(High vs. Low Focus on Self-Presentation)
Note: 95 CI = 95% confidence interval; Ref = reference (base) class for comparison of two classes, RRR = relative risk ratio. *** p < 0.005, **** p < 0.001.
Comparison of class belongingness across lifestyle variables.
Class 2 vs. Class 1 (Intermediate vs. Low Focus on Self-Presentation) | Controlled for Gender | Class 3 vs. Class 1 (High vs. Low Focus on Self-Presentation) | Controlled for Gender | Class 3 vs. Class 2 (High vs. Intermediate Focus on Self-Presentation) | Controlled for Gender | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low/moderate | 1.13 (0.92–1.39) | 0.96 (0.77–1.18) | 1.54 (1.23–1.93) **** | 1.15 (0.90–1.47) | 1.36 (1.07–1.72) * | 1.21 (0.95–1.54) |
High | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Never | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Rarely | 1.48 (1.12–1.96) ** | 1.43 (1.09–1.91) * | 1.48 (1.07–2.04) * | 1.39 (0.98–1.96) | 1.00 (0.70–1.42) | 0.97 (0.68–1.39) |
Regularly | 2.44 (1.87–3.19) **** | 2.25 (1.71–2.96) **** | 3.11 (2.30–4.19) **** | 2.70 (1.96–3.72) **** | 1.27 (0.93–1.75) | 1.20 (0.87–1.66) |
Often | 1.53 (0.96–2.44) | 1.71 (1.06–2.76) * | 2.64 (1.65–4.23) **** | 3.25 (1.95–5.42) **** | 1.73 (1.04–2.87) * | 1.90 (1.13–3.19) * |
No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Yes | 1.58 (1.28–1.96) **** | 1.77 (1.42–2.21) **** | 1.94 (1.54–2.43) **** | 2.34 (1.83–3.00) **** | 1.22 (0.97–1.54) | 1.32 (1.04–1.67) * |
No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Yes | 1.57 (1.26–1.95) **** | 1.75 (1.40–2.19) **** | 2.24 (1.77–2.82) **** | 2.69 (2.09–3.46) **** | 1.42 (1.13–1.80) *** | 1.54 (1.21–1.95) **** |
Note: 95 CI = 95% confidence interval; Ref = reference (base) class for comparison of two classes, RRR = relative risk ratio. * p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.005, **** p < 0.001.
Comparison of class belongingness across personality variables.
Class 2 vs. Class 1 (Intermediate vs. Low Focus on Self-Presentation) | Controlled for Gender | Class 3 vs. Class 1 (High vs. Low Focus on Self-Presentation) | Controlled for Gender | Class 3 vs. Class 2 (High vs. Intermediate Focus on Self-Presentation) | Controlled for Gender | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Intermediate | 1.49 (1.15–1.91) *** | 1.58 (1.22–2.05) **** | 1.54 (1.17–2.03) *** | 1.71 (1.28–2.31) **** | 0.92 (0.68–1.25) | 0.96 (0.70–1.31) |
High | 2.04 (1.57–265) **** | 2.16 (1.65–2.83) **** | 2.04 (1.54–2.71) **** | 2.25 (1.66–3.05) **** | 0.95 (0.73–1.23) | 0.98 (0.75–1.28) |
Low | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Intermediate | 1.07 (0.81–1.40) | 0.95 (0.71–1.25) | 1.08 (0.81–1.45) | 0.87 (0.63–1.19) | 1.02 (0.78–1.34) | 0.97 (0.73–1.27) |
High | 1.20 (0.92–1.55) | 0.97 (0.74–1.27) | 1.05 (0.79–1.39) | 0.73 (0.53–0.99) * | 0.90 (0.67–1.20) | 0.78 (0.58–1.05) |
Low | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Intermediate | 1.15 (0.89–1.48) | 1.09 (0.84–1.42) | 1.01 (0.77–1.32) | 0.92 (0.69–1.23) | 0.91 (0.68–1.21) | 0.89 (0.66–1.19) |
High | 1.29 (0.99–1.67) | 1.15 (0.88–1.51) | 0.85 (0.64–1.13) | 0.71 (0.52–0.96) | 0.69 (0.52–0.90) ** | 0.64 (0.49–0.85) *** |
Low | 2.11 (1.61–2.75) **** | 1.45 (1.09–1.93) * | 5.95 (4.39–8.06) **** | 3.24 (2.34–4.49) **** | 2.85 (2.03–4.02) **** | 2.20 (1.54–3.14) **** |
Intermediate | 1.61 (1.27–2.05) **** | 1.29 (1.00–1.65) * | 3.21 (2.40–4.30) **** | 2.19 (1.61–2.98) **** | 1.70 (1.18–2.46) *** | 1.45 (1.00–2.10) |
High | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Low | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Intermediate | 1.15 (0.89–1.48) | 1.15 (0.88–1.49) | 0.87 (0.67–1.14) | 0.87 (0.65–1.16) | 0.98 (0.74–1.29) | 0.97 (0.73–1.28) |
High | 1.19 (0.90–1.58) | 1.28 (0.96–1.71) | 0.91 (0.68–1.23) | 1.03 (0.75–1.42) | 0.90 (0.68–1.19) | 0.94 (0.71–1.25) |
Crude proportions for each class across gender, age, and subjective socioeconomic status. Proportions based on most probable class belongingness. The error bars denote 95% confidence intervals.
Crude proportions for each class across physical activity, cigarettes (ever tried, yes/no), and snus (ever tried, yes/no). Proportions based on most probable class belongingness. The error bars denote 95% confidence intervals.
Crude proportions for each class across alcohol consumption. Proportions based on most probable class belongingness. The error bars denote 95% confidence intervals.
Crude proportions for each class across personality traits. Proportions based on most probable class belongingness. The error bars denote 95% confidence intervals.
Girls were more likely to be in higher classes (i.e., a higher focus on self-presentation) compared to lower classes for all class comparisons (see Table 5 ). Those with intermediate SES were more likely than those with high SES to be in class 3 compared to class 1. This association became non-significant when controlling for gender. There was no statistically significant difference in age across classes.
Compared to those who had never tried alcohol, those who consumed alcohol more than twice in two weeks were more likely to be in higher classes for all class comparisons when controlling for gender ( Table 6 ). Those who consumed alcohol 1–2 times in two weeks were more likely to be in classes 2 and 3 compared to class 1, while those who consumed alcohol less than once in two weeks were more likely to be in class 2 compared to class 1. Those who had tried cigarettes or snus were more likely to be in higher classes for all class comparisons. Those with low/moderate physical activity were more likely to be in class 3 compared to class 1, but this association became non-significant when controlling for gender.
Compared to low extraversion, those with intermediate or high extraversion were more likely to be in classes 2 and 3 compared to class 1 ( Table 7 ). When controlling for gender, those with high agreeableness (vs. low agreeableness) had a lower likelihood of belonging to class 3 compared to class 1. For conscientiousness, those with high scores had a lower likelihood of being in class 3 compared to class 1 (when controlling for gender) and class 2. Compared to high emotional stability, those with low or intermediate emotional stability were more likely to be in higher classes compared to lower classes for all class comparisons. When controlling for gender, the increased likelihood of being in class 3 vs. class 2 for those with intermediate emotional stability became non-significant. There were no statistically significant differences for agreeableness across classes.
In this exploratory study, we assessed differences among adolescents’ upward social comparison and aspects of self-presentation on social media and whether these differences were related to gender, age, SES, lifestyle factors, or personality. Over 2000 Norwegian senior high school pupils participated in the study. The results showed that feedback-seeking, strategic self-presentation, and social comparison on social media could be combined into one factor, referred to here as “focus on self-presentation”. The experience of it being easier to be oneself on social media did not correlate with the other aspects of self-presentation measured in this study and was excluded from the SPAUSCIS. It is possible that this item taps into other aspects of social media use. For example, some people may be less shy and withdrawn online than offline [ 82 , 83 , 84 ], or aspects of the self that are hidden or suppressed in offline interactions can be more freely expressed on social media [ 85 ].
The latent class analysis identified three groups of adolescents who varied in their focus on self-presentation. We named the classes “low focus on self-presentation” (class 1), “some focus on self-presentation” (class 2), and “high focus on self-presentation” (class 3). Group membership was associated with gender, lifestyle factors, and personality traits, where being a girl, having intermediate and high extraversion, having low and intermediate emotional stability, consuming alcohol, and having tried cigarettes and snus increased the likelihood of a higher focus on self-presentation. There was some indication that those with high agreeableness and high conscientiousness were less likely to have a high focus on self-presentation. The associations between focus on self-presentation and SES and between focus on self-presentation and low/moderate physical activity both became non-significant when controlling for gender. Focus on self-presentation was not related to age or the personality trait of openness to new experiences.
Using the same items as those in the present study, Skogen et al. [ 43 ] found a higher score on the items among adolescent girls than boys. Our results corroborate these findings, using a larger and more heterogeneous sample (pupils from twelve schools in rural and central areas). Class 1 (low focus on self-presentation) was dominated by boys, while class 2 (intermediate focus on self-presentation) and class 3 (high focus on self-presentation) were characterized by successively larger estimated proportions of girls. On a similar note, studies have shown that females both post selfies and retouch selfies before posting them to a greater degree than males [ 12 , 86 ]. The higher proportion of girls in class 2 and 3 can be understood in the context of the stronger tendency among adolescent females to have a relational orientation and increased reactivity to interpersonal stressors compared to males [ 87 , 88 ]. Some studies suggest that the association between social media use and negative mental health outcomes is stronger among females [ 20 , 89 ]. The increased focus on self-presentation may be one contributing factor to this relationship.
There was some evidence for a relationship between SES and group membership, with an increased relative risk of having a high focus on self-presentation for those with intermediate as compared to high SES. This relationship, however, became non-significant when controlling for gender. To the authors’ knowledge, no other studies have assessed the relationship between self-presentation and SES, but SES has been related to other aspects of social media use and, more generally, to screen use. For instance, low SES has been associated with social media addiction among children and adolescents [ 90 ], and access to media devices in the bedroom is more common among adolescents from low-income families compared to high-income families [ 91 ]. Overall, our sample was characterized by relatively high SES, and studies on more diverse populations should be conducted to better illuminate the relationship between focus on self-presentation and SES.
The lack of an association between age and group membership may be due to the limited age range of the participants in this study. Social media use is common from a young age, and among Norwegian children, one-fourth of boys and one-third of girls already use Snapchat at the age of 9–10 years [ 4 ]. Adolescents’ online self-presentation has been shown to change with age [ 92 ] and to be influenced by identity development [ 93 ]. Among 13–18-year-olds, Fullwood et al. [ 92 ] showed that younger adolescents were more likely than older adolescents to present an idealized or false version of themselves online and to experiment with multiple self-presentations. Among emerging adults, Michikyan [ 93 ] found that those high in identity confusion were less realistic, less truthful, and more socially desirable in their self-presentation online than those high in identity coherence.
We found that the personality traits extraversion and emotional stability were associated with class membership. Those with high extraversion were more likely to have a higher focus on self-presentation than those with low extraversion. These findings correspond to the findings of Zywica & Danowski [ 56 ], who found that a larger proportion of extraverts relative to introverts reported that it was important to look popular on Facebook. Associations between extraversion and other aspects of social media use may also be related to the present findings. For instance, meta-analytic evidence has shown that extraversion is positively associated with the amount of social media use [ 94 ], the number of friends on social media [ 95 ], and using social media for social interaction [ 96 ]. One may speculate that extraverts use social media to fulfil their social needs and that they consequently consider social media as an important part of their social lives and become more focused on how they appear online compared to introverts.
Emotional stability was even more strongly associated with class membership than extraversion, where the estimated proportions of low, intermediate, and high emotional stability shifted substantially with an increasing focus on self-presentation. The proportion of intermediate and low emotional stability increased with a higher focus on self-presentation, and high emotional stability decreased. This can be seen in the context of the results of Twomey & O’Reilly [ 27 ], who showed that neuroticism (i.e., low emotional stability) was associated with individuals’ tendency to present an idealized or inauthentic version of themselves online. Neuroticism has also been associated with posting more status updates [ 97 ]. More generally, emotional stability is negatively associated with the amount of social media use [ 94 , 96 ].
For agreeableness and conscientiousness, those with high scores were somewhat less likely to have a high focus on self-presentation. This is in line with a study of undergraduate students, where agreeableness and conscientiousness were associated with a lower likelihood of using social media to seek attention from others [ 54 ]. There was no relationship between class membership and openness to new experiences. High scores on openness have been associated with more social media use in studies of adults [ 57 , 96 ], but as social media use is ubiquitous among adolescents, this personality trait may be a more important predictor of social media use among older people [ 57 ].
Finally, our results show that those who consumed alcohol more frequently and those who had tried smoking and snus had increased probabilities of having an intermediate or high focus on self-presentation. This finding mirrors the findings of Nesi & Prinstein [ 37 ], who demonstrated that digital status seeking (i.e., efforts to obtain likes and comments) was longitudinally associated with substance use. The authors of that study hypothesized that digital status seekers are at risk of engaging in risky offline behaviors that are considered popular among peers in an attempt to increase their social status [ 37 ]. For physical activity, there were increased probabilities of a high focus on self-presentation for those with low/moderate physical activity compared to those with high physical activity, although not when controlling for gender. To our knowledge, no studies have looked specifically at self-presentation on social media and physical activity; however, studies have shown that low physical activity is associated with smartphone addiction [ 60 , 61 ] and, more generally, with high overall screen times [ 58 , 59 ].
Grouping adolescents by their focus on self-presentation may be one way to bring structure to the heterogeneity of adolescents’ social media use, but further work is needed to assess whether the three-class solution in the present study is relevant in other populations. Further work is also needed to assess how focus on self-presentation is related to important adolescence outcomes such as mental health, satisfaction with life, and educational attainment. Importantly, social media use is likely to differ in other areas in addition to self-presentation; however, focus on self-presentation seems to be a meaningful dimension that warrants further study. The present results can help identify groups of adolescents that are of risk of experiencing negative effects of their social media use. Our results suggest that, among adolescents, being a girl, high extraversion, and low emotional stability are associated with an increased risk of being highly focused on self-presentation. Public health interventions promoting healthy social media use could target these groups in particular. Furthermore, it has been hypothesized that the act of self-presenting on social media, such as posting selfies, triggers an increased dependence on social approval in the form of likes and comments [ 98 ]. Thus, it is possible that efforts to reduce self-presentation behavior on social media could potentially reduce someone’s dependence on social approval. However, positive self-presentation, defined as showing positive aspects of the self online, has been shown to increase subjective well-being, possibly because it supports a positive self-image [ 99 ] and self-affirmation [ 46 ]. Thus, the relationship between the act of self-presenting on social media, one’s focus on self-presentation, and well-being is complex and needs further investigation.
The present study did not consider how focus on self-presentation may vary across different social media platforms. For example, self-presentation on social media can vary depending on the perceived target audience [ 100 , 101 ]. In a qualitative study by Taber & Whittaker [ 101 ], university students explained that they were more authentic and less socially desirable on social media accounts where only their close friends could access their content. Furthermore, how one self-presents on social media can be influenced by the level of anonymity, the durability of the content (e.g., ephemeral vs. permanent content; [ 102 ]), and the visibility of the content [ 100 ]. It is unclear whether one’s focus on self-presentation, beyond how one self-presents, varies across platforms, but it is likely that some social media platforms augment users’ focus on self-presentation—for example, platforms with visual content and feedback from others as central features. Thus, it is possible that some of the gender differences in focus on self-presentation are based on gender differences in platform preference, above and beyond any differences in focus on self-presentation between boys and girls in the first place.
A strength of the present study is the use of survey items developed based on focus interviews with the target group, increasing the likelihood that the items were relevant to the participants. The data collection is recent, and the study included a large number of participants, allowing for a meaningful investigation of the focus on self-presentation on social media and its covariates.
The study also has some important limitations. First, the items measuring focus on self-presentation are not part of an established scale. However, a pilot study using the same items showed the same factor structure and supported a unidimensional scale, and the sum score was associated with mental health and well-being [ 43 ]. The same study also showed that a higher proportion of those with a high score on the scale used highly visual social media, such as Snapchat and Instagram, compared to those with low scores [ 43 ]. Second, the reliability was low for some of the TIPI scales, specifically for agreeableness and openness to experience, and the results should be interpreted with this in mind. TIPI has, however, shown good convergence with multi-item personality inventories and good test-retest reliability [ 63 ]. Further, the study is cross-sectional, which means that we are unable to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect. Furthermore, the participant rate was somewhat low (54%). It is possible that those highly invested in social media completed the survey to a larger extent than those not invested in social media, thus causing a bias in the results. Hence, the estimated proportions of the latent classes should be interpreted with caution. However, associations are less vulnerable to bias caused by low participation rates than prevalence [ 103 ], and the associations between class membership and covariates may be considered valid despite a relatively low participation rate.
As participants were recruited through their school, adolescents not attending school did not have the opportunity to participate in the study. However, the rate of school attendance among Norwegian adolescents is very high, with 94% of 16–18-year-olds attending senior high school [ 104 ]. The participants were drawn from a limited geographical area, and the results may not be generalizable to other countries or cultures. For example, Kolesnyk et al. [ 105 ] found that the deceptive self-presentation of physical attractiveness (e.g., retouching images to increase attractiveness) was lower in countries with more gender equality.
Only one of the self-presentation items asked explicitly about visual self-presentation, specifically about the retouching of photos to look better. Self-presentation may entail photos of oneself but also photos of friends or activities, sharing music and movies, posting opinions, etc. Future studies should consider if self-presentation through posting photos of oneself differs from other forms of self-presentation—for example, due to links with appearance-related concerns [ 106 , 107 , 108 ]. Furthermore, we used the word “retouching”, which may not fully reflect the range of ways adolescents edit their photos. For example, built-in image filters on applications such as Snapchat are frequently used by adolescents but may not have been captured by the question about retouching. Retouching may have been interpreted as more elaborate and advanced photo-editing. Future studies are likely to benefit from combining quantitative findings with qualitative data to obtain a fuller picture of adolescents’ focus on self-presentation on social media. Lastly, the present study did not distinguish between different social media platforms. This is a limitation, as some items, such as the importance of likes and comments, are not relevant to all platforms. Future studies could explore whether focus on self-presentation differs across social media platforms.
In this exploratory study, we showed that feedback-seeking, strategic self-presentation, and social comparison on social media converged into one factor, referred to here as “focus on self-presentation”. Using a data-driven approach, we identified three groups of adolescents with a low, intermediate, and high focus on self-presentation. Being a girl, higher extraversion, lower emotional stability, more frequent alcohol consumption, and having tried tobacco were associated with membership in the high-focus group. There was some indication that those with high agreeableness and high conscientiousness were less likely to have a high focus on self-presentation, while SES and physical activity were associated with focus on self-presentation in crude models but not after controlling for gender. Importantly, the current study included a rather homogenous sample in terms of SES, and the relationship between focus on self-presentation and SES should be further investigated in more diverse populations. Further work is also needed to assess how focus on self-presentation is related to important adolescence outcomes such as mental health, satisfaction with life, and educational attainment. However, given the association of aspects of self-presentation with negative mental health outcomes shown in previous research, efforts to reduce the focus on self-presentation could be warranted. The present results suggest some characteristics that are associated with a higher focus on self-presentation and that could inform targeted interventions. The high focus on self-presentation found among girls could explain previous findings of stronger associations between social media use and negative mental health outcomes among girls compared to boys. Importantly, specific social media affordances and the act of self-presentation may augment one’s focus on self-presentation, and gender differences in terms of focus on self-presentation may be partly related to differences in platform preference among girls and boys. The nature of these complex associations warrants further investigation, and efforts should be made to combine qualitative and quantitative approaches.
We would like to thank all the pupils that participated in the survey, as well as Bergen municipality and Vestland County Council for their collaboration and help with the study. We would like to thank the resource group that contributed with inputs and discussions regarding the focus group interviews and the questionnaire development.
The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ijerph191711133/s1 , Table S1: The correlation matrix (non-parametric) of candidate self-presentation items.
The present study is associated with a larger innovation project led by the Bergen municipality in Western Norway related to the use of social media, mental health, and well-being. The innovation project is funded by a program initiated by the Norwegian Directorate of Health and aims to explore social media as a platform for health promotion among adolescents. Hjetland’s postdoc position is funded by the DAM Foundation and supported by the Norwegian Council for Mental Health (grant number 2021/FO347287). Finserås’ postdoc position is funded by the Research Council of Norway (project number 319845). This work was also partly supported by the Research Council of Norway through its Centers of Excellence funding scheme, project number 262700. The funding sources were not involved in the study design, in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of the data, or in the writing of the manuscript.
Conceptualization, G.J.H. and J.C.S.; methodology, G.J.H. and J.C.S.; formal analysis, G.J.H. and J.C.S.; investigation, G.J.H., R.T.H. and J.C.S.; writing—original draft preparation, G.J.H. and J.C.S.; writing—review and editing, G.J.H., T.R.F., B.S., I.C., R.T.H. and J.C.S.; visualization, G.J.H.; project administration, J.C.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The data collection was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Regional Ethics Committee (REK) in Norway (REK #65611).
Eligible participants were informed about the purpose of the study and provided informed electronic consent upon participation. Participants were also informed that participation was voluntary. All of the invited participants were 16 years of age or older and were therefore deemed competent to consent on their own behalf.
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Upward social comparison and aspects of self-presentation on social media such as feedback-seeking and strategic self-presentation may represent risk factors for experiencing negative mental health effects of social media use. The aim of this exploratory study was to assess how adolescents differ in upward social comparison and aspects of self-presentation on social media and whether these differences are linked to sociodemographic variables, lifestyle, or personality. The study was based on cross-sectional data from the "LifeOnSoMe" study performed in Bergen, Norway, including 2023 senior high school pupils (response rate 54%, mean age 17.4, 44% boys). Nine potentially relevant items were assessed using factor analysis, and latent class analysis was used to identify latent classes with distinct patterns of responses across seven retained items. The retained items converged into one factor, called "focus on self-presentation". We identified three groups of adolescents with a low, intermediate, and high focus on self-presentation. Associations between identified latent classes and covariates were assessed using regression analyses. Being a girl, higher extraversion, lower emotional stability, more frequent alcohol consumption, and having tried tobacco were associated with membership in the high-focus group. These results suggest some characteristics that are associated with a higher focus on self-presentation and that could inform targeted interventions.
Keywords: adolescent; feedback-seeking; self-presentation; social comparison; social media.
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Crude proportions for each class…
Crude proportions for each class across gender, age, and subjective socioeconomic status. Proportions…
Crude proportions for each class across physical activity, cigarettes (ever tried, yes/no), and…
Crude proportions for each class across alcohol consumption. Proportions based on most probable…
Crude proportions for each class across personality traits. Proportions based on most probable…
Results of the confirmatory factor…
Results of the confirmatory factor analysis: One-factor model with the items “easier to…
Response probabilities on the self-presentation…
Response probabilities on the self-presentation scale across retained classes.
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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, self-presentation and gender on social media: an exploration of the expression of “authentic selves”.
Qualitative Market Research
ISSN : 1352-2752
Article publication date: 13 December 2021
Issue publication date: 19 January 2022
In response to calls for more research on gender(s) in digital contexts, this paper aims to ask, how do individuals engage in self-presentation of their gender identities on social media?
Using a multi-method qualitative approach, this research explores the narratives of 17 Millennials as they negotiate their online gender expressions with a particular focus on the image-based social platforms, Facebook and Instagram. Specifically, in-depth interviews, a collage technique and visual data from informants’ social media pages were analyzed to identify emergent themes.
Drawing on the theoretical work of Goffman’s (1971) self-presentation and Butler’s (1999) gender performance, this research highlights a pervading discourse of authenticity or the desire for Millennial social media users to craft and perform a perceived “authentic self” online. This often entails both expressions of gender fluidly and gender policing. Further, four strategies emerge in the data which reveal how individuals negotiate and navigate their gendered self-presentation online, either in an agentic manner or as a protective measure.
While much research exists on online self-presentation, gender(s) has been under-researched in a digital context. Existing studies examine the content of social media pages (e.g. Facebook profiles or women’s Instagram pages) as it relates to gender, but largely do not explore the lived experiences and narratives of individuals as they negotiate their gendered expressions. In addition, the use of visual data through the collage technique adds valuable insight into how gender is experienced and performed. Findings reveal that while Millennials are often touted as a gender-fluid generation, tensions still exist in online gendered expressions.
This research was funded in part by Loyola University Chicago’s Provost Fellowship for undergraduate research.
Kondakciu, K. , Souto, M. and Zayer, L.T. (2022), "Self-presentation and gender on social media: an exploration of the expression of “authentic selves”", Qualitative Market Research , Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 80-99. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-03-2021-0039
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Social media use, perfectionism, and disordered eating have all increased over the last decades. Some studies indicate that there is a relationship between self-presentation behaviors and being exposed to others’ self-presentation on social media, and disordered eating. Studies also show that the relationship between focus on self-presentation and highly visual social media is stronger than for non-visual social media, hence facilitating upward social comparison. Nevertheless, no previous studies have investigated the link between adolescents’ focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media, and perfectionism and disordered eating, which is the aim of the present study.
The present study is based on a cross-sectional survey from the “LifeOnSoMe”-study ( N = 3424), conducted in 2020 and 2021. Respondents were high school students (mean age 17.3 years, 56% females) in Bergen, Norway. Multiple regression analysis was performed, where SPAUSCIS, a measure of self-presentation and upward social comparison, was the independent variable. Perfectionism and disordered eating were dependent variables. Self-reported age, gender, and subjective socioeconomic status were used as covariates, as well as frequency and duration of social media use. Regression models were performed to compare proportions across the median split of SPAUSCIS.
The multiple regression analysis showed that increased focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media were positively associated with both perfectionism (standardized coefficient 0.28) and disordered eating. A stronger association for girls than boys was found for disordered eating (standardized coefficient 0.39 for girls and 0.29 for boys). There was no gender moderation for perfectionism.
Findings suggest that focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media is associated with perfectionism and disordered eating. We recommend promoting a healthy use of social media. This could be established by increasing adolescents’ ability to reflect on and think critically about self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media.
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Growing up today means growing up in a highly digitalized world where social media and online communication plays an important role in adolescents’ lives. Social media can be defined as “highly interactive platforms via which individuals and communities share, co-create, discuss, and modify user-generated content” [ 1 , pp. 241]. Previous studies have largely focused on the temporal aspects of social media use, and some studies indicate that social media use is associated with more mental health problems and decreased well-being [ 2 ]. For example, there are reports that more time spent on social media is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety [ 3 , 4 ], sleep issues [ 3 , 5 ], and body dissatisfaction [ 6 ]. However, not all research confirms these associations [ 7 , 8 ], and recent studies have indicated that the observed link between time spent on social media and mental health is too small to be of practical importance [ 9 ]. A recent longitudinal study found time spent on social media to be the least important factor in relation to adolescent mental health [ 10 ]. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing and almost ubiquitous concern regarding social media’s potential negative effect on mental health. Considering this, it is increasingly recognized that it is important to investigate more than adolescents’ time spent on social media, such as their usage patterns. After all, social media offers a range of opportunities, such as seeking out like-minded others or specific topics and inspiration, for example, for food, fitness, and a healthy lifestyle. Although inspirational hashtags and pictures may be positive to many adolescents, they also frequently present a “perfect” lifestyle and some of them could even be considered unhealthy inspirations.
Self-presentation on social media has been highlighted as potentially important in connection with mental health and well-being among adolescents [e.g. 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Baumeister & Hutton [ 15 ] defined self-presentation as an individual practice related to how one presents oneself to others, motivated by a wish to make a socially desirable impression on others, and simultaneously, stay true to one’s beliefs and ideals. On social media, self-presentation may include presenting and sharing self-made content, posting of personal opinions, sharing online content of interest, and “selfies” and pictures [ 14 , 16 ]. An American report noted that adolescents are more engaged in self-presentation activities on social media than any other age group [ 17 ]. As increased independence from parents is an important developmental milestone for adolescents, external validation from others may be particularly important for this age group [ 18 ]. Feedback on social media posts through likes and comments, may therefore be an important source of external validation from peers. Considering this, it is likely that many adolescents put great importance on how they present themselves on social media. In addition, social media is a suitable arena for self-presenting activities, as it gives the adolescent control over what, when and how to present themselves on the platform of their choosing [ 12 ]. Functions such as likes, comments, followers [ 19 ], and other measures of engagement, which are implemented on many social media platforms in one form or another, give ample opportunity for immediate feedback on posted content. Hence, this provides cues of social desirability and direction to align future social media posts with how the adolescents prefer to present themselves on these platforms [ 12 ]. These features of social media, in addition to the ability to reach a large and varied audience, may serve to facilitate self-presentation [ 20 ].
Self-presentation behaviors [e.g. 13 , 14 ] on social media are closely connected to focus on self-presentatio n [ 12 , 21 , 22 ]. Focus on self-presentation consist of caring about how you present yourself on social media, e.g., retouching pictures before posting them, caring about having a nice social media feed or striving for positive feedback on your social media posts, and can be independent of how much or how often a person post something [ 12 , 21 ]. As such, focus on self-presentation differs from self-presentation behaviors, which have been more extensively researched [e.g. 13 , 14 ]. A study showed that many adolescents have a desire to focus less on their self-presentation on social media, but that they think it is hard to resist the pressure of having a good feed and receiving positive feedback such as likes, comments, and followers [ 23 ]. A higher focus on self-presentation has been linked to the use of highly visual social media platforms like Instagram, TikTok and Facebook, rather than less visual platforms [ 12 ].
Likewise, use of social media has been linked to more social comparison, and in particular upward social comparison [ 24 , 25 ]. Social comparison is the propensity to compare one’s characteristics to other people to obtain information about how we are doing relative to others [ 26 ]. Upward social comparison occurs when one compares oneself to someone perceived as better or with higher status than oneself, which may be especially prevailing on social media. One study found that social media users mostly presume that other users have better lives than themselves [ 27 ]. Moreover, following a large number of people on social media increases the reference group to which adolescents compare themselves, and may include high-status people like “influencers” and celebrities [ 28 ]. Upward social comparison has been reported to be associated with more negative feelings such as depression and lower life satisfaction [ 11 , 29 ], and more body dissatisfaction [ 30 ]. Hawes et al. [ 31 ] also found that preoccupation with appearance comparison on social media was linked to symptoms of anxiety and depression among adolescents. Thus, while self-presentation on social media may not be harmful, feedback-seeking and upward social comparison may be damaging to mental health.
In addition to being a central period for self-presentation activities, adolescence seems to be a particularly susceptible period for the development of perfectionism. Perfectionism is a personality disposition that may be defined as the tendency to set unrealistically high performance standards and striving for flawlessness [ 32 ]. Perfectionism is thought to be a disposition largely consolidated in adolescence as a part of a general identity formation [ 18 ].
Over the last 30 years, there has been an increase in perfectionistic personality traits among young adults [ 33 ]. Curran & Hill [ 33 ] hypothesize that this might be a consequence of the rise of a competitive cultural trend, and also the advent of social media in young peoples’ lives. As social media gives adolescents control over how they self-present, social media also allows them to create a (highly) specific and “ideal” image of themselves. Considering these perspectives, Curran & Hill [ 33 ] suggest that young people perceive their social context as more demanding and subsequently believe others will evaluate them more harshly. An experimental study investigating the effect of selfie taking and posting on social media on women’s mood and body image, concluded that the psychological states subsequent of posting the selfies, was related to self-consciousness and/or fear of being negatively evaluated [ 14 ]. Thus, adolescents of today may to a larger extent strive for perfectionistic self-presentation in order to secure acceptance among peers than older generations. Hewitt et al. [ 34 ] suggested the concept of perfectionistic self-presentation and argued that this is a maladaptive self-presentation style. One facet of perfectionistic self-presentation is perfectionistic self-promotion, which includes proclaiming and displaying one’s perfection [ 34 ]. Through features such as likes, comments and followers, social media may be a key arena for perfectionistic self-presentation and self-promotion, and hence a way of seeking external validation and approval in a socially acceptable way among adolescents.
A study found that perfectionistic concerns predicted longitudinal change in self-presentation and that perfectionistic self-presentation was linked to decreased well-being [ 35 ]. Hence, perfectionistic concerns indirectly affected subjective well-being through self-presentation [ 35 ]. Perfectionistic self-presentation also predicted changes in both positive and negative affect [ 35 ]. In a meta-analysis, perfectionism was found to be positively associated to different psychological disorders and symptoms, including body dissatisfaction, and eating disorders [ 36 ].
Previous research has linked disordered eating to self-presentation [ 25 ] and to perfectionism [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. A person with disordered eating will be obsessed with food and have constant thoughts about eating, body shape, weight, and food. Symptoms of disordered eating above a certain level may constitute an eating disorder according to the criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM 5th Ed.) [ 39 ] and the International Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders (ICD-10) [ 40 ]. A meta-analysis reported that over the last 20 years, there has been an increase in the weighted means of point eating disorder prevalence from 3.5% for the years 2000–2006 to 7.5% for the years 2013–2018 [ 41 ]. The prevalence for eating disorder was consistently higher among women compared to men regardless of timeframe (lifetime, 12-months, point prevalence). In the same meta-analysis, the authors also stressed the finding that eating disorders are highly prevalent in adolescence, with an estimated point prevalence between 6% and 8% [ 41 ].
As a great deal of content on social media promotes pictures of healthy food, diets, exercise, and appearance-focused images and idealized bodies, concerns have been raised that social media may contribute to body image concerns and disordered eating, especially among adolescents [ 42 , 43 ]. A systematic review, conducted by Holland & Tiggemann [ 43 ] showed that exposure to content on Facebook, in particular photo-based activity, was positively associated with negative body image and disordered eating behaviours in children, adolescents, and young adults. Another study found similar results; more exposure to appearance-related pictures on Facebook was associated with self-objectification, weight dissatisfaction, thin ideal internalization, and drive for thinness among girls [ 44 ].
Similarly, research indicates that exposure to others’ “perfect” self-presentations on social media may reinforce one’s own body image concerns and disordered eating [ 24 , 25 ]. Fardouly et al. [ 24 ] investigated young adult women’s appearance comparisons in different contexts in everyday life. They found that most of the appearance comparisons were made in person and on social media, and that the participants made relatively more upward appearance comparisons on social media than in person. They also found that upward appearance comparisons made on social media were associated with more body dissatisfaction than in person. In addition, upward appearance comparisons on social media yielded more thoughts about dieting than in person comparisons, but no difference in the likelihood of dieting-behaviours [ 24 ].
Furthermore, Rodgers et al. [ 25 ] found that social media use was positively correlated with higher internalization of appearance ideals, including a higher tendency to engage in appearance comparison, body dissatisfaction, muscle change behaviours and dietary restraints among both boys and girls. In addition, the internalization of social media ideals, the muscular ideals and appearance comparisons, were positively associated with body dissatisfaction, muscle change behaviours and dietary restraints. Other research has reported similar results [ 6 , 45 ]. Mclean et al. [ 45 ] found for instance, that self-presentation on social media was associated with internalization of social media ideals, and that the internalization mediated the effect of social media on appearance upward comparison and body dissatisfaction. A scoping review conducted by Dane & Bhatia [ 46 ] also reported that in cases where social media use led to eating disorder, the thin/fit body ideal internalization and social comparison often functioned as mediating pathways.
The Tripartite Influence Model (TIM) may serve as a theoretical framework linking the concept of focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media, with perfectionism and disordered eating [ 47 ]. The Tripartite Influence Model is a framework that can be used when exploring the relationship between social media use and body dissatisfaction. It proposes that pressures from peers, family and media makes one conform to certain appearance ideals, which can lead to internalization of body ideals, followed by physical appearance comparison with others [ 48 ]. This study’s focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media, aligns with the Tripartite Influence Model’s emphasis on how media and peers (e.g. to what content that receives positive feedback from peers), may contribute to adolescents’ perception of ideal body standards. Findings indicate that higher focus on self-presentation is more strongly linked to visual social media platforms than less visual platforms [ 12 ]. This support the Tripartite Influence Model theory that media pressure, especially through highly visual social media, leads to increased body ideal internalization an upward comparison with others. Additionally, the association between social media use and disordered eating can be understood through pressure to conform to societal ideals, such as body ideals, as proposed in the Tripartite Influence Model. Perfectionism, which is linked to disordered eating [ 36 , 37 , 38 ], may be driven by similar societal pressures.
Research on adolescents’ use of social media is increasingly shifting focus away from looking merely at time spent to include potential consequences of specific aspects of adolescents’ social media usage patterns [ 2 ]. The use of social media, perfectionism, and disordered eating have all increased over the last decades [ 33 , 41 , 49 ]. Studies indicate a relationship between being exposed to how others present themselves on social media and body dissatisfaction and disordered eating [ 24 , 25 , 43 ], and some studies have also investigated the relationship between self-presentation behaviors and body dissatisfaction [ 13 , 14 , 30 ]. Moving beyond self-presentation behaviors, such as the frequency or content of social media posts, one study showed that being preoccupied with appearance on social media, was associated with increased risk for problems like appearance related anxiety and disordered eating [ 22 ]. In two previous studies, we showed that preoccupation with likes and comments, retouching photos of oneself, deleting photos with too few likes, and upward social comparison, collectively referred to as “focus on self-presentation”, was associated with more symptoms of anxiety and depression [ 12 ] and that focus on self-presentation varied significantly between adolescents [ 21 ].
Hence, the aim of the present study is to investigated the link between focus on self-presentation on social media, and perfectionism and disordered eating. Based on previous studies we hypothesize that focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison is positively associated with (i) perfectionism and (ii) disordered eating, and (iii) self-reported diagnosis of an eating disorder.
Study sample.
This study is based on data from the “LifeOnSoMe” study carried out at public senior high schools in Bergen, Norway. Pupils aged 16 or older were invited to participate, giving an age range from 16 to 21 years old. Information about the survey was conveyed both by the teacher and digitally. The online web survey was conducted digitally. One school hour was set aside for carrying out the survey. The total number of eligible participants was 3,424 (mean age was 17.3 years (standard deviation 1.0)), and 56% ( n = 1916) of the participants were girls. This study included data from two survey waves conducted in September-October 2020 and June-September 2021. For participants who responded in both waves, only their 2020 responses were used in this analysis. The response rate was 53% in 2020 and 35% in 2021. The research data was stored on secure storage facilities located at the Norwegian Institute of Public Health, which prevent the authors from providing the data as supplementary information, according to the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Only researchers with approval from the Regional Ethical Committee had access. The study was approved by the Regional Ethical Committee, and is in accordance with the General Data Protection Regulation. Additional information about the study is available elsewhere [ 23 , 50 ].
The participants reported their age, gender, and subjective socioeconomic status. A small proportion of the participants did not state their age ( n = 157). For gender, participants could choose between three options: “girl”, “boy”, and “other/non-binary”. Because too few participants (< 50) answered “other/non-binary”, these were excluded from the data set due to privacy concerns. Relative socioeconomic status was assessed by asking the participants to estimate how economically well off their families are compared to others, ranging from «very poor» (scored 0) to «very well off» (scored 10).
Two questions were included related to social media use in general: “How often do you use social media?” and “On the days that you use social media, approximately how much time do you spend on social media?”, giving an estimate of the frequency and duration of their usage, respectively. For frequency, the response alternatives were “almost never”, “several times a month, but rarer than once a week”, “1–2 times per week”, “3–4 times per week”, “5–6 times per week”, “every day”, “several times each day”, and “almost constantly”. In the present study, we differentiated between “daily or less”, “many times a day”, and “almost constantly”. For duration, seven response alternatives ranging from “less than 30 min” to “more than 5 h” were available. In the present study, we differentiate between “<2 h”, “2–4 h”, “>4–5 h”, and “>5 h”.
The items used to assess upward social comparison and aspects of self-presentation were developed based on focus group interviews with senior high school pupils [ 23 ], and have been shown to have adequate psychometric properties in both this sample [ 21 ] and elsewhere [ 12 ]. Cronbach’s \(\alpha\) was 0.87, indicating a very good internal consistency. The results of an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for the SPAUSCIS have been reported in a previous publication based on the “LifeOnSoMe”-data [ 21 ]. Also, EFA and CFA was investigated in another, smaller sample of senior high school students [ 12 ]. The results from both studies strongly suggested a unidimensional scale and the fit indices from CFA were all considered good. Examples of items included in SPAUSCIS are “I retouch images of myself to look better before I post them on social media”, “I use a lot of time and energy on the content I post on social media”, and “The response I get for what I post (images/status updates/stories) impacts how I feel”. The response categories were “not at all”, “very little”, “sometimes/partly true”, “a lot”, and “very much”, coded 1–5. The mean summed score thus ranges from 1 to 5, with higher scores indicating a higher focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media.
Perfectionism (edi-p).
Perfectionism was assessed by the 6-item perfectionism scale in the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI) for children and adolescents [ 51 ]. The perfectionism items (EDI-P) are usually rated on a 6-point Likert scale. In the present study, however, the response options were “not true” (scored 0) “sometimes true” (scored 1), and “true” (scored 2) in accordance with the version employed in the youth@hordaland survey [ 52 ]. This yields a potential score of 0–12 when the items are summed. Previous research has found that the EDI [ 53 ] and EDI-P [ 54 ] have satisfactory psychometric properties in similar populations. Cronbach’s \(\alpha\) was 0.72 in the present study, indicating acceptable internal consistency.
Symptoms of disordered eating was assessed using the Eating Disturbance Scale (EDS-5) [ 55 ]. EDS-5 consists of five questions specifically related to eating, such as comfort eating (item 2) and strict dieting in order to control ones eating habits (item 4). The response options are “not true” (scored 0) “sometimes true” (scored 1), and “true” (scored 2), and the summed scored ranges between 0 and 10. The questionnaire have shown adequate psychometric properties and convergent validity in previous research [ 55 , 56 ]. Cronbach’s \(\alpha\) was 0.78 in the present study, indicating an acceptable internal consistency.
For the purposes of the present study, both EDI-P and EDS-5 were used as continuous measures, as well as dichotomous variables, differentiating between low and high scores based on the 90th percentile. The chosen cut-off point is informed by previous research which suggest this to be an adequate delineation for mental health problems [ 52 , 57 ].
For the participants participating in the study in 2020, self-reported psychiatric diagnoses were available ( n = 1978) using a pre-defined list adapted to fit this age-group. Initially, the participants had to answer “yes” or “no” to the question “Have you ever received a diagnosis for a mental health problem?”, followed up by a list of 11 possible different diagnoses for those who endorsed the initial question. The list was based on a similar operationalization used in a large population-based studies [ 58 , 59 ]. The list contained no definition of the included disorders or conditions. For this study, the participants who chose “Eating disorder” ( n = 36; 1.8%) from the list were identified as having been diagnosed with the condition, and all others were designated as not having received the diagnosis.
First, summary statistics of the included variables for the whole sample were estimated across the median-split of SPAUSCIS and presented in Table 1 . For categorical variables, the number and proportions were estimated, and the mean and standard deviation (SD) was estimated for continuous variables. Comparisons across the median-split of SPAUSCIS was done using Pearson’s chi-squared tests for categorical variables, and Wilcoxon rank sum tests were used for continuous variables. Then, two simple linear regression models were estimated using SPAUSCIS as an independent variable and (a) score on perfectionism (EDI-P) and (b) score on disordered eating (EDS-5) as dependent variables, respectively. The scores of the dependent variables were standardized (Z-scored) to ease interpretation of the resulting coefficients. Potential gender-moderation was investigated by entering genderxSPAUSCIS in both models as an interaction term into the model. The interaction term was considered statistically significant with a p-value of < 0.05, and if significant, results from the linear regression model were then presented separately for girls and boys. Linearity of the association between SPAUSCIS and the dependent variables were investigated using restricted cubic splines with four knots. Next, two gender-specific multiple logistic regression models were estimated using the median-split of SPAUSCIS as the main independent variable, and the 90th percentile score on (a) perfectionism (EDI-P) and (b) disordered eating (EDS-5) as dependent variables, respectively. Both models were adjusted for usual amount of social media use and socioeconomic status, and the results are presented as odds ratios with corresponding 95% confidence intervals. The median-split of SPAUSCIS were used in these models for simplicity and ease of interpretability. In post-hoc analyses, we did however, investigate the association between SPAUSCIS as a continuous measure and the 90th percentile score (a) perfectionism (EDI-P) and (b) disordered eating (EDS-5) as dependent variables, respectively. This was done using logistic regression analyses with restricted cubic splines to test for non-linearity. Both these models were adjusted for usual amount of social media use and socioeconomic status, and the results are presented in-text as odds ratios for trends with corresponding 95% confidence intervals. Finally, we investigated the association between the median-split of SPAUSCIS and self-reported eating disorder using simple logistic regression. No adjustments or investigation of potential gender-moderation was included for the latter analyses as the number reporting eating disorder ( n = 36) limited the statistical precision. Missing data ranged from n = 2 (0.1%) to n = 55 (1.6%) across analyses, and pairwise deletion was applied to ensure the highest number of observations in each analysis.
Descriptive statistics of the included variables are presented across the median split of score on SPAUSCIS in Table 1 . For all of the included variables, there were significant differences between the SPAUSCIS-groups (all p-values < 0.001). The group with median or above scores on SPAUSCIS were more likely to be girls, more likely to use social media more often and for a longer duration but reported a slightly lower subjective socioeconomic status. Furthermore, they were more likely to report higher scores on perfectionism (EDI-P) and disordered eating (EDS-5).
Results from gender-specific multiple logistic regression models with median-split of SPAUSCIS as dependent variable, and the 90th percentile score on (a) perfectionism (EDI-P) and (b) disordered eating (EDS-5) as dependent variables is presented in Table 2 . For boys and girls, scoring on or above the median on SPAUSCIS was associated with increased odds for both dependent variables. For both perfectionism and disordered eating, the models are adjusted for social media use and socioeconomic status. In the post-hoc analyses using SPAUSCIS as continuous variable, the odds ratios (OR) in relation to perfectionism were 1.88 (95% CI 1.43–2.47, p < 0.001) and 1.77 (95% CI 1.44–2.17, p < 0.001) for boys and girls, respectively. For disordered eating, the corresponding ORs were 1.94 (95% CI 1.40–2.68, p < 0.001) for boys and 2.00 (95% CI 1.72–2.32, p < 0.001) for girls. Using restricted cubic splines, we did not find evidence for non-linearity in the post-hoc analyses.
There was a significantly higher odds of reporting being diagnosed with an eating disorder among those scoring median or above on SPAUSCIS (crude OR 3.32; 95% CI 1.58–7.84; p = 0.003).
Association between focus on self-presentation and perfectionism and disordered eating. Linear regressions with restricted cubic splines. Note: Figure 1: SPAUSCIS: Self-Presentation and Upward Social Comparison Inclination Scale; EDI-P: Eating Disorders Inventory-Perfectionism; EDS-5: Eating Disturbance Scale-5
Figure 1 presents findings from linear regression models with mean score on SPAUSCIS as the independent variable and the standardized (Z-scored) score on (a) perfectionism (EDI-P) and (b) disordered eating (EDS-5) as dependent variables. For both dependent variables, a potential gender moderation of the association with SPAUSCIS was investigated, and potential non-linearity was investigated using restricted cubic splines with four knots. For disordered eating, a significant gender moderation was found, and the association was stronger for girls than boys. For perfectionism, no evidence for a gender moderation was found. For both dependent variables there was a significant linear association with self-presentation equal to a low-to-moderate effect size.
In the present study we investigated the potential association between focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media, and perfectionism and disordered eating. As hypothesized, we found evidence for consistent positive associations. Increased focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison was associated with increased levels of both perfectionism and disordered eating with a small-to-medium effect size. For perfectionism, the associations were similar for both boys and girls, while we found evidence of a gender moderation for disordered eating. Specifically, the association with disordered eating was somewhat stronger for girls compared to boys. For self-reported eating disorder, we also found a positive association with focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison. Focusing on how the adolescents relate to self-presentation on social media, the study gives new insight into important aspects of usage patterns of social media. It also provides new insight into potential gender differences in focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media, and social media´s potential role in development of disordered eating. These findings are pertinent in a public health perspective and may help to inform efforts to mitigate these potential negative effects.
Our findings are consistent with the Tripartite Influence Model, as our study revealed positive associations between focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media, and both perfectionism and disordered eating. Individuals who focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison may be more susceptible to sociocultural pressures which may lead to a strive for perfection and conforming to unhealthy body ideals. Our findings underscore the potential role of sociocultural pressures in shaping body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors. Specifically, the positive association between focus on self-presentation on social media and perfectionism may have several explanations. Curran & Hill [ 33 ] argue that the increase in perfectionistic traits among young adults may be due to a response to cultural changes towards a more individualistic and competitive culture in Western societies. As social media is an important part of adolescents’ and young peoples’ lives, it is likely that the perfectionistic tendencies will affect self-presentation on these platforms as well. Curran & Hill [ 33 ] also suggest that the increase in perfectionism among young adults may be due to their perception of increased demands from the social environment. Self-presenting in a socially desirable way in general, and on social media specifically, may be a way to ensure social acceptance from peers. They further hypothesize that the fear of losing acceptance may increase perfectionistic traits [ 33 ]. Hence, increased perfectionism may be the reason for stronger focus on self-presentation on social media. However, since we cannot interpret the direction of the association from this study, focus on self-presentation may also increase adolescents’ perfectionistic tendency. As perfectionism is a personality trait that largely establishes during adolescence, it may be that the increased opportunity to self-present on social media, and thus focus on self-presentation, makes adolescents more susceptible for developing perfectionistic traits.
There is a lack of research on the relationship between focus on self-presentation on social media and disordered eating. Most of the research investigating this relationship have looked at being exposed to appearance-related self-presentation on social media and body dissatisfaction and disordered eating [ 24 , 25 , 43 ], in addition to self-presentation behavior [ 13 , 14 , 45 ], not the relationship between a person’s focus on self-presentation on social media and disordered eating. Our results indicate a positive relationship between focus on self-presentation on social media and disordered eating. Highly visual social media platforms that expose adolescents to “perfect” bodies through others’ self-presentation may constitute an important source of such exposure. Previous findings support that being exposed to body ideals, may lead to internalization of these ideals among adolescents [ 25 , 45 , 46 ]. Other findings also report that upward social comparison may be a potential consequence of the exposure to others’ “perfect” appearance related self-presentation [ 24 , 31 , 60 ], leading to body dissatisfaction [ 30 ]. Subsequently, some adolescents may be more preoccupied with eating, weight, body shape, and muscularity. This preoccupation could serve as a mitigation strategy to reduce the discrepancy between the adolescent’s perceived appearance and the ideal body and appearance of the reference person. Thereby reducing the negative body image and negative feelings produced from the upward social comparison.
Another explanation may be that adolescents with disordered eating already are more preoccupied than other adolescents with how they appear to others. Social media is an apt arena to self-present in an appearance-related and desired way, and could elicit wanted feedback from others through likes and comments. This may further reinforce the focus on self-presentation. A third potential explanation for this relationship is perfectionism as a conceivable mediating factor. As perfectionistic self-presentation can be understood as a maladaptive self-presentation style [ 34 ], perfectionism may lead to a strict view of what constitute a good-enough self-presentation. This may as well include the adolescent’s expectations and demands to their own body as thin or muscular, hence increasing the standards of flawlessness in their own appearance-related self-presentation on social media. If these expectations are too rigid, it might for some adolescents be a contributing cause in the development of disordered eating.
In relation to the association between focus on self-presentation on social media and disordered eating we found a stronger association for girls than boys. Hjetland et al. [ 61 ] found significant gender differences in how adolescents related to self-presentation on social media. Girls reported that they invested more time and energy on the content of their own social media posts. They used more filters to look better at least sometimes and reported feeling less satisfied with themselves because of other peoples’ social media posts. Girls also tended to ascribe more importance to the feedback they got on social media than boys. In general, the report showed that social media played a bigger part in the girls’ lives than the boys’, and that the girls placed more importance on what is happening on social media [ 61 ]. Hence, more importance placed on self-presentation on social media among girls, and social media playing a more important role in girls’ lives, may increase the focus on self-presenting in an ideal way, in addition to being stronger underlying causes in development of eating disorders for girls than for boys.
There may as well be other explanations for the gender difference we found. The objectification theory [ 62 ], suggests that women’s bodies are more often looked at, evaluated and potentially sexually objectified. Fredrickson & Roberts [ 62 ] further argue that these views make women internalize the observer’s perspective of themselves, and to some degree also socialize women to treat themselves as objects for the pleasure of others. The emphasis put on girls’ and women’s physical appearance, in particular, is well established in our culture [ 60 ]. Through social media’s feedback mechanisms, girls may be more encouraged than boys to self-present in an objectifying way.
Social comparison theory [ 26 ], and especially upward social comparison, is another possible explanation for the gender difference between focus on self-presentation on social media and disordered eating. Strahan et al. [ 60 ] found that when describing their physical appearance, women used significantly more upward social comparisons than downward social comparisons. Men, on the other hand, made more downward comparisons than upward. This tendency was not seen when women and men described other personal characteristics like social skills. For women, they also found that the more upward social comparison they made, the more negative statements they made about their body [ 60 ]. They proposed that ubiquitous appearance norms, mostly applying to women, disrupted strong self-enhancement behaviors [ 60 ]. Fardouly et al. [ 24 ] also found that women relied on upward social comparisons when comparing their appearances, and that doing this on social media was associated with more body dissatisfaction than in person. A proposed explanation for this is that women may experience a stronger discrepancy between themselves and women they see on social media compared to women they see in person [ 24 ].
Previous research on self-presentation behaviors has primarily focused on appearance-related self-presentation and upward social comparison [e.g. 24 ] and associated risk among girls, such as body dissatisfaction [ 13 , 14 , 30 ], thin ideal internalization and disordered eating behavior [ 25 , 44 ]. However, it is important to recognize that boys may also be affected by these issues, and a study showed that body dissatisfaction affected boys’ risk of engaging in disordered eating behaviors [ 63 ]. The current body ideals for boys emphasize muscularity [ 64 ], and Eisenberg et al. [ 65 ] found that muscle-enhancing behaviors are common among American adolescents, including both boys and girls. This were behaviors like dieting, exercising, and taking protein supplements or steroids, with the aim of increasing muscle size or tone. However, most of the behaviors measured were significantly more common among boys [ 65 ], and Compte et al.’s [ 64 ] investigation of muscle dysmorphia among young adult men indicated a prevalence of almost 7%. Hence, another explanation for the gender difference we found, may be that the EDS-5-questionnaire does not identify symptoms of drive for muscularity or muscle dysmorphia. In fact, muscle dysmorphia seems to be more of a concern than thinness and weight loss among boys [ 64 ]. The EDS-5 measures of symptoms of disordered eating are linked to preoccupation about weight loss, body shape and drive for thinness [ 55 ], and may therefore not fully capture the range of body image concerns among boys.
The present results demonstrate the need to address focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media as potentially important factors for adolescents’ mental health. As such, promoting a healthy use of social media could be established through a focus on increasing adolescents’ ability to reflect on and think critically about self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media. Our results indicate a need for targeted interventions to promote healthy social media use and enhance adolescents’ critical thinking about self-presentation and underscores the urgency of public health initiatives. One public health approach would be to equip adolescents with critical thinking skills to navigate social media mindfully. In relation to appearance-related ideals, educational programs should address the unrealistic standards perpetuated online, while fostering resilience and promoting positive self-image. Educational programs and social media literacy programs in school have been suggested to increase adolescents’ reflections about their own and others social media use [ 42 , 66 , 67 ]. Gordon et al. [ 42 , 67 ] introduced a four-lesson social media literacy program in a junior high school that aimed to decrease body dissatisfaction, dietary restraints and focus on increased muscles among young adolescents. They found only a small effect of the intervention. The intervention did not focus on self-presentation and based on results from this study and previous research [e.g. 12 , 27 ], this would be an important topic to address for future interventions. Also, previous results suggest that interventions led by individuals who already have an established relationship with the adolescents and are familiar with their needs help facilitate discussions among the adolescents [ 42 ], and improve intervention outcomes. Teachers could therefore be considered effective social media educators, especially if social media literacy could be integrated in existing school subjects.
A study of university students showed that women who had a higher internalization of the thin-ideal, were more vulnerable to disordered body image and hence to appearance exposure in media [ 68 ]. They also found that body appreciation protected women from negative effects of the exposure [ 68 ]. Thus, developing social media literacy programs specifically focusing on the effects of self-presentation and upward social comparison could be an important target for interventions, and possibly reduce focus on self-presentation. Research [ 69 ] also suggest that increasing self-compassion is a useful strategy to prevent perfectionistic self-presentation on social media. As perfectionistic self-presentation is related to lower subjective well-being [ 35 ], this may also be a topic to address in an intervention aiming to reduce focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media.
While our study adds to the knowledge base, future research should investigate the concept of self-presentation on social media more closely. It will be important to examine if different ways of self-presentation vary from each other. Previous research has investigated how people self-present, especially through the use of selfies [e.g. 70 , 71 ], and further research should investigate if taking pictures of oneself and posting them is dissimilar from other ways of self-presentation on social media when considering its association to mental health among adolescents. SPAUSCIS consist of only one item asking about specific ways of self-presenting (“I retouch images of myself to look better before I post them on social media”), thus future research on other ways of self-presenting behaviors should include self-presentation for example through pictures of other aspect of the adolescents’ life, like friends or hobbies, or through text only. Investigating focus on self-presentation on social media, perfectionism and disordered eating among younger adolescents than we included in our study will be important as the use of social media starts early and as disordered eating often emerges in adolescence [ 72 ]. Understanding at what age focus on self-presentation becomes more prominent for adolescents’ and potential gender differences regarding this, may also be important to pinpoint intervention opportunities.
A major strength of the present study is that it is the first study to investigate the relationship between focus on self-presentation on social media, perfectionism and disordered eating. So far, the research on this has focused on self-presentation behaviors [e.g. 13 , 14 , 30 , 45 ] in addition to being exposed to others ’ (perfect) self-presentations and the prevailing body ideals [e.g. 24 , 25 , 43 ]. To our knowledge no previous study has examined the association between focus on self-presentation and perfectionism and disordered eating. In addition, the scales used in this study are well-established [ 55 , 54 , 56 ]. Also, the items of SPAUSCIS were derived from focus-group interviews with adolescents [ 23 ], which make them relevant for adolescents’ experiences related to self-presentation and social comparison on social media. Some limitations are also worth mentioning. The study is cross-sectional, thus we cannot determine causality between the investigated factors and mental health. Despite the sample being large, it is limited to high schools in Bergen, Norway. Consequently, the results may not be generalizable to other countries or cultures. Also, the participation rate was moderate (53% and 35%), which may impact the validity of our findings. However, associations are less vulnerable to bias caused by low participation rates than prevalence estimates [ 73 ]. Another limitation is that SPAUSCIS in this study does not differentiate between various methods of self-presentation. Consequently, we cannot conclude from this study whether specific types of self-presentation, such as taking selfies versus posting pictures of hobbies, have the same impact on perfectionism, eating disorders or disordered eating. Also, the use of self-reported amount of social media use has been shown to be biased in previous research and is not likely to be an accurate measure of actual use [ 74 ]. This may have impacted our ability to effectively account for the confounding effect of social media use. And finally, although EDS-5 is a well-established and validated measurement, the questionnaire does not cover specific symptoms of drive for muscularity and muscle dysmorphia.
While previous studies have focused on self-presentation behaviors, this study found that focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media is positively associated with both perfectionism and disordered eating, as well as self-reported eating disorders among adolescents. As such, promoting a healthy use of social media could be established through increasing adolescents’ ability to reflect on and think critically about self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media. Our results underscore the importance of targeted public health interventions to promote awareness and healthy social media use among adolescents, emphasizing the need for educational programs that address focus on self-presentation, unrealistic appearance-related ideals and foster resilience and positive self-image.
Explicit consent from the participant is required by the Norwegian Health research legislation and the Norwegian Ethics committees in order to transfer health research data outside of Norway. Ethics approval for this was also dependent on storing the research data on secure storage facilities located at the Norwegian Institute of Public Health, which prevent the authors from providing the data as supplementary information. Request to access these datasets should be directed to [email protected].
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We are grateful to Bergen municipality and Vestland County Council for their collaboration on this study. The present study is linked to a larger innovation-project lead by Bergen municipality in Western Norway related to the use of social media and mental health and well-being. The innovation-project is funded by a program initiated by the Norwegian Directorate of Health and aims to explore social media as platforms for health promotion among adolescents. Above all, we are very thankful for the pupils who participated in this study.
The work of GJH was supported by Dam Foundation (grant number 2021/FO347287) while the work of JCS, AIOA, and TRF was supported by The Research Council of Norway (grant number 319845).
Open access funding provided by University of Bergen.
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Department of Health Promotion, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Bergen, Norway
Hilde Einarsdatter Danielsen, Turi Reiten Finserås, Amanda Iselin Olesen Andersen, Gunnhild Johnsen Hjetland & Jens Christoffer Skogen
Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Hilde Einarsdatter Danielsen & Vivian Woodfin
Centre for Evaluation of Public Health Measures, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
Gunnhild Johnsen Hjetland & Jens Christoffer Skogen
Department of Clinical Psychology, Solli District Psychiatric Centre, Bergen, Norway
Vivian Woodfin
Center for Alcohol and Drug Research (KORFOR), Stavanger University Hospital, Stavanger, Norway
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JCS analyzed the participants’ data regarding the LifeOnSoMe-study. All authors contributed to interpretation of the results. HED and JCS wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Additional contributions and revisions to the manuscript were made by TRF, AIOA, GJH, VW, JCS, and HED. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Correspondence to Hilde Einarsdatter Danielsen .
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The study was conducted in accordance to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Regional Ethical Committee (REK) in Norway (REK#65611). All participants gave informed consent prior to participation, and was informed about the general purpose of the study and the opportunity to withdraw from the study at any point. As all the adolescents invited were 16 years or older, they were considered competent to consent on their own behalf, and additional consent from parents or guardians was not prerequisite.
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Danielsen, H.E., Finserås, T.R., Andersen, A.I.O. et al. Mirror, mirror on my screen: Focus on self-presentation on social media is associated with perfectionism and disordered eating among adolescents. Results from the “LifeOnSoMe”-study. BMC Public Health 24 , 2466 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19317-9
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Received : 04 July 2023
Accepted : 01 July 2024
Published : 10 September 2024
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19317-9
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Self-presentation on social media was recently highlighted as a potentially important part of the puzzle to increase our understanding of the relationship between social media use and mental health and well-being among adolescents . In our sample, a relatively large proportion reported at least some focus on self-presentation on social media ...
Finally, the effects of authentic self-presentation on social media on well-being are robust but small (max(β) = 0.11) when compared to compared to other important predictors of well-being such ...
The Dark Triad and trait self-objectification as predictors of men's use and self-presentation behaviors on social networking sites. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 161-165. 5.
Social media affords users the ability to control how they present themselves to their audience. People generally choose to show an ideal self-image on social media. However, this may be dependent on the strength of their ties to the audience that can see their content.
Social media offer seemingly limitless opportunities for strategic self-presentation. Informed by existing self-presentation theories, a review of research on self-presentation in social media ...
Whereas self-disclosure involves communicating facts about oneself regardless of the impression created, self-presentation involves communication designed to project a desirable public representation of the self, which may be true or false depending on whether the truth would convey a desired public self-image [13].
Social media offer seemingly limitless opportunities for strategic self-presentation. The composition of an impression manager's audience from one platform to the next varies across social media platforms, impacting and often complicating the attainment of self-presentation goals in the midst of context collapse.
Self-Presentation in Social Media 83 2021, 9, 80-98 lapse". Combing through these results yielded another seven publications relevant to the review, resulted in a total of
Self-Presentation on Social Media: When Self-Enhancement Confronts Self-Verification. Journal of Interactive Advertising . 2020;20(3):289-302. doi: 10.1080/15252019.2020.1841048 Zheng, Anlan ; Duff, Brittany R.L. ; Vargas, Patrick et al. / Self-Presentation on Social Media : When Self-Enhancement Confronts Self-Verification .
In the existing literature on self-presentation on social media, researchers have mainly focused on its impact on individuals' happiness and mental health [2][3][4], whereas some have investigated ...
Social Media and Self-Presentation. The rise of social media has introduced a new layer of complexity to self-presentation. Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn offer opportunities for individuals to craft their virtual identities. This process involves selective sharing of information, curation of posts and images, and the ...
The second way that social media has changed self-presentation is by the increased opportunities for others to contribute content that has implications for one's self-presentation. Actors wishing to present a specific aspect of themselves must also manage such content provided by others. Networked publics contribute to one another's ...
Self-presentation on social media, which is motivated by getting positive feedback, referred to as feedback-seeking or status-seeking, has been associated with negative outcomes such as depressive symptoms , lower body satisfaction, and lower well-being . Feedback-seeking may also influence some people to present themselves on social media in a ...
By focusing attention on the ways that the media manifold fosters visual practices of presentational work for Generation Z, this article examines the active and relational nature of youth's engagement with visual self-images during the transition between high school and university. Drawing on in-depth interviews with 35 youth between the ages of 15-22, the analysis examines how the ...
This study examined how self-presentation on social media influences the way people view themselves. It also examined whether that varies with sites using two temporal features: posts which have a short life (ephemeral) and those which live indefinitely (permanent). Drawing on both the notion of public commitment and self-symbolizing, our ...
The Presentation of Self in the Age of Social Media: Distinguishing Performances and Exhibitions Online. Bernie Hogan View all authors and affiliations. Volume 30, Issue 6. ... Understanding the Role of Social Media Users' Self-Presentation on Soc... Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar. The continuity principle of digital remains.
Upward social comparison and aspects of self-presentation on social media such as feedback-seeking and strategic self-presentation may represent risk factors for experiencing negative mental health effects of social media use. The aim of this exploratory study was to assess how adolescents differ in upward social comparison and aspects of self ...
The Social Media Self-Presentation Scale (Yang, Holden, & Carter, 2017) was adapted from the Facebook Self-Presentation Scale (Yang & Brown, 2016) for research that explored how four dimensions of social media self-presentation related to college freshmen's (N=219) self-esteem and identity clarity. Participants were instructed to respond to the scale by considering their use of the most ...
The recent burgeon on social media usage has contributed to much research examining the role of enmeshing psychological and psychosocial factors. Concerning the existing scenario, this study investigates the networking between narcissism, self-esteem and perfectionistic self-presentation among Facebook and Instagram users. Perfectionistic self-presentation is a major constituent of young ...
Originality/value. While much research exists on online self-presentation, gender(s) has been under-researched in a digital context. Existing studies examine the content of social media pages (e.g. Facebook profiles or women's Instagram pages) as it relates to gender, but largely do not explore the lived experiences and narratives of individuals as they negotiate their gendered expressions.
Through social media self-presentation questionnaires and past photo-editing behavior, we found that this association was statistically mediated by participants' approval motivation. In addition to measuring strategic self-presentation, we included a measure of authentic self-presentation to examine whether more deliberately edited self ...
Scholars have described how youth perform online self-presentation and its implications for identity formation. However, only a few studies have statistically examined the associations between self-presentation on social media and identity development at major developmental transitions. Also, although mindfulness is found to moderate the relationship between social media use and psychological ...
Social media use, perfectionism, and disordered eating have all increased over the last decades. Some studies indicate that there is a relationship between self-presentation behaviors and being exposed to others' self-presentation on social media, and disordered eating. Studies also show that the relationship between focus on self-presentation and highly visual social media is stronger than ...
Quantified self-representation can mean extensive and. deliberate self-tracking, as we see in the quantified self movement, or it can be. 2. something as simple as swiping right to add a filter to ...