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German Foreign Policy, 1933–1945

Adolf Hitler came to power with the goal of establishing a new racial order in Europe dominated by the German “master race.” This goal drove Nazi foreign policy, which aimed to: throw off the restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles; incorporate territories with ethnic German populations into the Reich; acquire a vast new empire in Eastern Europe; form alliances; and, during the war, persuade other states to participate in the “final solution.”

The Nazi belief that the Germans must control Lebensraum (living space) in the “East” drove Nazi Germany’s foreign policy. Hitler recognized that acquiring Lebensraum would require war, and he began preparing for it as soon as he came to power.

To prepare for the war, German foreign policy sought to undo the Treaty of Versailles, build alliances, and incorporate territories with German populations into the Reich.

During the war, German foreign policy sought the cooperation of European states in achieving the Nazi goal of murdering the Jews in Europe .

Following the Nazi rise to power , Adolf Hitler's government immediately began preparing for the war he planned to wage to conquer Lebensraum in Poland and the Soviet Union. In Hitler’s vision, Germans would populate this area, the “inferior” Slavic population would be enslaved or driven out, and Jews would disappear entirely from all German-dominated territory. 

The tasks of German foreign policy in preparing for the coming war were to: undo the military restrictions and reverse the territorial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles; take over neighboring lands with ethnic German populations; arrange pacts that would enable Germany to advance its war plans; and build alliances that would help Germany achieve its territorial goals. After the war began, German foreign policy aimed to strengthen existing alliances, build new ones, and obtain the cooperation of its allies and of the nations it conquered not only in Germany’s war effort but also in its racial policies, especially the annihilation of the Jews.

• US Holocaust Memorial Museum

Prewar Policy and Pacts

Hitler reviews a parade celebrating the reintegration of the Saar region into Germany. Saar territory, Germany, March 1935.

From 1933–1938, Konstantin von Neurath , a conservative career diplomat, served as German foreign minister. During his tenure, Germany followed a revisionist policy aimed at overcoming the restrictions imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles and seizing the diplomatic initiative from Britain and France. 

During Neurath’s term, Germany withdrew from the League of Nations; signed a nonaggression pact with Poland; reacquired the Saar territory through a plebiscite; reinstituted the draft and openly rearmed; signed a naval pact with Great Britain; remilitarized the Rhineland; militarily assisted the supporters of Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War ; formed the “Rome-Berlin Axis” coalition with Italy and concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan.

New Territories

In February 1938, Hitler replaced Neurath with Joachim von Ribbentrop , a Nazi Party member and former ambassador to Great Britain who advocated a more aggressive German foreign policy. Germany then moved to acquire new territories using the threat of war. In February, Hitler pressured Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg into signing the German-Austrian agreement ( Berchtesgaden Diktat ), which brought Nazis into the Austrian cabinet. In March 1938, Germany carried out the Anschluss , the annexation of Austria , after ensuring that Italy would not object.

German troops entered Austria on March 12, 1938. The annexation of Austria to Germany was proclaimed on March 13, 1938. In this German newsreel footage, Austrians express overwhelming enthusiasm for the Nazi takeover of their country.

• Bundesarchiv Filmarchiv
• View Archival Details

Hitler then demanded that Czechoslovakia surrender the Sudetenland, a region bordering Germany with an ethnic German majority. On September 30, 1938, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , French Premier Edouard Daladier, Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, and Hitler signed the Munich agreement, which ceded the Sudetenland to Germany. In March 1939, Germany occupied and dismembered the rest of Czechoslovakia, establishing a German “protectorate” over the Czech lands and permitting the formation of Slovakia as a sovereign state with a pro-German regime.

Hitler then began planning to attack Poland, recognizing that this could lead to war with France and Great Britain. In May 1939, Hitler and Mussolini signed the “Pact of Steel,” a formal military alliance. Then on August 24, Ribbentrop and Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov signed a non-aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union. In a secret protocol, the two states agreed to divide Poland between them.

This footage shows German forces entering the Sudetenland. Under the terms of the Munich Pact, Germany annexed this largely German-speaking region from Czechoslovakia. Germany, Italy, Britain, and France were party to the pact, which averted war. Czechoslovakia, however, was not permitted to attend the Munich conference. Hitler later violated the Munich Pact by destroying the Czech state in March 1939.

• UCLA Film and Television Archive

With no need to fear Soviet intervention, Germany attacked Poland on September 1, 1939. Britain and France, Poland's allies, declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939. 

Germany’s defeat of Poland in 1939 and its conquest of Western European countries in spring 1940 enabled it to attract new allies with promises of territorial and economic gains. Italy entered the war on Germany’s side in June 1940, and in September Germany, Italy and Japan formed the Tripartite Pact. By the end of 1940, Hungary, Romania and Slovakia joined the Axis powers, followed by Bulgaria and Croatia in 1941. 

The Nazi goal of obtaining Lebensraum in Eastern Europe led Germany to attack the Soviet Union in June 1941. Nazi leaders decided by the end of 1941 to carry out the “final solution” policy of systematically annihilating the Jews in Europe. The German Foreign Office played an important role in implementing this policy. German diplomats had the task of persuading Europe’s sovereign states to resolve their “Jewish question” themselves or by turning their Jewish population over to Germany. Slovakia and Croatia complied. Bulgaria, France, Hungary and Romania agreed to participate in measures against foreign Jews or Jews in newly acquired territories, but they balked at turning over their Jewish citizens. Denmark, Finland, and Italy refused. After Germany occupied the northern half of Italy in 1943 and Hungary in 1944, the governments there agreed to deport their Jewish populations. The German Foreign Office continued trying to persuade European governments to deport their Jewish population until Allied victories made such a step impossible. 

After Germany’s defeat, both Neurath and Ribbentrop stood trial before the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. Neurath was sentenced to fifteen years’ imprisonment; Ribbentrop was sentenced to death and hanged.

Critical Thinking Questions

• What obligations, if any, do other nations and international organizations have when a country forcibly expands?
• How can ideology shape foreign policy? Which parts of the government may be involved? How and why might a nation’s foreign policy change?
• Did German foreign policy shape the Holocaust?

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Hitler's Foreign Policy

• ❖ Hitler wanted to destroy the Treaty of Versailles . He thought the treaty humiliated Germany.
• ❖ Hitler wanted to take living space in the east. This was called Lebensraum.
• ❖ Hitler wanted to unite people with German blood and create a greater Germany. This was called Volksdeutsche.
• ❖ The Treaty of Versailles forbid Austria and Germany uniting. Hitler wanted Anschluss - the reuniting of Germany and Austria.
• ❖ Hitler wanted to rearm Germany and create jobs in munitions factories and the army. He thought this would make Germany great again.
• ❖ Hitler saw communism as an enemy and wanted to destroy it. He linked communism to Jews and thought they were ruining Germany.
• ❖ Germany would remilitarise the Rhineland.
• ❖ Germany would not respect decisions made about its lost territory at Versailles.
• ❖ He planned to bring all German-speaking people back under his government, even if their territory belonged to another country.
• ❖ Germany's borders would expand to cover the areas where German-speaking people lived in countries such as Poland, Czechoslovakia and Austria.
• ❖ Leaving the League of Nations in 1933.
• ❖ Defying the Treaty of Versailles from 1933.
• ❖ Rearming Germany from 1933.
• ❖ Threatening Austrian independence by supporting a coup by Austrian Nazis and attempting Anschluss in 1934.
• ❖ Signing the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935.
• ❖ Leading a strong campaign in the Saar plebiscite of 1935.
• ❖ If Hitler was to achieve Lebensraum (Living Room) he would have to invade other nations and this would be seen an act of war.
• ❖ If Hitler was to destroy communism he would need to destroy the USSR - a powerful and strong nation that would not surrender to Hitler.
• ❖ If Hitler was to achieve Volksdeutsche and reunite all German-speaking peoples he would have to take over land that was not German.
• ❖ If Hitler was to rearm Germany this would break the Treaty of Versailles , and other nations like France would question his motives and wonder why he needed to rearm.

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Hitlers Foreign Policy Leaving Cert History Revision Presentation

Hitler’s Foreign Policy • Leaving Cert History • Revision Presentation

Hitler’s Foreign Policy • • • Aims and Objectives Germany leaves the League of Nations Advances and Setbacks in 1934 Germany Begins to Rearm 1935 Anglo-German Naval Agreement 1935 The Saar Plebiscite 1935 The Rhineland 1936 Appeasement 1936 -1939 Anschluss 1938 The Munich Agreement 1938 Czechslovakia 1938 Nazi-Soviet Pact August 1939

Aims and Objectives • An end to the Treaty of Versailles • The creation of a greater Germany which would unite all German-speaking peoples in Europe • The movement of Germany’s borders to the east to create ‘living space’ (lebensraum)

Germany leaves League of Nations • League of Nations disarmament conference 1933 • Hitler proposes that every country disarm to the level set for Germany • France reject proposal and Britain offers a compromise which Hitler rejects • Germany withdraws from the League of Nations claiming it is the only country that wants to disarm.

Advances and Setbacks in 1934 • Hitler signs a ten-year non-aggression pact with Poland • Austrian prime minister Dollfuss is murdered by Nazi sympathisers • Mussolini fears a Nazi coup d’etat in Austria and sends 40, 000 troops to the Italian/Austrian border • Hitler orders the Austrian nazis to abandon their plans • Hitler’s image as a ‘man of peace’ is damaged

Germany Begins to Rearm 1935 • Hitler declares his intention of rearming Germany • Army conscription is introduced • Plans to increase German army from 100, 000 to 550, 000 • Britain, France and Italy establish the ‘Stresa Front’ • The Stresa Front collapses when Mussolini invades Abyssinia.

Anglo-German Naval Agreement 1935 • Britain decides to look after its own interests • Agreement with Germany to limit the size of the German Navy • U-Boats excluded from the agreement. Germany builds large numbers • Hitler interprets agreement as a sign of weakness from Britain

The Saar Plebiscite 1935 • Under the Treaty of Versailles the Saar Region under the control of League of Nations • A plebiscite (vote / referendum) was held in 1935 • Massive majority voted to return to Germany • Seen as approval for Hitler’s policies

The Rhineland 1936 • Under the Treaty of Versailles the Rhineland was a ‘demilitarised zone’ • Hitler used the Italian invasion of Abyssinia and the new Franco-Russian Pact to occupy the Rhineland • Hitler ordered his troops to withdraw if Britain or France showed any resistance. They didn’t. • Beginning of a more aggressive foreign policy

Appeasement 1936 -1939 • Britain and France were unprepared for War • British public opinion believed that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were too harsh on Germany • Britain and France saw Nazi Germany as a safeguard against the spread of communism. • From 1937 Hitler allowed to revise the terms of the Treaty of Versailles

Anschluss 1938 • Nazis plotted to overthrow Austrian government • Austrian Prime Minister wanted Hitler to guarantee Austrian independence • Hitler demanded that Austrian Nazis be included in government • Hitler masses troops on Austrian border • Government resigns and Germans invited into Austria

Czechslovakia 1938 • Hitler demands the Sudetenland masses troops on the border in April • Czech mobilise a large army to face down the Germans • Hitler orders German troops away from the border and tries to put a brave face on the climb down • Privately he is intent on smashing the Czech army

The Munich Agreement 1938 • In September Chamberlain tries to negotiate a compromise on the Sudetenland • Hitler demands that the Sudetenland is returned to Germany • Britain and France prepare for war • At Munich Britain, France, Italy and Germany agree that the Sudetenland is returned to Germany • Abandoned by its allies Czechslovakia is forced to accept the agreement • Chamberlain declares that the Munich Agreement means ‘peace in our time’

Nazi-Soviet Pact August 1939 • In preparation for war the Nazis sign a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union • On 1 st September 1939 Germany invades Poland • On 3 rd September 1939 Britain and France declare war on Germany • World War Two has begun

• Presentation prepared by: • • Dominic Haugh St. Particks Comprehensive School Shannon Co. Clare • Presentation can be used for educational purposes only – all rights remain with author

Essay Plan: Hitler's Foreign Policy

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2021 Leaving Certificate History Essay Title: To what extent did Hitler’s foreign policy, 1933-1939, contribute to the outbreak of World War II?

This resource includes a plan for the essay, a sample paragraph and an explanation as to why this is a solid paragraph. Modelling answers is an effective way for students to learn how to do the task. Suitable for A-Level, American High School systems too.

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US Foreign Policy for Leaving Cert History #625Lab

During the period 1945-1989, what was the importance of us foreign policy of one or more of the following: berlin, korea, cuba.

#625Lab – History , marked 70/100, detailed feedback at the very bottom. You may also like:  Leaving Cert History Guide  (€).

From 1945 to 1989 the US’ foreign policy revolved mainly around Berlin, Cuba and Korea. However, at the same time, America’s main objective was to contain communism and maintain a strong barrier to its spreading. This was in keeping to the policy of containment, which was very prevalent at the time.

After world war two Germany was divided between east and west, given to the Soviets and the allies respectively. Berlin was also divided between east and West Berlin. The Americans built up West Berlin turning it into a rather prosperous sector. Russia wanted to unite East and West Berlin under Soviet control. Truman refused and in retaliation, Stalin set up the Berlin Blockade in 1948.

The blockade lasted over a year and throughout this time Americans flew supplies and commodities into West Berlin. They were determined to not let the Soviets get West Berlin, as this would be disastrous for the policy of containment. As Truman said, “we are here to stay, period.” After over a year the Soviets had to give in and the blockade was lifted.

This was a massive success for Truman’s government. It has relevance to America’s foreign policy as it highlighted America’s immense strength and resilience in terms of foreign policy. The Berlin also led to the formation of NATO, between The US, Canada and eleven other countries. This peacetime pact ensured support if the war was to come about, an attack on one would be an attack on all. It also brought an end to America’s policy of isolationism.

Berlin continued to be a centre of conflict during the cold war. In 1960 Krushev ( Khrushchev ) put pressure on Kennedy to give West Berlin to the Soviets. Krushev though JFK a weak and indecisive leader and thought he would be easily persuaded. Kennedy’s response was to increase government spending on defence and the Ussr constructed the Berlin wall, almost overnight.

The Berlin wall was effective in stopping the flow of immigrants from east to west and thus eased some tensions. However, Kennedy and the world now pointed to East Berlin as a prison for its people. Kennedys handling of the crisis showed his strength and is important to the US’ foreign policy.

The Korean War also had massive prevalence over America’s foreign policy. When China became communist in 1949 it was seen as a failure for the policy of containment. After world war two Korea had been divided between an American backed south and Soviet-backed north. In 1950 when the north attacked the south it was seen as a test for the policy of containment. Through a UN council vote, Truman got permission to send troops into South Vietnam. The army, under general Macarthur, invaded at Inchon and easily pushed the Koreans back past the 38th parallel. However, they continued through North Vietnam and into China. The Chinese retaliated with an invasion of 200000 soldiers and pushed the US army back to Seoul. A further two years of fighting ensued and eventually in 1953 when Truman and Stalin had been replaced by Eisenhower and Khrushchev the border was eventually re-established at the 38th parallel.

The Korean War had many varied effects and was very important to America’s foreign policy at the time. America’s actions in Korea were in keeping with the policy of containment. It led to America wanting to strengthen their policy in South East Asia. This led to the signing of the ANZAC pact and SEATO. This was in keeping with the domino theory; if one country fell to communism, so too would its surrounding neighbours. It also led to America’s decision that they must strengthen Germany as a barrier to communism. They launched a proposal to allow Germany to enter NATO. During the Korean War Macarthur, the army general campaigned for the use of atomic bomb in Korea and was dismissed. This shows that America and Truman had changed policies since 1945, and were more reluctant to rely on nuclear weaponry.

The Cuban Missile crisis in 1961 was a severe test for America’s foreign policy. Cuba became communist under Fidel Castro and the Ussr took the opportunity to construct missile sites there in 1961. This was picked up by US spy planes and panic ensued. People thought they were on the brink of world war three. JFK set up a panel of advisors to deal with the crisis. There were conflicting views on the panel. Some thought air strikes should be launched at Cuba, while on the other side of the spectrum the opinion was they should not invade Cuba and that they should dismantle US missile sites in Eastern Europe as a compromise. JFK opted to set up a blockade and search incoming Russian boats. His plan to worked and he and Khrushchev came to an agreement about Cuba.

Publicly JFK agreed to lift the blockade and not to invade Cuba. Privately he agreed to dismantle missile sites in Turkey. Krushev agreed to dismantle the missile sites in Cuba. Some criticized Kennedy for his soft approach but most applauded his careful handling of the situation. The importance of the effects of the Cuban missile crisis on foreign policy can be clearly seen. Cuba resulted in the test ban treaty where nuclear testing could not take place underwater or in space. A hotline was also set up between the Kremlin and Washington to avoid future conflicts. This was a major step forward for US foreign policy.

Events in Berlin, Korea and Cuba all shaped American foreign policy for the ensuing years and the cold war in general. The American presidents always proceeded in keeping with the policy of containment and the domino theory. The US’ strength was highlighted in their dealings with the various crises. Their policies also showed their abilities to strive for peace, such as with the hotline between Washinton ( Washington ) and the Kremlin, and the various peacetime pacts.

Feedback: This essay answers the question and shows that you know the material as all of your information is relevant and correct. Your conclusion is good as it sums up your argument but also adds something to the essay but your introduction is weak – it needs to answer the question clearly and lay out the essay as well as provide some context. For this essay, the intro should really include a sentence something like “During the Cold War, events abroad such as the Berlin Blockade, the Korean War and the Cuban Missile Crisis had long-lasting effects on US foreign policy.” You also should try to link the three parts better, as it currently reads like one short essay on the Berlin Blockade, and one on Korea and Cuba. Watch out for spelling mistakes too – you need to be particularly careful with Russian names like Khrushchev. 

Cumulative Mark : For your cumulative mark, this would probably achieve around 50 out of 60 – include more paragraphs if you want to bring this mark up.

Overall Evaluation : For OE, this would get about 22 out of 40, as it is a good standard treatment of the question, but the introduction initially makes the intention of the essay a bit unclear.

Total : 72/100

Which president was more successful in his handling of US Foreign Policy, Harry Truman or Lyndon Johnson? Argue your case referring to both. 2013.

#625Lab – History , marked 65/100, detailed feedback at the very bottom. You may also like:  Leaving Cert History Guide  (€).

Lyndon B. John displayed strengths and weakness within is Foreign Policies throughout his presidency of the United States of America. When he came into power America was already involved in the Vietnam war. He had to deal with such Foreign Issues such as the control of communism in Asia. Overall Johnson’s strengths were clearly in Domestic affairs. Harry S. Truman on the other hand was far more successful dealing with foreign policies. He had to deal with foreign issues such as ending world war 2, containing communism within Europe and the Berlin wall.

Truman ended up ( don’t use “ended up” in a history essay) obtaining presidency over the United States when his predecessor F.D. Roosevelt passed away. Shortly after obtaining presidency Truman met up with his wartime ally Joseph Stalin and Clement Attlee at a post war conference in Potsdam outside Berlin to discuss their Enemy Japan. At this conference Truman demanded the unconditional surrender from the Japanese. Japan refused and on the 6th of August 1945 Truman order the dropping of the atomic Bomb on Hiroshima. Truman believed this would bring the war to a swift end and would save many American lives at the cost of Japanese lives. Truman was in fact correct about this as on the 10th of August the Japanese government signed the surrender terms of the United States. Thus, ending world war 2 ( World War Two – make sure to capitalise and spell out numbers under 100 ) once and for all. This was a big foreign success for Truman.

Johnsons biggest weakness as a leader was the fact he was lacking presidential skills. Alike, Truman Due to his predecessor J.F.K being assassinated he abruptly entered presidency in 1963. ( This sentence doesn’t make sense – you can’t use “alike” like this and it rambles on ) He came into power in 1963 ( when ) the Vietnam (War) was worsening. Johnson believed in the domino theory and that if one country fell to communism they all would. Johnson didn’t want to be the first president to lose a war, but at the same time he didn’t want a war. Johnson planned for a contained war in Vietnam but ended up to becoming a full-blown war. This made the American become increasingly uneasy about Johnson as president. The war went on for years and neither side appeared to be winning although Johnson was telling the American public that they were in fact winning. When The public discovered that Johnson had been telling them lies he became even more unpopular with the American Public. The Vietnam war was without a doubt one of the biggest downfalls for Johnson.

After World war 2, It was clear that Stalin’s intentions were to turn Eastern Europe and the occupied part of Germany into a Soviet-controlled satellite states. This resulted in hostility between the two sides. This begun which was known as the “Cold War”. Truman believed in “Communist containment”. In effect this meant that America would oppose Communist expansion in Europe and around the world. For the remaining of the Cold war this was the policy that America took. To contain Communism, he supported the Marshall plan which was giving cast sums of money to countries who needed funds, the aim of this plan to help rebuild Western Europe after the war. Along with this plan Truman also wrote up the “Truman Doctrine” which stated that America would help any country that was under Communist attack from groups inside or outside the country. This was another big foreign success for Truman as he helped contain communism within Europe and managed to avoid any physical warfare during the Cold war.

During the Vietnam war Johnson introduced conscription. This meant that it was mandatory for boys of age to join the army. Martin Luther King, Muhammad Ali and Norman Mailer were famously opposed of the war. In fact, Muhammad Ali was opposed to it so much that when he refused to go to war due to his religion they stripped him of all his boxing titles and sent him to jail. This caused an uproar from the American public. Opposition of the Vietnam war started in Universities and spread from there. Johnson noticed the American public increasingly become against the war, as he noticed this he attempted to make peace, both sides attempted to negotiate but no truce was agreed to. Truman ( Johnson ?) was too far into the war to just leave. Due to his stubbornness he secretly invested more and more money into the war without informing the public. Johnson became overly invested in the war and couldn’t fix it.

When the war in Europe ended in 1945, The allies divided Germany into four zones of occupation. The US, Britain and France occupied the western areas of Germany while Soviet Russia occupied the eastern part. The Capital of Germany was also divided. Berlin was situated in the Russia side of Germany. The Allies occupied the West side of Berlin and Russia occupied the East side. In February 1948 Communists in Czechoslovakia backed by Soviet troops, staged a “coup d’état”. This heightened tensions between the Allies and Soviet Russia. The allies at a conference in London planned to merge their three zones and establish a federal government for west Germany. When the plan was announced, it provoked an angry reaction from Moscow. Stalin knew this development would end the hopes of keeping Germany divided, neutral and weak, On June 1948, Stalin cut off all road, rail and water routes between west and east Berlin. Thus, starting the Berlin Blockade. Truman handled the end of world war 2 very well as he controlled communism and prevented Soviet Russia obtaining full control over Germany. (This paragraph doesn’t have much to do with Truman – you need to make his involvement clear throughout)

Overall Johnsons Foreign policies failed him as a president. His Great Society plan is not what he is remember for as he messed up ( you can’t use “messed up” in a history essay ) the Vietnam war badly. He became decreasing ( increasingly ) unpopular within the American republic due to the war and overall sent millions of American soldiers to their deaths. His foreign polices overall were a failure. Truman’s foreign polices however were a great success. He dealt with the control of communism very well, prevent ( prevented ) Soviet Russia obtaining full control over Germany and prevent ( prevented ) any physical warfare during the Cold war. Overall Truman was far more superior (far superior ) to Johnson when it came to foreign policies and Truman will forever go down in history as one of the greatest presidents of the United States.

Feedback: This essay includes plenty of relevant historical facts. It answers the question and the way in which you compare the two presidents is good. However, the essay is a bit short at only 7 paragraphs long and could be more detailed, especially in relation to the Vietnam War, which is a case study and a major aspect of Johnson’s presidency. Your introduction and conclusion are good. Try to include some quotations from historians and historical figures to improve the essay. There are also some paragraphs that don’t directly deal with the question, and are only tied in to the question with one sentence at the end. There are quite a few grammatical and syntactical errors which break the flow of the essay and your writing style is a little bit clunky sometimes.

Cumulative Mark: Your total cumulative mark would come to about 40 out of 60 for this essay. The best way to bring this up is to add relevant paragraphs.

Overall Evaluation Mark: For Overall Evaluation, I’d give this about a 25 out of 40. Language errors and occasional breaks in the flow bring this mark down.

Total Mark: 65 out of 100

The development of US Foreign Policy towards the Soviet Union and how effective it was in relation to one major Cold War crisis

#625Lab – History , marked 50/100, detailed feedback at the very bottom. You may also like:  Leaving Cert History Guide  (€).

At the end of the Second World War, many of the European Powers that had been dominant before the War had suffered much destruction in the fighting and had suffered major economic losses. This meant that the democratic USA, who had vast amounts of wealth and were economically stable, and the communist USSR, who had the world’s largest army, emerged as the ‘Superpowers’ of World Politics. As relations cooled between the two nations after World War II, the two countries became engaged in a ‘Cold War’. This Cold War, and the prevention of the spread of communism, known as ‘containment’, would dominate US Foreign Policy for 50 years succeeding World War II.

In July 1945, Harry Truman, Josef Stalin and Winston Churchill met at Potsdam to draw up a post-war peace treaty. During the conference, Stalin promised to allow the Eastern European countries the Red Army had liberated from The Nazis to hold their own elections and establish their own governments. He later went back on this promise and communist governments controlled from Moscow were installed in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Albania and Romania. Stalin hoped the ‘buffer zone’ he had created would help prevent any further attempts to invade Russia through Europe as Hitler had done. Stalin’s fear of another German invasion was also reflected in his take on German affairs after the war.

As the fear of the spread of Communism grew in the US, Truman knew a major act of political power was needed to reinforce the idea that their democratic government was much stronger than that of the communists in Russia. He introduced the Truman Doctrine to “support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed forces”. The idea behind this doctrine was to support countries that were in danger of turning to communism that were in danger of turning to communism by providing monetary aid to their governments. In 1947, Congress approved $400 million in military aid for Greece and Turkey as part of the Marshall Plan. The Greek government defeated a communist rebellion in the country, making use of the military aid.

The American government that an economically prosperous Europe would be better able to resist the spread of communism, and would provide a large market for American goods. On June 5 1947, US Secretary of State George Marshall announced the induction of the Marshall Plan. This plan would provide massive economic aid to Europe in order to help it recover from damage caused by the war. Marshall Aid was also offered to the satellite states in Eastern Europe, but Stalin ordered the countries not to accept as he saw the aid as an attempt to gain allies close to the Soviet Union.

In June 1948, as part of the Marshall Plan, a new currency, the Deutschmark, was set to be introduced into West Germany. Stalin made his opposition to this move clear, and when the Allies ignored his warnings, he acted. On 27 June, Stalin ordered a blockade of all rail, road and waterway entries to the city of Berlin. The inhabitants of the city faced starvation, as all food that was transported into the city was now cut off. The only access to the city was through a narrow air corridor, which was to prove vital to the American response. Truman was adamant that Berlin could not be allowed to fall into Russian hands. On 28 June, he authorized Operation Vittles, a plan to fly tonnes of food and other supplies into the city to provide for the citizens of Berlin for the duration of the Blockade. The operation was overlooked by General Lucius Clay, and lasted 320 days. At its peak, planes were taking off every 90 seconds carrying supplies for the city. In May 1949, Stalin finally conceded and the blockade was lifted, liberating people of Berlin.

President Truman later wrote of the event, “We demonstrated to the people of Europe that with their cooperation we would act, and act resolutely, when their freedom was threatened. Politically it brought the people of Western Europe closer to us”. The blockade and airlift served as a huge propaganda victory for the US and for democracy as it showed that they could withstand even the greatest display of defiance that Moscow could produce. The zones of West Germany controlled by the allies were united into Trizonia, and the Deutschmark was officially introduced. The actions of the USA were in stark contrast with those of the USSR, who had shown communism in its true form. The blockade solidified the rivalry between the Superpowers, and the possibility of a dispute, and an eventual war, loomed, with disastrous consequences for the human race. In the aftermath of the crisis, NATO was established by the US, Canada and other Western states, with the aim of coordinating the Western defence against Russia.

In conclusion, the USA’s strong political stance against the Soviet Union and communism was extremely effective in relation to the crisis of the Berlin Blockade.

Feedback : This is a good essay that answers the question well by tracing the development of US-Soviet relations, but it is far too short in terms of the number of paragraphs. As there are no time parameters provided by the question, you can continue your answer right up to 1989 in order to expand the essay. When dealing with the second part of the question, you should expand on it further by breaking the US response to the crisis into several short paragraphs. If you feel you can’t do this by using the Berlin Blockade, choose a different crisis like the Cuban Missile Crisis, which has more content to write about. Your conclusion is far too short and adds nothing to the essay, and would earn minimal cumulative marks. Otherwise, this essay uses good factual information to answer the question at hand, you mention plenty of key personalities and terms, and make good use of quotation – it just needs to be fleshed out a bit!

Cumulative Mark : At its current length, this essay would score about 30 out of 60 for its cumulative mark. Increase your number of paragraphs by expanding your time parameters to bring this mark up.

Overall Evaluation : For your overall evaluation mark, I’d give this answer about 20 out of 40, as you handle the question well, but your treatment of the two parts of the question is not very even.

Total Mark : 50/100

• Post author: Martina
• Post published: December 19, 2018
• Post category: #625Lab History / History

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Want to get your hands on our H1 Standard History Essays but you don't want to buy the full set of notes? You can now buy individual history essays!

H1 Standard Leaving Certificate Individual History Essays

After what has felt like an eternity we have finally finished writing up our History Notes. With over 600 slides and over 150,000 words (for reference that's more words than is in the first Lord Of the Rings book), these are some of the most extensive notes you will find around!

Since you can just learn off the historical events from your school books these notes focus on example history essays & the skills needed to get a H1 in History.

History Leaving Cert Higher Level —Exam Breakdown

Marks: 400 Time Allocated: 2 hours 50 minutes (170 minutes)

Pre-submitted Research Study Report (100 marks): Students may have up to 20% obtained prior to even sitting the written exam for completing the Research Study Report. Section 1 (100 marks) — 35 minutes: Documents-based questions, Students must answer all parts of this section. Section 2 (100 marks) — 45 minutes: Ireland: Topics 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. There are four questions on each topic and students must answer one question from one topic. Section 3 (200 marks) — 90 minutes: Europe and the wider world: Topics 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. There are four questions on each topic and students must answer one question on each of the two topics. (2 questions in total)

At a little over 600 pages of notes, essays, skills and study tips,  this is one of the most expansive sets of Leaving Certificate History notes online and at only €25 euro it costs much less than some of the other notes online.

As you can see we are constantly trying to expand our selection of notes to include more traditional subjects, such as Leaving Cert Higher Level Business. Therefore, keep an eye out on the site and our socials to see when we come out with these too!

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The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, 1933-36

1971, The American Historical Review

Related Papers

Daniel Sorluca

The conventional view within scholarship of the history is that solely Adolf Hitler conceptualized National Socialism. I challenge this historical perceptive, as I contend that the political-philosophical principals which Nazism espoused had been in existence well before Hitler came to the foreground of German politics. Furthermore, I will argue that it was through sheer force of will and political manoeuvring that Hitler managed to attain the leadership of the Nazi Movement and then expropriated it for his own worldview.

A New Nationalist Europe Under Hitler Concepts of Europe and Transnational Networks in the National Socialist Sphere of Influence, 1933–1945 Edited by Johannes Dafinger, Dieter Pohl. London: Routledge August 2018.

Patrick Bernhard

Nazis, fascists and völkisch conservatives in different European countries not only cooperated internationally in the fields of culture, science, economy, and persecution of Jews, but also developed ideas for a racist and ethno-nationalist Europe under Hitler. The present volume attempts to combine an analysis of Nazi Germany’s transnational relations with an evaluation of the discourse that accompanied these relations. Contents List of Contributors Acknowledgements Introduction Johannes Dafinger, Dieter Pohl Part I: Concepts of Europe 1 "Volksgruppen Rights" versus "Minorities Protections": The Evolution of German and Austrian Political Order Paradigms from the 1920s to 1945 Ulrich Prehn 2 Speaking Nazi-European: The Semantic and Conceptual Formation of the National Socialist "New Europe" Johannes Dafinger 3 From the Greater German Reich to the Greater Germanic Reich: Arthur Seyss-Inquart and the Racial Reshaping of Europe Johannes Koll 4 Nazi Plans for a New European Order and European Responses Tim Kirk 5 Hispanidad in the völkisch "New Order" of Europe (1933–1945) Marició Janué i Miret 6 Portugal, Salazar and the Nazi "New Order" in Europe Cláudia Ninhos Part II: Science, Academia, and Culture 7 Controlling Agriculture in Greece (1935–1944): Land Exploitation, Peasant Mobilization, and Big Science Maria Zarifi 8 "Population Pressure" and Development Models for Southeastern Europe: Interactions between German and Southeastern European Economists, 1930–1945 Ian Innerhofer 9 Educating the "Intellectual Army" of the "New Europe"? Foreign Students and Academic Exchange in Nazi Germany Holger Impekoven 10 Film Axis and Film Europe: German-Japanese and German-Italian Cooperation in the Film Industry from 1933 to 1945 Silvia Hofheinz 11 Building a New Europe on the Back of ‘German’ Science: Völkisch Ideologies and Imperialistic Visions at the Academy of Sciences in Vienna Felicitas Seebacher Part III: Economy 12 Völkisch Ideology within the Central European Economic Conference (Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftstag) Markus Wien 13 When Ends Become Means: Post-War Planning and the Exigencies of War in the Discussion about a New Economic Order in Europe (1939–1945) Raimund Bauer Part IV: Raumordnung and Racism 14 "The Anti-Semite Internationale": The Exporting of Anti-Jewish Scholarship and Propaganda by the Third Reich Dirk Rupnow 15 Heralds of a New Order: Mussolini, Hitler and the Purging of Europe Patrick Bernhard Index

Journal of Contemporary History

This conceptual historical investigation of Adolf Hitler's use of the term ‘worldview’ ( Weltanschauung) opens new perspectives on the debate over the relationship of religion and National Socialism. Most studies of Hitler's worldview have focused on the genealogy of his beliefs, an approach that has led to an anachronistic understanding of worldview. By contrast, this article reveals that Hitler's own usage of the term ‘worldview’ was decisively shaped by the German culture wars that preceded his entrance into politics in 1919. The article shows how the varying Nazi religious policies, from supporting ‘positive Christianity’ during the Weimar Republic to suppressing elements within the churches once taking power, continued to be framed by the dynamics of the culture wars.

Sandrine Kott

THE JOURNAL OF HOLOCAUST RESEARCH

Norman Domeier

ABSTRACT On August 22, 1939, only days before the German invasion of Poland, Adolf Hitler delivered an infamous secret speech before the leading Wehrmacht generals at the Obersalzberg. The American foreign correspondent Louis Lochner, as head of the Berlin bureau of Associated Press, was a key figure in securing, spreading, and publishing this speech during the World War II. Despite Lochner’s presence throughout the Nuremberg trials 1945/1946 as a reporter for AP, he was not called as witness to testify regarding the document which today is usually referred to as ‘Lochner Version’ of the secret Hitler speech. Later, while verifying this source during the 1960s, Lochner’s role was too underappreciated and even distorted by German historians. Therefore, until today, the Lochner Version of Hitler’s speech is either unknown, underestimated or misjudged. To reassess this central source for Hitler’s worldview and the global aspirations of National Socialist ideology, this article reconstructs its historical background and context for the first time. It argues that the Lochner Version is indeed the most authentic and reliable version available of this speech by Hitler. Only the Lochner Version reflects Hitler’s two ultimate goals: World conquest and genocides of all ‘inferior races’. Furthermore, it proves that all leading German generals knew of Hitler’s planned crimes against humanity even before World War II started.

Eric Kurlander

Supriyo Chaudhuri

How did Hitler become the German Chancellor on 30th January 1933? This essay presents a synthesis of various popular explanations.

Neil Gregor

Elliott Ford

Jade Hazell

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