000 ) and further clarified by Pérez et al. ( 2005 ). Second is in terms of the three EI “streams” as proposed by Ashkanasy and Daus ( 2005 ). Fortunately there is overlap between these two methods of classification as we discuss below.

Methods of Classifying EI

The distinction between ability EI and trait EI first proposed by Petrides and Furnham ( 2000 ) was based purely on whether the measure was a test of maximal performance (ability EI) or a self-report questionnaire (trait EI) (Petrides and Furnham, 2000 ; Pérez et al., 2005 ). According to this method of classification, Ability EI tests measure constructs related to an individual's theoretical understanding of emotions and emotional functioning, whereas trait EI questionnaires measure typical behaviors in emotion-relevant situations (e.g., when an individual is confronted with stress or an upset friend) as well as self-rated abilities. Importantly, the key aspect of this method of classification is that EI type is best defined by method of measurement: all EI measures that are based on self-report items are termed “trait EI” whereas all measures that are based on maximal performance items are termed “ability EI”.

The second popular method of classifying EI measures refers the three EI “streams” (Ashkanasy and Daus, 2005 ). According to this method of classification, stream 1 includes ability measures based on Mayer and Salovey's model; stream 2 includes self-report measures based on Mayer and Salovey's model and stream 3 includes “expanded models of emotional intelligence that encompass components not included in Salovey and Mayer's definition” (p. 443). Ashkanasy and Daus ( 2005 ) noted that stream 3 had also been referred to as “mixed” models in that they comprise a mixture of personality and behavioral items. The term “mixed EI” is now frequently used in the literature to refer to EI measures that measure a combination of traits, social skills and competencies and overlaps with other personality measures (O'Boyle et al., 2011 ).

Prior to moving on, we note that Petrides and Furnham's ( 2000 ) trait vs. ability distinction is sufficient to categorize the vast majority of EI tests. Utilizing this system, both stream 2 (self-report) and stream 3 (self-report mixed) are simply classified as “trait” measures. Indeed as argued by Pérez et al. ( 2005 ), this method of classification is probably sufficient given that self-report measures of EI tend to correlate strongly regardless of whether they are stream 2 or stream 3 measures. However, given that the terms “stream 3” and “mixed” are so extensively used in the EI literature, we will also use them here. We are not proposing that these terms are ideal or even useful when classifying EI, but rather we wish to adopt language that is most representative of the existing literature on EI. In the following section therefore, we refer to ability EI (stream 1), trait EI (steam 2), and mixed EI (stream 3). As outlined later, decisions regarding which measure of EI to use should be based on what form of EI is relevant to a particular research project or professional application.

For the purposes of this review, we refer to “ability” based measures as tests that utilize questions/items comparable to those found in IQ tests (see Austin, 2010 ). These include all tests containing ability-type items and not only those based directly on Mayer and Salovey's model. In contrast to trait based measures, ability measures do not require that participants self-report on various statements, but rather require that participants solve emotion-related problems that have answers that are deemed to be correct or incorrect (e.g., what emotion might someone feel prior to a job interview? (a) sadness, (b) excitement, (c) nervousness, (d) all of the above). Ability based measures give a good indication of individuals' ability to understand emotions and how they work. However since they are tests of maximal ability, they do not tend to predict typical behavior as well as trait based measures (see O'Connor et al., 2017 ). Nevertheless, ability-based measures are valid, albeit weak, predictors of a range of outcomes including work related attitudes such as job satisfaction (Miao et al., 2017 ), and job performance (O'Boyle et al., 2011 ).

In this review, we define trait based measures as those that utilize self-report items to measure overall EI and its sub dimensions. We utilize this term for measures that are self-report, and have not explicitly been termed as “mixed” or “stream 3” by others. Individuals high in various measures of trait EI have been found to have high levels of self-efficacy regarding emotion-related behaviors and tend to be competent at managing and regulating emotions in themselves and others. Also, since trait EI measures tend to measure typical behavior rather than maximal performance, they tend to provide a good prediction of actual behaviors in a range of situations (Petrides and Furnham, 2000 ). Recent meta-analyses have linked trait EI to a range of work attitudes such as job satisfaction and organization commitment (Miao et al., 2017 ), Job Performance (O'Boyle et al., 2011 ).

As noted earlier, although the majority of EI measures can be categorized using the terms “ability EI” and “trait EI”, we adopt the term “mixed EI” in this review when this term has been explicitly used in our source articles. The term mixed EI is predominately used to refer to questionnaires that measure a combination of traits, social skills and competencies that overlap with other personality measures. Generally these measures are self-report, however a number also utilize 360 degree forms of assessment (self-report combined with multiple peer reports from supervisors, colleagues and subordinates) (e.g., Bar-On, 1997a , b ) This is particularly true for commercial measures designed to predict and improve performance in the workplace. A common aspect in many of these measures is the focus on emotional “competencies” which can theoretically be developed in individuals to enhance their professional success (See Goleman, 1995 ). Research on mixed measures have found them to be valid predictors of multiple emotion-related outcomes including job satisfaction, organizational commitment (Miao et al., 2017 ), and job performance (O'Boyle et al., 2011 ). Effect sizes of these relationships tend to be moderate and on par with trait-based measures.

We note that although different forms of EI have emerged (trait, ability, mixed) there are nevertheless a number of conceptual similarities in the majority of measures. In particular, the majority of EI measures are regarded as hierarchical meaning that they produce a total “EI score” for test takers along with scores on multiple facets/subscales. Additionally, the facets in ability, trait and mixed measures of EI have numerous conceptual overlaps. This is largely due to the early influential work of Mayer and Salovey. In particular, the majority of measures include facets relating to (1) perceiving emotions (in self and others), (2) regulating emotions in self, (3) regulating emotions in others, and (4) strategically utilizing emotions. Where relevant therefore, this article will compare how well different measures of EI assess the various facets common to multiple EI measures.

Emotional Intelligence Scales

The following emotional intelligence scales were selected to be reviewed in this article because they are all widely researched general measures of EI that also measure several of the major facets common to EI measures (perceiving emotions, regulating emotions, utilizing emotions).

• Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Tests (MSCEIT) (Mayer et al., 2002a , b ).
• Self-report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT) (Schutte et al., 1998 )
• Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) (Petrides and Furnham, 2001 )
• Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) (Bar-On, 1997a , b )
• The Situational Test of Emotional Management (STEM) (MacCann and Roberts, 2008 )
• The Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU) (MacCann and Roberts, 2008 )
• Emotional and Social competence Inventory (ESCI) (Boyatzis and Goleman, 2007 )

The complete literature review of these measures is included in the Literature Review section of this article. The following section provides a set of recommendations regarding which of these measures is appropriate to use across various research and applied scenarios.

Recommendations Regarding the Appropriate Use of Measures

Deciding between measuring trait ei, ability ei and mixed ei.

A key decision researchers/practitioners need to make prior to incorporating EI measures into their work is whether they should utilize a trait, ability or mixed measure of EI. In general, we suggest that when researchers/practitioners are interested in emotional abilities and competencies then they should utilize measures of ability EI. In particular ability EI is important in situations where a good theoretical understanding of emotions is required. For example a manager high in ability EI is more likely to make good decisions regarding team composition. Indeed numerous studies on ability EI and decision making in professionals indicates that those high in EI tend to be competent decision makers, problem solvers and negotiators due primarily to their enhanced abilities at perceiving and understanding emotions (see Mayer et al., 2008 ). More generally, ability EI research also has demonstrated associations between ability EI and social competence in children (Schultz et al., 2004 ) and adults (Brackett et al., 2006 ).

We suggest that researchers/practitioners should select trait measures of EI when they are interested in measuring behavioral tendencies and/or emotional self-efficacy. This should be when ongoing, typical behavior is likely to lead to positive outcomes, rather than intermittent, maximal performance. For example, research on task-induced stress (i.e., temporary states of negative affect evoked by short term, challenging tasks) has shown trait EI to have incremental validity over other predictors (O'Connor et al., 2017 ). More generally, research tends to show that trait EI is a good predictor of effective coping styles in response to life stressors (e.g., Austin et al., 2010 ). Overall, trait EI is associated with a broad set of emotion and social related outcomes adults and children (Mavroveli and Sánchez-Ruiz, 2011 ; Petrides et al., 2016 ) Therefore in situations characterized by ongoing stressors such as educational contexts and employment, we suggest that trait measures be used.

When both abilities and traits are important, researchers/practitioners might choose to use both ability and trait measures. Indeed some research demonstrates that both forms of EI are important stress buffers and that they exert their protective effects at different stages of the coping process: ability EI aids in the selection of coping strategies whereas trait EI predicts the implementation of such strategies once selected (Davis and Humphrey, 2014 ).

Finally, when researchers/practitioners are interested in a broader set of emotion-related and social-related dispositions and competencies we recommend a mixed measure. Mixed measures are particularly appropriate in the context of the workplace. This seems to be the case for two reasons: first, the tendency to frame EI as a set of competencies that can be trained (e.g., Goleman, 1995 ; Boyatzis and Goleman, 2007 ) is likely to equip workers with a positive growth mindset regarding their EI. Second, the emphasis on 360 degree forms of assessment in mixed measures provides individuals with information not only on their self-perceptions, but on how others perceive them which is also particularly useful in training situations.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Trait and Ability EI

There are numerous advantages and disadvantages of the different forms of EI that test users should factor into their decision. One disadvantage of self-report measures is that people are not always good judges of their emotion-related abilities and tendencies (Brackett et al., 2006 ; Sheldon et al., 2014 ; Boyatzis, 2018 ). A further disadvantage of self-report, trait based measures is their susceptibility to faking. Participants can easily come across as high in EI by answering questions in a strategic, socially desirable way. However, this is usually only an issue when test-takers believe that someone of importance (e.g., a supervisor or potential employer) will have access to their results. When it is for self-development or research, individuals are less likely to fake their answers to trait EI measures (see Tett et al., 2012 ). We also note that the theoretical bases of trait and mixed measures have also been questioned. Some have argued for example that self-report measures of EI measure nothing fundamentally different from the Big Five (e.g., Davies et al., 1998 ). We will not address this issue here as it has been extensively discussed elsewhere (e.g., Bucich and MacCann, 2019 ) however we emphasize that regardless of the statistical distinctiveness of self-report measures of EI, there is little question regarding their utility and predictive validity (O'Boyle et al., 2011 ; Miao et al., 2017 ).

One advantage of ability based measures is that they cannot be faked. Test-takers are told to give the answer they believe is correct, and consequently should try to obtain a score as high as possible. A further advantage is that they are often more engaging tests. Rather than simply rating agreement with statements as in trait based measures, test-takers attempt to solve emotion-related problems, solve puzzles, and rate emotions in pictures.

Overall however, there are a number of fundamental problems with ability based measures. First, many personality and intelligence theorists question the very existence of ability EI, and suggest it is nothing more than intelligence. This claim is supported by high correlations between ability EI and IQ, although some have provided evidence to the contrary (e.g., MacCann et al., 2014 ). Additionally, the common measures of ability EI tend to have relatively poor psychometric properties in terms of reliability and validity. Ability EI measures do not tend to strongly predict outcomes that they theoretically should predict (e.g., O'Boyle et al., 2011 ; Miao et al., 2017 ). Maul ( 2012 ) also outlines a comprehensive set of problems with the most widely used ability measure, the MSCEIT, related to consensus-based scoring, reliability, and underrepresentation of the EI construct. Also see Petrides ( 2011 ) for a comprehensive critique of ability measures.

General Recommendation for Non-experts Choosing Between Ability and Trait EI

While the distinction between trait, ability and mixed EI is important, we acknowledge that many readers will simply be looking for an overall measure of emotional functioning that can predict personal and professional effectiveness. Therefore, when potential users have no overt preference for trait or ability measures but need to decide, we strongly recommend researchers/ practitioners begin with a trait-based measure of EI . Compared to ability based measures, trait based measures tend to have very good psychometric properties, do not have questionable theoretical bases and correlate moderately and meaningfully with a broad set of outcome variables. In general, we believe that trait based measures are more appropriate for most purposes than ability based measures. That being said, several adequate measures of ability EI exist and these have been reviewed in the Literature Review section. If there is a strong preference to use ability measures of EI then several good options exist as outlined later.

Choosing a Specific Measure of Trait EI

Based on our literature review we suggest that a very good, comprehensive measure of trait EI is the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, or TEIQue (Petrides and Furnham, 2001 ). If users are not restricted by time or costs (commercial users need to pay, researchers do not) then the TEIQue is a very good option. The TEIQue is a widely used questionnaire that measures 4 factors and 15 facets of trait EI. It has been cited in more than 2,000 academic studies. It is regarded as a “trait” measure of EI because it is based entirely on self-report responses, and facet scores represent typical behavior rather than maximal performance. There is extensive evidence in support of its reliability and validity (Andrei et al., 2016 ). The four factors of the TEIQue map on to the broad EI facets present in multiple measures of EI as follows: emotionality = perceiving emotions, self-control = regulating emotions in self, sociability = regulating emotions in others, well-being = strategically utilizing emotions.

One disadvantage of the TEIQue however is that it is not freely available for commercial use. The website states that commercial or quasi-commercial use without permission is prohibited. The test can nevertheless be commercially used for a relatively small fee. The relevant webpage can be found here ( http://psychometriclab.com/ ). A second disadvantage is that the test can be fairly easily faked due to its use of a self-report response scale. However, this is generally only an issue when individuals have a reason for faking (e.g., their score will be seen by someone else and might impact their prospects of being selected for a job) (see Tett et al., 2012 ). Consequently, we do not recommend the TEIQue to be used for personnel selection, but it is relevant for other professional purposes such as in EI training and executive coaching.

There are very few free measures of trait EI that have been adequately investigated. One exception is the widely used, freely available measure termed the Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT, Schutte et al., 1998 ). The SREIT has been cited more than 3,000 times. The full paper which includes all test items can be accessed here ( https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247166550_Development_and_Validation_of_a_Measure_of_Emotional_Intelligence ). Although it was designed to measure overall EI, subsequent research indicates that it performs better as a multidimensional scale measuring 4 distinct factors including: optimism/mood regulation, appraisal of emotions, social skills and utilization of emotions. These four scales again map closely to the broad facets present in many EI instruments as follows: optimism/mood regulation = regulating emotions in self, appraisal of emotions = perceiving emotions in self, social skills = regulating emotions in others, and utilization of emotions = strategically utilizing emotions. Please note that although one study has comprehensively critiqued the SREIT (Petrides and Furnham, 2000 ), it actually works well as a multidimensional measure. This was acknowledged by the authors of the critique and has been subsequently confirmed (e.g., by O'Connor and Athota, 2013 ).

Long vs. Short Measures of Trait EI

The TEIQue is available in long form (153 items, 15 facets, 4 factors) and short form (30 items, 4 factors/subscales). A complete description of all factors and facets can be found here ( http://www.psychometriclab.com/adminsdata/files/TEIQue%20interpretations.pdf ). We recommend using the short form when users are interested in measuring only the 4 broad EI factors measured by this questionnaire (self-control, well-being, sociability, emotionality). Additionally, there is much more research on the short form of the questionnaire (e.g., Cooper and Petrides, 2010 ) (see Table 5 ), and the scoring instructions for the short form are freely available for researchers. If the short form is used, it is recommended that all factors/subscales are utilized because they predict outcomes in different ways (e.g., O'Connor and Brown, 2016 ). The SREIT is available only as a short, 33 item measure. All subscales are regarded as equally important and should be included if possible. Again it is noted that this test is freely available and the article publishing the items specifically states “Note: the authors permit free use of the scale for research and clinical purposes.”

Review of selected studies on psychometric properties of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue).

Note some of the studies reviewed in this table utilize student samples. As specified in the inclusion criteria section we targeted non-student samples and only utilized student samples where others were not available or not appropriate.

When users require a comprehensive measure of trait EI, the long form of the TEIQue is also a good option (see Table 5 ). Although not as widely researched as the short version, the long version nevertheless has strong empirical support for reliability and validity. The long form is likely to be particularly useful for coaching and training purposes, because the use of 15 narrow facets allows for more focused training and intervention than measures with fewer broad facets/factors.

Choosing Between Measures of Ability EI

The most researched and supported measure of ability EI is the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) (see Tables 2 , ​ ,3). 3 ). It has been cited in more than 1,500 academic studies. It uses a 4 branch approach to ability EI and measures ability dimensions of perceiving emotions, facilitating thought, understanding emotions and managing emotions. These scales broadly map onto the broad constructs present in many measures of EI as follows: facilitating thought = strategically utilizing emotions, perceiving emotions = perceiving emotions in self and others, understanding emotions = understanding emotions, and managing emotions = regulating emotions in self and others. However, this is a highly commercialized test and relatively expensive to use. The test is also relatively long (141 items) and time consuming to complete (30–45 min).

Summary of major emotional Intelligence assessment measures.

Note the measures reviewed above were selected based on widespread use and validation. Although other measures exist, they were not reviewed based on either less research in general or poor psychometric support. However, if none of those reviewed above are considered appropriate, three further available measures could be considered. One relatively new measure with good preliminary support is the Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Palmer et al., 2009 ). This is a commercial, mixed measure of EI and requires payment. A further, freely available measure is Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS) (trait-based; see Wong et al., 2004 , 2007 ). A third very new measure is the Geneva Emotional Competence Test (GECo) (see Schlegel and Mortillaro, 2019 ). It is an ability based measure designed for the workplace that looks very promising based on early work .

Review of selected studies detailing psychometric properties of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).

Note two of the studies reviewed in this table utilize student samples. As specified in the inclusion criteria section we targeted non-student samples and only utilized student samples where others were not available or not appropriate .

A second, potentially more practical option includes two related tests of ability EI designed by MacCann and Roberts ( 2008 ) (see Tables 2 , ​ ,7). 7 ). These tests are called the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM) and the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (the STEU). These tests are becoming increasingly used in academic articles; the original paper has now been cited more than 250 times. The two aspects of ability EI measured in these tests map neatly onto two of the broad EI constructs present in multiple measures of EI. Specifically, the STEM can be regarded as a measure of emotional regulation in oneself and the STEU can be regarded as a measure of emotional understanding. As indicated in Table 7 , there is strong psychometric support for these tests (although the alpha for STEU is sometimes borderline/low). A further advantage of STEU is that it contains several items regarding workplace behavior, making it highly applicable for use in professional contexts.

Review of selected studies on psychometric properties of the STEU and STEM.

Note some of the studies reviewed in this table utilize student samples. As specified in the inclusion criteria section we targeted non-student samples and only utilized student samples where others were not available or not appropriate .

If researchers/practitioners decide to use the STEM and STEU, additional measures might be required to measure the remaining broad EI constructs present in other tests. Although these measures could all come from relevant scales of tests reviewed in this article (see Table 1 ), there is a further option. Users should consider the Diagnostic Analysis of Non-verbal Accuracy scale (DANVA) which is a widely used, validated measure of perceiving emotion in others (see Nowicki and Duke, 1994 for an introduction to the DANVA). Alternatively, for those open to using a combination of ability and trait measures, users might wish to use Schutte et al.'s ( 1998 ) SREIT to assess remaining facets of EI (see Table 4 ). This is because it is free and captures aspects of EI not measured by STEM/STEU. These include appraisal of emotions (for perceiving emotions) and utilization of emotions (for strategically utilizing emotions), respectively.

Summary of recommended emotional intelligence assessment measures for each broad EI construct.

Review of selected studies detailing psychometric properties of the Self-report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT).

Therefore, if there is a strong preference to utilize ability based measures, the STEM, STEU, and DANVA represent some very good options worth considering. The advantage of using these over the MSCEIT is the lower cost of these measures and the reduced test time. Although the STEM, STEU, and DANVA do not seem to be freely available for commercial use, they are nevertheless appropriate for commercial use and likely to be cheaper than alternative options at this point in time.

Deciding Between Using a Single Measure or Multiple Measures

When seeking to measure EI, researchers/practitioners could choose to use (1) a single EI tool that measures overall EI along with common EI facets (i.e., perceiving emotions in self and others, regulating emotions in self and others and strategically utilizing emotions) or (2) some combination of existing scales from EI tool/s to cumulatively measure the four constructs.

The first option represents the most pragmatic and generally optimal solution because all information about the relevant facets and related measures would usually be located in a single document (e.g., test manual, journal article) or website. Additionally, if a paid test is used it would only require a single payment to a single author/institution. Furthermore, single EI tools are generally based on theoretical models of EI that have implications for training and development. For example EI facets in Goleman's ( 1995 ) model (as measured using the ESCI, Boyatzis and Goleman, 2007 ) are regarded as characteristics that can be trained. Therefore, if a single EI tool is selected, the theory underlying the tool could be used to model the interventions.

However, a disadvantage of the first option is that some EI measures will not contain the specific set of EI constructs researchers/practitioners are interested in assessing. This will often be the case when practitioners are seeking a comprehensive measure of EI but prefer a freely available measure. The second option specified above would solve this problem. However, the trade-off would be increased complexity and the absence of a single underlying theory that relates to the selected measures. Tables 2 – 8 describe facets within each measure as well as reliability and validity evidence for each facet and can be used to assist the selection of multiple measures if users choose to do this.

Review of selected studies on psychometric properties of the Emotional and Social competence Inventory (ESCI).

Review of selected studies on psychometric properties of the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) (Bar-On, 1997a , b ).

The Best Measure of Each Broad EI Construct (Evaluated Across all Reviewed Tests)

In some cases, researchers/practitioners will not need to measure overall EI, but instead seek to measure a single dimension of EI (e.g., emotion perception, emotion management etc.). In general, we caution the selective use of individual EI scales and recommend that users habitually measure and control for EI facets they are not directly interested in. Nevertheless, we acknowledge that in some cases users will have to select a single measure and consequently, this section specifies a selection of what we consider the “best” measures for each construct. We do this for both free measures and those requiring payment. In order to determine which measure constitutes the “best” measure for each construct, the following criteria were applied:

• The measure should have been used in multiple research studies published in high quality journals.
• There should be good evidence for the reliability of the measure in multiple academic studies incorporating the measure.
• The measure should have obtained adequate validity evidence in multiple academic studies. Most importantly, evidence of construct validity should have been established, including findings demonstrating that the measure correlates meaningfully with measures of related constructs.
• The measure should be based on a strong and well-supported theory of EI.
• The measure should be practical (i.e., easy to administer, quickly completed and scored).

Where multiple measures met the above criteria, they were compared on their performance on each criterion (i.e., a measure with a lot of research scored higher on the first criteria than a measure with a medium level of research). Table 1 summarizes these results.

Please note that the Emotional and Social Intelligence Inventory (ESCI) by Boyatzis and Goleman ( 2007 ) has subscales that are also closely related to the ones listed in Table 1 (see full technical manual here ( http://www.eiconsortium.org/pdf/ESCI_user_guide.pdf ). The measure was developed primarily to predict and enhance performance at work and items are generally written to reflect workplace scenarios. Subscales from this test were not consistently chosen as the “best” measures because it has not had as extensive published research as the other tests. Most research using this measure has also used peer-ratings rather than self-ratings which makes it difficult to compare with the majority of measures (this is not a weakness though). Nevertheless, it should be considered if cost is not an issue and there is a strong desire to utilize a test specifically developed for the workplace.

Qualifications and Training

Although our purpose in this paper is not to outline the necessary training or qualifications required to administer the set of tests/questionnaires reviewed, we feel it is important to make some comments on this. First, we recommend that all researchers and practitioners considering using one more of these tests have a good understanding of the principles of psychological assessment. Users should understand the concepts of reliability, validity and the role of norms in psychological testing. There are many good introductory texts in this area (e.g., Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2017 ). Furthermore, we recommend users have a good understanding of the limitations of psychological testing and assessment. When using EI measures to evaluate suitability of job applicants, these measures should form only part of the assessment process and should not be regarded as comprehensive information about applicants. Finally, some of the tests outlined in this review require specific certification and/or qualifications. Certification and/or qualification is required for administrators of the ESCI, MSCEIT, and EQi 2.0).

Literature Review

The final section of this article is a literature review of the 6 popular measures we have covered. We have included our review at the end of this article because we regard it as optional reading. We suggest that this section will be useful primarily for those seeking a more in depth understanding of the key studies underlying the various measures we have presented in earlier sections.

This literature review had two related aims; first to identify prominent EI measures used in the literature, as well as specifically in applied (e.g., health care) contexts. The emotional intelligence measures we included were those that measured both overall EI as well as more specific EI constructs common to multiple measures (e.g., those related to perceiving emotions in self and others, regulating emotions in self and others and strategically utilizing emotions). The second aim was to identify individual studies that have explored the validity and reliability of the specific emotional intelligence measures identified.

Inclusion Criteria

Four main inclusion criteria were applied to select literature: (a) focus on adult samples, (b) use of reputable, peer-reviewed journal articles, (c) use of an EI scale, and (d) where possible, use of a professional sample (e.g., health care professionals) rather than primarily student samples. The literature search therefore focused on empirical, quantitative investigations published in peer-reviewed journals. The articles reviewed therefore were generally methodologically sound and enabled a thorough analysis of some aspect of reliability or validity. We only reviewed articles published after 1990. Additionally, only papers in English were reviewed.

Papers were identified by conducting searches in the following electronic databases: PsycINFO, Medline, PubMED, CINAHL (Cumulative Index for Nursing and Allied Health Literature), EBSCO host and Google Scholar. Individual journals were also scanned such as The Journal of Nursing Measurement and Psychological Assessment.

Search Terms

When searching for emotional intelligence scales and related literature, search terms included: trait emotional intelligence, ability emotional intelligence, emotional intelligence scales, mixed emotional intelligence and emotional intelligence measures. Some common EI facet titles (e.g., self-awareness, self-regulation/self-management, social awareness, and relationship management) were also entered as search terms however this revealed far less relevant literature than searches based on EI terms. To access studies using professionals we also used terms such as workplace, healthcare, and nursing, along with emotional intelligence.

When searching for literature on the identified scales, the name of the respective scale was included in the search term (such as TEIQue scale) and the authors' names, along with terms such as workplace, organization, health care, nurses, health care professionals, to identify specific studies with a professional employee sample that utilized the specific scale. The terms validity and reliability were also used. Additionally, a similar search was conducted on articles that had cited the original papers. This search was done conducted utilizing Google Scholar. Table 2 summarizes the result of the first part of the literature review. It provides an overview of major Emotional Intelligence assessment measures, in terms of when they were developed, who developed them, what form of EI they measure, theoretical basis, test length and details regarding cost.

Tables 3 – 8 summarize research on the validity and reliability of the 6 tests included in Table 2 . In these tables we summarize the methodology used in major studies assessing reliability and validity as well as the results from these studies.

Collectively, these tables indicate that all 6 of the measures we reviewed have received some support for their reliability and validity. Measures with extensive research include the MSCEIT, SREIT, and TEIQue, and EQ-I and those with less total research are the STEU/STEM and ESCI. Existing research does not indicate that these latter measures are any less valid or reliable that the others; on the contrary they are promising measures but require further tests of reliability and validity. As noted previously, this table confirms that the tests with the strongest current evidence for construct and predictive validity are the self-report/trait EI measures (TEIQue, EQ-I, and SREIT). We note that although there is evidence for construct validity of the SREIT based on associations with theoretically related constructs (e.g., alexithymia, optimism; see Table 4 ), some have suggested the measure is problematic due to its use of self-report questions that primarily measure ability based constructs (see Petrides and Furnham, 2000 ).

In this article we have reviewed six widely used measures of EI and made recommendations regarding their appropriate use. This article was written primarily for researchers and practitioners who are not currently experts on EI and therefore we also clarified the difference between ability EI, trait EI and mixed EI. Overall, we recommend that users should use single, complete tests where possible and choose measures of EI most suitable for their purpose (i.e., choose ability EI when maximal performance is important and trait EI when typical performance is important). We also point out that, across the majority of emotion-related outcomes, trait EI tends to be a stronger predictor and consequently we suggest that new users of EI consider using a trait-based measure before assessing alternatives. The exception is in employment contexts where tests utilizing 360 degree assessment (primarily mixed measures) can also be very useful.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding. The QUT library funded the article processing charges for this paper.

• Andrei F., Siegling A. B., Aloe A. M., Baldaro B., Petrides K. V. (2016). The incremental validity of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire (TEIQue): a systematic review and meta-analysis . J. Personal. Assess. 98 , 261–276. 10.1080/00223891.2015.1084630 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ashkanasy N. M., Daus C. S. (2005). Rumors of the death of emotional intelligence in organizational behavior are vastly exaggerated . J. Organiz. Behav. 26 , 441–452. 10.1002/job.320 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Austin E. J. (2010). Measurement of ability emotional intelligence: Results for two new tests . Br. J. Psychol. 101 , 563–578. 10.1348/000712609X474370 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Austin E. J., Saklofske D. H., Mastoras S. M. (2010). Emotional intelligence, coping and exam-related stress in Canadian undergraduate students . Austral. J. Psychol. 62 , 42–50. 10.1080/00049530903312899 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bar-On R. (1996). The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): A Test of Emotional Intelligence . Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bar-On R. (1997a). Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: User's Manual. Toronto, ON: Multihealth Systems. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bar-On R. (1997b). The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): Technical manual . Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems, Inc. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bar-On R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI) . Psicothema 18 , 13–25. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bar-On R., Brown J. M., Kirkcaldy B. D., Thomé E. P. (2000). Emotional expression and implications for occupational stress; an application of the emotional quotient inventory (EQ-i) . Personal. Indiv. Differe. 28 , 1107–1118. 10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00160-9 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyatzis R., Rochford K., Cavanagh K. V. (2017). Emotional intelligence competencies in engineer's effectiveness and engagement . Career Dev. Int. 22 , 70–86. 10.1108/CDI-08-2016-0136 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyatzis R. E. (2018). The behavioral level of emotional intelligence and its measurement . Front. Psychol. 9 :01438. 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01438 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyatzis R. E., Gaskin J. (2010). A Technical Note on the ESCI and ESCI-U: Factor Structure, Reliability, Convergent and Discriminant Validity Using EFA and CFA . Boston, MA: The Hay Group. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyatzis R. E., Goleman D. (2007). Emotional and Social Competency Inventory. Boston, MA: The Hay Group. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyatzis R. E., Goleman D., Rhee K. (2000). Clustering competence in emotional intelligence: insights from the emotional competence inventory (ECI) ,in Handbook of Emotional Intelligence, eds Bar-On R., Parker J. D. A. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; ), 343–362 [ Google Scholar ]
• Brackett M. A., Mayer J. D. (2003). Convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of competing measures of emotional intelligence . Personal. Social Psychol. Bull. 29 , 1147–1158. 10.1177/0146167203254596 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brackett M. A., Rivers S. E., Shiffman S., Lerner N., Salovey P. (2006). Relating emotional abilities to social functioning: a comparison of self-report and performance measures of emotional intelligence . J. Personal. Social Psychol. 91 :780. 10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.780 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bucich M., MacCann C. (2019). Emotional intelligence research in Australia: Past contributions and future directions . Austral. J. Psychol. 71 , 59–67. 10.1111/ajpy.12231 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Conte J. M. (2005). A review and critique of emotional intelligence measures . J. Organiz. Behav. 26 , 433–440. 10.1002/job.319 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cooper A., Petrides K. (2010). A psychometric analysis of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire–short form (TEIQue–SF) using item response theory . J. Personal. Assess. 92 , 449–457. 10.1080/00223891.2010.497426 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Davies M., Stankov L., Roberts R. D. (1998). Emotional intelligence: in search of an elusive construct . J. Personal. Social Psychol. 75 :989. 10.1037/0022-3514.75.4.989 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Davis S. K., Humphrey N. (2014). Ability versus trait emotional intelligence . J. Indiv. Differ. 35 , 54–52. 10.1027/1614-0001/a000127 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dawda D., Hart S. D. (2000). Assessing emotional intelligence: reliability and validity of the bar-on emotional quotient inventory (EQ-i) in university students . Personal. Indiv. Diff. 28 , 797–812. 10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00139-7 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dulewicz V., Higgs M., Slaski M. (2003). Measuring emotional intelligence: content, construct and criterion-related validity . J. Manag. Psychol. 18 , 405–420. 10.1108/02683940310484017 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Goleman D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence . New York, NY: Bantam Books. [ Google Scholar ]
• Grant A. M. (2013). Rocking the boat but keeping it steady: The role of emotion regulation in employee voice . Acad. Manag. J. 56 , 1703–1723. 10.5465/amj.2011.0035 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gutiérrez-Cobo M. J., Cabello R., Fernández-Berrocal P. (2016). The relationship between emotional intelligence and cool and hot cognitive processes: a systematic review . Front. Behav. Neurosci. 10 :101. 10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00101 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Heffernan M., Quinn Griffin M. T., Sister Rita McNulty S. R., Fitzpatrick J. J. (2010). Self-compassion and emotional intelligence in nurses . Int. J. Nurs. Pract. 16 , 366–373. 10.1111/j.1440-172X.2010.01853.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kaplan R. M., Saccuzzo D. P. (2017). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues . Mason, OH: Nelson Education. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kinman G., Grant L. (2011). Exploring stress resilience in trainee social workers: the role of emotional and social competencies . Br. J. Social Work 41 , 261–275. 10.1093/bjsw/bcq088 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kun B., Demetrovics Z. (2010). Emotional intelligence and addictions: a systematic review . Subst. Misuse 45 , 1131–1160. 10.3109/10826080903567855 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• MacCann C. (2006). Appendix 2.1 Instructions and Items in STEU (Situational Test of Emotional Understanding). Retrieved from: https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/2123/934/3/03Appendices.pdf
• MacCann C., Joseph D. L., Newman D. A., Roberts R. D. (2014). Emotional intelligence is a second-stratum factor of intelligence: evidence from hierarchical and bifactor models . Emotion 14 , 358–374. 10.1037/a0034755 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• MacCann C., Roberts R. D. (2008). New paradigms for assessing emotional intelligence: theory and data . Emotion 8 , 540–551. 10.1037/a0012746 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maul A. (2012). The validity of the mayer–salovey–caruso emotional intelligence test (MSCEIT) as a measure of emotional intelligence . Emot. Rev. 4 , 394–402. 10.1177/1754073912445811 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mavroveli S., Sánchez-Ruiz M. J. (2011). Trait emotional intelligence influences on academic achievement and school behaviour . Br. J. Edu. Psychol. 81 , 112–134. 10.1348/2044-8279.002009 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mayer J. D., Caruso D. R., Salovey P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence . Intelligence 27 , 267–298. 10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00016-1 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mayer J. D., Roberts R. D., Barsade S. G. (2008). Human abilities: Emotional intelligence . Annu. Rev. Psychol . 59 , 507–536. 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mayer J. D., Salovey P., Caruso D., Sternberg R. J. (2000). Models of Emotional Intelligence , ed Sternberg R. J. (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; ), 396–420. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mayer J. D., Salovey P., Caruso D. R. (2002a). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) Item Booklet . Toronto, ON: MHS Publishers. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mayer J. D., Salovey P., Caruso D. R. (2002b). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) User's Manual . Toronto, ON: MHS Publishers. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mayer J. D., Salovey P., Caruso D. R., Sitarenios G. (2001). Emotional intelligence as a standard intelligence . Emotion 1 , 232–242. 10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.232 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mayer J. D., Salovey P., Caruso D. R., Sitarenios G. (2003). Measuring emotional intelligence with the MSCEIT V2. 0 . Emotion 3 , 97–105. 10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.97 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Miao C., Humphrey R. H., Qian S. (2017). A meta-analysis of emotional intelligence and work attitudes . J. Occupat. Organiz. Psychol. 90 , 177–202. 10.1111/joop.12167 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mikolajczak M., Menil C., Luminet O. (2007). Explaining the protective effect of trait emotional intelligence regarding occupational stress: exploration of emotional labour processes . J. Res. Person. 41 , 1107–1117. 10.1016/j.jrp.2007.01.003 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Morrison J. (2008). The relationship between emotional intelligence competencies and preferred conflict-handling styles . J. Nurs. Manage. 16 , 974–983. 10.1111/j.1365-2834.2008.00876.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nowicki S., Duke M. P. (1994). Individual differences in the nonverbal communication of affect: the diagnostic analysis of nonverbal accuracy scale . J. Nonverb. Behav. 18 , 9–35. 10.1007/BF02169077 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Boyle E. H., Jr., Humphrey R. H., Pollack J. M., Hawver T. H., Story P. A. (2011). The relation between emotional intelligence and job performance: a meta-analysis . J. Organiz. Beha. 32 , 788–818. 10.1002/job.714 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Connor P., Nguyen J., Anglim J. (2017). Effectively coping with task stress: a study of the validity of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire–short form (TEIQue–SF) . J. Personal. Assess. 99 , 304–314. 10.1080/00223891.2016.1226175 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Connor P. J., Athota V. S. (2013). The intervening role of Agreeableness in the relationship between trait emotional intelligence and machiavellianism: reassessing the potential dark side of EI . Personal. Indiv. Differe. 55 , 750–754. 10.1016/j.paid.2013.06.006 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Connor P. J., Brown C. M. (2016). Sex-linked personality traits and stress: emotional skills protect feminine women from stress but not feminine men . Personal. Indiv. Differe. 99 , 28–32. 10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.075 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Palmer B. R., Stough C., Harmer R., Gignac G. (2009). The genos emotional intelligence inventory: a measure designed specifically for workplace applications . in Assessing Emotional Intelligence (Boston, MA: Springer; ), 103–117. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pérez J. C., Petrides K. V., Furnham A. (2005). Measuring Trait Emotional Intelligence. Emotional intelligence: An International Handbook , ed Schulze R., Roberts R. D. (Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe & Huber; ), 181–201. [ Google Scholar ]
• Petrides K. V. (2009). Psychometric properties of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire , in Advances in the Assessment of Emotional Intelligence , eds Stough C., Saklofske D. H., Parker J. D. (New York, NY: Springer; ), 85–101. [ Google Scholar ]
• Petrides K. V. (2011). Ability and trait emotional intelligence , in The Blackwell-Wiley Handbook of Individual Differences , eds Chamorro-Premuzic T., Furnham A., von Stumm S. (New York, NY: Wiley; ). [ Google Scholar ]
• Petrides K. V., Furnham A. (2000). On the dimensional structure of emotional intelligence . Personal. Indivi. Differ. 29 , 313–320. 10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00195-6 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Petrides K. V., Furnham A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies . Eur. J. Person. 15 , 425–448. 10.1002/per.416 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Petrides K. V., Mikolajczak M., Mavroveli S., Sanchez-Ruiz M. J., Furnham A., Pérez-González J. C. (2016). Developments in trait emotional intelligence research . Emot. Rev. 8 , 335–341. 10.1177/1754073916650493 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Por J., Barriball L., Fitzpatrick J., Roberts J. (2011). Emotional intelligence: Its relationship to stress, coping, well-being and professional performance in nursing students . Nurse Edu. Today 31 , 855–860. 10.1016/j.nedt.2010.12.023 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reed S., Kassis K., Nagel R., Verbeck N., Mahan J. D., Shell R. (2015). Does emotional intelligence predict breaking bad news skills in pediatric interns? A pilot study . Med. Edu. Online 20 :e24245. 10.3402/meo.v20.24245 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Roberts R. D., Zeidner M., Matthews G. (2001). Does emotional intelligence meet traditional standards for an intelligence? Some new data and conclusions . Emotion 1 :196. 10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.196 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Roseman I. J. (2001). A Model of Appraisal in the Emotion System. Appraisal Processes in Emotion: Theory, Methods, Research , ed Scherer K. R., Schorr A., Johnstone T. (Oxford: Oxford University Press; ), 68–91. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rosete D., Ciarrochi J. (2005). Emotional intelligence and its relationship to workplace performance outcomes of leadership effectiveness . Leadership Organiz. Dev. J. 26 , 388–399. 10.1108/01437730510607871 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ruiz-Aranda D., Extremera N., Pineda-Galán C. (2014). Emotional intelligence, life satisfaction and subjective happiness in female student health professionals: the mediating effect of perceived stress . J. Psychia. Mental Health Nurs. 21 , 106–113. 10.1111/jpm.12052 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Salovey P., Mayer J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence . Imag. Cogn. Persona. 9 , 185–211. 10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schlegel K., Mortillaro M. (2019). The Geneva Emotional Competence Test (GECo): an ability measure of workplace emotional intelligence . J. Appl. Psychol. 104 , 559–580. 10.1037/apl0000365 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schultz D., Izard C. E., Bear G. (2004). Children's emotion processing: Relations to emotionality and aggression . Dev. Psychopathol. 16 , 371–387. 10.1017/S0954579404044566 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schutte N. S., Malouff J. M., Hall L. E., Haggerty D. J., Cooper J. T., Golden C. J., et al. (1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence . Personal. Indivi. Diff. 25 , 167–177. 10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00001-4 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sheldon O. J., Dunning D., Ames D. R. (2014). Emotionally unskilled, unaware, and uninterested in learning more: reactions to feedback about deficits in emotional intelligence . J. Appl. Psychol. 99 , 125–137. 10.1037/a0034138 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Siegling A. B., Saklofske D. H., Petrides K. V. (2015). Measures of ability and trait emotional intelligence . Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Constructs , eds Boyle G. J., Matthews G., Saklofske D. H. (San Diego, CA: Academic Press; ), 381–414. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tett R. P., Freund K. A., Christiansen N. D., Fox K. E., Coaster J. (2012). Faking on self-report emotional intelligence and personality tests: Effects of faking opportunity, cognitive ability, and job type . Personal. Indivi. Diffe. 52 , 195–201. 10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.017 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Van Rooy D. L., Viswesvaran C., Pluta P. (2005). An evaluation of construct validity: What is this thing called emotional intelligence? Hum. Perform. 18 , 445–462. 10.1207/s15327043hup1804_9 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wong C. S., Law K. S., Wong P. M. (2004). Development and validation of a forced choice emotional intelligence for Chinese respondents in Hong Kong . Asia Pacific J. Manage. 21 , 535–559. 10.1023/B:APJM.0000048717.31261.d0 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wong C. S., Wong P. M., Law K. S. (2007). Evidence of the practical utility of Wong's emotional intelligence scale in Hong Kong and mainland China . Asia Pac. J. Manage. 24 , 43–60. 10.1007/s10490-006-9024-1 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

• English/Global

• Member Login

The Amadori Case: Supplying McDonalds

This study answers 3 questions: 

Does Emotional intelligence affect Individual Performance?

Does Emotional Intelligence affect Organization Engagement?

Does Organizational Engagement impact Organizational Performance?

A three-year study of AMADORI, a supplier of McDonald’s in Europe, assesses links between emotional intelligence, individual performance, organizational engagement, and organizational performance.  Emotional intelligence was found to predict 47% of the variation in manager’s performance management scores.  Emotional intelligence was also massively correlated with increased organizational engagement with 76% of the variation in engagement predicted by manager EQ.  Finally, plants with higher organizational engagement achieved higher bottom-line results building a link between EQ->Engagement->Performance.  During this period, employee turnover also dropped by 63%.

Emotional Intelligence Impacts Performance

Of variation in managers' performance scores is predicted by eq, of variation in organizational engagement scores is predicted by eq, is the difference in performance scores between highest and lowest-engagement workplaces, how can emotional intelligence help….

Grow A Manager’s Performance

In this study, the variation in managers’ performance scores was largely predicted by emotional intelligence scores. Learn More

Increase Organization-Wide Engagement

Organizations with high EQ managers are significantly more likely to score high in engagement . Learn More

Create Better Performance

Organizations with high engagement scores and high EQ managers are more productive and have higher employee retention rates. Learn More

“We can certainly say…

that the Six Seconds training proved decisive in pushing managers and middle managers towards improving their leadership skills. Within a few years of using the performance and talent management system, we have witnessed an improvement of the managerial competencies of the whole organization, and especially in those of middle management.”

-Paolo Pampanini, HR Director, AMADORI

1. Does EQ Affect Individual Performance?

To assess this question, two variables were evaluated:  EQ scores and Performance scores. EQ scores were measured using Six Seconds’ SEI Assessment. Performance scores were measured using AMADORI’s Performance Management System. The sample was 147 of AMADORI’s managers and middle managers.

The managers in the top 25% of EQ scored higher on the company’s performance management system:

• Highest 25% of EQ
• Lowest 25% of EQ

EQ Scores Predicted 47% of The Variation in Managers’ Performance Results

To assess the power of the relationship between EQ and performance, a linear regression analysis was conducted, revealing a statistically significant positive relationship between the managers‘ EQ scores and their Results scores.

Discussion: EQ & Individual Performance

While many studies correlate emotional intelligence with business performance, this finding is unique because of the strong, significant link between the “hard” outcome of results and the “soft skills” of emotional intelligence.  Since we know that emotional intelligence is learnable, this finding suggests that massive individual performance benefits can be reached by developing these skills, and by selecting managers who already exhibit these skills.

It’s also worth noting that unlike many of the other studies of emotional intelligence, this study is looking at an industrial sector.  Thus, even in a basic infrastructure industry, it appears that emotional intelligence is a critical success factor.  

2. Does EQ Affect Organizational Engagement?

To assess this question, two variables were evaluated:  EQ scores and Engagement Index scores. The sample for EQ scores was 147 of AMADORI’s managers and middle managers and the sample for Engagement Index scores was three of AMADORI’s largest production plants.

The plants with the highest EQ managers scored higher on the Organizational Engagement Index:

• Plant with Lowest EQ Manager
• Plant with Mid-EQ Manager
• Plant with Highest EQ Managers

Manager EQ Scores Predicted 76% of Employee Engagement

To assess the power of the relationship between managers’ EQ and organizational engagement, a linear regression analysis was conducted, revealing a statistically significant positive relationship between the managers‘ EQ scores and employee engagement scores.

Discussion: EQ & Organizational Engagement

The managers’ level of emotional intelligence appears to positively influence employee engagement.  While this is a small number of plants, the trend is very powerful.  In this sample, 76% of the variation in engagement is predicted by variation in manager EQ — suggesting that increasing manager EQ is imperative for organizations concerned with increasing employee engagement.

3. Does Organizational Engagement Impact Organizational Performance?

To assess this question, two variables were evaluated: Organizational Engagement Index scores and Plant Performance scores. The Organizational Vitality Signs assessment was given to AMADORI’s three largest plants to measure engagement, and AMADORI’s own Global Key Performance Indicator assessment was given to each plant to measure Plant Performance.

The Plant with the lowest level of engagement performed the worst:

• Plant with Lowest Engagement
• Plant with Medium-High Engagement
• Plant with Highest Engagement

High Plant Engagement Correlated with Highest Employee Retention Rate

To assess the power of the relationship between organizational engagement and retention rates, a linear regression analysis was conducted, revealing a statistically significant positive relationship between organizational engagement and retention rates.

Discussion: Engagement & Organizational Performance

While the link between engagement and outcomes as measured by the OVS is well established, this study provides an important additional ingredient.  The objective performance data from the company’s Key Performance Indicator substantiates the link between employee engagement and performance.  Further, this finding adds evidence that the outcomes measure by the Organizational Vital Signs assessment are linked to “real world” performance.

The study provides evidence to affirm the three of the questions:

• Does Emotional intelligence affect Individual Performance?   Yes, strongly.
• Does Emotional Intelligence affect Organization Engagement?   Yes .
• Does Organizational Engagement impact Organizational Performance?  Yes .

There is strong evidence that emotional intelligence is predictive of individual performance; we found that 47% of the variation in performance is predicted by variation in EQ.  Plants with more emotionally intelligent managers had higher organizational engagement.  Plants with higher organizational engagement reached better performance.

It appears that Emotional Intelligence, as measured by the Six Seconds Emotional Intelligence Assessment, is a significant (perhaps even essential) capacity not only for individuals but also for entire organizations.  These findings suggest that emotional intelligence and organizational engagement are key drivers of performance. 

63% Reduction in Personnel Turnover

In addition to the results of the study, one striking result was a drastic 63% reduction of personnel turnover of Amadori’s sales force.  Sales managers participated in the EQ training, and the competency framework and manager-coach process was extended to the external sales force (300 sales agents all over Italy).  The employee turnover rates are shown in this graph:

• 2010 Turnover Rate
• 2011 Turnover Rate
• 2012 Turnover Rate

Recommendations

For other companies considering this type of implementation, there were several “lessons learned” in the Amadori case.  The first is the value of metrics.  The project started with robust data and the creation of a meaningful performance management system.  

Many organizations are moving toward a “balanced scorecard” approach to performance management.  It can be a difficult transition when most operations have traditionally only focused on results.  Senior leaders need to be very serious if they are going to commit to measure both the “what” and “how.”  In this case, we can see that focus is part of the bottom line too.  It’s about having a longer-term vision; if we only focus on the short-term, “good results” in one quarter could actually be undermining value.  When those results are created in a healthy way, the organization becomes stronger.

These systems are often imperfect, but Pampanini points out that it’s important to have the data and refine.  Using tools like SEI and VS provided normative data that is robust and meaningful for individuals as well as the whole organizations.

This “refining” concept is consistent with the best practices of the Change MAP process.  The three stages of Engage, Activate, Reflect are presented in a cycle.  A multi-year project goes through this cycle many times, continuously building awareness and commitment.  As the project progresses, the people involved become more deeply engaged and build the emotional energy that brings others along (shown in the graphic to the right, the feelings on the outer ring become a driving force for continuous improvement as a learning organization).

Finally, Pampanini points to the importance of HR working strategically as a partner to operational leadership: “We believe that HR systems can produce value only if properly executed by the people within the company. This is why investing in the development  of emotional intelligence for all key managers is a critical success factor.”

“This is why investing in the development  of emotional intelligence for all key managers is a critical success factor.”

This study originally published April 3, 2013, updated Feb 5, 2019

The Authors

Lorenzo Fariselli

Regional Network Director, Six Seconds Italy

Joshua Freedman

CEO, Six Seconds

Massimiliano Ghini

CEO, MGMTLab

In Collaboration with Fabio Barnabè and Erika Paci of Gruppo Amadori 

From our clients.

“Probably the best training course I have ever attended in 25 years of business.”

Director , Kwikform

“EQ is crucial for business development and yet in nearly 30 years of working in corporates, I have never had EQ explained, demonstrated and presented in this most engaging fashion. A superb facilitator who shared abundantly. This is truly the BEST program I’ve attended in 20 years.”

MD of Bizcomm & Lecturer , Gibbs Business School

“Emotions are so incredibly valuable and yet discounted so much of the time. This course connects the dots to bring the value proposition of emotions to the workplace.”

HR Training Manager , Cache Creek Casino Resort

Recent Articles

From Corporate Consultant to Coach: Elise Jones’ Emotional Intelligence Journey-Voices from the Network

by Maddalena Campitelli | Aug 20, 2024

Elise Jones transformed her career by embracing emotional intelligence, shifting from a corporate consultant to a passionate EQ Coach. Through authentic connections, she found deeper fulfilment, proving that strong relationships are key to a happier, more meaningful life.

Emotional Intelligence at Work: New Research Reveals 5 Practical Tips to Make Workplace Boredom Beneficial

by Michael Miller | Aug 14, 2024

How to navigate boredom in a healthy and productive manner as an employee and as an entire organization. New research reveals key insights.

Productive Struggle: 4 Neuroscience-Based Strategies to Optimize Learning: EQ Education News

by Patty Freedman | Aug 6, 2024

Do you instinctively want to help students when they’re struggling? What if some level of struggle was necessary for learning? Brain-based learning researchers have discovered a sweet spot for learning called “productive struggle.” Here’s why and how it works.

Let’s Work Together

• Recent Posts

• Emotional Intelligence at Work: New Research Reveals 5 Practical Tips to Make Workplace Boredom Beneficial - August 14, 2024
• Want to Manage Your Emotions More Effectively? Find Time to Journal About Challenging Experiences - August 5, 2024
• Emotional Intelligence at Work: Slack Study Finds Massive Benefits to Taking Breaks, but Half of Employees Don’t Take Them - July 16, 2024

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

Where should we send your magazine-format PDF of the detailed Amadori case?

"testing testing testing testing"

Not ready to buy your ticket for the EQ community event of the year? No problem! Sign up here and get this inside story on EQCON and all the developments

• DOCTORAL PROGRAMS
• Business Case for Emotional Intelligence
• Do Emotional Intelligence Programs Work?
• Emotional Competence Framework
• Emotional Intelligence: What it is and Why it Matters
• Executives' Emotional Intelligence (mis) Perceptions
• Guidelines for Best Practice
• Guidelines for Securing Organizational Support For EI
• Johnson & Johnson Leadership Study
• Ontario Principals’ Council Leadership Study
• Technical Report on Developing Emotional Intelligence
• Emotional Capital Report (ECR)
• Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ-i)
• Emotional & Social Competence Inventory 360 (ESCI)
• Emotional & Social Competence Inventory-University (ESCI-U)
• Geneva Emotional Competence Test
• Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI)
• Team Emotional Intelligence (TEI)
• Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)
• Profile of Emotional Competence (PEC)
• Schutte Self-Report Inventory (SSRI)
• Six Seconds Emotional Intelligence Assessment (SEI)
• Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue)
• Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale
• Work Group Emotional Intelligence Profile (WEIP)
• Book Chapters
• Dissertations
• Achievement Motivation Training
• Care Giver Support Program
• Competency-Based Selection
• Emotional Competence Training - Financial Advisors
• Executive Coaching
• Human Relations Training
• Interaction Management
• Interpersonal Conflict Management - Law Enforcement
• Interpersonal Effectiveness Training - Medical Students
• JOBS Program
• Self-Management Training to Increase Job Attendance
• Stress Management Training
• Weatherhead MBA Program
• Williams' Lifeskills Program
• Article Reprints

The Business Case for Emotional Intelligence

The following 19 points build a case for how emotional intelligence contributes to the bottom line in any work organization. Based on data from a variety of sources, it can be a valuable tool for HR practitioners and managers who need to make the case in their own organizations. The Consortium also invites submissions of other research for the Business Case. All submissions will be reviewed to determine their suitability. If you have research findings that you think might help build the business case, submit them by clicking here.  

1) The US Air Force used the EQ-I to select recruiters (the Air Force’s front-line HR personnel) and found that the most successful recruiters scored significantly higher in the emotional intelligence competencies of Assertiveness, Empathy, Happiness, and Emotional Self Awareness. The Air Force also found that by using emotional intelligence to select recruiters, they increased their ability to predict successful recruiters by nearly three-fold. The immediate gain was a saving of $3 million annually. These gains resulted in the Government Accounting Office submitting a report to Congress, which led to a request that the Secretary of Defense order all branches of the armed forces to adopt this procedure in recruitment and selection. (The GAO report is titled, "Military Recruiting: The Department of Defense Could Improve Its Recruiter Selection and Incentive Systems," and it was submitted to Congress January 30, 1998. Richard Handley and Reuven Bar-On provided this information.)

2) Experienced partners in a multinational consulting firm were assessed on the EI competencies plus three others. Partners who scored above the median on 9 or more of the 20 competencies delivered $1.2 million more profit from their accounts than did other partners – a 139 percent incremental gain (Boyatzis, 1999).

3) An analysis of more than 300 top-level executives from fifteen global companies showed that six emotional competencies distinguished stars from the average: Influence, Team Leadership, Organizational Awareness, self-confidence, Achievement Drive, and Leadership (Spencer, L. M., Jr., 1997).

4) In jobs of medium complexity (sales clerks, mechanics), a top performer is 12 times more productive than those at the bottom and 85 percent more productive than an average performer. In the most complex jobs (insurance salespeople, account managers), a top performer is 127 percent more productive than an average performer (Hunter, Schmidt, & Judiesch, 1990). Competency research in over 200 companies and organizations worldwide suggests that about one-third of this difference is due to technical skill and cognitive ability while two-thirds is due to emotional competence (Goleman, 1998). (In top leadership positions, over four-fifths of the difference is due to emotional competence.)

5) At L’Oreal, sales agents selected on the basis of certain emotional competencies significantly outsold salespeople selected using the company’s old selection procedure. On an annual basis, salespeople selected on the basis of emotional competence sold $91,370 more than other salespeople did, for a net revenue increase of $2,558,360. Salespeople selected on the basis of emotional competence also had 63% less turnover during the first year than those selected in the typical way (Spencer & Spencer, 1993; Spencer, McClelland, & Kelner, 1997).

6) In a national insurance company, insurance sales agents who were weak in emotional competencies such as self-confidence, initiative, and empathy sold policies with an average premium of $54,000. Those who were very strong in at least 5 of 8 key emotional competencies sold policies worth $114,000 (Hay/McBer Research and Innovation Group, 1997).

7) In a large beverage firm, using standard methods to hire division presidents, 50% left within two years, mostly because of poor performance. When they started selecting based on emotional competencies such as initiative, self-confidence, and leadership, only 6% left in two years. Furthermore, the executives selected based on emotional competence were far more likely to perform in the top third based on salary bonuses for performance of the divisions they led: 87% were in the top third. In addition, division leaders with these competencies outperformed their targets by 15 to 20 percent. Those who lacked them under-performed by almost 20% (McClelland, 1999).

8) Research by the Center for Creative Leadership has found that the primary causes of derailment in executives involve deficits in emotional competence. The three primary ones are difficulty in handling change, not being able to work well in a team, and poor interpersonal relations.

9) After supervisors in a manufacturing plant received training in emotional competencies such as how to listen better and help employees resolve problems on their own, lost-time accidents were reduced by 50 percent, formal grievances were reduced from an average of 15 per year to 3 per year, and the plant exceeded productivity goals by $250,000 (Pesuric & Byham, 1996). In another manufacturing plant where supervisors received similar training, production increased 17 percent. There was no such increase in production for a group of matched supervisors who were not trained (Porras & Anderson, 1981).

10) One of the foundations of emotional competence -- accurate self-assessment -- was associated with superior performance among several hundred managers from 12 different organizations (Boyatzis, 1982).

11) Another emotional competence, the ability to handle stress, was linked to success as a store manager in a retail chain. The most successful store managers were those best able to handle stress. Success was based on net profits, sales per square foot, sales per employee, and per dollar inventory investment (Lusch & Serpkeuci, 1990).

12) Optimism is another emotional competence that leads to increased productivity. New salesmen at Met Life who scored high on a test of "learned optimism" sold 37 percent more life insurance in their first two years than pessimists (Seligman, 1990).

13) A study of 130 executives found that how well people handled their own emotions determined how much people around them preferred to deal with them (Walter V. Clarke Associates, 1997).

14) For sales reps at a computer company, those hired based on their emotional competence were 90% more likely to finish their training than those hired on other criteria (Hay/McBer Research and Innovation Group, 1997).

15) At a national furniture retailer, sales people hired based on emotional competence had half the dropout rate during their first year (Hay/McBer Research and Innovation Group, 1997).

16) For 515 senior executives analyzed by the search firm Egon Zehnder International, those who were primarily strong in emotional intelligence were more likely to succeed than those who were strongest in either relevant previous experience or IQ. In other words, emotional intelligence was a better predictor of success than either relevant previous experience or high IQ. More specifically, the executive was high in emotional intelligence in 74 percent of the successes and only in 24 percent of the failures. The study included executives in Latin America, Germany, and Japan, and the results were almost identical in all three cultures.

17) The following description of a "star" performer reveals how several emotional competencies (noted in italics) were critical in his success: Michael Iem worked at Tandem Computers. Shortly after joining the company as a junior staff analyst, he became aware of the market trend away from mainframe computers to networks that linked workstations and personal computers (Service Orientation). Iem realized that unless Tandem responded to the trend, its products would become obsolete (Initiative and Innovation). He had to convince Tandem’s managers that their old emphasis on mainframes was no longer appropriate (Influence) and then develop a system using new technology (Leadership, Change Catalyst). He spent four years showing off his new system to customers and company sales personnel before the new network applications were fully accepted (Self-confidence, Self-Control, Achievement Drive) (from Richman, L. S., "How to get ahead in America," Fortune, May 16, 1994, pp. 46-54).

18) Financial advisors at American Express whose managers completed the Emotional Competence training program were compared to an equal number whose managers had not. During the year following training, the advisors of trained managers grew their businesses by 18.1% compared to 16.2% for those whose managers were untrained.

19) The most successful debt collectors in a large collection agency had an average goal attainment of 163 percent over a three-month period. They were compared with a group of collectors who achieved an average of only 80 percent over the same time period. The most successful collectors scored significantly higher in the emotional intelligence competencies of self-actualization, independence, and optimism. (Self-actualization refers to a well-developed, inner knowledge of one's own goals and a sense of pride in one's work.) (Bachman et al., 2000).

References Bachman, J., Stein, S., Campbell, K., & Sitarenios, G. (2000). Emotional intelligence in the collection of debt. International Journal of Selection and Assessment , 8(3), 176-182.

Boyatzis, R. E. (1999). From a presentation to the Linkage Conference on Emotional Intelligence, Chicago, IL, September 27, 1999.

Boyatzis, R. (1982). The competent manager: A model for effective performance . New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence . New York: Bantam.

Hay/McBer Research and Innovation Group (1997). This research was provided to Daniel Goleman and is reported in his book (Goleman, 1998).

Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Judiesch, M. K. (1990). Individual Differences in Output Variability as a Function of Job Complexity. Journal of Applied Psychology , 75, 28-42.

Lusch, R. F., & Serpkeuci, R. (1990). Personal differences, job tension, job outcomes, and store performance: A study of retail managers. Journal of Marketing .

McClelland, D. C. (1999). Identifying competencies with behavioral-event interviews. Psychological Science , 9(5), 331-339.

Pesuric, A., & Byham, W. (1996, July). The new look in behavior modeling. Training and Development , 25-33.

Porras, J. I., & Anderson, B. (1981). Improving managerial effectiveness through modeling-based training. Organizational Dynamics , 9, 60-77.

Richman, L. S. (1994, May 16). How to get ahead in America. Fortune , 46-54.

Seligman, M. E. P. (1990). Learned optimism . New York: Knopf.

Spencer, L. M., Jr. , & Spencer, S. (1993). Competence at work: Models for superior performance . New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Spencer, L. M. J., McClelland, D. C., & Kelner, S. (1997). Competency assessment methods: History and state of the art . Boston: Hay/McBer.

Walter V. Clarke Associates. (1996). Activity vector analysis: Some applications to the concept of emotional intelligence . Pittsburgh, PA: Walter V. Clarke Associates.

News and Events

Check out our new EVENTS section to find out about the latest conferences and training opportunities involving members of the EI Consortium.

NEW Doctoral Program in Organizational Psychology

Rutgers University - Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology (GSAPP) is now offering a doctoral program in Organizational Psychology and is accepting applications for students. The Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations is headquartered within Rutgers, providing students the opportunity to conduct research and collaborate with leading experts in the field of emotional intelligence. Click here for additional information.

NEW Research Fellowship

think2perform Research Institute’s Research Fellowship program invites proposals from doctoral candidates, post-docs and junior faculty pursuing self-defined research focused on moral intelligence, purpose, and/or emotional intelligence. Click here for more information.

Listen to Consortium member Chuck Wolfe interview some of the thought leaders in emotional intelligence.

Harvard Alumni Panel - Why is interest in Emotional Intelligence Soaring?

Consortium member Chuck Wolfe hosts a panel of world class leaders in the field of emotional intelligence (EI) to talk about why interest in EI is soaring. Panel members include EI Consortium members Dr. Richard Boyatzis , Dr. Cary Cherniss and Dr. Helen Riess . Click here to view the panel discussion.

Interview with Dr. Cary Cherniss and Dr. Cornelia Roche

Host, Chuck Wolfe interviews Drs. Cary Cherniss and Cornelia Roche about their new book Leading with Feeling: Nine Strategies of Emotionally Intelligent Leadership . The authors share powerful stories of cases involving outstanding leaders using strategies that can be learned that demonstrate effective use of emotional intelligence. Click here to see the interview.

Interview with Dr. Rick Aberman

See Chuck Wolfe interview Consortium member and sports psychologist Dr. Rick Aberman on peak performance and dealing with the pandemic. The interview is filled with insights, humorous anecdotes, and strategies for achieving peak performance in athletics and in life. Click here to see the interview.

Interview with Dr. David Caruso

Chuck Wolfe interviews Consortium member David Caruso talking about their work together, the ability model of emotional intelligence, and insights into how to use emotional intelligence to address staying emotionally and mentally healthy during times of crisis and uncertainty. Click  here   to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Richard Boyazis

How can you help someone to change? Richard Boyatzis is an expert in multiple areas including emotional intelligence. Richard and his coauthors, Melvin Smith, and Ellen Van Oosten , have discovered that helping people connect to their positive vision of themselves or an inspiring dream or goal they've long held is key to creating changes that last. In their book Helping People Change the authors share real stories and research that shows choosing a compassionate over a compliance coaching approach is a far more engaging and successful way to Helping People Change. Click  here   to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Marc Brackett

Marc Brackett , Director of the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, has written a wonderful book about feelings. I worked with Marc when he was first crafting his world class social and emotional learning program, RULER. Our interview highlights how Marc has achieved his own and his Uncle's vision for encouraging each of us to understand and manage our feelings. My conversation with Marc is inspiring, humorous, and engaging at times. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Helen Riess

Helen Riess is a world class expert on empathy. She is an associate clinical professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School and director of the Empathy and Relational Science Program at Mass General Hospital. Helen discusses her new book and shares insights, learnings and techniques such as the powerful seven-step process for understanding and increasing empathy. She relates information and cases whereby she uses empathy to make a meaningful difference in areas such as parenting and leading. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Maurice Elias

The show is about the Joys and Oys of Parenting , a book written by a respected colleague, Dr. Maurice Elias, an expert in parenting and emotional and social intelligence. Dr. Elias wrote a book tying Judaism and emotional intelligence together to help parents with the challenging, compelling task of raising emotionally healthy children. And while there are fascinating links to Judaism the book is really for everybody. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Geetu Bharwaney

Challenges abound and life is stressful for many. So how do we cope? Chuck Wolfe interviews Geetu Bharwaney about her book, Emotional Resilience . Geetu offers research, insights, and most importantly practical tips for helping people bounce back from adversity. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Daniel Goleman

Listen to an interview by with Dr. Goleman on his new book Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence . In the book Dan helps readers to understand the importance and power of the ability to focus one's attention, will power, and cognitive control in creating life success. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. John Mayer

How Personal Intelligence Shapes Our Lives: A Conversation with John D. Mayer. From picking a life partner, to choosing a career, Jack explains how personal intelligence has a major impact on our ability to make successful decisions. Click here to listen to the interview.

Interview with Dr. Cary Cherniss

Click HERE to listen to an interview with Dr. Cary Cherniss co-chair of the EI Consortium. Dr. Cherniss discusses the issue of emotional intelligence and workplace burnout.

Click HERE to listen to an interview with Dr. Marc Brackett , the newly appointed leader of the Center of Emotional Intelligence which will begin operation at Yale University in April, 2013. In this interview Dr. Brackett shares his vision for the new center.

EI Consortium Copyright Policy

Any written material on this web site can be copied and used in other sources as long as the user acknowledges the author of the material (if indicated on the web site) and indicates that the source of the material was the web site for the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations (www.eiconsortium.org).

Interact with CREIO

• CREIO on Facebook
• Subscribe to EI Newsletter
• Download Reports
• Model Programs

EI Assessments

• Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i)
• Emotional & Social Competence Inventory
• Emotional & Social Competence Inventory - University Edition
• Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory
• Mayer-Salovey-Caruso EI Test (MSCEIT)
• Schutte Self Report EI Test
• Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire
• Work Group Emotional Intelligence Profile

© 2022 Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations Webmaster: Dr. Robert Emmerling Twitter: @RobEmmerling

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Author Biographies
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Employees’ emotional intelligence and job satisfaction: the mediating role of work climate and job stress.

1. Introduction

Present study, 2.1. design and procedure, 2.2. participants, 2.3. instruments, 2.4. data analysis, hypotheses summary and final model, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, 6. limitations and future research directions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Acero, Yusset, Lina Echeverri, Sandra Lizarazo, Ana Quevedo, and Bibiana Sanabria. 1999. Escala de Clima Organizacional (EDCO) . Bogotá: Fundación Universitaria Konrad Lorenz. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ashkanasy, Neal M., and Catherine S. Daus. 2005. Rumors of the Death of Emotional Intelligence in Organizational Behavior Are Vastly Exaggerated. Journal of Organizational Behavior 26: 441–52. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bar-On, Reuven. 2000. Emotional and Social Intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i). In Handbook of Emotional Intelligence . Edited by Reuven Bar-On and James Parker. Hoboken: Jossey-Bass. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bradberry, Travis, and Jean Greaves. 2009. Emotional Intelligence 2.0 . San Diego: TalentSmart. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bravo, María Jesús, José María Peiró, and Isabel Rodríguez. 1996. Satisfacción laboral. In Tratado de Psicología del Trabajo, 1. La Actividad Laboral en su Contexto . Edited by José María Peiró and Fernando Prieto. Madrid: Síntesis, pp. 343–94. [ Google Scholar ]
• Carmeli, Abraham. 2003. The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Work Attitudes, Behavior and Outcomes: An Examination among Senior Managers. Journal of Managerial Psychology 18: 788–813. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cartwright, Susan, and Cary L. Cooper. 1997. Managing Workplace Stress . Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cheng, Ching-Yu, Shwu-Ru Liou, Hsiu-Min Tsai, and Chia-Hao Chang. 2015. Job Stress and Job Satisfaction among New Graduate Nurses during the First Year of Employment in Taiwan. International Journal of Nursing Practice 21: 410–18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Cherniss, Cary, and Daniel Goleman. 2001. The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace: How to Select For, Measure, and Improve Emotional Intelligence in Individuals, Groups, and Organizations . Hoboken: Jossey-Bass. [ Google Scholar ]
• Daus, Catherine S., and Neal M. Ashkanasy. 2005. The Case for the Ability-based Model of Emotional Intelligence in Organizational Behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior 26: 453–66. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dávila-Morán, Roberto Carlos. 2023. Clima laboral y satisfacción laboral en trabajadores de una empresa de servicios de Trujillo, Perú. Universidad y Sociedad 15: 286–95. [ Google Scholar ]
• De la Cruz-Portilla, Andrea Camila. 2020. Influencia de La Inteligencia Emocional Sobre La Satisfacción Laboral: Revisión de Estudios. Revista UNIMAR 38: 63–92. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• De Pelakis, Cira, Ángel Nava, and Luis Tirado. 2006. Inteligencia Emocional y Su Influencia En El Clima Organizacional En Los Niveles Gerenciales Medios de Las PYMES. Telos: Revista De Estudios Interdisciplinarios En Ciencias Sociales 8: 266–88. [ Google Scholar ]
• Emerson, Robert Wall. 2015. Convenience Sampling, Random Sampling, and Snowball Sampling: How Does Sampling Affect the Validity of Research? Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness 109: 164–68. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fernández-Berrocal, Pablo, Natalio Extremera, and Natalia Ramos. 2004. Validity and Reliability of the Spanish Modified Version of the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. Psychological Reports 94: 751–55. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• García, Virginia. 2012. La Motivación Laboral, Estudio Descriptivo de Algunas Variables . Trabajo Fin de Grado, Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid. Available online: http://uvadoc.uva.es/handle/10324/1144 (accessed on 1 May 2024).
• Goleman, Daniel. 2001. An EI-Based Theory of Performance. In The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace: How to Select for, Measure, and Improve Emotional Intelligence in Individuals, Groups, and Organizations . Edited by Cary Cherniss and Daniel Goleman. Hoboken: Jossey-Bass, pp. 27–44. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hayes, Andrew F. 2018. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach , 2nd ed. Methodology in the Social Sciences. New York: Guilford Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jentsch, Armin, Frances Hoferichter, Sigrid Blömeke, Johannes König, and Gabriele Kaiser. 2023. Investigating Teachers’ Job Satisfaction, Stress and Working Environment: The Roles of Self-efficacy and School Leadership. Psychology in the Schools 60: 679–90. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kagan, Ilya, Tova Hendel, and Bella Savitsky. 2021. Personal Initiative and Work Environment as Predictors of Job Satisfaction among Nurses: Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Nursing 20: 87. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Lazarus, Richard S., and Susan Folkman. 1984. Stress, Appraisal, and Coping . New York: Springer. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lopes, Paulo N., Peter Salovey, and Rebecca Straus. 2003. Emotional Intelligence, Personality, and the Perceived Quality of Social Relationships. Personality and Individual Differences 35: 641–58. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mayer, John D., David R. Caruso, and Peter Salovey. 1999. Emotional Intelligence Meets Traditional Standards for an Intelligence. Intelligence 27: 267–98. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Meliá, Josep L., and José María Peiró. 1989. La Medida de La Satisfacción Laboral En Los Contextos Organizacionales. El Cuestionario de Satisfacción S20/23. Psicologemas 5: 59–74. [ Google Scholar ]
• Moral, María de la Villa, and Sergio Ganzo. 2018. Influencia de La Inteligencia Emocional En La Satisfacción Laboral En Trabajadores Españoles. Psicología Desde El Caribe 351: 18–32. [ Google Scholar ]
• Osorio, Julieth Estefanía, and Lucila Cárdenas Niño. 2017. Estrés Laboral: Estudio de Revisión. Diversitas 13: 81. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rivai, Nasrijul, Erni Masdupi, and Syahrizal Syahrizal. 2019. Effect of Emotional Intelligence, Work Environment, and Work Stress on Work Productivity. In Proceedings of the 2nd Padang International Conference on Education, Economics, Business and Accounting (PICEEBA-2 2018) . Padang: Atlantis Press. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rustamov, Elnur, Ulviyya Nahmatova, Matanat Aliyeva, Gulay Mammadzada, and Fuad Asadov. 2023. The Impact of Emotional Intelligence on Teachers’ JobSatisfaction: Mediating Role of Psychological Distress. International Journal of Educational Sciences 41: 53–61. [ Google Scholar ]
• Salovey, Peter, Brian T. Bedell, Jerusha B. Detweiler, and John D. Mayer. 1999. Coping Intelligently: Emotional Intelligence and the Coping Process. In Coping: The Psychology of What Works . Edited by Charles R. Snyder. New York: Oxford Academic, pp. 141–64. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Salovey, Peter, John D. Mayer, Susan Lee Goldman, Carolyn Turvey, and Tibor P. Palfai. 1995. Emotional Attention, Clarity, and Repair: Exploring Emotional Intelligence Using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale. In Emotion, Disclosure, & Health . Edited by James W. Pennebaker. Washington: American Psychological Association, pp. 125–54. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sari, Meida, Yasri, and Abror. 2020. The Effect of Work Environment and Job Burnout on Job Satisfaction With Perceived Organization Support as Moderating to Employees at the Secretariat Staff of the Regional Parliament of West Sumatra Province. In Proceedings of the 5th Padang International Conference On Economics Education, Economics, Business and Management, Accounting and Entrepreneurship (PICEEBA-5 2020) . Padang: Atlantis Press. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Schoemann, Alexander M., Aaron J. Boulton, and Stephen D. Short. 2017. Determining Power and Sample Size for Simple and Complex Mediation Models. Social Psychological and Personality Science 8: 379–86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Solano, Ángela. 2013. Inteligencia Emocional En El Trabajo: Sus Implicaciones y El Rol de La Psicología Laboral. Humanitas 10: 201–2014. [ Google Scholar ]
• Soriano-Vázquez, Iris, Mayela Cajachagua Castro, and Wilter C. Morales-García. 2023. Emotional Intelligence as a Predictor of Job Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Conflict Management in Nurses. Frontiers in Public Health 11: 1249020. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Spector, Paul E. 1997. Job Satisfaction: Application, Assessment, Causes, and Consequences . Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. [ Google Scholar ]
• Spielberger, Charles D., and Peter R. Vagg. 2010. JSS. Cuestionario de Estrés Laboral (Adaptación Española: Carlos Catalina Romero) . Madrid: TEA Ediciones. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stanton, Jeffrey M., William K. Balzer, Patricia C. Smith, Luis Fernando Parra, and Gail Ironson. 2001. A General Measure of Work Stress: The Stress in General Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement 61: 866–88. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sy, Thomas, Susanna Tram, and Linda A. O’Hara. 2006. Relation of Employee and Manager Emotional Intelligence to Job Satisfaction and Performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior 68: 461–73. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tirado-Vides, María Margarita, Lorena Cudris-Torres, Miladys Paola Redondo-Marín, and Luz Karine Jiménez-Ruiz. 2020. Inteligencia Emocional, Clima Organizacional y Estrés Ocupacional En Profesionales Que Prestan Servicios En Primera Infancia. Clío América 14: 441–53. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ulutaş Deniz, Elif, Rumeysa Eren, and Dildar Alaf. 2024. Evaluating the Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Job Satisfaction Among Pharmacists. Journal of Research in Pharmacy 28: 197–212. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wan, Howe Chern, Luke A. Downey, and Con Stough. 2014. Understanding Non-Work Presenteeism: Relationships between Emotional Intelligence, Boredom, Procrastination and Job Stress. Personality and Individual Differences 65: 86–90. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sandroto, Christine Winstinindah, and Jessica Fransiska. 2021. The Importance of Emotional Intelligence for the Sales Associates Profession as a Mediation between Job Stress and Job Satisfaction. International Journal of Management and Economics 57: 331–42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wong, Chi-Sum, and Kenneth S Law. 2002. The Effects of Leader and Follower Emotional Intelligence on Performance and Attitude. The Leadership Quarterly 13: 243–74. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zeidner, Moshe, Gerald Matthews, and Richard D. Roberts. 2004. Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace: A Critical Review. Applied Psychology 53: 371–99. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

García del Castillo-López, Á.; Pérez Domínguez, M. Employees’ Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Work Climate and Job Stress. Adm. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 205. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14090205

García del Castillo-López Á, Pérez Domínguez M. Employees’ Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Work Climate and Job Stress. Administrative Sciences . 2024; 14(9):205. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14090205

García del Castillo-López, Álvaro, and María Pérez Domínguez. 2024. "Employees’ Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Work Climate and Job Stress" Administrative Sciences 14, no. 9: 205. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14090205

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• INNOVATION FESTIVAL
• Capital One

11-26-2019 WORKPLACE EVOLUTION

New research suggests this is the best way to teach emotional intelligence

Lots of companies want to teach EI to their employees. But determining an effective method is critical

[Photo: Nong Vang /Unsplash]

BY  Harvey Deutschendorf 3 minute read

In order to embrace the new realities of a changing workplace, Four Seasons has turned their focus to emotional intelligence . The luxury hospitality company recently sponsored a report from Harvard Business Review Analytic Services looking at the business advantage EI can provide teams. As an expert on emotional intelligence, I was given the opportunity to review the research report and speak with Christian H. Clerc, president of global operations.

What the study found is far-ranging and confirms conclusions that are becoming more widely accepted: Organizations that emphasize emotional intelligence have higher employee engagement and customer loyalty. This leads to greater productivity and profitability.

While the importance of having a focus on emotional intelligence is becoming increasingly more accepted in organizations, the question of how to develop it has been a difficult one. Many organizations will focus on finding people who are highly emotionally intelligent as they believe that while they can train for skills, developing EI in people is more difficult and challenging. Typical training involves assessments, presentations, data analysis, and metrics.

According to Richard Boyatzis, who contributed to the study, beginning presentations on EI by introducing a huge amount of data can be ineffective. One of our human tendencies is to focus on our weaknesses, says Boyatzis, who is a professor at Case Western University and one of the leading world experts on leadership and emotional intelligence. This can bring up people’s defensiveness, causing stress and blocking the mind from embracing new ideas. Instead of starting with training videos, lectures, and assessments, Boyatzis recommends starting with conversation and interaction intended to increase self-awareness.

One group that uses the sort of method that the Harvard study found to be most effective is the Weatherhead University leadership program in Cleveland, Ohio. Students in the program develop their visions through self-exploration and in-depth discussions with their peers and coaches. The students found that this led to deeper levels of self-awareness, empathy, and the ability to understand the viewpoints of others. This then steered them to develop better relationships with others.

The ultimate test of any training is the ability to retain improvements into the future. Weatherhead found that students who took the training retained improvement in their EI capabilities months after they completed the training, according to feedback collected from those working with the students. Another organization that takes the self-exploration route to teaching emotional intelligence is UBS, a multinational bank and financial services company. In order to take on new clients, UBS must practice due diligence, which involves asking potential clients intensive questions about the source and origins of their wealth—a sensitive area for most.

To do this effectively requires UBS staff to be highly sensitive, empathic, and aware so as not to turn off the potential client and have them end up going to another financial institution. To develop these abilities, UBS employees spend three days to do in-depth exploration to more fully understand where they are at in real time. They work on having conversations that involve high levels of self-awareness and empathy, necessary to successfully ask their potential clients questions that can be viewed as highly personal.

Four Seasons also does some in-depth exploration with the people they hire. In their interviews, ask potential employees the question, “Tell me about a time you did something for someone. How did it make you feel?” According to Clerc, it’s easy to spot someone who is not authentic in their reply to this question. They are looking for people who are focused on others, as those that are self-focused will not prioritize guests. Four Seasons believe what guests will remember most about their stay at one of their properties is the interactions they had with people. “The trend in new luxuries are experiential ones,” says Clerc. “The experience you have at our hotel, how you were treated, and how you feel will be remembered.”

To make the interactions positive and memorable, Clerc says the company relies upon “unscripted care,” which requires staff to interact with their guest authentically, positively, and appropriately in the moment. This is difficult to teach as each situation is unique, which requires staff that have a high degree of empathy and self-awareness at all times. Four Seasons leadership development prioritizes this sort of EI training through 360 feedback tools, coaching, and leadership development, with the aim of increasing self-awareness.

The experiential focus on self-awareness and shared purpose starts when on-boarding new staff. Training is based on deep-dive EI activities, such as mindfulness and meditation, as well as empathy and compassion exercises to strengthen their relationship with guests. Employees are entrusted to make on-the-spot decisions to improve a client’s experience.

Christian H. Clerc’s title has been updated.

Apply to the Most Innovative Companies Awards and be recognized as an organization driving the world forward through innovation. Final deadline: Friday, October 4.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Harvey Deutschendorf is an emotional intelligence expert, author and speaker. To take the EI Quiz go to theotherkindofsmart.com   More

Explore Topics

• emotional intelligence
• Four Seasons
• Workplace Evolution
• Tech ReMarkable’s new color tablet might be a little too minimalist
• Tech MyPillow CEO Mike Lindell has taken his social media company public. That might be a bad idea
• Tech What is RansomHub, the ransomware gang behind some of today’s biggest cyberattacks?
• News Who is Gen Z voting for? That’s the big question for election pollsters
• News Customer-obsessed companies are making this major change
• News Many small businesses haven’t paid off their COVID-19 EIDL loans
• Design How the pineapple became an icon of hookup culture everywhere
• Design This iconic sneaker brand disappeared for 40 years. Now it’s making a comeback
• Design Why Nike just flipped its swoosh on these soccer jerseys
• Work Life What should I do if I feel like my company is trying to get me to quit?
• Work Life Why gamers are the best hires to lead teams into the future 
• Work Life These 5 questions can uncover a candidate’s leadership qualities

• Liberty University
• Jerry Falwell Library
• Special Collections
• < Previous

Home > ETD > Doctoral > 5992

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Emotional intelligence, perceived stress, coping strategies and burnout in high stress nursing job types.

Chris Hutsell , Liberty University Follow

School of Behavioral Sciences

Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology (PhD)

Jerry Green

emotional intelligence, burnout, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal achievement, perceived stress, coping strategies, nursing

Disciplines

Recommended citation.

Hutsell, Chris, "Emotional Intelligence, Perceived Stress, Coping Strategies and Burnout in High Stress Nursing Job Types" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5992. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5992

This quantitative, correlative study examined the relationships between emotional intelligence (EI), burnout, perceived stress, coping strategy approaches, and dimensions of burnout in nurses According to many in the healthcare industry, the U.S. is facing a potential nursing crisis by 2030. Research has indicated that inadequate staffing leads to heavier workloads that contribute to higher rates of injuries, medical errors, absenteeism, financial loss, stress, and job burnout in nurses. Studies have also indicated that emotional intelligence can alleviate perceived stress and burnout in nurses that reduce nursing injuries, medical errors, absenteeism that manifests as financial losses for the overall healthcare industry. This study examined these variables utilizing the Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test, Maslach Burnout Inventory, Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10), and Brief COPE Inventory. The sample consisted of 98 licensed nurses employed in seven high-stress job types in the Los Angeles County area. Bivariate analyses revealed a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and overall burnout r (96) = -.68, p <.001, perceived stress r (96) = -.31, p =.002. There was no relationship between coping strategy approaches. Pearson’s correlation coefficient revealed that emotional intelligence could lower the burnout dimensions of emotional exhaustion r (96) = -.63, p <.001 and personal achievement r (96) = -.59, p <.001 levels. Emotional intelligence did not predict depersonalization levels. This researcher recommends that emotional intelligence training be implemented throughout the nursing community.

Since August 29, 2024

Included in

Psychology Commons

• Collections
• Faculty Expert Gallery
• Theses and Dissertations
• Conferences and Events
• Open Educational Resources (OER)
• Explore Disciplines

Advanced Search

• Notify me via email or RSS .

Faculty Authors

• Submit Research
• Expert Gallery Login

Student Authors

• Undergraduate Submissions
• Graduate Submissions
• Honors Submissions

Home | About | FAQ | My Account | Accessibility Statement

Privacy Copyright

How can the Social Family Climate Contribute to Emotional Intelligence in Preventing Suicidal Ideation and Promoting Life Satisfaction Among Adolescents?

• Open access
• Published: 02 September 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• María Angeles Peláez-Fernández   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9142-0139 1 ,
• Sergio Mérida-López   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2262-4546 1 ,
• Carolina Yudes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4191-7336 2 &
• Natalio Extremera   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8874-7912 1  

While findings have documented the association between emotional intelligence, life satisfaction, and suicidal ideation among adolescents, few studies have investigated the moderating effect of family climate on the association. This study examined the moderating effect of family cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict on the relationships between emotional intelligence, life satisfaction, and suicidal ideation among Spanish adolescents. A total of 2,722 adolescents aged 12 to 18 ( M age  = 14.11,  SD  = 1.42, 52.8% girls) formed the sample. The interaction effects were significant, with family conflict mitigating the effects of emotional intelligence on life satisfaction, and family cohesion and expressiveness strengthening the effects of emotional intelligence on suicidal ideation. These findings provide additional evidence for the protective role of family cohesion and expressiveness in adolescent suicidal ideation, and the harmful role of family conflict in adolescent wellbeing. The results imply that enhancing family cohesion and expressiveness and reducing family conflict may be a promising way to boost the link between emotional intelligence and life satisfaction and to prevent suicidal ideation among adolescents.

Similar content being viewed by others

Negative Life Events and Life Satisfaction: Exploring the Role of Family Cohesion and Self-Efficacy Among Economically Disadvantaged Adolescents

Links between family cohesion and subjective well-being in adolescents and early adults: The mediating role of self-concept clarity and hope

The relationship between family functioning and adolescent depressive symptoms: the role of emotional clarity.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Adolescence is characterized by physical, social, and emotional changes that, along with contextual factors like exposure to abuse and violence, can contribute to vulnerability to suffering from a mental disorder (Tottenham & Galván, 2016 ; World Health Organization, WHO, 2022 ). According to a recent study with adolescents in 84 countries, 14 percent of adolescents worldwide endure mental health diseases and the majority do not receive due recognition and treatment (Biswas et al., 2020 ). Adolescents at higher risk for depression, anxiety, or eating disorders are especially prone to reduced physical health, educational difficulties, social stigma, and suicidal ideation (Ferguson et al., 2005 ; Runcan, 2020 ; WHO, 2022 ). Suicidal behavior is the fourth leading cause of death among adolescents in the world. Therefore, suicidal ideation and attempts have emerged as a public concern compelling intensive effort to learn how to prevent them (WHO, 2022 ). The interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior highlights that the joint presence of two risk factors—namely, thwarted belongingness (i.e., unfulfilled need to belong) and perceived burdensomeness (i.e., unfulfilled need to participate in the wellbeing of significant others)—is likely to result in a very harmful form of suicidal desire (Van Orden et al., 2008 ). In contrast, emotional skills such as coping strategies and mood regulation abilities, and contextual factors such as perceived social support, contribute to prevent these conditions and promote indicators of wellbeing (Gaynor et al., 2023 ; Wasserman et al., 2021 ).

Life satisfaction has been defined as a subjective evaluation of one's own quality of life in general or in specific domains (Diener et al., 1999 ). Longitudinal studies revealed that lower levels of life satisfaction predicted externalizing and internalizing conducts and peer victimization episodes, whereas high levels of life satisfaction predicted lower probability of exhibiting future externalizing conducts after enduring significant life stressors among adolescents (Haranin et al., 2007 ; Martin et al., 2008 ; Suldo & Huebner, 2004 ). These findings suggest that life satisfaction could be considered a relevant indicator of wellbeing that contributes to promote adaptive development among adolescents (Huebner, 2004 ).

The wellbeing of adolescents relies largely on family factors, including family structure (Antaramian et al., 2008 ), family support (McMahon et al., 2020 ; Shaw et al., 2004 ; Viner et al., 2012 ), and family climate (Herrera-Orozco & Paramo-Castillo, 2022 ; White et al., 2014 ). According to Bronfenbrenner's theory ( 1979 ), the family is the most internal level of the ecological scheme, which entails two-way meeting paths, characterized by the presence of a direct physical approach and an affective climate.

Longitudinal studies have found that positive family values and family warmth, along with open, issue-oriented communication, reduce the risk of mental health impairment from late childhood to late adolescence (Krauss et al., 2020 ). This kind of communication within the family (vs. a cold, neglectful, and unsupportive familial style) helps to protect the adolescent against mental health problems by modeling adequate coping skills, promoting social competences, and supplying opportunities to voice concerns and feel valued (Repetti et al., 2002 ).

Among these family indicators, the family climate encompasses the psychosocial characteristics of the family group that exist in family dynamics—namely, its development or constitution, stability or structure, and relationships or functionality (Moos & Moos, 1981 ). The latter is formed by cohesion (i.e., the degree to which family members help each other, characterized by strong emotional bonds and feelings of closeness, support, caring, and affection), expressiveness (i.e., the degree to which family members are allowed to communicate freely with each other and express their feelings), and conflict (i.e., the degree to which tension, anger, hostility, criticism, and aggressiveness are openly expressed among family members; Moos et al., 1974 ).

These indicators of family climate (especially family cohesion and conflict) are shown to have strong implications for adolescents’ social, emotional, and behavioral adjustment. Family cohesion, in particular, has been associated with the experience of more meaning and purpose in life, higher levels of subjective wellbeing and life satisfaction, and lower levels of depression and suicidal ideation (Deng et al., 2006 ; Fosco & Lydon-Staley, 2020 ; Lau & Kwok, 2000 ; White et al., 2014 ). In contrast, adolescents in conflictive families are more prone to develop both internalizing and externalizing problems such as depression, anxiety, behavior problems, and lower levels of life satisfaction and purpose in life (Deng et al., 2006 ; Formoso et al., 2000 ; Fosco & Lydon-Staley, 2020 ). Moreover, developmental reductions in family cohesion or increments in family conflict during early adolescence put adolescents at risk of antisocial behavior, depression, and substance use (Fosco et al., 2016 ). Besides, family expressiveness has been related to higher global self-worth (White et al., 2014 ) and lower symptoms of depression and anxiety (Lau & Kwok, 2000 ).

Together with contextual and family indicators, adolescents’ wellbeing relies on personal resources that help promote life satisfaction and protect against lower mental health. One of these resources is emotional intelligence (EI), a psychological construct consistently linked to better physical and mental health, subjective wellbeing, and interpersonal functioning (Mayer et al., 2008 ; Zeidner et al., 2012 ). From an ability perspective, EI encompasses four basic emotional skills: the ability to perceive emotions in oneself and in others, to access and generate emotions to facilitate different types of reasoning, to understand emotions, and to regulate emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ). Among adolescents, recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses have revealed that EI helps promote wellbeing (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022 ). Recent studies with adolescents have clearly demonstrated a consistently positive relationship between EI and life satisfaction (García et al., 2020 ; López-Zafra et al., 2019 ; Quintana-Orts et al., 2021 ).

Likewise, EI has been found to reduce psychological maladjustment (Resurrección et al., 2014 ). For instance, a systematic review offers evidence that EI competences might help diminish adolescents’ suicidal behavior by changing their approach to negative life stressors (Domínguez-García & Fernández-Berrocal, 2018 ). Similarly, cross-sectional studies have shown the protective role of EI among adolescents who were victims of child sexual abuse by reducing the probability of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts (Cha & Nock, 2009 ), and the probability of adolescents suffering bullying by decreasing depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation (Quintana-Orts et al., 2019 ). Also, a four-month prospective study found that positive and negative affects mediated the relationship between EI and adolescents’ suicidal ideation (Extremera et al., 2023 ). These findings support the protective role of EI in suicidal ideation and behavior among adolescents, suggesting that EI may reduce these symptoms either directly or indirectly through its effects on affectivity.

Although there is consistent support for the individual role of EI dimensions and family climate in adolescents’ life satisfaction and suicidal vulnerability, it remains unclear whether these personal resources and contextual factors could have a joint effect on the two mental health indicators. Knowing this combined influence would help provide some insight into the mechanisms involved in adolescents’ mental health and thus help in the design of integrative and effective preventive strategies. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to explore whether family climate would moderate the link between EI and psychological adjustment in a large sample of adolescents. Specifically, the potential moderator role of family climate on indicators of psychological adjustment (life satisfaction) and maladjustment (suicidal ideation) was tested.

According to the literature, we expected EI, family cohesion, and family expressiveness to be positively associated with life satisfaction and negatively associated with suicidal ideation, and family conflict to be negatively related to life satisfaction and positively related to suicidal ideation. Conversely, and in agreement with the interactive model, we expected that family climate might moderate these relationships. Particularly, we expected that family cohesion and expressiveness might boost the protective role of EI against the development of suicidal ideation among adolescents, while family conflict diminished that role. Additionally, we expected that family cohesion and expressiveness might increase the role of EI in promoting life satisfaction, while family conflict attenuated that role.

Participants and Procedure

The sample comprised 2,722 adolescents (52.8% female, 46.1% male, 0.3% non-binary gender, and 0.8% non-reported). The mean age was around 14 years ( M age  = 14.11; SD  = 1.42), ranging from 12 to 18 years. Participants were recruited from fifteen secondary school centers in Southern Spain, selected using a convenience sampling method after headteachers were informed of the study's objectives and voluntarily agreed to participate. Families or legal guardians provided informed consent before adolescents participated. Participants were informed about the study's voluntary and confidential nature. They completed questionnaires in the presence of postgraduate and doctoral students in psychology, who were part of the research group. Assessments took place in classrooms during regular school hours with at least one researcher and one teacher present. The study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki (Holm, 2013 ) and was approved by the Ethical Committee of the University of Malaga (62–2016-H).

Instruments

The control variables included age and gender. Additionally, well validated measures were employed to assess the main study variables.

Emotional intelligence was measured using the Spanish version of the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (Extremera et al., 2019 ; Wong & Law, 2002 ), which appraises four EI aspects: perception of one´s own emotions, perception of other´s emotions, use of emotions, and regulation of one´s emotions. Participants self-reported their overall EI across 16 items using a seven-point response scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). An example item is: “I have good understanding of my own emotions” (self-emotion appraisal). Reliability in this study was good (α = 0.86).

Family climate was assessed using the Spanish version of the Family Environment Scale (FES; Fernández-Ballesteros & Sierra, 1989 ). This instrument consists of 28 true–false items that assess the quality of family relationships within three domains: cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict. An example item of cohesion is: “Family members really help and support each other”. An instance item of expressiveness is: “Family members will often keep their feelings to themselves”. Finally, an example item of conflict is: “We fight a lot in our by family”. Reliability in this study was good for cohesion (α = 0.87) and acceptable for expressiveness (α = 0.67) and conflict (α = 0.67).

Suicidal ideation was measured with the Spanish version of the Frequency of Suicidal Ideation Inventory (FSII; Chang & Chang, 2016 ; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2020 ). This five-item self-report measure assessed the frequency of participants' suicidal thoughts over the past 12 months using a five-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (almost every day). An example item is: “Over the past 12 months, how often have you believed that your life was not worth living?” The reliability in this study was excellent (α = 0.92).

Life satisfaction was assessed using the Spanish version of the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Atienza et al., 2003 ; Diener et al., 1985 ). This five-item self-report instrument consisted of self-referencing statements on perceived global satisfaction, employing a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). An example item is: “In most ways my life is close to by ideal”. The reliability in this study was good (α = 0.83).

Analytic Plan

Firstly, we conducted descriptive statistics and correlation analyses using SPSS 26.0. Secondly, we assessed the incremental validity of family climate dimensions in relation to adolescents' suicidal ideation and life satisfaction while controlling for age, gender, and EI effects through regression analyses. In each model, we added variables in three steps. Initially, age and gender served as covariates. Next, we included the overall EI score. Lastly, we incorporated the three family climate dimensions. Thirdly, we examined the interaction between family climate dimensions and EI as predictors of adolescents' suicidal ideation and life satisfaction. Specifically, we tested the family climate dimensions as moderators ( W ) in the relationships between EI (the predictor variable, X ), suicidal ideation, and life satisfaction (the dependent variables, Y ). For each dependent variable, we conducted three separate moderator models using Model 1 of the SPSS macro PROCESS 4.2. As per standard procedures, we calculated bias-corrected 95 percent confidence intervals using 5,000 bootstrapping resamples. Age and gender were included as control variables, and all continuous predictors were centered to mitigate potential multicollinearity issues.

Descriptive Results

The results of correlation analyses among the main study variables are presented in Table  1 . As seen, EI showed positive associations with cohesion, expressiveness, and life satisfaction, while displaying negative associations with conflict and suicidal ideation. Furthermore, cohesion and expressiveness exhibited negative associations with suicidal ideation and positive associations with life satisfaction. In contrast, conflict was positively correlated with suicidal ideation and negatively correlated with life satisfaction.

Regression Analyses

In terms of the results concerning the incremental validity of family climate dimensions in predicting suicidal ideation and life satisfaction, the primary data are presented in Table  2 . Gender, EI, and family climate dimensions emerged as significant predictors of suicidal ideation. Family climate dimensions accounted for an additional 8 percent of the variance in suicidal ideation after controlling for other predictors. The complete model explained 22 percent of the variance in suicidal ideation ( R 2  = 0.22, F (3, 2715) = 126.71, p  < 0.001). Similarly, for life satisfaction, all variables included in the model contributed to explaining the variance. Family climate dimensions added an extra 8 percent to the explanation of variance in life satisfaction, even after controlling for other predictors. In total, the model accounted for 29 percent of the variance in life satisfaction ( R 2  = 0.29, F (3, 2715) = 184.74, p  < 0.001).

Moderation Analyses for Suicidal Ideation

Regarding moderation results with suicidal ideation as the outcome, the results are shown in Table  3 . In sum, gender, EI, and family climate dimensions were significant predictors of suicidal ideation. Moreover, EI and family climate dimensions showed significant interactions in predicting suicidal ideation. Firstly, the interaction between EI and cohesion was significant and accounted for 0.05 percent of additional variance in suicidal ideation after controlling for the effects of the covariates and the main effects of the study variables (ΔR 2  = 0.005, F  = 16.22, p  < 0.001). Simple slopes were illustrated following standard procedures (Hayes, 2022 ). Figure  1 shows the link between EI and suicidal ideation at low and high levels of cohesion. As seen, the negative association between adolescents’ EI and suicidal ideation with low levels of cohesion (b = − 0.27, p  < 0.001) was found to be stronger than for those adolescents scoring higher in cohesion (b = − 0.14, p  < 0.001).

Relationship between emotional intelligence and family climate dimensions (cohesion and expressiveness) to explain suicidal ideation

Secondly, the interaction between EI and expressiveness was significant and accounted for 0.3 percent of additional variance in suicidal ideation after controlling for the effects of the covariates and the main effects of the study variables (ΔR 2  = 0.003, F  = 11.91, p  < 0.001). As Fig.  1 shows, the negative association between adolescents’ EI and suicidal ideation at low levels of expressiveness (b = − 0.27, p  < 0.001) was stronger than for those adolescents scoring higher in expressiveness (b = − 0.15, p  < 0.001).

Thirdly, the interaction between EI and conflict was significant and accounted for 0.3 percent of additional variance in suicidal ideation after controlling for the effects of the covariates and the main effects of the study variables (ΔR 2  = 0.003, F  = 11.20, p  < 0.001). Figure  2 shows the link between EI and suicidal ideation at low and high levels of conflict. As seen, the negative association between adolescents’ EI and suicidal ideation at low levels of conflict (b = − 0.16, p  < 0.001) was weaker than for those adolescents scoring higher in conflict (b = − 0.26, p  < 0.001).

Relationship between emotional intelligence and family conflict dimension to explain suicidal ideation and life satisfaction

Moderating Results for Life Satisfaction

The moderation results with life satisfaction as the outcome are shown in Table  4 . In sum, gender, age, EI, and family climate dimensions were significant predictors of life satisfaction. Furthermore, the interaction between EI and conflict was the only significant interaction, accounting for 0.2 percent of additional variance in life satisfaction after controlling for the effects of the covariates and the main effects of the study variables (ΔR 2  = 0.002, F  = 6.88, p  < 0.01). The link between EI and life satisfaction at low and high levels of conflict is displayed in Fig.  2 . As seen, the positive association between adolescents’ EI and life satisfaction at low levels of conflict (b = 0.39, p  < 0.001) was found to be weaker than for those adolescents scoring higher in conflict (b = 0.49, p  < 0.001).

This study examined the role of family climate in the relationship between EI and indicators of psychological adjustment and maladjustment. The purpose was threefold: (1) to examine the relationships among the study variables; (2) to determine the extent to which personal and contextual dimensions account for life satisfaction and suicidal ideation; and (3) to analyze the potential moderating effects of dimensions of family climate on the links between EI and suicidal ideation and between EI and life satisfaction.

Significant correlations were found between the study variables. The results showed that conflict was positively associated with suicidal ideation, while cohesion and expressiveness were positively associated with life satisfaction. This finding should be considered in conjunction with the results for EI. Hence, while EI was negatively related to conflict and suicidal ideation, it was positively related to cohesion, expressiveness, and life satisfaction. These findings strengthen prior evidence of the protective role of EI on psychological wellbeing and interpersonal functioning in adolescence (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022 ; Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2022 ).

The present study revealed that adolescents with lower EI reported a higher tendency toward suicidal ideation, and perceived greater tension, hostility, or aggressiveness in interactions with their families. Common life experiences in different domains (school, social life, family) can trigger intensely stressful episodes that some adolescents are either not able to cope with or do through risky behaviors (Galindo-Domínguez & Losada-Iglesias, 2023 ; Valois et al., 2015 ).

Recent systematic reviews have underlined that the most influential risk factors for suicidality in adolescence can be categorized into internal (e.g., lack of coping skills, unhealthy lifestyles) and external (e.g., family conflicts and other stressors in social contexts) (Ati et al., 2021 ; Fonseca-Pedrero et al., 2022 ). Studies with non-clinical samples of adolescents have found that deliberate self-harm and suicidal behavior are maladaptive strategies for coping with negative emotions or perceived problems (Xiao et al., 2022 ). Therefore, family problems are considered a stressful life event which may exceed the coping strategies of some adolescents, becoming an important precipitating factor for suicidality (Carballo et al., 2020 ). This relationship, in turn, becomes more pronounced in adolescents with low EI (Galindo-Domínguez & Losada-Iglesias, 2023 ). In contrast, adolescents with increased EI are not only able to identify and manage their emotions and those of others, but also demonstrate understanding the underlying causes of these emotions (Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022 ). Consequently, high EI might lead to adaptative coping with these adverse events (Trigueros et al., 2019 ).

The results of linear regression and moderated analyses showed the protective role of EI against suicidal ideation by integrating the moderating effect of the different family climate dimensions. As expected, the results showed the predictive value of EI and family climate on positive and negative outcomes among adolescents. On the one hand, regarding suicidal ideation, significant interactions were found between EI and each of the dimensions of family climate. On the other hand, regarding life satisfaction, only a significant interaction effect between EI and dimension conflict was found.

Concerning suicidal ideation, in those adolescents who perceived a positive family climate (high cohesion and/or high expressiveness), the negative relationship between EI and suicidal ideation was strengthened. However, this relationship was weakened in adolescents who perceived a negative family climate (high conflict). In other words, high levels of EI and a subjectively positive family climate contributed to reduce suicidal ideation. The opposite pattern was found for adolescents with low levels of EI and high family conflict. Prior research has also found that family climate may have a greater impact on the risk of suicidal ideation than connectivity with peers or teachers (Joiner, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2015 ). During adolescence, the functionality of the family system and the perceived availability of support between the members have great weight in positive development (Barragán et al., 2021 ; Freed et al., 2016 ). In a recent study, a family climate with limited communication increased suicide attempts among adolescents (Dávila-Cervantes & Luna-Contreras, 2019 ). Parent–child conflict is also highlighted as the precipitant more commonly reported among youths (Wasserman et al., 2021 ). Conversely, those families characterized by effective communication skills tend to cope more adaptively with everyday stressors (Chen et al., 2017 ). An important body of research confirms that perceived family support plays a crucial role in the relationship between EI and suicidal ideation, finding that adolescents with high EI evaluate others’ actions and emotions more effectively, and perceive the reinforcement, empathy, active listening, or respect from their teachers and family (Galindo-Domínguez & Losada-Iglesias, 2023 ).

Based on these findings, it can be asserted that perceived emotional support among family members when coping with individual or family problems (cohesion) (Fosco et al., 2016 ), or families whose members verbalize their feelings (expressiveness), contribute to developmental adjustment and protect against self-harm (Fortune et al., 2016 ). Therefore, family climate is depicted as a significant protective factor against different life stressors and associated symptoms, including suicidal ideation.

Concerning life satisfaction, only the interaction between EI and conflict was significant in that the positive association between EI and life satisfaction was weakened in those adolescents who perceived high levels of conflict in their families. Both the positive relationship between EI and life satisfaction and the positive role that social support has in this relationship are well established in recent studies (Azpiazu et al., 2023 ). Research exploring EI suggests that increasing positive emotions and improving emotional regulation improve prosocial behaviors and social reactions among adolescents (Van der Graaff et al., 2018 ). Consequently, increased EI leads to a more constructive interpersonal conflict resolution (Garaigordobil, 2020 ). Thus, those adolescents who perceived their family as a source of support and affection showed higher levels of life satisfaction (Fosco & Lydon-Staley, 2020 ; Schnettler et al., 2018 ). However, when the family climate is perceived as conflictive or tense, adolescents’ EI might not be enough to increase levels of life satisfaction. This would explain the significant interaction between EI and family conflict and the absence of significant interactions between EI and cohesion and expressiveness in our moderation model. However, as these findings are novel, conclusions should be drawn cautiously. These potential explanations and underlying mechanisms merit further investigation in experimental and prospective research.

Limitations of the Study and Research Implications

Despite the promising findings in this study, some limitations should be mentioned. Firstly, we examined social dimensions perceived by adolescents but did not examine other peer-reported sources of information such as family members. It should be remarked that in this phase of development, relationships with family tend to be affected; therefore, some of the dimensions evaluated, such as conflict, could have exaggerated responses. Future studies should include measures other than self-report questionnaires. Secondly, this is a cross-sectional study and cannot stablish causality between study variables. For instance, according to the broaden-and-build model, positive emotions could also influence and broaden thought-action repertoires among adolescents, thereby facilitating increased resources. Therefore, future studies with longitudinal design would be needed to replicate the current exploratory findings with causal relationships among family dynamics, EI abilities, and well-being indicators. Finally, because the sample is non-representative, random and broader samples would be needed to generalize the results.

Nevertheless, despite the limitations, the results of this research have significant implications for the design of prevention and intervention programs. Suicide prevention strategies should consider the role of families in the development of positive mental health. Future interventions should consider training in the resolution of interpersonal problems such as family conflicts during adolescence since this could solve problems in an early stage of the process. Future research is also needed to explore the impact of family dynamics among adolescents at risk for mental health problems School counsellors working with at-risk adolescents should attempt to enhance both family social support networks and emotional abilities. Adolescents experiencing psychological maladjustment symptoms and lower wellbeing may benefit more from integrative school intervention programs through the creation of a supportive family climate. Besides, participation in EI interventions (Kotsou et al., 2019 ) may help adolescents at risk of suicidal ideation to develop increased emotional self-efficacy and more robust emotional strategies.

Conclusions

Since the frequency and specificity of suicidal ideation predicts subsequent suicide attempts, it is essential to identify those factors that increase positive adaptation among adolescents at risk. Research on the risk for suicidality in adolescents emphasizes peer coping-skills, maladaptive family environment, cognitive constriction, or emotional turmoil, among others. Based on this research, our study emphasized the significant role that the family plays in the link between adolescents ‘emotional abilities and wellbeing outcomes. These findings suggest that future EI intervention programs that specifically aim to improve wellbeing at school may use activities that give adolescents the opportunity to include family members in fostering socio-emotional skills at home, encourage adolescents’ positive feelings of cohesion and expressiveness, and reduce conflict within the family in all cases where need is indicated.

Data Availability

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in the Institutional Repository of the University of Málaga, RiUMA] at https://doi.org/10.24310/riuma.29089 . Title: “Data family climate EI suicidal ideation life satisfaction”.

Antaramian, S. P., Huebner, E. S., & Valois, R. F. (2008). Adolescent life satisfaction. Applied Psychology, 57 , 112–126. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00357.x

Article   Google Scholar  

Ati, N. A. L., Paraswati, M. D., & Windarwati, H. D. (2021). What are the risk factors and protective factors of suicidal behavior in adolescents? A systematic review. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 34 (1), 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcap.12295

Atienza, F. L., Balaguer, I., & Garcı́a-Merita, M. L. (2003). Satisfaction with life scale: Analysis of factorial invariance across sexes. Personality and Individual Differences, 35 (6), 1255–1260. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00332-X

Azpiazu, L., Antonio-Aguirre, I., Fernández-Zabala, A., & Escalante, N. (2023). How does social support and emotional intelligence enhance life satisfaction among adolescents? A mediational analysis study. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 16 , 2341–2351. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S413068

Barragán, A. B., Molero, M. D. M., Pérez-Fuentes, M. D. C., Oropesa, N. F., Martos, Á., Simón, M. D. M., & Gázquez, J. J. (2021). Interpersonal support, emotional intelligence and family function in adolescence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 18 (10). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105145

Biswas, T., Scott, J. G., Munir, M., Renzaho, A. M. N., Rawal, L. B., Baxter, J., & Mamun, A. A. (2020). Global variation in the prevalence of suicidal ideation, anxiety and their correlates among adolescents: A population-based study of 82 countries. eClinicalMedicine, 24 , Article 100395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100395

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design . Harvard University Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

Carballo, J. J., Llorente, C., Kehrmann, L., Flamarique, I., Zuddas, A., Purper-Ouakil, D., Hoekstra, P. J., Coghill, D., Schulze, U. M. E., Dittmann, R. W., Buitelaar, J. K., Castro-Fornieles, J., Lievesley, K., Santosh, P., Arango, C., Sutcliffe, A., Curran, S., Selema, L., Flanagan, R., …, & Aitchison, K. (2020). Psychosocial risk factors for suicidality in children and adolescents. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 29 (6), 759–776. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-018-01270-9

Cha, C. B., & Nock, M. K. (2009). Emotional intelligence is a protective factor for suicidal behavior. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48 (4), 422–430. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181984f44

Chang, E. C., & Chang, O. D. (2016). Development of the Frequency of Suicidal Ideation Inventory: Evidence for the validity and reliability of a brief measure of suicidal ideation frequency in a college student population. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 40 (4), 549–556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-016-9758-0

Chen, E., Brody, G. H., & Miller, G. E. (2017). Childhood close family relationships and health. American Psychologist , 72 (6). https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000067

Dávila-Cervantes, C. A., & Luna-Contreras, M. (2019). Suicide attempt in teenagers: Associated factors. Revista Chilena de Pediatría, 90 (6), 606–16. https://doi.org/10.32641/rchped.v90i6.1012

Deng, S., Lopez, V., Roosa, M. W., Ryu, E., Burrell, G. L., Tein, J. Y., et al. (2006). Family processes mediating the relationship of neighborhood disadvantage to early adolescent internalizing problems. Journal of Early Adolescence, 26 , 206–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431605285720

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49 (1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13

Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125 , 276–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276

Domínguez-García, E., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2018). The association between emotional intelligence and suicidal behavior: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9 , 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02380

Extremera, N., Rey, L., Quintana-Orts, C., Mérida-López, S., & Neto, F. (2023). A 4-month prospective study of the relationship between emotional intelligence and suicide ideation in Spanish adolescents: The mediating role of positive and negative affect. Death Studies, 47 (4), 509–513. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2022.2072019

Extremera, N., Rey, L., & Sánchez-Álvarez, N. (2019). Validation of the Spanish version of Wong Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS-S). Psicothema, 31 (1), 94–100. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2018.147

Ferguson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., Ridder, E. M., & Beautrais, A. L. (2005). Subthreshold depression in adolescence and mental health outcomes in adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62 (1), 66–72. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.1.66

Fernández-Ballesteros, R., & Sierra, B. (1989). Escalas de clima social FES, WES, CIES y CES . TEA Ediciones.

Fonseca-Pedrero, E., Pérez-Albéniz, A., & Al-Halabí, S. (2022). Conducta suicida en adolescentes a revisión: creando esperanza a través de la acción. Papeles Del Psicologo, 43 (3), 173–184. https://doi.org/10.23923/pap.psicol.3000

Formoso, D., Gonzales, N. A., & Aiken, L. S. (2000). Family conflict and children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior: Protective factors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28 , 175–199. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005135217449

Fortune, S., Cottrell, D., & Fife, S. (2016). Family factors associated with adolescent self-harm: A narrative review. Journal of Family Therapy, 38 (2), 226–256. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6427.12119

Fosco, G. M., & Lydon-Staley, D. M. (2020). Implications of family cohesion and conflict for adolescent mood and well-being: Examining within-and between-family processes on a daily timescale. Family Process, 59 (4), 1672–1689. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12515

Fosco, G. M., Van Ryzin, M. J., Connell, A. M., & Stormshak, E. A. (2016). Preventing adolescent depression with the family check-up: Examining family conflict as a mechanism of change. Journal of Family Psychology, 30 , 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000147

Freed, R. D., Rubenstein, L. M., Daryanani, I., Olino, T. M., & Alloy, L. B. (2016). The relationship between family functioning and adolescent depressive symptoms: The role of emotional clarity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45 (3), 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0429-y

Galindo-Domínguez, H., & Losada-Iglesias, D. (2023). Emotional intelligence and suicidal ideation in adolescents: The mediating and moderating role of social support. Revista de Psicodidactica , 28 (2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psicod.2023.02.001

Garaigordobil, M. (2020). Intrapersonal emotional intelligence during adolescence: Sex differences, connection with other variables, and predictors. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 10 (3), 899–914. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe10030064

García, L., Quintana-Orts, C. Q., & Rey, L. (2020). Cibervictimización y satisfacción vital en adolescentes: La inteligencia emocional como variable mediadora. Revista de Psicología Clínica con Niños y Adolescentes, 7 (1), 38–45. https://doi.org/10.21134/rpcna.2020.07.1.5

Gaynor, K., O'Reilly, M. D., Redmond, D., Nealon, C., Twomey, C., & Hennessy, E. (2023). A meta-analysis of targeted interventions for reducing suicide-related behaviour and ideation in adolescents: implications for trial design. Comprehensive Psychiatry , 152374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2023.152374

Haranin, E., Huebner, E. S., & Suldo, S. M. (2007). Predictive and incremental validity of global and domain-based adolescent life satisfaction reports. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 25 , 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282906295620

Hayes, A. F. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.

Google Scholar  

Herrera-Orozco, A., & Paramo-Castillo, D. (2022). Intra-family relationships and suicide risk in mexican highschool students. Acta de investigación psicológica, 12 (2), 29–36. https://doi.org/10.22201/fpsi.20074719e.2022.2.443

Holm, S. (2013). Declaration of Helsinki. International Encyclopedia of Ethics , 1–4.

Huebner, E. S. (2004). Research on assessment of life satisfaction of children and adolescents. Social Indicators Research, 66 (1–2), 3–33. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:soci.0000007497.57754.e3

Joiner, T. (2005). Why people die by suicide . Harvard University Press.

Kotsou, I., Mikolajczak, M., Heeren, A., Grégoire, J., & Leys, C. (2019). Improving emotional intelligence: A systematic review of existing work and future challenges. Emotion Review, 11 (2), 151–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917735902

Krauss, S., Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2020). Family environment and self-esteem development: A longitudinal study from age 10 to 16. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119 (2), 457–478. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000263

Lau, S., & Kwok, L. K. (2000). Relationship of family environment to adolescents depression and self concept. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 28 (1), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2000.28.1.4118

Llamas-Díaz, D., Cabello, R., Megías-Robles, A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2022). Systematic review and meta-analysis: The association between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94 (7), 925–938. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12075

López-Zafra, E., Ramos-Álvarez, M. M., el Ghoudani, K., Luque-Reca, O., Augusto-Landa, J. M., Zarhbouch, B., Alaoui, S., Cortés-Denia, D., & Pulido-Martos, M. (2019). Social support and emotional intelligence as protective resources for well-being in Moroccan adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 10 , 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01529

Martin, K. M., Huebner, E. S., & Valois, R. F. (2008). Does life satisfaction predict adolescent victimization? Psychology in the Schools, 45 (8), 705–714. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20336

Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsade, S. G. (2008). Human abilities: Emotional intelligence. Annual Review. Psychology, 59 , 507–536. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. J. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications (pp. 3–34). Basic Books.

McMahon, G., Creaven, A. M., & Gallagher, S. (2020). Stressful life events and adolescent well-being: The role of parent and peer relationships. Stress and Health, 36 (3), 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2923

Miller, A. B., Esposito-Smythers, C., & Leichtweis, R. N. (2015). Role of social support in adolescent suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56 (3), 286–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.10.265

Moos, R. H., & Moos, B. S. (1981). Manual for the family environment scale . Consulting Psychologists Press.

Moos, R. H., Moos, B. S., & Trickett, E. J. (1974). The Social climate scales: Family, work, correctional institutions and classroom environment scales . Consulting Psychologists Press.

Quintana-Orts, C., Mérida-López, S., Rey, L., & Extremera, N. (2021). A closer look at the emotional intelligence construct: How do emotional intelligence facets relate to life satisfaction in students involved in bullying and cyberbullying? European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 11 (3), 711–725. https://doi.org/10.3390/EJIHPE11030051

Quintana-Orts, C., Rey, L., Mérida-López, S., & Extremera, N. (2019). What bridges the gap between emotional intelligence and suicide risk in victims of bullying? A moderated mediation study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245 , 798–805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.030

Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128 (2), 330–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.330

Resurrección, D. M., Salguero, J. M., & Ruiz-Aranda, D. (2014). Emotional intelligence and psychological maladjustment in adolescence: A systematic review. Journal of Adolescence, 37 (4), 461–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.03.012

Runcan, P. (2020). Depression in adolescence: A review of literature. Social Work Review, 19 (2), 100–110.

Sánchez-Álvarez, N., Extremera, N., Rey, L., Chang, E. C., & Chang, O. D. (2020). Frequency of suicidal ideation inventory: Psychometric properties of the Spanish version. Psicothema, 32 (2), 253–260. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2019.344

Schnettler, B., Miranda-Zapata, E., Lobos, G., Saracostti, M., Denegri, M., Lapo, M., & Hueche, C. (2018). The mediating role of family and food-related life satisfaction in the relationships between family support, parent work-life balance and adolescent life satisfaction in dual-earner families. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15 (11), 2549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112549

Shaw, B. A., Krause, N., Chatters, L. M., Connell, C. M., & Ingersoll-Dayton, B. (2004). Emotional support from parents early in life, aging, and health. Psychology and Aging, 19 (1), 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.1.4

Suldo, S. M., & Huebner, E. S. (2004). Does life satisfaction moderate the effects of stressful life events on psychopathological behavior during adolescence? School Psychology Quarterly, 19 , 93–105. https://doi.org/10.1521/scpq.19.2.93.33313

Tejada-Gallardo, C., Blasco-Belled, A., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2022). How does emotional intelligence predict happiness, optimism, and pessimism in adolescence? Investigating the relationship from the bifactor model. Current Psychology, 41 (8), 5470–5480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01061-z

Tottenham, N., & Galván, A. (2016). Stress and the adolescent brain: Amygdala-prefrontal cortex circuitry and ventral striatum as developmental targets. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 70 , 217–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEUBIOREV.2016.07.030

Trigueros, R., Aguilar-Parra, J. M., López-Liria, R., & Rocamora, P. (2019). The dark side of the self-determination theory and its influence on the emotional and cognitive processes of students in physical education. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16 (22), 4444. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224444

Valois, R. F., Zullig, K. J., & Hunter, A. A. (2015). Association between adolescent suicide ideation, suicide attempts and emotional self-efficacy. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24 (2), 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9829-8

Van der Graaff, J., Carlo, G., Crocetti, E., Koot, H. M., & Branje, S. (2018). Prosocial behavior in adolescence: Gender differences in development and links with empathy. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47 (5), 1086–1099. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0786-1

Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Gordon, K. H., Bender, T. W., & Joiner, T. E. (2008). Suicidal desire and the capability for suicide: Tests of the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior among adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76 (1), 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.1.72

Viner, R. M., Ozer, E. M., Denny, S., Marmot, M., Resnick, M., Fatusi, A., & Currie, C. (2012). Adolescence and the social determinants of health. The Lancet, 379 (9826), 1641–1652. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60149-4

Wasserman, D., Carli, V., Iosue, M., Javed, A., & Herrman, H. (2021). Suicide prevention in childhood and adolescence: A narrative review of current knowledge on risk and protective factors and effectiveness of interventions. Asia-Pacific Psychiatry, 13 (3), e12452. https://doi.org/10.1111/appy.12452

White, J., Shelton, K. H., & Elgar, F. J. (2014). Prospective associations between the family environment, family cohesion, and psychiatric symptoms among adolescent girls. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 45 , 544–554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-013-0423-5

Wong, C. S., & Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on performance and attitude. The Leadership Quarterly, 13 (3), 243–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00099-1

World Health Organization (WHO). (2022). World mental health report: transforming mental health for all. Executive summary. In World Health Organization. https://archive.hshsl.umaryland.edu/bitstream/handle/10713/20295/WHO%20Report%202022.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Xiao, Q., Song, X., Huang, L., Hou, D., & Huang, X. (2022). Global prevalence and characteristics of non-suicidal self-injury between 2010 and 2021 among a non-clinical sample of adolescents: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13 , 912441. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.912441

Zeidner, M., Matthews, G., & Roberts, R. D. (2012). The emotional intelligence, health, and well-being nexus: What have we learned and what have we missed? Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 4 (1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2011.01062.x

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research has been supported by the R + D + i Project of the Ministry for Science and Innovation in Spain [PID2020-117006RB-I00], and the PAIDI Group CTS-1048 [Junta de Andalucía]. Funding for open access charge: Universidad de Málaga/CBUA.

Funding for open access publishing: Universidad Málaga/CBUA.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Social Psychology, Social Work and Social Services, and Social Anthropology, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain

María Angeles Peláez-Fernández, Sergio Mérida-López & Natalio Extremera

Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain

Carolina Yudes

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to María Angeles Peláez-Fernández .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article. This research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or finantial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Peláez-Fernández, M.A., Mérida-López, S., Yudes, C. et al. How can the Social Family Climate Contribute to Emotional Intelligence in Preventing Suicidal Ideation and Promoting Life Satisfaction Among Adolescents?. Applied Research Quality Life (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-024-10354-5

Download citation

Received : 29 January 2024

Accepted : 26 July 2024

Published : 02 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-024-10354-5

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Emotional intelligence
• Family climate
• Life satisfaction
• Suicidal ideation
• Adolescents
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Insights IAS Brochure |
• OUR CENTERS Bangalore Delhi Lucknow Mysuru --> Srinagar Dharwad Hyderabad

Call us @ 08069405205

Search Here

• An Introduction to the CSE Exam
• Personality Test
• Annual Calendar by UPSC-2025
• Common Myths about the Exam
• About Insights IAS
• Our Mission, Vision & Values
• Director's Desk
• Meet Our Team
• Our Branches
• Careers at Insights IAS
• Daily Current Affairs+PIB Summary
• Insights into Editorials
• Insta Revision Modules for Prelims
• Current Affairs Quiz
• Static Quiz
• Current Affairs RTM
• Insta-DART(CSAT)
• Insta 75 Days Revision Tests for Prelims 2024
• Secure (Mains Answer writing)
• Secure Synopsis
• Ethics Case Studies
• Insta Ethics
• Weekly Essay Challenge
• Insta Revision Modules-Mains
• Insta 75 Days Revision Tests for Mains
• Secure (Archive)
• Anthropology
• Law Optional
• Kannada Literature
• Public Administration
• English Literature
• Medical Science
• Mathematics
• Commerce & Accountancy
• Monthly Magazine: CURRENT AFFAIRS 30
• Content for Mains Enrichment (CME)
• InstaMaps: Important Places in News
• Weekly CA Magazine
• The PRIME Magazine
• Insta Revision Modules-Prelims
• Insta-DART(CSAT) Quiz
• Insta 75 days Revision Tests for Prelims 2022
• Insights SECURE(Mains Answer Writing)
• Interview Transcripts
• Previous Years' Question Papers-Prelims
• Answer Keys for Prelims PYQs
• Solve Prelims PYQs
• Previous Years' Question Papers-Mains
• UPSC CSE Syllabus
• Toppers from Insights IAS
• Testimonials
• Felicitation
• UPSC Results
• Indian Heritage & Culture
• Ancient Indian History
• Medieval Indian History
• Modern Indian History
• World History
• World Geography
• Indian Geography
• Indian Society
• Social Justice
• International Relations
• Agriculture
• Environment & Ecology
• Disaster Management
• Science & Technology
• Security Issues
• Ethics, Integrity and Aptitude
• Insights IAS Brochure

• Indian Heritage & Culture
• Enivornment & Ecology

Ethics Case Study-11: Emotional Intelligence

Ethics Case Study-11 : Emotional Intelligence

Radha was very proud of her father. He was a senior bureaucrat in the state and he was invited to every major functions in Radha’s school and colleges. She used to feel like a star on such occasions. She boasted about her father in her friends’ circle. It was not without reason as her father himself used to tell her his stories of honesty, integrity in administration from his personal experiences.

Radha was a brilliant student in her studies. She had many friends and some enemies too. Ramya was one of those enemies who was jealous of Radha and she constantly searched for an opportunity to hurt Radha with her acerbic taunts. Most of the times Radha avoided encountering Ramya inside the college campus.

When Radha was in her final year of graduation, just before her final exams, her father was arrested on charges of corruption and was sent to jail. This became a major news in the state and severely affected Radha mentally.

She did not want to write her exams as she felt embarrassed to go to college. But her friends and mother convinced her to give exams as it was very important for her future. As soon as Radha entered college, Ramya met her and started talking sarcastically about Radha’s father that how an honest father got arrested and how Radha had come to write exams in spite of a major crisis in her family. Ramya wryly asked Radha if her father had gone to jail to deliver lecture about honesty and integrity.

One of Radha’s close friends slapped Ramya there itself.

Radha was hurt by Ramya’s comments and not able to control her emotions she rushed out of college crying loudly. That day she did not give her exam. Next day she committed suicide at her home.

In the above example, Radha, Ramya and Radha’s friend who slapped Ramya all have displayed different shades of low emotional intelligence.

Analyze how each one of them would have behaved if they all had possessed high emotional intelligence? (250 Words)

• Our Mission, Vision & Values
• Director’s Desk
• Commerce & Accountancy
• Previous Years’ Question Papers-Prelims
• Previous Years’ Question Papers-Mains
• Environment & Ecology
• Science & Technology

• Get new issue alerts Get alerts
• Submit a Manuscript

Secondary Logo

Journal logo.

Colleague's E-mail is Invalid

Your message has been successfully sent to your colleague.

Save my selection

Elevating healthcare with emotional intelligence: Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic

Sahney, Ruby 1,* ; Malhotra, Preeti 2 ; Mohanan, Akash 3

1 Department of Hospital Administration, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

2 School of Management, GD Goenka University, Gurugram, Haryana, India

3 Department of Hospital Administration, DNB Resident Hospital Administration, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

* Address for correspondence: Dr. Ruby Sahney, Joint Medical Superintendent, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India. E-mail: [email protected]

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 Unported, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Emotional intelligence (EI), which includes self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and relationship management, is crucial for health-care professionals to deal with highly stressful and emotional situations. It makes it easier to recognise and regulate personal and patient emotions, as well as to make better decisions, manage stress, strengthen patient relationships and achieve better treatment outcomes. The pandemic underscored the need for EI training to boost healthcare professionals’ resilience, communication and efficacy in patient care. A complete approach encompassing support, motivation, protection, education and technology is recommended to improve healthcare workers’ well-being and prepare the healthcare system for future difficulties.

INTRODUCTION

Emotional intelligence (EI) is an invisible yet powerful component of the healthcare industry. The importance of EI becomes apparent in the stressful environment of hospital life, where emotions frequently peak and problems abound. This feature is most noticeable in communication between medical personnel and patients, especially during unpleasant conversations. Medical personnel such as doctors, nurses and laboratory technicians must deal with the stress of their demanding occupations while avoiding burnout.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought about new emotional complexities in the hospital settings. This crisis has placed financial, psychological and physical stress on healthcare professionals. During these volatile times, EI has become a crucial tool for healthcare professionals and everyone to manage these unexpected challenges properly. The pandemic has tested the endurance of the healthcare industry, leaving many staff members needing rest. In such situations, the importance of EI is evident. Here, we examine the relevance of EI for healthcare professionals and how it affects the individuals they contact.

While most people are familiar with the term intelligence quotient (IQ), EI may not be as common amongst healthcare professionals. Salovey and Mayer [ 1 ] first established the idea of EI in 1990, defining it as the ability to identify, control and evaluate the feelings of oneself and others, later popularised by psychologist Daniel–Goleman [ 2 ] in his book, which emphasised its essential qualities. EI has long been recognised as an important aspect of economic success. [ 3 ] Despite centuries of thinking that cognitive IQ is vital to success, recent research suggests otherwise. EI is highly linked to exceptional leadership qualities, job satisfaction and effective communication skills. [ 4 ]

Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, healthcare organisations have faced growing complications and persistent challenges, emphasising the importance of healthcare leaders developing and applying EI abilities effectively. [ 5 ] Leaders with a strong foundation in EI are vital for navigating these problems, as they are skilled at constructively identifying, comprehending, managing and utilising their emotions. While there is widespread agreement on the importance of EI, the debate over the specific characteristics that define this skill continues. Mayer and Salovey’s four-branch model stands out as it provides an easy-to-understand approach to EI. It identifies four critical mental abilities required for healthcare leadership and practice: Self-awareness, self-management, social awareness/empathy and relationship management. [ 1 ] This framework provides an understanding of the practical applications of EI domains.

SELF-AWARENESS

Awareness of emotions (self-awareness) is critical in healthcare, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. Self-awareness allows healthcare professionals to better understand themselves, how others see them and how they fit into a wider community. This is critical for people dealing with difficult emotional situations, such as worries regarding patient outcomes, the possibility of contracting the virus, feeling inadequate and arguments with co-workers. The intense demands of healthcare professionals, such as working long hours, closely caring for patients and operating in a high-pressure workplace, contribute to stress and the risk of burnout. Self-awareness is essential under these circumstances.

Research has shown that self-awareness can increase confidence, decision-making abilities and stress management. [ 6 ] Even though many of us believe we understand our emotions well, research shows that only a few people do so. [ 7 ] This discrepancy between what we think we know about our sentiments and facts could give rise to misunderstandings and premature, unfair decisions at work. Healthcare professionals can better understand their emotional reactions and those around them by thinking and asking probing questions about their feelings and thoughts, which helps them control their emotions and enhances their interactions with co-workers and patients.

Consider a doctor who is working hard during a pandemic and begins to show signs of exhaustion and burnout. Realisation of this is an important step. It encourages them to care for themselves by practising mindfulness or taking breaks. These behaviours offer them time to reflect on their well-being, find strategies to reduce stress and demonstrate the importance of self-awareness in healthcare. By understanding their emotional state, healthcare staff can better deal with the pandemic’s persistent pressures, such as lack of sleep and the emotional burden of constantly caring for patients. [ 8 ]

SELF-MANAGEMENT

Self-management is vital for healthcare personnel because it allows them to deal with job issues thoughtfully and calmly, especially during difficult periods such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Pausing and thinking before reacting to and managing one’s emotions in difficult situations are essential skills in healthcare because the work is challenging and a lot is at stake [ Figure 1 ].

The brain contains components such as the amygdala and neocortex, which are essential for stress management. Our emotions can sometimes take over our logical reasoning, a phenomenon known as ‘emotional hijacking’, causing us to make rash decisions. Knowing this helps us understand why it is critical to have coping mechanisms for our immediate emotional reactions. [ 1 ] The ability to pause, think and choose a more considered answer benefits healthcare professionals’ health and further enhances patient care and safety.

The pandemic has highlighted the need for techniques to control emotions, [ 9 ] such as mindfulness and support from co-workers, to deal with the enormous stress and emotional strain that healthcare personnel face. [ 10 ] These strategies do more than simply make us feel better right now; they also help us gain strength over time, which is critical for dealing with current and future healthcare challenges.

Self-management has been linked to improved patient outcomes and fewer medical errors. For instance, surgeons adept at controlling their emotions and stress are less likely to experience problems that could endanger themselves and their patients. [ 11 ] Furthermore, mindfulness-based programmes have demonstrated favourable results in helping healthcare personnel better control their emotions, allowing them to cope with stress and maintain a high standard of care. [ 12 ]

SOCIAL AWARENESS/EMPATHY

Empathy, or the ability to comprehend and experience what others are going through, is essential for interacting with others, particularly in healthcare, enabling doctors and patients to build strong, meaningful interactions. The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated the importance of empathy, as healthcare professionals were stressed and observed patients experiencing difficult times. According to previous studies, empathy declines amongst medical students and professionals as they advance in their jobs, perhaps due to a lack of compassionate role models to look forward to, [ 13 ] which affects the care they deliver and speaks to a bigger problem in how medical education and practice are structured, stressing the need for adjustments, including training.

Research has shown that empathy improves patient satisfaction and outcomes. [ 14 ] Simple behaviours, such as making eye contact, acknowledging patients’ feelings and communicating respectfully and effectively, particularly when conveying unpleasant news, are critical for improving patients’ experiences. These activities make patients feel better about their care and improve their long-term health outcomes.

The pandemic has brought attention to the lack of empathy and communication skills, demonstrating the urgent need to incorporate empathy into healthcare education and practice. [ 15 ] Training and emphasising patient-centred care show great promise for developing empathy amongst healthcare staff. Furthermore, the benefits of empathy, such as fewer legal claims against doctors and improved doctor–patient interactions, are critical to healthcare’s economic and social elements. [ 16 ]

SOCIAL/RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

Strong social skills are crucial in healthcare. These abilities, which include developing positive connections, resolving problems and leading teams, have become particularly important during the COVID-19 pandemic. This experience has demonstrated how important it is for healthcare professionals to manage their emotions and those of colleagues and patients. Maintaining high-quality care and preventing misinformation requires effective communication. According to previous studies, most complaints against doctors are due to poor communication rather than their competence in delivering medical care. [ 17 ] In addition, doctors with lower EI face legal actions more frequently, [ 18 ] demonstrating a direct link between high social skills and professional performance.

Conflicts in healthcare are often caused by how opinions are conveyed rather than the beliefs themselves. Creating an environment in which everyone feels heard and valued, even with opposing opinions, is critical for patient care and a happy workplace. The epidemic has also emphasised how healthcare teams perceive teamwork and communication differently, [ 19 ] highlighting the need for improved cooperation and understanding in teams comprising multiple specialities. Making eye contact, expressing interest and using body language are nonverbal communications that help connect with colleagues and patients. Improving these nonverbal signals can significantly affect how we collaborate and care for patients.

Reflecting on what we have learned from the epidemic, it is evident that healthcare needs to prioritise social skills to face future difficulties. Improving communication, EI and cooperation can help respond to crises and strengthen healthcare. Training healthcare professionals in these areas will result in enhanced patient care, fewer legal issues and a workplace that promotes high-quality healthcare.

Acknowledging and managing one’s emotions and those of others are crucial for the future, as healthcare professionals appreciate the significance of EI in their personal development, interpersonal interactions and work performance.

A PLAN FOR THE FUTURE

EI training for healthcare personnel is critical, especially concerning healthcare issues such as the COVID-19 pandemic. These problematic circumstances affect healthcare staff’s ability to cope with stress, communicate effectively and offer excellent patient care. A large body of research supports the notion that EI skills, which are critical for dealing with the emotional difficulties of healthcare, may be significantly improved with correct training programmes. Studies on trait or competency models of EI demonstrate that such training can increase EI levels while also improving healthcare professionals’ mental health, relationships and job performance. [ 20 ] This evidence points to the powerful impact of EI training, making healthcare professionals more equipped to meet the demands of their jobs with strength and compassion. [ 1 ]

Practical EI training frequently employs a variety of teaching modalities, including lectures, group discussions, demonstrations, role-playing and hands-on exercises, all conducted in a supportive group setting. This holistic method attempts to improve fundamental EI skills, such as understanding and recognising emotions, which are critical for patient care and teamwork. One prominent programme by Nelis et al . exemplifies this, with group sessions supplemented with personal diary keeping and bi-weekly emails to assist participants in using EI abilities in their daily work. [ 21 ] The mental health problems that healthcare professionals have experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic underscore the crucial need for a comprehensive plan to address these issues. This strategy should include support, motivation, safety, education and technology. [ 22 ] Supportive measures must bring together various stakeholders, including families, governments, communities, organisations and co-workers, to form a strong support network that fulfils persons’ emotional and psychological needs. [ 23 ]

Motivational initiatives are equally vital, including rewarding hard work, instilling a feeling of duty and promoting relaxation techniques to reduce psychological stress. [ 24 ] We must also be protected, which includes proper protective gear, access to nutritious food and water and time for rest and safe relaxation. [ 25 ] Education plays a pivotal role by using online platforms to offer psychological education, stress management and EI skill training, which not only aids professional growth but also boosts professional resilience. [ 26 ]

Technology and online services have become indispensable as a means to provide support while lowering infection risks and making better use of healthcare professionals’ time.

Telemedicine, video conferencing, social media and mobile health apps have grown in popularity for delivering education, counselling and support to healthcare professionals, allowing for a more adaptive and rapid response to their mental health needs. [ 27 ] Furthermore, artificial intelligence is emerging as a tool for identifying persons at risk of suicide or other emergencies, which will increase the support system for healthcare professionals during a pandemic. [ 28 ]

By adopting a comprehensive and diverse approach to the mental health and overall well-being of healthcare professionals, we can construct a stronger and more resilient healthcare system that is prepared to address current and future problems.

Incorporating EI training into healthcare professionals’ growth and development plans has become critical, particularly in light of global health problems such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Healthcare systems can meet the needs of employees by using a combination of supporting, motivational, protective, educational and technological methods, ensuring their mental health and overall well-being.

Reflecting on the lessons learned during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is evident that prioritising EI and mental health in healthcare professionals is critical to preparing for and handling future public health emergencies effectively. We are creating a more resilient system by allocating resources to improve EI amongst healthcare professionals. This system will survive crises while also being caring for, sensitive and efficient in meeting the requirements of patients and the community as a whole.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

• Cited Here |
• PubMed | CrossRef |
• Google Scholar
• View Full Text | PubMed | CrossRef |

Cognitive intelligence; COVID-19; emotional intelligence

• + Favorites
• View in Gallery

• News and Events

Unleashing Leadership Potential in the Family through Emotional Intelligence

Wednesday, September 25, 2024 8:30 AM - 11:30 AM

Add to Calendar: Add to Calendar 2024-09-25 08:30:00 2024-09-25 11:30:00 Unleashing Leadership Potential in the Family through Emotional Intelligence Dr. Scott Taylor will discuss what it means to be a resonant leader and how to do this in the relationally dynamic setting of the family business. Click here for more detail. To register, email [email protected] or call Laura Bonnet at 216-368-1701. Family businesses are invited to attend a first program as our guests. The Center’s programs are designed exclusively for family businesses. We encourage you to attend as a family. On-Campus Weatherhead School of Management Weatherhead School of Management America/New_York public

Event Details

Dr. Scott Taylor will discuss what it means to be a resonant leader and how to do this in the relationally dynamic setting of the family business. Click here for more detail.

To register, email [email protected] or call Laura Bonnet at 216-368-1701. Family businesses are invited to attend a first program as our guests.

The Center’s programs are designed exclusively for family businesses. We encourage you to attend as a family.

Event Address

Tinkham Veale University Center