essay on role of science and technology in covid 19

UNESCO Science Report 2021

Science and the pandemic

During the Covid-19 pandemic, countries have turned to their scientific community for advice and practical solutions. Many governments have established ad hoc scientific committees to manage the crisis, enabling them to witness, first hand, the advantages of having local experts to monitor and control the progression of the virus. 

The Covid-19 pandemic has demonstrated the value of digital technologies in an emergency. It has heightened their use in areas such as education (distance learning) and health, with examples including telemedicine, use of drones to detect people in a crowd with a high body temperature or delivery by drone of medical samples for testing. 

The Covid-19 pandemic has exacted a heavy human and economic toll but it has also energized knowledge production systems.  

For instance, in October 2020, the World Health Organization reported that Africa accounted for about 13% of 1,000 new or modified existing technologies developed worldwide in response to the pandemic, close to its share of the global population (14%). Among these technologies, 58% involved digital solutions such as chatbots, self-diagnostic tools and contact-tracing apps. A further 25% of African solutions were based on three-dimensional (3D) printing and 11% on robotics. 

Governments have supported the bioscience industry, such as through advance purchase agreements to facilitate the rapid development of vaccines. Institutions in many countries have accelerated their approval processes for research project proposals in response to the crisis. Governments have provided incentives for small and medium-sized enterprises to tackle the pandemic. 

The Covid-19 crisis has recalled the desirability of strong linkages between the public and private sectors for the production of equipment such as lung ventilators, masks, medication and vaccines. Academics have worked with hospitals and local businesses to develop lung ventilators, for instance, which have been produced by local manufacturers who have repurposed their assembly lines.  

The pandemic has also given rise to an epidemic of misleading information designed to foment division, or ‘infodemic’, as the World Health Organization has termed it. This ‘infodemic’ has demonstrated the crucial need for independent, responsible and pluralistic media, in order to ensure that people have access to trustworthy and science-based information.  

The Covid-19 pandemic has radically transformed our way of life. The crisis may yet redefine scientific processes and science governance in unforeseen ways. It is likely to affect the next generation of researchers and the mechanisms by which science itself is funded’. 

Beyond science and technology, the Covid-19 crisis raises broad, fundamental questions, such as with regard to the role of the state in the economy, the reshoring of supply chains, the organization of work and the value of proximity. 

Two essays on the Covid-19 pandemic

Research on new or re-emerging viruses has surged during epidemics .

 With the year 2020 having been dominated by the Covid-19 pandemic, one might expect there to be a voluminous research record on new or re-emerging viruses that can infect humans. There is not. There were just 7 471 publications on this topic in 2019, 35% of which were produced by scientists in the USA alone. Global output on this broad topic progressed by just 2% per year between 2011 and 2019,  slower than global scientific publications overall: 3.8% per year. There are signs that research in this field has been reactive, not pro-active. 

Growth was much faster in individual countries which had to marshal science to cope with other viral outbreaks over this period. The 2014–2015 Ebola outbreak in Liberia and neighbouring Guinea and Sierra Leone stamped its mark on these countries’ scientific output, as did repeated Ebola outbreaks in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The same was true of the Zika virus, which reached epidemic proportions in Brazil between 2015 and 2018.

• View the figure on the right or in the report: Top 10 countries for growth in scientific publishing on new or re-emerging viruses, 2011–2019

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OECD Science, Technology and Industry Policy Papers

Science, technology and innovation in the time of covid-19.

• Science and Technology
• ISSN: 23074957 (online)
• https://doi.org/10.1787/23074957
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Science, technology and innovation (STI) have played a key role in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic and the unprecedented socio-economic crisis it has triggered. This paper explores how the pandemic affected STI in 2020, including how STI was mobilised to provide vaccines, treatments and innovative (often digital) solutions to address “social distancing”. The paper also reviews the quick and agile STI policy responses implemented across countries to stimulate research and innovation activities to find solutions to the pandemic. Moreover, the paper covers STI policies that targeted universities, research centres, innovative businesses and entrepreneurs most affected by the crisis. It also raises key debates on the effectiveness of such policies. Follow-up work will leverage more and better data to improve this early assessment of the impacts of the crisis and STI policy responses.

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Author(s) Caroline Paunov i  and Sandra Planes-Satorra i i OECD

10 Feb 2021

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Science, technology and innovation in the time of COVID-19

• Science, technology and innovation
• Science policy
• Innovation and R&D policy
• Science, technology and innovation performance
• Technology policy
• Science, technology and innovation indicators

Cite this content as:

Science, technology and innovation (STI) have played a key role in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic and the unprecedented socio-economic crisis it has triggered. This paper explores how the pandemic affected STI in 2020, including how STI was mobilised to provide vaccines, treatments and innovative (often digital) solutions to address “social distancing”. The paper also reviews the quick and agile STI policy responses implemented across countries to stimulate research and innovation activities to find solutions to the pandemic. Moreover, the paper covers STI policies that targeted universities, research centres, innovative businesses and entrepreneurs most affected by the crisis. It also raises key debates on the effectiveness of such policies. Follow-up work will leverage more and better data to improve this early assessment of the impacts of the crisis and STI policy responses.

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• Economic and Social Council

Advances in Science, Technology Crucial for Equitable Pandemic Recovery, Global Growth, Speakers Stress, as Economic and Social Council Opens Multi-Stakeholder Forum

The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed the importance of science and technology for the well-being of global populations, and advances in these fields are necessary not only to recover better from the crisis, but also to address other global challenges, such as poverty, inequality and climate change, speakers said today as the Economic and Social Council opened a two-day forum on the subject.

“COVID-19, and the inadequate response to the pandemic, have divided the world in two, between those countries primed to move on from the pandemic and those mired in it for the foreseeable future,” said Rajiv Shah, President of the Rockefeller Foundation, in his keynote address to the sixth annual Multi‑stakeholder Forum on Science, Technology and Innovation for the Sustainable Development Goals.

As the pandemic enters its second year, this division could become a lasting divergence between one part of the world that’s much better off and another falling far behind, he warned.  “Indeed, we’ve already lost ground on every measure of humanity’s progress and the Sustainable Development Goals the world committed to more than five years ago,” he said.  “To restart convergence, we need to reimagine how we pursue those goals and global development more broadly.”

That will require a new mindset and redefining the focus, scale and purpose of the international economic order to give people everywhere the opportunity to not just get back on their feet, but also prosper amid an economic transition to a modern digital, environmentally stable economy, he said.  And it will require empowering the bottom billion with the new advances in science, technology and innovation, he said.

Recalling that, throughout the last century, scientific and technological breakthroughs fuelled global development, progress and hope, he said that science, technology and innovation should help ensure a truly sustainable, equitable recovery from the COVID-19 crisis.  To that end, the Foundation is launching a pandemic prevention hub that can leverage the latest advances in data, science and technology to enable global public health leaders to foresee an outbreak.

And later this year at the twenty-sixth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), known as COP26, the Foundation intends to begin ground-breaking collaboration that leverages breakthroughs in solar energy, battery storage and artificial intelligence to advance climate transitions and bring reliable electricity to 1 billion people, he said.  The Foundation, however, cannot do this alone, he said, urging joint efforts.

The other keynote speaker, Julie Makani, Professor and Principal Investigator for the Sickle Cell Disease Programme at Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences in the United Republic of Tanzania, emphasized the need to harness the power of science, technology and innovation.  “There is considerable knowledge in the world,” she said, stressing that this knowledge can be used to reduce and end the ongoing pandemic and prepare for future ones.

Calling for investment in gene-based diagnosis and therapies in a manner that will address the ethics and equity of health, she said that, “by working together, through multi-stakeholder partnerships, we will be able to say that we have used science, technology and innovation to improve health and prevent, treat and cure diseases, such as COVID-19 and sickle cell disease, irrespective of who you are and where you live.”

For Africa, she said, it is possible to establish capacity in genomics and data science with adequate investment directly going to institutions and scientists there.  The existing platforms, such as ACEGID in Nigeria, the first centre in Africa to sequence the SARS-COV-2 virus and contribute to genomic surveillance, can be used to participate in research and conduct trials in gene therapy to cure sickle cell disease and HIV.  She expressed hope that she will soon be able to sit in a clinic in Dar-es-Salaam, discuss gene-based treatment to cure sickle cell disease with a patient and give that patient the same health care as if she was sitting in a clinic in London or New York.

In a message, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres said the COVID-19 crisis has increased innovation in medicines and digital communications technologies.  “These advances hold promise for our collective challenges beyond COVID-19 — including limiting climate disruption, reducing inequalities, including the digital divide, and ending our war on nature,” he said in his remarks, delivered on his behalf by Maria-Francesca Spatolisano, Assistant Secretary-General for Policy Coordination and Inter-Agency Affairs of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs, and Officer-in-Charge, United Nations Office of the Secretary General’s Envoy on Technology.

“It is essential that we work together — across borders, sectors and disciplines — to make science and technology work for everyone,” the Secretary‑General said, drawing attention to the United Nations Technology Facilitation Mechanism designed to promote multi-stakeholder collaboration on technological progress, as well as the Road Map for Digital Cooperation, which he launched last year.

Also speaking was Volkan Bozkir (Turkey), President of the General Assembly, who warned that the digital divide is rapidly becoming the new face of inequality and there is no path to sustainable development without closing this gap.  The differences between the digital haves and have-nots extend far beyond having an email account, he said, pointing out that implications of this divide are evident in the quality of education and health care, and in the availability and diversity of jobs and livelihoods.

“Expanding access to digital technologies is not only about leaving no one behind, it is about hitting the accelerator on sustainable development, driving a new surge in action and innovation across the entirety of the [Sustainable Development Goals],” he said.  Few actions are as powerful as digitization in quickly and broadly scaling up progress, he added, emphasizing that a COVID-19 recovery must be a digital one.

Resultant benefits, he said, include the emergence of new sectors and markets; better trained and equipped workforces; and the availability of data on everything from soil conditions to sea surge that will help policymakers and practitioners design environmental conservation efforts.

Opening the Forum, Munir Akram (Pakistan), President of the Economic and Social Council, reminded participants that the dialogue platform is mandated to facilitate interaction and matchmaking among partners on science, technology and innovation for sustainable development.  He encouraged them to explore ways to use science and technology to foster inclusive action.  In this regard, he said, intellectual property can address inequalities widened by the COVID-19 pandemic, calling for the sharing of open science, open‑source technology and digital public goods.  Science can achieve rapid breakthroughs, he said, stressing the need for targeted research to accelerate progress towards sustainable development.

Throughout the day, the Forum held panels and ministerial-level dialogues, bringing together a wide range of stakeholders under the theme “Science, technology and innovation for a sustainable and resilient COVID-19 recovery, and effective pathways of inclusive action towards the Sustainable Development Goals”.

The Forum will reconvene at 9 a.m., on Wednesday, 5 May to continue its work.

The Forum then held a panel discussion and interactive dialogue on the theme “Science, technology and innovation lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic”.  Moderated by Vaughan Turekian, Senior Director, United States National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine, it featured presentations by Jeremy James Farrar, Director, The Wellcome Trust; Nísia Verônica Trindade Lima, President, Oswaldo Cruz Foundaiton (Fiocruz), Brazil; Ulrik Vestergaard Knudsen, Deputy Secretary-General, Organisation for Economic Co‑operation and Development (OECD); and Dina Dellyana, Coordinator, Global Center of Excellent and International Cooperation for Creative Economy, Indonesia.

ANDREJS PILDEGOVICS (Latvia), Forum Co-Chair, delivered opening remarks, saying that the world must draw lessons from the pandemic to build foresight and resilience and to be better prepared for unforeseen future shocks.  With the pandemic demonstrating the power of science, technology and innovation, it is essential to keep up the momentum while also delivering on the Sustainable Development Goals.

Mr. TUREKIAN said that so much has been learned since the pandemic began, but lessons are still being drawn as this is an ongoing pandemic.  Science, technology and innovation has much to teach the world about how it can interface with “wicked problems”, including climate change.  There is terrific value in mobilizing the global scientific community to provide insight into the progress of the pandemic, but further interventions are required to move forward.  The past 14 months have also exposed challenges in the relationship between the science, technology and innovation community, on the one hand, and policy implementation, on the other.  Elaborating, he said that the speed at which science, technology and innovation develops is relatively slow compared with the speed at which the political world must act.

Dr. FARRAR said that the pandemic must be put into the context of changes during the past 20 years.  It did not come out of the blue; rather, it was preceded by many warnings, culminating in a perfect storm.  The twenty-first century will see more transnational challenges like COVID-19 that will require countries to come together and act in a coordinated manner.  He added that, while the pandemic country is past its peak in some countries, most of the world is closer to its start than to the end.  Everything must be done to address inequalities in such areas as vaccines, testing and oxygen supplies.

Ms. LIMA, discussing her Foundation’s work in Brazil, emphasized that COVID‑19 responses must address social inequalities.  While many countries were able to carry out research, access to that research was extremely unequal.  The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development must be considered in that context.  While recent years have seen improvements in quality-of-life indicators, the pandemic has prompted setbacks, including the return to poverty of 70 million to 100 million people worldwide.  She underscored the importance of strengthening universal health systems to build national resilience and for preparing for future pandemics, as well as a more symmetrical distribution of knowledge.  In addition, policies must be guided by the needs of society and the planet, and integrated into the principle that development aims to improve people’s lives.

Mr. KNUDSEN said that the unprecedented mobilization of science and research systems around the world during the pandemic was an acceleration of trends that were already under way.  Some 75,000 scientific papers related to COVID-19 have been published, more than 70 per cent of which are available through open access.  Billions of dollars were poured into better understanding the virus and into developing vaccines with unprecedented levels of international cooperation.  Emphasizing the importance of data‑sharing, he said that, while several vaccines have been approved and vaccination campaigns are under way, an intense response to COVID-19 is needed in all countries and not just in a privileged few.  Summarizing some of OECD’s recommendations, he said that Governments should review their policies, including funding for science and technology, to focus on pandemics and climate change.  International collaboration must be strengthened and adequately funded.  Clearly, no country, society or economy can face the pandemic — or other global crises — alone, he said.

Ms. DELLYANA said that her organization is extending a helping hand to creative actors in Indonesia, who, in a survey, identified several challenges, including human resources management, lack of adequate infrastructure and access to raw materials.  In response, her organization is helping to make creative actors more competitive, introducing them to the potential of big data for making decisions in real time.  She added that the pandemic has revealed the value of decentralized production models and local sourcing, as well as the need to bolster cybersecurity through cost-effective means.

In the ensuing dialogue, the Russian Federation ’s representative spotlighted his country’s progress in science, technology and innovation, including the Sputnik V vaccine and a twofold increase in software exports over the past five years.  However, like all innovations, digital technology can be subject to uncontrolled proliferation, hence the need for an effective and transparent system to regulate the Internet, with Governments moving forward on an equal footing and the United Nations playing an active role.  The Internet Governance Forum, which has so far been only a discussion platform with no power to make recommendations, should be given an improved mandate.  Key decisions should be agreed by consensus.  He added that, while the Secretary-General’s Road Map for Digital Cooperation has positive elements, it also contains questionable ones, particularly in the area of international digital safety and security, which should be addressed by the relevant open-ended working group.

The representative of Finland said that a crisis of the pandemic’s magnitude warrants both very specific and more general knowledge which supports innovation and decision-making in both the public and private sectors.  It is thus essential to pool scientific knowledge produced in various countries and by various scientific disciplines, such as the social sciences and humanities.  COVID-19 has demonstrated that sustainable resilience warrants a wide range of knowledge and capacities — developed and supported before the crisis — as well as the ability to quickly pool minds and resources, she said.

The representative of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization  (UNESCO) said that scientific literacy is more important than ever.  Knowledge must benefit everyone and not create new forms of exclusion and marginalization.  In that regard, UNESCO’s recommendations for open science can be a game changer in fulfilling the right to science.  Citing the forthcoming UNESCO Science Report, she said there is an urgent need to improve the status of scientists and researchers “who are truly the canaries in the mine”.  Scientific communities are not born overnight, but the fruit of long-term investment, she said, emphasizing the “soft power of science” and calling for basic science education for all children.

A representative of Saahas , a civil society organization in India, said that technology holds tremendous promise for survivors of sexual and gender-based violence, which spiked during the pandemic, by making help more accessible more quickly.  Stressing the power of community, she said that bystander intervention training has enabled resident associations to identify and support survivors.  She added that a combination of technology-based support and access to resources can go far in supporting survivors in times of emergency, particularly when it is not safe for them to leave their homes even if they want to.

Ministerial Session

Next, the Forum held a ministerial session on the theme “Science, technology and innovation policies and initiatives for sustainable development:  best practices and lessons learned”.

LIU ZHENMIN, Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs, said that the Forum was finally meeting a year after COVID-19 deferred the session, stressing its relevance and importance in addressing the pandemic and shaping recovery from it.  The Forum, which is part of Technology Facilitation Mechanism that supports achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, holds the key to resolving crises.  Noting advances in science, such as artificial intelligence, robotics and nanotechnology, he stressed the importance of hearing the voices of those impacted by these innovations, as well as the need to achieve inclusive results that benefit all.  He said he looks forward to examining the annual report on the Mechanism to be presented today, as well as hearing national experiences on this matter.

STEPHEN QUEST, Director-General of the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre , said that the European Union is strongly committed to the 2030 Agenda and remains at the forefront of the response to the climate and biodiversity crises.  With the European Green Deal, the bloc aspires to become the first carbon-neutral continent by 2050.

MABEL GISELA TORRES TORRES, Minister of Science, Technology and Innovation of Colombia , said the Ministry was created with a dream of Colombia becoming a society of knowledge based on the strengthening and consolidation of scientific capacities in all regions to generate productivity towards fairness and equity.  For the first time in history, the national development plan dedicated an entire chapter to science and technology, and defined a 25-year road map for a biodiverse, productive, sustainable and equitable Colombia.

ANNIKA SAARIKKO, Minister for Science and Culture of Finland , said that resolving global challenges requires skills and expertise.  “We stand the best chance of success if we address future skills,” she said, stressing the role of science and technology to promote coherence between research and development policy.  Research-based knowledge opens up opportunities.  Finland rewards ground‑breaking achievements in open science and celebrates the Year of Research‑Based Knowledge in 2021, she added.

HARSH VARDHAN, Minister for Science and Technology of India , said that science and technology are no doubt powerful enablers for progress on sustainable development and recovery from the COVID-19 crisis.  India has about 20 COVID-19 vaccine candidates, he said, urging the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) to suspend intellectual property rights to help scale up vaccine production for all.

FORTUNATO DE LA PEÑA, Secretary for Science and Technology of the  Philippines , said the COVID-19 pandemic rolled back progress on sustainable development in middle-income countries like his.  Recalling that Member States adopted the Decade of Action for sustainable development, he said the significance of science and technology cannot be overemphasized.  The Government used open science and technology in the fight against the pandemic, including COVID-19 testing and travel management.

FRANKLIN GARCÍA FERMÍN, Minister for Higher Education, Science and Technology of the Dominican Republic , highlighted the role played by UNESCO in harnessing the power of science during the pandemic.  The complex challenges posed by COVID-19 required collaborative solutions by Latin American and Caribbean countries.  Guided by UNESCO, his country’s Government led a strategic plan for quality education for all.

The Forum then held a session on the theme “Effective paths towards the Sustainable Development Goals:  science, technology and innovation for ending poverty and hunger, enhancing human well-being and building resilience”.  Moderated by Huadong Guo, Chair of the Academic Committee, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, it featured presentations by Mohamed Hassan, President, World Academy of Sciences and the Sudanese National Academy of Sciences; Carolina Botero Cabrera, Director, Karisma Foundation, Colombia, and Member of the UNESCO Advisory Committee on Open Science; and Peter Gluckman, President-elect, International Science Council.

Mr. HASSAN said that strengthening the science-policy interface can help countries to come up with national food systems that can then be integrated into national development plans.  One per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) can be earmarked for such efforts.  He also emphasized the importance of empowering women farmers to improve their productivity and raise their incomes.  There are several examples in Asia and Africa of how digital technology can be used to that end, he added.

Ms. CABRERA said that technology alone cannot solve complex problems, such as peace and poverty.  Positive outcomes depend on the social programmes in which technology is inserted.  Technologies and innovations that will endure post‑pandemic must be evaluated and adjusted to ensure that social programmes remain accessible to all; are non-discriminatory; transparent, explicable and accountable; and take into considerations the needs of the people affected.  Social programmes and their underlying technologies and innovations which meet those criteria are the ones that can transform the lives of those living in poverty and help achieve Goal 16.

Mr. GLUCKMAN said that science has been the hero of vaccine development, yet the uptake of public health evidence in the political and public response to the pandemic reflects variable perceptions of the uses of science.  Political processes have interfered with the best use of available knowledge, the multilateral system has been surprisingly ineffective and solutions to the myriad issues laid bare by the pandemic are many years away.  “Urgency and potentially disruptive change are needed if we are to meet the enormous number of challenges ahead.”  He added that the contemporary science system is made up of disparate agendas and incentives, with no mechanism to identify key priorities and actions.  It is therefore time for a more collective approach among funders, academia, experts and the multilateral system to determine the science priorities needed to overcome the challenges faced by the global commons.

In the ensuing dialogue, the representative of the Philippines discussed the ways in which her country is using science and innovation to bring down its rate of poverty, which stood at 16.7 per cent in 2018.  In particular, she described the “Enhanced Nutribun”, a bread made from squash that is rich in vitamin A and iron, distributed through community quarantine feed programmes and in times of emergency.  “Pack of Hope” ready-to-eat meals provide complete nutrition for survivors of natural disasters.  Protocols and platforms have also been established to inform citizens, communities, local governments and national agencies on ways to avert and minimize risks emanating from natural hazards.

The representative of Finland , emphasizing the Goals’ knowledge-based character, said that her country attaches great importance to academic freedom, integrity of peer review, open science, research-based knowledge and freedom of expression.  In that spirit, it has declared 2021 to be the “Year of Research‑Based Knowledge”, a programme of actions and events which give a comprehensive view of the role of research-based knowledge in the well-being of individuals and the functioning of society.  It will raise the visibility of different sources of knowledge, including statistics, reports and analyses, and highlight the fundamental nature of knowledge that is constantly updated as new research results emerge.

The representative of Bangladesh said that the fourth industrial revolution is likely to eliminate many artificial barriers between men and women, especially in developing countries.  However, a financial crisis brought on by the pandemic means that many vulnerable countries cannot embrace the technology they need for development.  Such countries will require access to funding through a variety of mechanisms.  He went on to say that COVID-19 vaccines must be declared a global public good so that their underlying technology can be shared with those countries with production capability.

The representative of the World Food Programme  (WFP) said that, even though the world produces enough food for everyone, 690 million people go to bed hungry every night and the world is not on track to eliminate hunger by 2030.  The international community must do its utmost to avert famine for 34 million people.  More can and must be done to eliminate hunger and change the lives of those who are furthest behind.  She described WFP’s efforts in that regard, including the use of blockchain technology to distribute assistance to 1 million people every month.  Predictive analytics enable WFP to pinpoint hunger hotspots.  Stressing the importance of partnership, she noted the launch of a new innovation hub in Kenya with another to follow in Colombia.

The representative of the Food and Agriculture Organization  (FAO), looking ahead to this year’s Food Systems Summit, said that science, technology and innovation should be an integral part of efforts to achieve Goal 2 and the wider 2030 Agenda.  The pandemic has demonstrated that the world is interconnected and that everyone should have access to science, technology and innovation to transform their agrifood systems.  Partnerships and access to know-how are therefore a must, she said.

The representative of Germany highlighted the EMPACT programme, which is an integral part of WFP’s operations in Iraq, with strong support from his country’s Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development.  With digital skills and English training moving online, data indicates that EMPACT has been a great benefit for its 10,000 participating vulnerable youths and their families, providing them with a skillset to access income-generating opportunities.

The representative of China said that, as many people know, his country has made great progress in poverty eradication through science, technology and innovation over several decades.  He stressed the importance of capacity-building to address a variety of situations in different parts of the country.  Incentives have encouraged experts at universities and research institutes to come up with capacity-building projects for local farmers.

The representative of the major group for children and youth said that the scaling up of proven and emerging technologies to address the Goals must be locally driven and context specific.  Effective science, technology and innovation solutions will require broader intergenerational dialogue and the engagement of all stakeholders.  Greater emphasis should be put on systems-based thinking and innovative uses of existing technologies.  Underrepresented groups should be brought into decision-making processes, he said, adding that citizen science initiatives which contribute to open and accessible data sets can help to ensure that institutions are accountable to all stakeholders.  He went on to say that greater emphasis should be put on defining metrics of well-being, which go beyond economic growth and include justice and sustainability score components.

The second session on the theme “Effective paths towards the Sustainable Development Goals:  Science, technology and innovation for transforming economies toward equity, sustainability and climate action”, featured guest speakers Joyeeta Gupta, Professor at IHE Delft Institute and Scientific Advisor of “Making Peace with Nature” report; William H. Lee, Coordinator of Scientific Research, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; and Natsai Audrey Chieza, Founder and Chief Executive Officer, Faber Futures.  It was moderated by Anne-Christine Ritschkoff, Senior Advisor, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd.

Ms. RITSCHKOFF said that the session will tackle specifically the role of science, technology and innovation in advancing achievement of Sustainable Development Goals 8, 10, 12 and 13.

Ms. GUPTA said that she has three messages to scientists, first of which is the need to reassess economic growth.  Altering the way economic growth is defined is key to achieving sustainable development.  GDP may not be adequate and there is a need to assess more inclusive wealth.  The second point concerns energy transition.  Hundreds of trillions of dollars are invested in the fossil fuel sector.  Pension funds and asset‑management companies must phase out investments in that sector.  Thirdly, she called for a taxation mechanism to compensate for the destruction caused by climate change.

Mr. LEE said it is important to avoid centralization of science policy as it chokes creativity and innovation.  A glaring example is a lack of action to transition from fossil fuel to renewable energies.  It is also necessary to review travel.  Sustainable Development Goal 16 is the basis of all these because, without peace and justice, it is impossible to achieve any of the other Goals, he said, stressing the need to combat authoritarianism and selfishness, which pose threats to achieving sustainable development.

Ms. CHIEZA highlighted the importance of biotechnology, which can decarbonize industry, including the construction and agriculture sectors, and help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.  Benefits from technological advances must be shared equitably through policy and education.  Countries must also share knowledge.  Policy can drive new business models.  The key to success is to create a sustainable model of consumption and develop biotech infrastructure, coupled with a strategy.

In the ensuing discussion, the representative of the Philippines said his country harnesses science, technology and innovation to promote equity and address potential but preventable disasters arising from climate change and natural hazards.  The Government uses data from its microsatellites and cube satellites to monitor environmental and agricultural conditions such as climate, weather, flooding, drought, land covers and air quality.

The representative of Guatemala , speaking on behalf of the Like-Minded Group of Countries Supporters of Middle-Income Countries, said the Technology Facilitation Mechanism will help determine the success of the 2030 Agenda and the Addis Ababa Action Agenda.  The Group greatly values this platform as a space to identify and examine technology needs and gaps, including in scientific cooperation, innovation and capacity-building to facilitate development, transfer and dissemination of relevant technologies for developing countries.

The representative of Finland said that her country ranks high in the Sustainable Development Goal index for many years because policymaking has been participatory, and science advice is an integral part of implementing the 2030 Agenda.  Together with formalized science advice models, voluntary science policy collaboration has benefited actors in both science and policy.  This can be easily scaled up globally.

A speaker for SES Satellites said that businesses will need to act differently through their decision-making, operations, supply chains, policies, management tools and governance.  The new operating model should be based on environmental, social and governance strategies.  Science, technology and innovation have been integral to providing a robust view of the impact of climate change, she said, calling for an incentive scheme by Governments for large corporations to utilize and invest in science, technology and innovation to work towards equity, sustainability and climate action.

The representative of the Russian Federation said that 2021 was proclaimed the Year of Science and Technology in his country.  A comprehensive approach involving nuclear and hydrogen energy is needed for adaption to climate change impacts.  It is counterproductive to impose one approach.  As Chair in 2020 of the BRICS Summit, whose members also include Brazil, India, China and South Africa, the Russian Federation took up the issue of digital economy and consumer protection.

A speaker representing VITO , an independent research organization in the area of cleantech based in Flanders, Belgium, cited a new sewage treatment technology as an example of a solution to achieve multiple Sustainable Development Goals at once.  Only 55 per cent of waste is biodegradable, which has contributed to the increase in greenhouse‑gas emissions.  VITO has worked with several partners to find a solution that produces more energy than it consumes, leading to sewage treatment operating costs that are more than offset by the value of the energy and fertiliser produced.

A representative of the United Nations Office for Partnerships said the world faces tight timelines for achieving sustainable development and the fight against climate change.  This requires innovations not only in digitization, but also in bioscience and other fields, which are not possible without partnerships.

A representative of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs said that, without satellites, understanding of the Earth would be largely incomplete.  Space solutions help identify the best locations for generating renewable energy and help improve efficiency across industries leading to emission‑reduction, and even increase crop yield through precision agriculture.  Satellites help identify disaster-prone areas and safe locations, enable early warnings, facilitate search and rescue operations.  The Office is developing a dedicated “Space4Climate Action” project for federations and strengthening regional and national initiatives.

A representative of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe  (ECE) said countries covered by the Commission are not on the sustainable path, stressing the need for a transition to a circular economy to minimize consumption.  He called for efforts to mainstream this transition and make it economically viable.  In that regard, fiscal policy and regulation is key, he said, underscoring the importance of innovative procurement to create a circular economy.  The Commission is also working with cities to develop sustainable urban mobility plans.

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How science, tech and innovation can help beyond the pandemic

International cooperation on the science, technology and innovation frontiers can fast-track sustainable development progress after the covid-19 crisis, experts say..

© Connect World

The coronavirus pandemic has compelled leaders, policymakers and everyday people to think carefully about what makes healthy and resilient communities.

At the same time, it has prompted a rethink of how to address other pre-pandemic catastrophes, such as climate change, food insecurity and social inequality.

To address these challenges, the UN Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD) will examine how to make science and technology work for all, at its inter-sessional panel for 2020-2021 , slated for 18 to 22 January.

During the event, experts will examine two key issues. The first focuses on health and how science, technology and innovation can be used to close the gap on SDG3 for health and wellbeing . The second explores the prospects of blockchain for sustainable development .

International collaboration 

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, scientists in many countries have largely collaborated under the principle of ‘open science’ – where knowledge, methods, data and evidence are made freely available and accessible to everyone.

Collaborative arrangements of open science, especially the mapping of the virus’s genome, helped in the development of the COVID-19 vaccines being administered in various countries.

“In the same way that the development of the vaccines greatly benefited from scientists collaborating in unity for a common cause, governments must also unite in solidarity to ensure that everyone, especially the poorest, gain access to the vaccines,” said Shamika N. Sirimanne, UNCTAD’s director of technology and logistics.

Ms. Sirimanne, who also heads the CSTD secretariat, said international collaboration in scientific research can play a critical role in improving health, equity and sustainable development.

She said the need for countries to come together and share their experiences and lessons learned is no less critical in dealing with emerging issues in the digital age.

“Just as the pandemic sees no borders, digital technologies also transcend national jurisdictions,” she added, emphasizing the importance of the CSTD sessions in helping share lessons in scientific approaches and policy thinking.

The UN and the international community have an important role in shaping global norms and frameworks on frontier technologies.

“It’s important for the international community to better understand the risk-reward tradeoffs,” Ms. Sirimanne said, whether this is for the implementation of blockchain technology in consumer services, or using artificial intelligence, gene editing, and other new and emerging innovations in healthcare.

Avoiding unintended consequences

Digital technologies in health can generate several unplanned risks, with implications for the resilience of social, cultural and political institutions.

These need to be tempered and controlled for as far as possible, according to experts.

For example, “infodemics”, the overabundance of inaccurate health information online, can make it difficult to access trustworthy and reliable guidance on the COVID-19 pandemic.

An area where there is increasing risk is in digital technologies such as blockchain. A widely known application of blockchain technology is cryptocurrency – Bitcoin being the most prominent.

The value of Bitcoin reached an all-time high, by topping the $40,000 mark, during the first week of 2021, only to plummet by more than 20% the following week.

While cryptocurrency has remarkable potential to ensure financial inclusion for marginalized people, there is a growing need to prevent systemic risk from speculative activities that create asset bubbles.

For example, if investors accumulate debt to purchase large sums of cryptocurrency using fiat money (i.e. the US dollar or euro), and there is a devaluation in the exchange rate – as is currently evident – this could lead to payment defaults in the respective fiat currency, potentially leading to personal financial ruin.

“Yet the absence of an international effort for regulating blockchain in financial markets is a serious concern, given the transnational nature of both global finance and digital technologies,” Ms. Sirimanne said. “We need to leverage benefits, but guard against negative impacts.”

The CSTD offers member States a platform to explore ways of strengthening the science-policy interface at the national and global levels and better coordinate STI-focused international cooperation in the spirit of multilateralism.

The CSTD inter-sessional panel will also review progress made in the implementation of and follow-up to the outcomes of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) at the regional and international levels.

These deliberations by experts will then be taken up at the ministerial level during the annual session of the CSTD, scheduled for 17 to 21 May 2021.

COVID and 2020: An extraordinary year for science

The coronavirus pandemic shaped the year in research — from vaccines and treatments to campus shutdowns and virtual meetings.

14 December 2020

Throat and nasal swabs have been used worldwide to detect the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Credit: Athit Perawongmetha/Reuters

By Ewen Callaway, Heidi Ledford, Giuliana Viglione, Traci Watson, & Alexandra Witze.

One event dominated in 2020: a deadly and previously unknown virus wreaked havoc across the globe, killing more than 1.5 million people,  infecting many more  and causing economic devastation. And although there were other newsworthy  research developments  in 2020, the pandemic set the course of science to an extraordinary degree.

The speed of the coronavirus’s spread has been matched only by the pace of scientific insights. Almost as soon as SARS-CoV-2 was discovered, research groups worldwide started probing its biology, while others developed diagnostic tests or investigated public-health measures to control it. Scientists also raced to find treatments and create vaccines that could bring the pandemic under control. “We’ve never progressed so fast with any other infectious agent,” says virologist Theodora Hatziioannou at the Rockefeller University in New York City.

But, as it has with almost everyone, the pandemic has also affected  researchers ’ working and personal lives. Many of those who do not study the virus or its impact have had their projects delayed, careers put on hold and research funding disrupted.

A new virus

In January, less than a month after reports first emerged that a mysterious respiratory illness was striking people in the Chinese city of Wuhan, the country’s researchers had identified the cause: a new coronavirus 1 , soon to be named SARS-CoV-2. By 11 January, a Chinese–Australian team had posted the virus’s  genetic sequence online . Soon afterwards, scientists made another key, yet alarming, discovery: the virus could  pass between people .

Electron micrograph of a SARS-CoV-2 particle, covered in spike proteins. Credit: National Infection Service/SPL

By February, researchers had worked out that the virus latches on to a receptor called ACE2 2 , a protein found on the surfaces of cells in many organs, including the lungs and gut. That abundance of targets might help to explain the devastating breadth of COVID-19’s symptoms, which range from pneumonia to diarrhoea and strokes 3 . The  virus grabs ACE2  at least ten times as tightly as does SARS-CoV, the related coronavirus that caused a deadly outbreak of respiratory disease in 2003. Scientists think this could partly explain SARS-CoV-2’s infectiousness.

By March, some scientists were suggesting that tiny virus-laden ‘aerosols’, which can linger in the air for long periods, play a part in transmission. But  not all researchers agreed , and it took some governments and public-health organizations months to  adapt to the evidence  that this was one way that the virus spread. Researchers have also learnt that people can spread the disease  before developing symptoms . Without controls, roughly half of all SARS-CoV-2 transmission starts with infected people who have not yet had symptoms, according to an analysis published last month 4 .

Perhaps the  biggest outstanding mystery  surrounding the virus’s biology is where it came from. Strong evidence suggests that it originated in bats, and probably passed to humans through an intermediate animal. A number of animal species are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, including  cats  and  mink . In September, the World Health Organization (WHO) formed a  scientific team  to investigate the animal origin of the pandemic, starting its search in China and expanding elsewhere. US President Donald Trump and others have claimed, without substantive evidence, that a Chinese laboratory released SARS-CoV-2, but most scientists think that is highly unlikely.

Control attempts: successes and failures

From the pandemic’s earliest days, epidemiologists have rushed to  develop models  to predict the virus’s spread — and suggest what public-health measures could help to control it. In the absence of vaccines or treatments, officials worldwide have relied on what are known as non-pharmaceutical interventions, such as lockdowns. In January, officials in Wuhan showed how quickly shutting down almost every aspect of daily life could  contain the virus . Much of the world followed, with similar  restrictions on movement .

Many countries restricted people’s movements to control outbreaks. Credit: Aly Song/Reuters

But the economic impact of lockdowns was swift and severe, which led many countries to open up before the virus was under control. Uncertainty early in the pandemic about whether the virus was  airborne  led to debate about the benefits of wearing face masks, which became politicized — particularly in the United States. Meanwhile,  conspiracy theories, misinformation  and sketchy science spread almost as fast as the virus. These included discussions about the merits of letting the  virus run its course  instead of controlling it.

Epidemiologists advised that mass testing for SARS-CoV-2 was the way out of the crisis. But in many countries, shortages of kits and reagents for the standard tests, which use a technique called PCR, created bottlenecks. This spurred research groups worldwide to start  devising new rapid tests , including those based on the  gene-editing tool CRISPR  and  fast antigen tests , which could help with diagnosing diseases that emerge in future.

Countries that quashed viral spread early, such as Vietnam, Taiwan and Thailand, used a combination of approaches, including full lockdowns, widespread testing, mask-wearing mandates and digital contact tracing. In Singapore,  New Zealand  and  Iceland , aggressive test-and-trace programmes, combined with stringent isolation measures, helped to almost eliminate the virus, enabling life to return to near normal.

The common thread in these success stories is governments’ willingness to act quickly and decisively, says Caitlin Rivers, an epidemiologist at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. “Those early and aggressive actions really helped to slow transmission.”

But in many countries,  officials were slow to act ,  ignored scientific advice  or  struggled  to ramp up testing. The result was an uptick in infections that led to a second wave. And across the United States and Western Europe, COVID-19 infections and deaths are now surging once more.

More than 1.5 million people worldwide have died from COVID-19. Credit: Michael Dantas/AFP/Getty

Speedy vaccines

Amid the chaos, a historic scientific effort has given the world vaccines against a disease that humanity wasn’t even aware of a year ago. COVID-19 vaccines  have been developed and tested  with breathtaking speed. At the last count, in November, the WHO said there were more than 200 in development, roughly 50 of which are in various stages of clinical trials. They use a dizzying array of approaches, from old-school inoculation with chemically inactivated SARS-CoV-2 virus to newer technologies that have never before yielded licensed vaccines.

Margaret Keenan was the first persion in the United Kingdom to receive the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine after it was approved for emergency use. Credit: Jacob King/PA Wire/Bloomberg/Getty

Results from large efficacy trials have showed that vaccines developed by  pharmaceutical company Pfizer and German biotechnology firm BioNTech ; US biotechnology company  Moderna;  and pharmaceutical company  AstraZeneca and the University of Oxford, UK , effectively prevent COVID-19. In the past month, regulators in the  United Kingdom  and the  United States  have issued emergency authorization for Pfizer’s vaccine, allowing its widespread use, and regulators in the European Union are expected to make their decision in the coming weeks. Vaccines  developed in China  and  Russia  had already been approved, but before final-stage testing in people had been completed.

Pfizer and Moderna’s vaccines seem to be around 95% effective at preventing COVID-19, whereas the efficacy of AstraZeneca and Oxford’s  remains uncertain . Important questions linger: how well do vaccines prevent severe disease, especially in older people, and  how long does protection last?  And scientists still don’t know whether vaccines will stop people from spreading the virus; many vaccines for other illnesses don’t.

Vulnerable residents in Kampala received food deliveries during Uganda’s lockdown. Credit: Sumy Sadurni/AFP/Getty

For vaccines to do their job, they need to  reach  those who  need them most . Rich countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, members of the European Union and Japan have  pre-purchased  billions of doses of numerous vaccines. An effort to procure vaccines for  low- and middle-income countries  has gained support from many wealthy countries — notably not the United States — but its success is not certain. There are myriad hurdles in making and delivering vaccines; for example, Pfizer’s needs to be kept at −70 °C, which will pose problems in areas of the world without the infrastructure for cold storage. More difficulties are sure to emerge.

Treatments, old and new

Vaccines alone are unlikely to end the pandemic, given the logistics of deploying jabs — which might be needed periodically — to the global population. “The only way out of this pandemic is the combination of vaccines and therapeutics,” says Lennie Derde, an intensive-care physician at the University Medical Centre Utrecht in the Netherlands.

Researchers have raced to test a slew of potential treatments, with mixed success. Some candidates — including the  malaria drug hydroxychloroquine , and a cocktail of two HIV drugs — showed initial promise in small clinical trials and observational studies, but later failed to show benefits in larger, randomized controlled studies 5,6  in people hospitalized with COVID-19.

Hospitals in some countries have been overwhelmed during the pandemic. Credit: Irfan Khan/Polaris/eyevine

In April, researchers running a  large clinical trial  announced that an antiviral drug called remdesivir reduced the length of hospital stays for people with COVID-19, but later studies found that the drug did not significantly reduce  deaths . In November, the World Health Organization advised against using it.

Potential COVID-19 treatments became heavily politicized in some regions, with leaders in the  United States ,  India ,  China  and  Latin America  touting unproven therapies, including hydroxychloroquine. A few regulators issued emergency-use authorizations for unproven treatments, in some cases hampering clinical trials and raising safety concerns.

Other therapies have met with more success. In June, a large trial of an immune-suppressing steroid called dexamethasone  found that it reduced deaths  by about one-third when given to people with COVID-19 who required supplemental oxygen. Another drug that targets the immune system, called tocilizumab, has yielded mixed results in clinical trials, but has shown promise in people severely ill with COVID-19.

Other interventions are being tested in those with milder COVID-19 symptoms, to see whether they reduce the chances of progressing to more serious illness. Studies in which people are given  blood plasma  harvested from those who are recovering from COVID-19 are ongoing. Some scientists hoped that  mass-produced monoclonal antibodies  to directly disable SARS-CoV-2 would help, but studies have yet to show whether these expensive treatments will live up to their promise.

Ultimately, COVID-19 treatment will probably require a combination of drugs, tailored to a person’s risk factors and severity of illness, says Derde, who is on the steering committee for REMAP-CAP, an international trial that tests COVID-19 treatments alone and in combination. “The most logical thing to assume is that there is not one wonder drug that will make a huge difference,” she says.

Research interrupted

Not since the Second World War has scientific research been disrupted so broadly. As the virus started spreading across countries, many universities  closed their campuses  in March. Laboratories paused all but the most essential experiments, fieldwork was cancelled and  conferences went virtual .

In many fields not directly related to the pandemic, projects and progress slowed to a crawl. Suddenly forced to work from home, researchers found their lives upended, often struggling with family care and limited access to resources such as libraries. Many students also found themselves without data from fieldwork or the lab that they needed to complete their degrees. Travel shutdowns made job searches much more difficult.

Physical distancing outdoors helps reduce transmission of the virus. Credit: Josh Edelson/AFP/Getty

Particularly hard-hit are  women ,  parents , early-career researchers and scientists from historically  under-represented groups  — for whom the pandemic is magnifying factors that already made it harder for them to participate in science. A survey 7  of 3,345 academics in Brazil in April and May found that Black women, as well as mothers of all ethnicities, reported the greatest reduction in productivity during the pandemic, as measured by their ability to submit research papers and meet deadlines. “The results can be translated to other countries, no doubt,” says study leader Fernanda Staniscuaski, a plant biologist at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul in Porto Alegre.

Governments around the globe responded in various ways, with some providing financial support for higher education and research-intensive industries. Australia, for instance, injected Aus$1 billion into  university research  for 2021. In the United States, by contrast, research mostly missed out in a US$2.3-trillion economic bailout plan.

By August, many university  campuses in the United States  and Europe were starting to reopen, despite surging infection rates in many communities — often driven by  students returning to campus . Other countries with large outbreaks, such as India and Brazil, did not reopen to the same extent.

There have been a few bright spots. Even as borders closed, some international collaborations grew 8 ; researchers began to share data more openly and many published their work on  preprint servers ; and most publishers made their COVID articles free to read. Research culture also shifted, at least temporarily, away from emphasizing productivity and towards discussing broader issues such as work–life balance. “I am hopeful that the positive changes induced by the pandemic could remain,” says Xin Xu, a research fellow at the University of Oxford, UK, who studies international research patterns.

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How the Pandemic Has Changed Our Relationship With Technology

From virtual theater to smartphone-driven distress, covid-19 is changing the digital landscape for what appears to be both better and worse..

When the COVID-19 pandemic emerged in the spring of 2020, Americans became more isolated than ever. Suddenly work, social events and live entertainment migrated from the realm world onto digital platforms. Between social media, video calls and entertainment, people around the world began to spend a staggering amount of their waking lives in front of screens.

While the deleterious effects of compulsive technology use are often cited, the same platforms have also allowed many people to stay social, stimulated and productive while stuck at home. In a 2021 Pew Research Center survey , 90 percent of Americans said that the internet has been important or essential to them during the pandemic. A majority of respondents said video calls had helped them stay connected with friends and family. 

Even after the initial wave of COVID-19 waned, Americans continued to use the internet at unprecedented rates. In a second Pew study from last year, nearly half of respondents between 18 and 29 years old reported using the internet “almost constantly.” 

So after two years of excessive screen time, how has our collective internet obsession actually affected our health?

Problematic Use

Long before COVID-19, scientists had already recognized the serious impacts of technology misuse. “Going back 15 years ago, we found that problematic use of the internet was associated with a number of negative health outcomes,” says Marc Potenza, a psychiatrist at Yale Medical School.

In 2019, the World Health Organization adopted the 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11). It included two emerging disorders that stem from compulsive online behaviors: internet gaming disorder and gambling disorder (predominantly online). Experts argue that online shopping, pornography and social media may cause addictive disorders as well. “During the onset of the pandemic, there seemed to be increases in online engagement for all of these behaviors," Potenza adds.

Currently, there isn’t enough data to make any sweeping generalizations about how the pandemic has affected internet addictions. But the anecdotal evidence is alarming: In the week following the WHO’s official declaration of COVID-19 as a pandemic, the website PornHub experienced an 11.6 percent rise in traffic worldwide, with a particular increase in use in the wee hours of the morning. “It suggests that there might have been an increase in insomnia and disregulated pornography viewing,” Potenza speculates.

Addiction Versus High-Frequency Use

A long-term study that analyzed problematic gaming and smartphone use in Chinese schoolchildren hints at a more complex story. While compulsive gaming was associated with psychological distress pre-pandemic, the two were not correlated after the onset of COVID-19. The results, published in the Journal of Addiction Medicine last March, support a preliminary theory that gaming might actually provide an avenue to cope with loneliness and emotional stress during periods of isolation. 

Interestingly, the same research noted that problematic smartphone use was increasingly associated with psychological distress after the onset of the pandemic. This result points towards another theory — that social media can exacerbate COVID-19 anxiety . This effect, coupled with the well-documented link between social media and depression, may have led to the outcomes observed in the study.

Overall, the pandemic has highlighted the importance of discerning frequent internet use from addictive behaviors. While many people use the internet extensively during their waking hours, only a small percentage experience the pitfalls of addiction. “For a disorder to be present there needs to be some sort of impairment in a major area of life functioning,” Potenza says. “It’s important to try to disentangle high-frequency use from unhealthy and problematic use.”

Silver Linings

Despite the downfalls of isolation, crises can also inspire creativity. For example, the pandemic spurred a virtual reality boom in the art world.

This technology came in handy in March 2020, when England’s Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) was in the early stages of a production of “A Midsummer Night’s Dream.” As the pandemic shuttered venues across the U.K., they were forced to quickly find ways to adapt. The company worked feverishly with partners in tech to create a prototypical VR theater production. Though the complexity of Shakespeare’s original story was boiled down to an eight-person cast and a single narrative strand, the result was highly immersive. “We had to find a way to embody this narrative,” says Sarah Ellis, RSC’s director of digital development 

In the final production, the actors' movements and speech were tracked and projected into a virtual forest. Audience members entered the fictional realm as fireflies and buzzed around the Shakespearean sprites’ heads as they propelled the story to an inevitable conclusion.

The performance reached the widest audience of any RSC production to date. The 65,000 attendees hailed from 92 countries and 76 percent of them were at their first-ever RSC production. Ellis was elated. “We often talk about new audiences, but we don’t talk about new content,” she says. “It was amazing to see the younger generation show up.”

While COVID-19 has stuck around for nearly two years, the broader impacts on our collective habits, mental health and culture remain unclear. But it is evident that the pandemic changed our relationship to technology — for better and worse.

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on higher education: Assessment of student performance in computer science

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Department of Computer Science, Lublin University of Technology, Lublin, Poland, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Computer Science, Lublin University of Technology, Lublin, Poland

Roles Data curation, Software

• Małgorzata Charytanowicz, 
• Magdalena Zoła, 
• Waldemar Suszyński

• Published: August 14, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763
• Reader Comments

The COVID-19 pandemic had radically changed higher education. The sudden transition to online teaching and learning exposed, however, some benefits by enhancing educational flexibility and digitization. The long-term effects of these changes are currently unknown, but a key question concerns their effect on student learning outcomes. This study aims to analyze the impact of the emergence of new models and teaching approaches on the academic performance of Computer Science students in the years 2019–2023. The COVID-19 pandemic created a natural experiment for comparisons in performance during in-person versus synchronous online and hybrid learning mode. We tracked changes in student achievements across the first two years of their engineering studies, using both basic (descriptive statistics, t-Student tests, Mann-Whitney test) and advanced statistical methods (Analysis of variance). The inquiry was conducted on 787 students of the Lublin University of Technology (Poland). Our findings indicated that first semester student scores were significantly higher when taught through online (13.77±2.77) and hybrid (13.7±2.86) approaches than through traditional in-person means as practiced before the pandemic (11.37±3.9, p-value < 0.05). Conversely, third semester student scores were significantly lower when taught through online (12.01±3.14) and hybrid (12.04±3.19) approaches than through traditional in-person means, after the pandemic (13.23±3.01, p-value < 0.05). However, the difference did not exceed 10% of a total score of 20 points. With regard to the statistical data, most of the questions were assessed as being difficult or appropriate, with adequate discrimination index, regardless of the learning mode. Based on the results, we conclude that we did not find clear evidence that pandemic disruption and online learning caused knowledge deficiencies. This critical situation increased students’ academic motivation. Moreover, we conclude that we have developed an effective digital platform for teaching and learning, as well as for a secure and fair student learning outcomes assessment.

Citation: Charytanowicz M, Zoła M, Suszyński W (2024) The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on higher education: Assessment of student performance in computer science. PLoS ONE 19(8): e0305763. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763

Editor: Prabhat Mittal, Satyawati College (Eve.), University of Delhi, INDIA

Received: October 15, 2023; Accepted: June 4, 2024; Published: August 14, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Charytanowicz et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are available at the following link: https://zenodo.org/records/11583297 .

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

1. Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic brought with it a number of health, economic and social consequences. Indeed, the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus turned out to be so dangerous that many countries implemented new regulations in the educational field to limit physical contact. The pandemic-induced school shutdowns and sudden transition to remote teaching and learning at all levels of education. This change-over generated a number of technical and social problems [ 1 – 6 ]. These problems had also affected the academic community, although online or blended learning methods were implemented before the COVID-19 pandemic [ 7 ].

On March 12, 2020, a state of epidemic emergency was declared in Poland, and a week later–a state of pandemic. In consequence, the Minister of Science and Higher Education issued a regulation on the temporary suspension of the functioning of education institutes, lasting from March 12 till 25 2020 [ 8 , 9 ]. On March 25, 2020, the education system, including higher education, was switched to online teaching and learning, as necessitated by the need to maintain social distancing measures. Universities had to adapt to the circumstances almost overnight. However, many universities were not fully prepared with regard to technical capabilities, educational resources and the skills of the teaching staff in organizing distance education [ 10 – 12 ]. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the applicable regulations of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education did not encourage the authorities of most universities to invest in technologies for conducting fully remote studies. Poland was, however, not an exception in this respect. Many old, prestigious universities in Europe were also reserved about remote learning, and the virtual learning environment was mainly used as a teaching aid.

Fortunately, the information revolution had by this time developed more flexible approaches to learning with the form of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Indeed, it is one of the leading factors that affect current teaching methodology [ 13 – 18 ]. E-learning systems, their accessibility and functionality, have provided new possibilities to acquire knowledge and to ease the burden of learning. As an outcome, remote teaching and learning are often seen as promising solutions that offer high flexibility and a learner-centered approach that enables students to learn at their own pace [ 19 , 20 ]. Thus, the role of the teacher in the classroom has transformed from that of being the font of knowledge, to an instructional manager identifying relevant resources and creating collaborative learning opportunities. Moreover, online assessments have become increasingly important and now represent one of the most critical aspects of the educational process. Unfortunately, the role of ICT in higher education is still somewhat controversial.

The extreme situation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic provided an opportunity to revise our approach both to traditional and online learning, yet also posing challenges for the future of education systems. The main question of our research was whether the sudden transition to online teaching and learning caused by the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative impact on students academic performance and upon the reliability of the assessment process. We believe that our study can help to reduce the controversies related to remote learning and teaching.

2. Related works

Before the year 2020, the principal recipients of remote education were adults participating in professional development courses [ 21 ]. The COVID-19 pandemic outbreak, however, resulted in increased interest in methods of education that do not require physical meeting between students and teachers. The closure of educational institutions to mitigate the spread of COVID-19 compelled schools and universities to find alternative ways of continuing their operations. This led to the widespread adoption of online learning (e-learning).

The use of e-learning platforms has enabled the transformation of the traditional model of education in which the lecturer transmitted knowledge, into a model of supervised self-education. A separate line of research has been dedicated to the impact of remote education on university students, who are predominantly young adults, and, as such, are less subject to parental supervision. Topics under study include student attitudes towards distance learning [ 22 , 23 ], the technologies and learning platforms utilized [ 24 – 26 ], and the impact of network quality on the smoothness of classes [ 22 , 27 ].

A relatively well researched aspect of e-learning is the analysis of its advantages and disadvantages in comparison to traditional learning [ 28 – 30 ], including its application during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 31 – 34 ]. Undoubtedly, remote education has its benefits, among others, flexibility, speed, time savings [ 35 , 36 ], as well as better use of the infrastructure and organizational savings for the institution [ 37 ]. Distance learning in the form of e-learning also comes with drawbacks, for example, limited interpersonal contacts [ 38 ], lack of immediate feedback [ 39 , 40 ], and problems with self-discipline and adaptability [ 41 – 43 ]. Considering its strengths and weaknesses, e-learning can be viewed as either a replacement or augmentation of traditional approaches to education.

An integral part of remote education is the verification of its results. The topic was covered in literature in the pre-COVID era [ 44 – 46 ], but much less so during the pandemic [ 47 , 48 ]. Our work focuses on the analysis of student performance under the e-learning setup during COVID-19 related confinement and afterwards. The differentiating characteristic of this paper is the fact that it covers a longer period of time, unlike some other research focusing only on a single academic semester [ 49 ].

The COVID-19 pandemic has provided the opportunity to advance usage of online platforms and digital media, as well as to create new education strategies. It should be noted that most students (and instructors) adapted successfully to online teaching and learning [ 50 , 51 ]. However, certain studies [ 52 – 54 ] have indicated negative student feedback. In the year 2023, education has returned to more traditional teaching/learning approaches after more than two years of online learning.

The outbreak of COVID-19 presented a serious challenge to academic education by enforcing a drastic change in the teaching methods. For this reason, we formulated the following research questions:

• How had the COVID-19 pandemic change applied teaching and learning strategies?
• Did the COVID-19 pandemic have a disruptive effect on the academic performance of students resulting in knowledge deficiency?
• How did the change from in-person to online learning affect the reliability of student assessment?

The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section 3 presents the context of the study, materials and methods. Section 4 explains the results obtained. Sections 5 and 6 conclude our work and describe limitations and future scope.

3. Materials and methods

3.1. design and context.

The research was conducted in the Department of Computer Science of the Lublin University of Technology in Poland, the largest public technical university in the Lublin voivodship. This was a cross-sectional study carried out among students who were enrolled in the first semester of engineering studies in the academic years 2019/2020, 2020/2021 and 2021/2022 (from October to July). Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the courses of interest in this study were conducted in different delivery formats (in-person, synchronous online and hybrid).

Traditional in-person course delivery format included lectures and laboratories. The former involved, primarily, oral presentations given to a group of students. A teacher-centered approach to learning was applied with discussion and multimedia presentation, as well as whiteboard or chalkboard visual aids to emphasize important points in the lecture. Moreover, a Learning Management System (Moodle LMS) was incorporated within the lectures to develop, organize, deliver and manage didactic materials and assess the effectiveness of education via tests, surveys or assignments. This tool was also employed to provide discussion forums. The faculty used the activity Quiz as a student self-assessment tool, as well as to determine knowledge and skills.

With regard to laboratory work, practical classes were conducted in programming laboratories for the selected courses. In such a teaching/learning format, we found that most students preferred working alone or conducting discussions with their partners or their neighbors.

All students used online manuals or didactic materials delivered by Moodle LMS. Final exams were held at the University via Moodle LMS through in-person proctoring, as this approach allowed the introduction of a live person to monitor the activity of students in a testing environment.

In the synchronous online course format, students obtained theoretical and practical education entirely online via Microsoft Teams by way of video meetings and Moodle LMS. Meetings in Teams include audio, video and screen sharing. All lectures were delivered synchronously using MS Teams. Practical sessions were conducted through online synchronous video meetings in small student groups. Interaction occurred via the discussion board, while MS Teams was also employed to enable scheduled online consultations. Supporting materials (videos, presentations, tasks to do, quizzes, and other didactic materials) were provided to the students through the Moodle LMS. Final exams were conducted under controlled conditions via Moodle LMS through online live proctoring by accepting screen, video and audio sharing.

The hybrid course delivery format combined in-person and online strategies. Students obtained theoretical education entirely online as synchronous sessions by way of MS Teams and Moodle LMS, whilst practical education was obtained through the traditional in-person format, in small student groups. Final exams were held at the University via Moodle LMS through in-person proctoring.

We analyzed exam scores across the first two years of the engineering studies using anonymous data from the Moodle. The Research Ethics Committee of Lublin University of Technology approved the study (Ethical Approval Reference: 3/2023).

3.2. Course selection

The following criteria were used to select the courses:

• the courses covered algorithms and programming,
• the courses had unchanged objectives and learning outcomes during the investigated period,
• the courses were conducted by the same instructors using to the same tools and methods.

Two compulsory courses met these criteria: 1 –Introduction to Computer Science and 2 –Numerical Analysis Algorithms. Both courses were conducted in the Polish language and they provided fundamental knowledge for all areas of Computer Science learning and skills development. Enrolled students were obligated to complete 30 lesson hours of theory and 30 lesson hours of practical experience within a course length of 15 weeks. In the full-time option, four hours of classes were given each course week, and were distributed into two two-hour sessions. Herein, the first consisted of a master class lecture and the second consisted of an interactive problem-based learning laboratory. In the part-time option, the number of in-person teaching hours was reduced to half and classes were held, on average, twice a month, on Saturday and Sunday.

The Introduction to Computer Science course is taught in the first year and is covered in the first semester. Students who successfully completed the course gained five credits, according to the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS). The intention of the offered course is to provide students with knowledge of standard algorithms and data structures, and to provide them with the skills to analyze both the theoretical complexity of algorithms and their practical behaviors. The course covers the following topics:

• Introduction to algorithms and problem-solving techniques.
• Basic programming concepts, types, sequential data structures.
• Programming in Python.
• Searching and sorting algorithms.
• Examples of algorithms, algorithmic strategies.
• Testing and documenting programming code.
• Asymptotic notation and complexity analysis.
• Analyzing program code for correctness, efficiency, and errors.
• Automata theory and formal languages. Turing machine.
• Classes P and NP.

The knowledge and skills to implement and solve algorithmic problems using the mentioned algorithms are developed using Python.

The Numerical Analysis Algorithms course is taught in the second year and is covered in the third semester. Successful completion awards students with five credits, according to ECTS. The primary objective of the course is to develop basic understanding of numerical algorithms, as well as the skills to implement algorithms to solve computer-based mathematical problems. The course covers the following topics:

• Basic numerics, floating-point representation, convergence.
• Horner’s scheme.
• The theory of interpolation: Lagrange polynomial, Hermite interpolation, Neville’s iterative formula.
• Least square approximation.
• Numerical integration: Newton-Cotes formulas, Gaussian quadrature.
• Direct methods for solving systems of linear equations: Gaussian elimination, LU factorization, Cholesky decomposition.
• Householder method.
• Solving nonlinear equations and systems of nonlinear equations: Bisection method, fixed-point iteration, Newton’s method.
• Runge-Kutta methods for ordinary differential equations.
• Characteristic polynomial and eigenvalues.

The knowledge and skills to implement and solve algorithmic problems using the mentioned algorithms were developed using C++ due to its object-oriented programming with high performance, efficient memory management, low-level access to hardware and a rich standard library, including mathematical functions commonly used in numerical algorithms. These allow students to write efficient and customizable numerical algorithms. Objective C++ was one of the courses of the first year of studies.

3.3. The study participants

Study participants were selected from Computer Science students who were enrolled in the two mentioned compulsory courses: Introduction to Computer Science (ICS) (first semester) and Numerical Analysis Algorithms (NAA) (third semester). The first group of students began their studies in the academic year 2019/2020 in a traditional in-person course delivery format that was interrupted because of the confinement. They then continued their studies utilizing the synchronous online format. The second group consisted of students who began their studies in academic year 2020/2021 in the synchronous online format and continued these activities in a hybrid format. The third group of students began their studies in academic year 2021/2022 in a hybrid format that returned to an in-person format in the year 2022/2023. Online learning was supported by Moodle and MS Teams.

Only students enrolled in either the ICS and NAA courses participated in our research. Students who interrupted their studies and did not complete the courses were excluded. Thus, the study group included students who were enrolled in both courses and took both final exams. A total of 787 participants were selected. Table 1 summarizes the study participant groups according to education strategy.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763.t001

Males constituted 87.5% of the total study participants, while females constituted 12.5%. Regarding nationality, the majority, i.e. 85.5%, came from Poland, while 14.5% came from other countries, mainly Ukraine.

3.4. Online exam quizzes

In this study, the Moodle platform provided by the Computer Science Department from the Lublin University of Technology was applied to conduct the final exam process. Comparative analysis of student academic performance was anchored on the results obtained in their final exams. Final exams were carried through the Moodle platform using Quiz activity . All exams comprised questions of various types, including Multiple Choice , Short Answer , Numerical and Essay as follows:

• Multiple choice questions were employed for evaluating both theoretical and practical contents. For our purpose, the option Multiple answers are allowed was used. Multiple answers questions enable one or more answers to be chosen by providing check boxes next to the answers. We used a negative grade percentage for wrong answers, so that simply ticking all choices did not necessarily generate a full grade. If the sum of partial grades was negative, then the total grade for this question would be zero [ 55 ].
• Short answer or numerical questions were used to evaluate theoretical and practical contents. In a short answer question, the student types in a word or phrase in response to a question. This must exactly match one of the acceptable answers. Numerical questions resembled short-answer questions. Here, the difference was that numerical answers were allowed to have an accepted error for number.
• Essay questions were used to evaluate practical contents, mainly programming and coding skills. We employed essay-type questions to provide the option of answering by entering text online. The option Require the student to enter text was chosen. The Response format option was set to Plain text , monospaced font to improve the readability of code by ensuring consistent and clear alignment. This is particularly helpful for maintaining an organized layout. The essay questions had to be marked manually by the course instructor.

The number of multiple choice questions and short answer / numerical questions was comparable. One question was an essay question. Questions were created and stored separately in a Question bank and were organized into 10 categories according to the implemented curricula and learning outcomes. Each category consisted of at least 50 questions. Quiz settings were as follows:

• Quizzes included 20 questions worth 20 points. There were two categories of questions: theoretical and practical.
• Students were allowed to have one attempt at each quiz. The time limit option was set to 60 minutes.
• Students were not allowed to open other windows or programs while taking these quizzes.
• A password was required. The option Block concurrent connections was checked.
• The Choose Sequential navigation method was employed to compel the student to progress through the questions in order and not return to a previous question or skip to a later one.
• The timeframe when the students were able to see feedback was set to the option After the quiz is closed and the option Whether correct was checked.
• Employed questions were assessed for quality and modified for re-use in the next academic year.

Students were tested using the same evaluation methods and types of questions in in-person, synchronous online and hybrid groups. The Moodle platform collected assessment data and generated report statistics. The data containing students’ exam results (points) were collected and exported from the Moodle platform as.xlsx files.

3.5. Quiz report statistics

Quiz statistics provided test statistics and quiz structure analysis. The test statistics gave information on how students performed on a quiz, and employed descriptive statistics: average grade, median grade, standard deviation of grades, skewness and kurtosis. A detailed analysis of each question was given in quiz structure analysis, and applied the following measures: facility index, discrimination index and discriminative efficiency. Discriminative efficiency is a measure similar to discrimination index [ 55 ].

Facility index.

In this work, facility index of a question was determined by the average score divided by the maximum score and represented as a percentage. A higher value indicated an easier question. The interpretation of its values is given in Table 2 [ 55 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763.t002

Discrimination index.

Discrimination index is the correlation between the score for this question and the score for the whole quiz represented as a percentage. If the score for the question and the score for the test are well correlated, the question can be categorized as a question with good discrimination. The maximum discrimination requires a facility index in the range 30%–70%, although this is not tantamount to high discrimination index. Discrimination index values should be interpreted according to Table 3 [ 55 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763.t003

A negative value of a discrimination index would mean that the best students got this question wrong more often than the worst students. A discrimination index of zero would mean it was a poor discriminator between good and bad students. Discrimination index is considered excellent when the value is higher than 40%, and considered good when it ranges from 20% to 40%.

Discriminative efficiency.

The discriminative efficiency estimates how good the discrimination index is relative to the difficulty of the question. This attempts to discriminate between students of different ability, and the higher the value, the better is the question at discriminating between students of different abilities [ 55 ]. Values between 30%–50% provide adequate discrimination, while those above 50% provide very good discrimination.

3.6. Statistical analysis

Data collected was tabulated, and analysis was carried out by applying simple percentage analysis, as well as descriptive analysis, using mean, standard deviation and inferential analysis such as t-Student tests and ANOVA [ 56 , 57 ]. We performed non-parametric alternatives such as a Mann-Whitney U test and the Kruskal-Wallis test to compare samples that cannot be assumed to be normally distributed [ 58 , 59 ]. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. Data analysis was performed using the Statistica Package, Version 13 (TIBCO Software Inc.).

Participants’ profile

Our study included 787 Computer Science students, aged 18 to 22 years. The participant background characteristics revealed that most students were male (87.5%) and native (Polish; 85.5%). Furthermore, most of the students were enrolled in full-time studies (85.5%) ( Table 4 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763.t004

The percentages of the students who began their studies in the academic years 2019/2020, 2020/2021 and 2021/2022 were comparable, around 30%. An important aspect of the analysis was the availability of data from the pre-pandemic period that was relevant for our investigations.

Comparison of in-person, synchronous online and hybrid learning

The comparison of in-person, synchronous online, and hybrid teaching methods in student learning outcomes based on background characteristics is presented in Tables 5 and 6 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763.t005

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763.t006

The findings indicated that for the first semester course Introduction to Computer Science, the relation between learning outcomes and student gender was insignificant (p = 0.427). Moreover, the relation between learning outcomes and study option was also insignificant (p = 0.223). However, there was statistically significant difference between learning outcomes and residency status (p < 0.001). The findings indicated that during in-person and online studies, native students had significantly higher learning outcomes than did non-native students (p < 0.001). In addition, full-time students of online studies had significantly higher learning outcomes (p = 0.002) than did part-time students.

Regarding the learning outcomes of the students as obtained in the third semester course Numerical Analysis Algorithms, gender and study options were also insignificant (p = 0.834; p = 0.157) in relation to learning outcomes. In contrast, residency status was significant (p < 0.001). The findings indicate that native students had significantly higher learning outcomes than did non-native students (p < 0.001). Moreover, full-time students of online studies had significantly higher learning outcomes as compared to part-time students (p = 0.011).

The comparison of teaching methods in participant performance based on different semesters (courses) is presented in Table 7 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763.t007

The differences in mean scores related to the first semester course Introduction to Computer Science, during online and hybrid studies, were significantly higher compared to in-person studies (LSD post-hoc, p < 0.001). However, mean scores related to the third semester course Numerical Analysis Algorithms, during online and hybrid studies, were significantly lower in comparison to in-person studies (LSD post-hoc, p < 0.001). Switching to traditional in-person studies in the academic year 2022/2023 did not degrade student performance.

Quiz quality assessment

Tables 8 and 9 reveal the facility index, discrimination index and discriminative efficiency values from the final exams held from 2019/2020 to 2022/2023.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763.t008

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305763.t009

The lowest mean facility index was 47% ± 25%, while the highest mean facility index was 59% ± 20%. Moreover, the mean discrimination index was located within the range between 31% and 37% and the mean discriminative efficiency was found within the range between 43% and 54%. The results indicate, with regard to facility index, that most of the questions were moderately difficult, yet about right for the average student, and demonstrated adequate discrimination—regardless of the course delivery format.

5. Discussion and conclusions

In our study, we compared the learning outcomes of Computer Science students who were taught through synchronous online and hybrid systems, to those who learned in the traditional in-person system, and this revealed significantly higher learning outcomes when taught through online and hybrid systems versus in-person. It is worth noting that student scores showed an increasing trend in the years 2019–2023. Despite this, the significant difference in the results of the students’ final examination was not too large–as it did not exceed 10% of the maximal score.

A comparison between the student groups demonstrates that utilizing synchronous online learning can result in more enhanced educational opportunities for students. However, our findings indicated that native students had significantly higher learning outcomes than did non-native students. The reason could be that the study courses were held in Polish, which is a difficult language for non-native students to learn and utilize.

Several research studies have shown that online learning and the combination of online and in-person learning systems have positive and powerful roles in enhancing the effectiveness of education [ 19 , 29 , 41 , 47 , 60 ]. However, along with enhanced accessibility and flexibility, pure online learning also has several disadvantages, notably, the lack of interpersonal contacts and student satisfaction. In the hybrid form, however, flexibility and accessibility are enhanced, while human connection occurs.

Our results indicated that synchronous online learning could be appreciated as a successful method of conducting Computer Science education and can be used as a tool supporting traditional in-person methods. Although this approach is a little less flexible for teachers and students, and requires reliable technology, in comparison to asynchronous learning, this allows for more real time engagement and feedback [ 61 ].

As the effective measurement of knowledge acquired is an important component of Computer Science education, the use of the Moodle quizzes activity as a continuous assessment of students was analyzed according to statistical data such as the facility index, discrimination index and discriminative efficiency. Out of the exam tests conducted from the academic year 2019/2020 to 2022/2023, the mean facility index scores ranged from 47% to 59% and the mean discrimination index ranged from 31% to 37%. The statistic results indicated that, regarding facility index, most of the questions were moderately difficult and about right for the average student regardless of the course delivery format, and that a consistent and adequate level of discrimination indices was maintained. In addition, the similar results obtained in our study no matter the year, with three different groups of students, also confirmed the validity and reliability of the designed exam tests.

Although online learning requires extensive self-discipline, it allows universities to integrate new technologies into their offer, and hence, effectively facilitate the student learning process. After the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a quick transition back to in-person teaching, but still there are many proffered activities being in an online format. At present, many students state that they prefer to learn through hybrid learning methods. Furthermore, several studies have shown that e-learning methods are used widely by students outside of their formal curricula for continuing their professional education [ 62 ]. This indicates that students and professionals appreciate and take advantage of self-paced learning environments in which they control their learning pace, information flow, selection of learning activities, as well as their time management. Thus, the digital transformation of the educational process has become a necessity to meet shifting student demands and seems to be one of the leading factors that affect current teaching methodology.

It is worth noting that the extreme situation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic provided an opportunity to revise our approach, both to traditional and online learning, but also posed challenges for the future of education systems. In conclusion, the results of the analysis allow us to answer the questions formulated before in the following way.

• The COVID-19 confinement caused online education, which previously was mainly used as an addition to traditional learning methods, to become the mainstream, in particular, in Computer Science.
• The COVID-19 pandemic did not have a disruptive effect that resulted in knowledge deficiency with regard to the academic performance of Computer Science students. In contrast, this situation increased student academic motivation. Indeed, students demonstrated higher exam scores during subsequent two academic years.
• Despite the change from in-person to online learning, the reliability of student assessment remained at similar levels.

6. Limitations and future works

Our context is algorithms and programming in the first two years of the engineering studies program. While we believe that the long period under study is an advantage of this work, its limitation is the fact that it focuses only on the students of Computer Science. We based our research on the data comprising the performance of students in only two courses. Moreover, only the exam scores from the 1 st and 3 rd semesters were included in the study. The courses of other semesters were not assessed because they did not meet the required assumptions regarding the course selection. Another limitation of our study was that students could share information about the content of the exam. However, we randomly assigned students to subcategory sets to avoid sharing information. In the future it is worth considering extending the analysis to students of other fields, as well as take into account student performance in more courses.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Mr Jack Dunster for linguistic improvement of the text.

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Advances in Technology to Address COVID-19

Edward kai-hua chow.

1 Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, NUS, Singapore

Pak Kin Wong

2 The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

Xianting Ding

3 Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai, China

This year has seen an unprecedented worldwide pandemic that has been brought on by the rise of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which results in COVID-19 (coronavirus 2019) infections. COVID-19 has impacted every aspect of our lives and has required the world to rapidly mobilize to address all aspects of diagnosis and treatment of this disease. COVID-19 has brought to light the challenges of managing a completely novel infectious disease with existing diagnostics and therapeutics that were insufficient to stem the spread of COVID-19. Thus, the resources allotted toward research and development and the global cooperation of governments, scientists, and clinicians to address COVID-19 required a pace of innovation in healthcare that has never before been observed in order to address this new disease. As a result of this effort, innovations in technology to better understand, detect, and treat COVID-19 continue to be reported every day. Here at SLAS Technology , we felt it was important to highlight these advances in technology that have been made to better address all aspects of COVID-19 detection and treatment. We present here a special issue that reports how technology has been used to address COVID-19.

The spread of COVID-19 across the world has shown that any hope for effective control of COVID-19 infection in the community requires the development of rapid and accurate methods for detecting COVID-19 infections. Applying existing and emerging viral detection technologies toward better COVID-19 diagnostics has resulted in incredible advances in pathogen detection innovations. Miniaturization assays that allowed for the accurate analysis and detection of SARS-CoV-2 viral nucleic acid detection or host antibody response to COVID-19 have proven to be critical. 1 , 2 , 3 While diagnostics initially required clinical laboratory tests, these technological advances have proven critical for field testing in the community or in less well-equipped remote diagnostic testing sites. In addition to advances in detecting COVID-19 infections, leveraging technology to better understand COVID-19 disease progression and immune response is critical to developing better therapies to combat this pandemic. As a result, the molecular mechanisms of COVID-19 infection, as well as an understanding of the critical immune responses and overall biological responses to COVID-19, have been uncovered in an amazingly short amount of time. Much of this has been a result of the use of critical technologies such as single-cell analysis technologies and advances in mass cytometry. 2

The last few years have seen a paradigm shift in the development and application of artificial intelligence (AI). This has been particularly true for life sciences and biomedical applications. In order to better understand and address COVID-19, AI has played a huge role in improving detection and therapeutic drug development. Of particular importance has been the development of multiple AI-based approaches toward improving COVID-19 detection through standard chest x-ray images. 4 , 5 Applying AI toward COVID-19 diagnostics through existing standard medical imaging allows for more rapid diagnosis through telemedicine and automated tools. As AI begins to pervade every aspect of medicine, it is inevitable that advances in AI technology will be important to overcoming this pandemic.

It is now clear that COVID-19 is a unique infection that affects a wide range of biological systems. One of the most affected systems has been pulmonary function. The ability to treat COVID-19 patients has often required the use of ventilators, and the lack of sufficient ventilators has been linked to poorer outcomes. The paucity of ventilators available in comparison to COVID-19 infection rates led to a number of advances in ventilator technology to increase their production speed and portability while lowering their cost. 6 These advances allow patients additional time to fight off infection as well as allow emerging therapies to work. This pandemic has adversely affected the lives of so many people in so many ways. But, it has also shown that when the global community comes together to collectively address a singular problem, amazing innovations in technology can happen that provide hope for a better future after the pandemic.

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• 4. The role of technology in COVID-19 vaccine registration

Table of Contents

• 1. How the internet and technology shaped Americans’ personal experiences amid COVID-19
• 2. Parents, their children and school during the pandemic
• 3. Navigating technological challenges
• Acknowledgments
• Methodology

In the early months of 2021, COVID-19  vaccines began to roll out  and the public was thrust into a vaccine registration system that was sometimes characterized in the media as  confusing  and  competitive .

Vaccination registration terminology

Several terms are used in this chapter to describe people based on whether or not they had tried to sign themselves up for a COVID-19 vaccination appointment as of April:

Vaccine registrant  refers to a person who had tried to sign themself up for a vaccine appointment. Some 57% of U.S. adults said they had done so in the April survey. 

• Online vaccine registrant  is used to describe a person who tried to sign themself up for a vaccine appointment online. Some 45% of U.S. adults said they had done so as of the time this survey was fielded in April 2021.
• Offline vaccine registrant  is used to refer to a person who tried to sign themself up for a vaccine appointment in a way that was not online. Some 12% of U.S. adults said they had done so as of the time this survey was fielded in April 2021.

Vaccine non-registrant  refers to a person who did not try to sign themself up for the COVID-19 vaccine as of April. Some 42% of U.S. adults said they had not done so as of the time this survey was fielded in April 2021.

In order to better understand people’s experiences during this time, the survey fielded in mid-April asked about Americans’ attempts to obtain a vaccine appointment for themselves and others – including the challenges they may have faced along the way. It is important to note that the situation surrounding vaccine registration is evolving and changing continually. This chapter is merely a snapshot of the landscape of vaccine registration as of when the survey was fielded in mid-April 2021.  Registration rates  and  challenges  have changed since April due to these  ever-changing circumstances .

The survey shows that by April 2021 many of those who wanted to get vaccinated were finding it at least somewhat easy to get an appointment online. And when asked about five potential reasons they had difficulty, relatively few of those who were experiencing challenges at that time said that technology- or system-related struggles were major reasons for this difficulty. Instead, people said their problems with vaccine registration primarily arose from a lack of available appointments in their area at the time they were trying to sign up.

The survey found that by mid-April roughly six-in-ten American adults (57%) had tried to register or sign themselves up for the vaccine, and a quarter had done so for someone else. 11

About eight-in-ten adults ages 65 and older said they had already signed themselves up for the vaccine, compared with 58% of those ages 50 to 64 and somewhat smaller shares of adults under the age of 50. This pattern largely parallels the  age restrictions  that were a part of the vaccine rollout and which prioritized vaccinating older Americans before other age groups. Adults 65 and older were also slightly more likely to have signed up someone else for the vaccine than adults 18 to 29 (28% vs. 21%). Those 30 to 64 did not significantly differ from either of their oldest and youngest counterparts in having signed up others for the vaccine.

Adults with higher incomes were also more likely to say they had registered themselves for the vaccine than their less affluent counterparts in April 2021. 

White adults were more likely to say they had signed themselves up for the vaccine than Black adults. At the same time, Hispanic adults were more likely than their White or Black counterparts to have signed someone else up for the vaccine. Some 35% of Hispanic adults said they had signed someone else up by mid-April, while about a quarter Black or White Americans said the same.

Like other  COVID-19 issues , the vaccine rollout had become  highly politicized  by last spring. This was also the case when it came to the vaccine signup process. Seven-in-ten Democrats said they had signed themselves up for the vaccine by April 2021, while 45% of Republicans said they had signed up. Similarly, Democrats were more likely than Republicans to have signed someone else up to vaccinated.

Vaccine appointments were predominantly scheduled online

Among those who had signed themselves or others up for the vaccine by mid-April, about eight-in-ten or more said they tried to do so online. In total, 45% of American adults had signed themselves up online, while 22% had done so for someone else. 

While majorities across demographic groups who tried to sign themselves or others up turned to the internet to make vaccine appointments, there were some differences across groups. 

The share of adult vaccine registrants under 50 who said they tried to sign themselves up online was 10 percentage points higher than for registrants 50 and older. In addition, a modest difference in using the internet for vaccine registration was seen between Democrats and Republicans who signed themselves up for the vaccine. Eight-in-ten Democratic vaccine registrants say they used online systems, compared with roughly three-quarters of their Republican counterparts.

While about seven-in-ten vaccine registrants with lower household incomes said in April that they had tried to sign up online, eight-in-ten or more middle- and upper-income registrants said they tried to do this.

Some 62% of Black vaccine registrants had tried to sign themselves up online, while about three-quarters or more of White or Hispanic registrants had tried to do this (79% and 76%, respectively).

Few demographic differences are present for having signed someone else up online. People with lower incomes who tried to sign someone else up for the vaccine were 10 points less likely than those with higher incomes who tried to sign someone else up to have done so online.

About three-in-ten online vaccine registrants report they experienced difficulty signing up

Online systems  for vaccine registration stirred  media coverage  as  problems arose . The Center explored the issues online vaccine registrants faced by asking the 45% of Americans who had tried to register themselves online for vaccination about their experiences. 

In mid-April, 29% of those who had tried to sign themselves up for the vaccine online said signing up online was at least somewhat difficult, while 71% said doing so had been at least somewhat easy. In all, that comes to 13% of Americans who said they had experienced difficulty signing up for vaccines online as of mid-April. 

Beyond that, as the vaccine rollout began, concerns were raised in the media regarding seniors’ capability to sign up for the  vaccine online  – be it due to a lack of internet access or digital literacy. The survey shows that 37% of online vaccine registrants 65 and older reported experiencing at least some difficulty, making them more likely than their younger counterparts to report experiencing difficulties. Still, a majority of online vaccine registrants 65 and older said signing up was at least somewhat easy to do.

Tech readiness is also related to how difficult people found trying to sign themselves up online to be. Online vaccine registrants who struggle either with using new devices independently or who do not feel confident using devices effectively – that is, they have lower tech readiness, as described in  Chapter 3   – are more likely to report experiencing difficulty (37%) than those who have higher tech readiness (25%). Still majorities in both groups reported signing up online with at least some ease (63% and 75%, respectively).

When asked about five potential reasons for why signing up for the vaccine online had been difficult, about eight-in-ten online vaccine registrants who reported difficulties said a major reason why they had difficulty was that they had problems finding an available appointment. This share was more than twice as large as the second most common reason cited. 

Roughly three-in-ten of those who tried to sign themselves up for the COVID-19 vaccine online and said it was at least somewhat difficult to do said their lack of knowledge about where to sign up online (33%) and problems with the online system crashing (29%) were major reasons why they faced difficulties. Smaller shares said not yet being eligible to receive the vaccine or difficulty using technology were major reasons.

Many of these challenges are less likely to be issues now for those seeking to get vaccinated. While the demand for  vaccine appointments  outpaced the  supply of vaccines in the  early months of 2021 , many  vaccination sites  have started  predominantly doing walk-in  appointments for anyone interested in a vaccine, while other  vaccination sites have closed  due to  lack of demand . And as of the time of writing, Americans  ages 12 and older are eligible  to receive the vaccines if they so choose. In addition, new challenges may arise as Americans seek booster shots under  new recommendations  from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

As of mid-April, about a fifth of Americans who had tried to sign themselves up for the COVID-19 vaccine online reported they needed help from someone else at some point in doing so. That amounts to 8% of all adults. 

There were some differences by household income: 30% of online vaccine registrants with lower incomes said they needed such help, compared with 17% of those with middle incomes and 9% of those in the upper income category. By contrast, there were no statistical differences in needing help between adult online registrants under 50 years old (17%), those ages 50 to 64 (16%) and those 65 and older (21%). 

Online vaccine registrants who said it was at least somewhat difficult to register for the vaccine were more likely than those who had an easy time to say they needed someone else to help them (31% vs. 13%). 

Similarly, tech readiness is associated with needing help. Some 35% of online vaccine registrants with lower tech readiness said they needed help from others, while 12% of those with higher tech readiness said the same.

Similar to those who tried to sign themselves up for the vaccine, 71% of people who had tried to sign up someone else for a vaccine appointment online said that when thinking about the person they did this for most recently, it was at least somewhat easy to do.

Vaccine registrants who didn’t sign up online cited success using other systems as a major reason for not signing up online

While most vaccine registrants turned to the internet to sign up for the vaccine as of mid-April, 21% of vaccine registrants said they tried to sign up in a different way. For the purposes of this study, this group is referred to as “offline vaccine registrants” and they make up 12% of all U.S. adults. When asked why they did not try to sign up online, the vast majority of these offline registrants said a major reason was that they were able to sign up in another way.

About a quarter of offline vaccine registrants said that someone else helping them to register was a major reason why they did not try to sign up online, while 4% said they needed help to sign up online but didn’t have anyone to help them do so.

Roughly one-in-ten or fewer reported they did not feel comfortable using digital technologies (8%) or that they lacked access to digital technologies (5%). 12

Looking beyond the experiences of people who had been seeking to get vaccinated, the Center also probed the experiences of Americans who had not yet tried to get the COVID-19 vaccine as of mid-April. 

Overall, 42% of American adults in mid-April reported that they had not yet tried to get a vaccination appointment. When asked about five potential reasons why they hadn’t tried to get an appointment, the most commonly cited major reason was that they did not plan to get vaccinated, with 51% of vaccine non-registrants saying this was a major reason why they had not sought a vaccine appointment (or 21% of all Americans). All other reasons we queried were cited as major   reasons at much lower levels. 

Partisans differed in the reasons they cited as major ones when asked why they had not yet pursued trying to sign up for a COVID-19 vaccine back in April. Roughly two-thirds of Republican vaccine non-registrants said not planning to be vaccinated for COVID-19 was a major reason why they hadn’t tried to sign up, while half as many Democratic vaccine non-registrants – 33% – said the same. 

The pandemic is constantly evolving and changing; these findings are just a snapshot of the attitudes expressed in April. Prior Center work has found  vaccine intentions  were growing as the vaccine rollout progressed. 

• In February 2021, a separate Center study found that 69% of American adults  intended to get vaccinated  against COVID-19 (or had done so already). ↩
• See  Chapter 3  for a discussion of the considerations needed in measuring Americans’ competence and abilities related to technology. ↩

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