growing mustard seeds experiment

Required Practical: Plant Growth ( AQA GCSE Biology )

Revision note.

Biology Lead

Effect of Light or Gravity

• Aim: To investigate the effect of light or gravity on the growth of newly germinated seedlings
• Set up two petri dishes with 3 mustard seeds and allow them to germinate
• Place one dish on a clinostat and the other to a support on its side
• Record the direction of growth of both the shoots and the roots for each seed
• This experiment is not to find out about the factors that affect germination; its important not to get confused

Investigating the gravitropic response (set-up)

• Add some damp cotton wool to two petri dishes
• A - radicle facing downwards
• B - horizontally
• C - radicle (root grows from here) facing upwards
• Cover each dish with a lid
• Attach one petri dish to a support so that it’s on its side
• Attach the second petri dish to a clinostat (as shown in the diagrams above).
• Place both in a light-proof box ( so that the seedlings are in complete darkness), leave for two days and then observe growth of the seedlings

Analysis of results

Investigating the gravitropic response (results)

• In the first petri dish all radicles (roots) have grown downwards (positive gravitropic response) regardless of which way they were initially facing (horizontal, up or down) and all plumules (shoots) have grown upwards (negative gravitropic response)
• In the second petri dish, all radicles and all plumules have all grown neither up nor down but straight outwards in whichever direction they were placed as the effect of gravity has been cancelled out by the revolving of the clinostat - they have shown no gravitropic response at all
• The experiment needs to be done in a lightproof box in order to cancel out the effect of light on the growth of the seedlings

Make sure you know what a clinostat is and what it does (it cancels out the effect of light or gravity).

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Author: Lára

Lára graduated from Oxford University in Biological Sciences and has now been a science tutor working in the UK for several years. Lára has a particular interest in the area of infectious disease and epidemiology, and enjoys creating original educational materials that develop confidence and facilitate learning.

Using Cress in the Lab

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Age Ranges:

Cress seeds are cheap and easy to grow, and offer a useful way to look at the germination process and the many factors that can affect it.  As such, they’re frequently recommended in  biology specifications and used by many schools. White mustard ( Sinapsis alba ) seeds make a useful alternative in these practicals, being frequently cheaper and easier to handle, and slightly more reliable in germination.

• Plant growth: Resource:   Explore whether cress seedlings grow towards light
• Plant growth: Resource:   A simple protocol for investigating seed germination
• DNA: Cress and other brassicas are suitable for the SAPS / NCBE PCR technique, and can be contrasted with spider plants. Resource:  Investigating plant evolution with the SAPS / NCBE PCR kit
• Student project idea:   Do tomato extracts inhibit the germination of cress seeds?
• Student project idea:   Selecting plants for growth studies
• Student project idea:   The effect of heavy metal chlorides on cress seedlings
• Plant growth: Idea: Investigate the effect of water on germinating seedlings (following the protocol above)
• Effects of pollution: Idea: Investigate the germination of seeds and growth of seedlings in different levels of acid rain (following the protocol above)
• Photosynthesis:   Investigating the behaviour of leaf discs

Teaching Topics

• Effects of Pollution
• Plant Growth
• Plant Nutrition

Description

Cress,  Lepidium sativum

Commonly grown in England as a salad crop with mustard ( Sinapsis alba ). The two together will be familiar as the ‘mustard and cress’ found in egg sandwiches. Cress is a member of the Brassicaceae family, as are  radishes  and  beetroot .

Cress is generally quick and reliable to germinate, which makes it a useful choice for experiments looking at the germination process and factors that affect it, such as pollution. However, it is always worth considering the use of white mustard ( Sinapsis alba ) seeds instead, as they are frequently cheaper, are easier to handle, do not have the distinct odour of cress, and their germination has been found to be more reliable in schools.

Note that ‘cress’ sold in a supermarket is not necessarily  Lepidium sativum : it is often another brassica, such as white mustard or oil seed rape. These are still suitable for use in the ‘photosynthesis with leaf discs’ experiment.

Growing and sourcing

Obtaining: All the main seed suppliers stock this plant, as do Blades Biological. Each seed pack contains around 1,000 seeds providing an economical source of quick growing, tiny plants for a wide range of classroom investigations.

Propagating: An excellent, inexpensive plant easily grown from very small, red-brown seeds. Each seed has deep, three-lobed cotyledons and takes between 10-14 days to grow.

Compost: Damp cotton wool or filter paper provides an ideal growing medium as does damp paper towel. You can use petri dishes in a modified plastic bottle.

Light: Keep the seeds dark until after germination and then move to a warm well-lit spot making sure the growing surface stays moist.

Water: Keep damp without soaking.

Temperature: Keep in room temperature.

Feeding: There is no need to feed these seedlings.

Notes: Look out for signs of ‘Damping-off” in your seedlings.

• Agriculture and farming
• Climate change
• Genetics and evolution
• Inheritance
• Photosynthesis
• Plant growth
• Plant nutrition
• Plant reproduction
• Plants in the Science Curriculum

Related content

Teaching resources.

• Student Sheet 5 - Investigating Seed Germination
• Using Mung Beans in the Lab
• Using Radishes in the Lab
• Using Beetroot in the Lab

The ultimate resource for garden nerds

Growing Brown Mustard Seeds

• Post author: Christy
• Post published: May 26, 2010
• Post category: What's Growin' On
• Post comments: 2 Comments

Last fall 2009, I planted brown mustard seed as an experiment in the test garden.  I wanted to see how much seed I would get for my favorite Indian food dishes from growing seed in 7 square feet.  After the birds got their share of sprouts, I ended up with 7 or 8 plants that grew to fruition.  I’ve waited until the harvest this spring to share the process with you.

The mustard grew tall rather quickly and started to flower in October through February (it reminded me of Napa Valley and the fields of wild mustard growing between the grape vines).

Brown Mustard Seed grows very tall and at some point requires staking

In March, seed pods began to form from the flowers.  You can see the little green pods pointing away from the stem below:

It felt like an eternity between March and May when the pods matured and began to dry, but I suspect that is because we were planting new crops in March and the Brown Mustard Seeds were still plugging along when all the other crops had finished their cycle.  We had plenty of happy birds feasting on the pods every day, even though we hung shiny objects in the garden and covered the plants with bird netting.  I would run out and chase the birds away whenever I would see them snacking.  Needless to say, they left some for us.

The pods become translucent so you can see the seeds inside

Harvest day arrived and we cut the stems off after carefully removing the bird netting.  There were traces of powdery mildew on some pods, but that didn’t effect the seed.  Below is the pile of pods and branches awaiting threshing.

Let the threshing begin!  Separating the seed from the stem is quite simple with Brown Mustard Seed.  Simply rub the stems between your hands over a bucket or basin.  The pods break apart and fall into the bucket.

Above you can see the stems of pods, the seed pods that have split in half during threshing, and the seeds (dark brown on the lower right)

Then comes winnowing.  Winnowing is easiest if you have a box fan.  I do not have a box fan, but I do have a Vornado, which is the next best thing.  We poured the seed from one bucket to another in front of the fan.  Pouring slowly helps facilitate the process of separating out the chaff from the seed.  As a result, the chaff blows away and the seed is left in the bucket.

I got about a teaspoon of seeds in just a quick sample of a few stems.  I’m guessing the entire batch will probably yield 4 to 6 ounces of seed, which is about a year supply for me and my Indian food fantasies.

Now if someone could just explain to the birds where their snack bar went…

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Climate Zones for Australian Gardeners

Knowing your climate zone will help you decide the best time to sow the vegetables, herbs and flowers you want to grow, and which varieties should perform well in your garden. Growing plants that are suited to your climate zone will usually give you the best results in your garden.

How to Use Climate Zones

First, find your climate zone using the map or descriptions below. Next, refer to our sowing chart , which provides approximate sowing times for our most popular seeds for each climate zone. 

While knowing your climate zone is helpful when planning your garden, there are many other factors that may affect how your plants grow, including unseasonal weather conditions, the specific microclimate of your garden and how you care for your plants. You know your garden better than us, so if a different climate zone seems to ‘fit’ your garden better, go ahead and use it as a guide.

Our climate zones cover huge areas of Australia, so we recommend gardeners also consider their local conditions when planning what and when to plant. For example, gardeners in alpine areas have shorter growing seasons than gardeners in cool coastal areas, even though both alpine and coastal areas are included in our ‘Cool Temperate’ climate zone. We recommend gardeners in cool regions look at the ‘days to maturity’ information provided for each variety and choose those that will mature in a short (6-12 week) growing season. 

• Includes: Darwin, Cairns, Townsville, Exmouth
• High humidity summers with most rainfall in summer and dry, warm winters. Includes northern Australia from Exmouth (WA) across to south of Townsville (Qld).
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• Hot dry summers, winters can be warm or cool depending on the region. Includes a large area of central Australia from the WA coast to Charleville (Qld), Tamworth (NSW) and Albury-Wodonga (NSW/Vic).

Subtropical

• Includes: Brisbane, Bundaberg, Coffs Harbour, Gold Coast, Hervey Bay, Mackay, Rockhampton, Sunshine Coast
• Warm humid summers with high summer rainfall and mild winters. Includes coastal Queensland and northern NSW from north of Mackay to just south of Coffs Harbour.
• Includes: Sydney, Perth, Adelaide, Newcastle, Toowoomba, Central Coast NSW, Wollongong, Bunbury
• Moderate humidity and reliable rainfall, with four distinct seasons. Includes coastal areas from north of Port Macquarie to south of Woollongong in NSW, coastal SA and the southeastern coast of WA.

Cool Temperate

• Includes: Melbourne, Canberra, Hobart, Launceston, Ballarat, Bendigo, Geelong, Mt Gambier 
• Low humidity with most rainfall in winter; hot dry summers and cold winters. Some regions will experience frosts and snow. Includes coastal areas of south-eastern Australia and alpine areas of Victoria, NSW and Tasmania.

Climate Zones FAQ

What if I can’t find my climate zone? If you can’t locate your zone from looking at the map or the descriptions on this page, we suggest that you think of an area that has a climate that’s similar to yours and use the zone for that area as a guide. 

What if I live on the border of two zones? If you live near the border between two zones we suggest you read the descriptions for both zones and decide which best describes the climate where you live. Depending on the microclimate in your garden, you may be able to grow a wider range of plants over a longer season than others in your zone. Lucky you!

What is a microclimate? A microclimate is a small area where the temperature or humidity differs to the climate of the surrounding area. For example, if you live in a climate zone where frosts are common but your garden is protected by buildings or large trees, your garden may be frost-free. Similarly, if you live in a warm temperate zone but your garden is at a high altitude your microclimate may have more in common with the cool temperate zone, so use this as a guide when deciding which zone is relevant to you.

Can I grow varieties not listed for my climate zone? While our climate zones and sowing chart will help you decide what is suitable to plant in your garden, they provide general guidance only. We recommend you start by sowing seed that’s recommended for your climate zone; once you get a few successes under your belt you can experiment with varieties in neighbouring zones and see how you go – gardening is all about experimenting after all!

How to Grow Mustard Seeds

Grow Guide #2291 Family: Brassicaceae Binomial name: Brassica spp. Life Cycle: Annual

This 'How to Grow' guide details everything a home gardener needs to know to plant, grow and care for Mustard ( Brassica spp.).

When to Sow Mustard Seeds

Mustard is a cool season crop. Use the table below to identify the best time of year to sow mustard in your climate.

Arid Climate

More info on Australian climates zones here

Tropical Climate

Subtropical Climate

Warm Temperate Climate

Cool Climate

Preparation

Mustard plants are best grown in full sun or part shade. Choose a location that will receive at least 3 hours of full sun each day.

Mustard plants need a well drained soil enriched with plenty of organic matter. Prepare soil by weeding it thoroughly, digging it over to loosen it and adding aged animal manure or compost. Keep the area free of weeds until planting. Learn more about preparing soil for planting here.

How to Sow Mustard Seeds

Mustard seeds do not require any treatment (eg soaking, stratification) before sowing.

• Sow seeds directly in the garden 5mm deep and 30-40cm apart, with rows 40-60cm apart.
• Keep soil moist but never wet or dry.
• Seeds should germinate in around 7-14 days at a soil temperature of 18-20°C.
• Young seedlings will need protection from pests, pets and weather until they are established.

Mustard is a cool season crop that will bolt in very hot weather. Unless you are growing mustard for seed, do not transplant seedlings or sow seeds outside in very warm temperatures.

How to Grow Mustard

Mustard plants may need watering during the growing season. Water when the soil is dry about 5cm below the surface (test this by scratching away a little soil with your finger). Water deeply in the early morning or late afternoon. Avoid watering the leaves of plants to avoid fungal diseases. Learn more about watering here.

• Apply slow release fertiliser at the recommended rate when transplanting or when seedlings are 5-10cm tall.
• Apply liquid fertiliser at the recommended rate and frequency during the growing season.

Tip: If growing mustard for seed, once plants reach their mature height cut back on watering to encourage plants to produce flowers and seed pods. Do not harvest the leaves.

How to Harvest Mustard

Mustard should be ready to harvest in approximately 30 to 60 days.

Leaves are ready to harvest when they are large enough to eat, and can be harvested as needed. Harvest leaves by pinching off the outer leaves, leaving some on the plant for future growth. Alternatively, harvest whole plants by cutting them just above ground level. Eat mustard leaves as soon as possible after harvesting. Store leaves short term in a perforated plastic bag in the fridge.

Seeds are ready to harvest when the seed pods have dried and turned pale brown. Pick seed pods and crush them between your fingers to release the seeds. Seeds can be used fresh or toasted, added to pickles or used to make mustard condiment.

Common Problems when Growing Mustard

Like all plants, mustard is susceptible to some pests, diseases and other problems. Below is a list of the most common problems gardeners encounter when growing mustard plants:

Browse Mustard Seeds

• Brassica juncea
• Leaf vegetable/salad green
• Quick growing
• Semi heading variety

Suitable to sow in Cool Climates in:

Suitable to sow in Temperate Climates in:

Suitable to sow in Sub-Tropical Climates in:

Suitable to sow in Tropical Climates in:

Suitable to sow in Arid Climates in:

Chinese Mustard Greens- Gai Choi

• Brassica japonica
• Mild flavour
• Attractive green leaves

Chinese Mustard- Lime Streaks

• Attractive ruby leaves

Chinese Mustard- Ruby Streaks

• Variety grown for its bumpy stems
• Strong mustard flavour
• Can be stir fried or used to make pickles

Chinese Mustard- Swollen Stem

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Planting Mustard Seeds: How To Grow Mustard Seed Plants

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Many people don't realize that a mustard seed plant is the same plant as a mustard greens plant  ( Brassica juncea ). This versatile plant can be grown as a vegetable and eaten like other greens or, if allowed to flower and go to seed, mustard seeds can be harvested and used as a spice in cooking or ground into a popular condiment. Learning how to grow mustard seeds is easy and rewarding.

How to Plant Mustard Seed

Mustard seed plants are normally grown from seed but can be grown from purchased seedlings as well. When selecting mustard seeds for planting, any mustard plant grown for greens can also be grown for mustard seed. Plant the mustard seed about three weeks before your last frost date. Since you'll be harvesting the mustard seed, there's no need to use succession planting like you do with mustard greens. Plant your mustard seeds about 1 inch (2.5 cm.) apart. Once they sprout, thin the seedlings  so that they are 6 inches (15 cm.) apart. Mustard plants grown for seed are planted further apart than plants grown for just leaves as the mustard plant will be getting much larger before it flowers. If you are planting purchased mustard seedlings, plant these 6 inches apart as well.

How to Grow Mustard Seeds

Once mustard seed plants start growing, they need little care. They enjoy cool weather and will bolt (flower) quickly in warmer weather. While this may seem like a great thing if you are looking to grow mustard seeds, it is not. Mustard plants that bolt due to warm weather will produce poor flowers and seeds. It's best to keep them on their normal flowering cycle to be able to harvest the best mustard seeds. Mustard seed plants need 2 inches (5 cm.) of water a week. Normally, during cool weather, you should get enough rainfall to supply this, but if you don't, you'll need to do additional watering. Mustard seed plants don't need fertilizer if they have been planted in well amended garden soil, but if you're unsure if your soil is nutrient rich, you can add a balanced fertilizer to the roots once the plants are 3 to 4 inches (8-10 cm.) tall.

How to Harvest Mustard Seeds

The mustard plants will eventually flower and go to seed. The flowers of mustard seed plant are generally yellow but some varieties have white flowers. As the mustard flower grows and matures, it will form pods. Watch for these pods to start to turn brown. Another sign that you are nearing harvest time will be that the leaves of the plant will start to yellow. Be careful not to leave the pods on the mustard seed plant for too long as they will burst open when fully ripe and the mustard seed harvest will be lost. The next step in harvesting mustard seeds is to remove the seeds from the pods. You can do this with your hands, or you can place the flower heads in a paper bag and allow them to finish maturing. The pods will open on their own in one to two weeks and a gentle shake of the bag will shake loose most of the mustard seeds. Mustard seeds can be used fresh, but like other herbs and spices, if you plan on storing them long term, they will need to be dried.

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Whether cultivated or found growing in the wild, mustard makes a tasty condiment. The plants are prolific and if you like prepared mustard, it’s easy to make from seeds.

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How To Grow Mustard and Cress

If it’s the middle of winter and there’s nothing much going on in the vegetable garden, or you want some easy and ultra-fresh salad greens, or a rainy day project to help keep the kids occupied, then try growing mustard and cress !

• To begin with, you’ll need to buy some seeds – for garden cress seeds and/or mustard. Both plants have quite a lot of flavour, with mustard being hotter than cress. If you want something a bit milder, look for oilseed rape (canola) seeds – they can be grown the same way.
• Next find a tray. You need a plastic tray to sow your seeds in, without drainage holes. You can recycle one that was used as food packaging, as long as it is clean.
• Then find some tissue. Mustard and cress are usually grown on damp tissue (such as kitchen paper) rather than compost. You can use cotton wool, too.
• Put a layer of tissue in the bottom of the plastic tray, and make it damp. You can dribble water in, or use a plant mister, but you don’t want too much water – no puddles.
• Sow your seeds by sprinkling them onto the surface of the tissue. You can crowd them in – they’re not going to grow big enough to need any space, and you want plenty to harvest. If you want to grow mustard and cress to harvest them at the same time, then you need to sow the mustard 3-4 days ahead, because mustard seedlings grow faster.
• Check back in a few hours. If you sow your seeds in the morning then they may have started to germinate by bedtime – small white roots will be visible. By the next morning, some of the seeds will be growing tiny shoots as well.
• Keep an eye on the water levels. If the tissue dries out then your seedlings will die. Check in the morning and the evening, and add more water if necessary.
• Cress seedlings sometimes go mouldy before they’re ready to harvest. If they do, throw them on the compost heap and start again. Keep things nice and clean and if it’s winter, then try growing them in a warmer room.
• In about a week your seedlings will be an inch and a half tall and ready for harvesting.
• Harvest your cress when you want to use it, by snipping the stems. It doesn’t keep long once it has been cut.

Mustard and cress are great in sandwiches and salads, or as a garnish. If you’re growing them with kids, then try using some unusual containers. If you wash out empty eggshells, you can draw faces on the front and grow ‘egglings’ with cress hair!

This is one of a series of articles on basic gardening that I have put together for those of you who are just starting out. There are more articles on gardening with children , and older readers may enjoy my articles on making your own mustard and growing oriental vegetables for autumn 🙂

Unless otherwise stated, © Copyright Emma Doughty 2024. Published on theunconventionalgardener.com.

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How to Grow and Care for the Mustard Plant

Nadia Hassani is a a Penn State Master Gardener with nearly 20 years of experience in landscaping, garden design, and vegetable and fruit gardening.

The Spruce / Evgeniya Vlasova

• Growing in Pots
• Pests and Diseases

Mustard is a hardy annual vegetable is grown for its leaves, also sold as mustard greens, or for its seeds to make mustard. What is commonly referred to as the mustard plant are in fact three different species: brown mustard ( Brassica juncea) , white mustard ( Brassica alba) , and black mustard ( Brassica nigra) . The plant grows about 3 feet tall with bright yellow pretty flowers, which are also edible. 

Mustard is not finicky and easy to grow, but because it’s a cool-weather crop, proper timing of the planting is important. Mustard is started from seed in the early spring or later summer. In warm climates, it can also be started in the fall for winter harvesting.

How Mustard Seed Is Turned into Mustard

After the mustard seeds have dried inside the husks, which have turned brown at this stage, the seeds must be threshed to remove the seeds and hulls. If you only have a small amount, you can rub the husks between the palms of your hands over a large bowl. Separate the seeds from the chaff, and now, the seeds can now be ground up or used whole to make mustard. (More than just mustard seeds are required to make mustard, though they are a key ingredient.)

How to Plant Mustard

When to plant.

Mustard can be planted in the spring or in the fall. In the spring, you can plant it as soon as the soil temperature remains above 40 degrees F . Because mustard prefers cool weather, a fall harvest usually produces better quality. 

For fall plantings, it is recommended to select varieties that mature early. Plant the mustard in the late summer or, if you live more south, in September or October for a fall and winter harvest. To calculate your fall planting date, add 2 to 3 weeks to your average first frost date . Then count back 50 to 75 days (or the anticipated maturity date of the variety you are growing).

Harvesting mustard after the first frost is not a problem, in fact, the flavor of the greens even becomes sweeter with a light frost. 

Select a Planting Site

Mustard needs a location in full sun with well-draining soil. Make sure to follow the rules of crop rotation and don’t plant it in the same spot where other members of the Brassica family were grown in the past two years or ideally even longer.  

Spacing, Depth, and Support

The space between the plants and the rows depends on the variety, and also on what you grow the plants for. Rows of mustard greens that are harvested regularly can be spaced as little as 12 inches apart whereas mustard with fully developed seed heads should be planted in rows 2 to 3 feet apart. 

When growing mustard for seed, staking the plants is recommended.  

Mustard Plant Care 

Mustard is easy to grow but it does not compete well with weeds, especially when the plants are still small. Closely spacing the plants (and thinning them as they grow) helps to control weeds. When removing weeds around the plants, cultivate the soil only so you don’t damage the roots.  

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Mustard should be grown in full sun. Partial shade is only acceptable when you grow mustard for baby greens, which should be protected from the strong sun as the weather turns hot. 

While mustard grows in most soils, a fertile, moist, well-draining, slightly acidic soil with a pH below 6.0 is best. 

As a cool-season crop, mustard needs consistent but not excessive moisture. Give it at least 1 inch of water in the absence of rain. In dry soil conditions, leaf growth is slow, the leaves will be tough and have an off-flavor. 

Temperature and Humidity

Cool weather, even down to 32 degrees F, is not a problem for mustard but hot weather is. The plant does not do well in temperatures over 75 degrees F.

Choose a fertilizer that is high in nitrogen, following label instructions for the amount. Scatter it around the seedings when they have reached 3 to 4 inches in height.  

Pollination

Although mustard is self-pollinating , pollination is nonetheless a consideration because pollinating insects can cross-pollinate the flowers of different varieties within a 2-mile radius. That means that if you want to save the seeds for next year’s planting, do not plant different varieties at the same time (and hopefully nobody in your neighborhood grows mustard either).

yogesh_more / Getty Images

Types of Mustard Plants

The three common types of culinary mustard are: 

• White or yellow mustard ( Brassica alba , other botanical name: Sinapsis alba ). Zone 4-7. This is the mildest tasting of all mustards. Its seeds are used to make prepared mustard. It is not grown for its greens. 
• Brown mustard ( Brassica juncea ). Zone 2-11. This is the hottest mustard. The seeds are used for Dijon-type mustards, Chinese hot mustards, and curries. It is also grown for its greens and there are several cultivars. Popular ones include ‘Giant Red’, ‘Red Garnet’, and ‘Southern Giant’ with curled leaves. 
• Black mustard ( Brassica nigra ). Zone 6-9. The seeds are used for moderately spicy mustard and are also included in Dijon-style mustard. The seeds are also used in Southeast Asian cooking. It is not grown for its greens. 

Mustard as a Cover Crop

The mustard plant grown for its leaves and seeds is different from mustard grown as a cover crop. That variety is called field mustard ( Brassica kaber ), Farmers plow it back into the soil as green manure to enrich the soil with nitrogen.

JalpaMalam / Getty Images

Harvesting Mustard Greens and Seed

If you are growing mustard plants for their leaves, cut them while they are small, young, and tender and use them in salads. For sautéing or stewing, let the leaves grow to their full mature size but harvest them before a seed stalk forms.

Cut the large outside leaves at the base without damaging the growing point. Even if you don’t use the large leaves, remove them anyway to make room for the small, more tender inner leaves that will continue to grow, and you can cut them repeatedly. 

To harvest the seeds, watch the plants closely after the bloom to catch the point in time when the seed pods turn from green to brown but don’t open yet because otherwise, they will disperse the seeds all over your garden.

You can either cut off the branches with the mature seeds pods or remove the entire plants. Place an old sheet on the ground so you can easily gather any seeds and seed pods that fall off the plants.

Air-dry the pods on a tray lined with an old sheet or on a fine screen for about 2 weeks.

Alternatively, place them in paper bags and hang them in a warm, dry place. The seed pods are ready for further processing or storage when they are completely dry and crispy. 

How to Grow Mustard Plants in Pots

Mustard can be planted in pots, but that option is only suitable when growing them for the greens, as you need a substantial number of plants to produce seeds for mustard.

Plant the seeds in pots of at least 8 inches in diameter and filled with well-draining potting mix. Thin seedlings to 4 inches apart. 

Like all potted plants, mustard needs more frequent watering and fertilization than plants grown in the garden. 

As an annual vegetable, mustard requires no pruning.  

How to Grow the Mustard Plant from Seed

Although you can start mustard seedlings indoors, direct seeding is the preferred and easiest method to start mustard plants.

Place the seeds 1 inch apart and ¼ to ½ inch deep in a prepared garden bed.

Keep the soil evenly moist at all times. At temperatures between 45 and 75 degrees, the seeds germinate in 4 to 14 days.

When seedlings are 3 to 4 inches tall, start thinning them out (they can be eaten) to 4 to 6 inches apart, and increase the space as the plants grow. Aim for 12 to 18 inches of space between large varieties and 6 to 10 inches between smaller, leaf-type varieties. 

Common Pests and Plant Diseases

Mustard is not affected by serious pest and disease problems. In humid weather, it can be susceptible to powdery mildew and white mold. Common insect problems include aphids, whiteflies, cabbage worms, cabbage loopers, slugs, and flea beetles . If these are a problem in your area, protect the plants with row covers. Adjusting the planting time can also help. For example, to avoid flea beetles, plant mustard in the fall when populations are much lower.

All wild mustards are edible, but some are tastier than others. Many other members in the mustard family, such as garlic mustard , are edible but not very palatable. If you want to grow it as an edible, select a mustard that is commonly grown for its culinary uses.

Mustard is a cool-weather crop that developed an unpleasant bitter flavor in temperatures above 75 F. That’s why it is planted in the early spring or in the fall.

In excessive heat, some mustard varieties develop flowers and bolt. There is nothing you can do to stop this process, but you can prevent it. Plant mustard early enough in the spring so that the plant reaches maturity before the summer heat sets in.

Some members of the mustard family, such as garlic mustard, are highly invasive and the entire plant should be removed before it goes into seed. Other, desirable varieties also freely reseed themselves. To prevent seedlings to pop up in places where you don’t want them, make sure to remove the mature seed heads before they burst open.

Mustard n the Garden . Utah State University Extension.

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Seed Germination Experiment

Watching seeds grow is an amazing science project for kids. Our  seed germination experiment allows kids to see up close to how a seed grows and what would actually be happening under the ground! Learn about the steps of seed germination, and investigate what conditions a seed needs to germinate. Make sure to grab the free printable bean life cycle activity to go with your seed jar. Easy science experiments are great for kids of all ages!

Germinate Seeds For Spring Science

This simple to set up seed jar is one of our favorite spring science projects that you can do inside! We had an awesome time examining and observing the growth of our seed germination experiment.

Share an inside look at how seeds grow below the ground with our seed jar. Plus, you can even get it started when there’s is still snow on the ground. Especially if you are itching for spring to come early!

It all starts with a single seed!

Watching how a seed grows and using a mason jar gives you a front-row seat for observing it all! Sprouting seeds is perfect for a spring STEM activity !

Another fun way to sprout seeds, especially at the end of winter, is with a mini greenhouse made from plastic bottles.

What Is Seed Germination?

First, let’s learn a bit more about germination. Seeds grow into a new plant through a process called germination. Germination is the sprouting of the seed or the very beginning of plant growth.

The absorption of water, cold temperatures or warm temperatures, oxygen availability, and light exposure may all be a factor in starting germination or keeping the seed dormant. What conditions are needed for germination will vary between plants, as each has adapted to the biome in which they live.

Learn more about biomes around the world.

Stages of Seed Germination

First, the seed absorbs water. This causes the seed to swell and the outer coating to break. Then the seed starts to break down some of the food that is stored in it. Most seeds will need oxygen in the air in the soil for this to happen.

Eventually, when the seed has grown leaves it can make its own oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis .

Once the seed coat breaks open, the first root grows, called the radicle. In almost all plants, the root comes before the shoot.

Once the root starts to grow, it can now absorb water and nutrients from the soil, instead of getting it from the seed coat.

After the root, the plant’s stem starts to grow. When it reaches above the ground, the leaves begin to grow. This is when the plant no longer has to rely on the stored starch (cotyledon) that comes from the seed.

You might also try a simple greenhouse-in-a-bottle model !

Seed Germination Ideas

This simple seed experiment is a great introduction for preschoolers to growing plants , and a fun plant experiment for older kids to investigate what conditions seeds need to germinate.

Older kids can use a science experiment worksheet to write down their observations about how the seeds are growing. While young kids can draw or observe the changes!

There are so many fun questions you can ask…

• Do seeds need light to germinate?
• Does the amount of water affect seed germination?
• Do different types of seeds germinate under the same conditions?
• Does salt water affect seed germination?

Explore how fast different seeds germinate by comparing different kinds of seeds under the same conditions. We tried sunflower seeds, peas, and beans in our seed jar.

Or keep the type of seed the same and set up two mason jars to explore whether seeds need light to germinate. Place one jar where it will get natural light and one in a dark cupboard.

Another idea is to investigate whether seeds need water to germinate and how much. Set up three jars, and measure out how much water goes into each so that one is fully wet, half wet and one has no water.

Read more about the scientific method for kids and using variables in science experiments!

Bean Life Cycle Mini Pack (Free Printable)

Extend the learning of this hands-on project with this free bean life cycle mini pack !

How To Germinate Seeds Faster

One easy way to get your seeds to germinate faster is to presoak them in a shallow container of warm water for up to 24 hours. That will soften the hard outer shell of the seed. Don’t soak for longer as they may go moldy!

Seed Germination Lab

• Paper Towels or cotton wool
• Seeds (see our suggestions above)

Also check out our list of other fun science experiments you can in do a jar! >>> Science in a Jar

H ow To Set Up Your Seed Experiment

STEP 1:  Fill the jar with paper towels. Kids can fold them and push them down into the jar. This is also great work for little hands.

STEP 2:  Gently water your seed jar to wet the paper towels. DO NOT FLOOD IT!

STEP 3:  Carefully push seeds down into the paper towels around the edge of the jar so they can still be seen. Make sure they are firmly held in place.

Our mason jar below includes sunflower, pea, and green bean seeds!

STEP 4: Put your jar in a safe place, and check in regularly to observe any changes.

How To Observe Seed Growth

This activity makes a great plant science fair project for multiple ages. Get your magnifying glass out and check out all the angles of the seeds. Can you find the different stages of seed germination described earlier?

What do you see in your seed jar?

• You are looking for a root to pop out of the side.
• Next, you are looking for a root to push down into the soil.
• Then, you are looking for root hairs.
• Next, look for the seed to push up while the root hairs push down.
• Lastly, you are looking for the shoots to come up!

The mason jar gives a stunning view of this seed experiment! My son loved being able to see the changes so easily.

Our Seed Experiment Results

We started this experiment and within a few days started to see some exciting things. It was also interesting to talk about what was happening with the different seeds and how they changed over the duration of the experiment.

• Sunflower seeds were the fastest to pop a root but never made it out of the jar.
• Bean seeds took the longest to pop a root but finally did and made it out of the jar.
• Pea seeds grew rapidly once the root popped out and grew the tallest.

Simple beginnings with the sunflower seeds! Then the pea and lastly the bean! It took about three days to see some action with the seeds!

Amazing to see the pea take off in the seed jar once the root popped out! My son enjoyed telling me about the root hairs he could see every day! So fun to see it flourish and check out the results! It’s a perfect spring science activity at home or in the classroom.

We also enjoyed the book, How A Seed Grows by Helene Jordan which inspired another seed planting activity with eggshells !

More Fun Plant Activities For Kids

Looking for more plant lesson plans? Here are few suggestions for fun plant activities that would be perfect for preschoolers and elementary kids.

Learn about the apple life cycle with these fun printable activity sheets!

Use art and craft supplies you have on hand to create your own parts of a plant craft .

Learn the parts of a leaf with our printable coloring page.

Use a few simple supplies you have on hand to grow these cute grass heads in a cup .

Grab some leaves and find out how plants breath with this simple plant experiment.

Learn about how water moves through the veins in a leaf.

Find out why leaves change color with our printable lapbook project.

Watching flowers grow is an amazing science lesson for kids of all ages. Find out what are easy flowers to grow!

Use this seed bomb recipe and make them as a gift or even for Earth Day.

Learn about osmosis when you try this fun potato osmosis experiment with the kids.

Explore the different plants that you find in our biomes of the world lapbook project.

58 Comments

This is what we should have done – instead we tried plastic bags to grow the seeds in, and they got foggy with condensation so it was hard to see the root! Aw, well. Lesson learned. Next time – grow them in a jar! lol!

We just started our beans in a jar last week. Looking forward to seeing what happens this week.

We’ve just done the same 🙂 Put the beans in the jar instead plastic bags 🙂 Mr Frog is so excited observing the bean growing!

Wonderful learning activity! Thanks for linking up at the Thoughtful Spot Weekly Blog Hop!

My girlie is very curious about planting and asks tons of questions about the seeds and what happens with them in the soil. This is a great way to show her clearly enough the whole process of the seed’s growing. Thank you for this idea!

What kind of pea seeds did you use?

Good question. I don’t remember the band or name but it was a common package from the store.

This looks like so much fun! Can’t wait to try with my 4 and 2 year old son and daughter. We’re always looking for affordable, educational and fun activities. This is perfect. Happy to have stumbled onto this site!

Do you cover the jar? Do they need to be near a sunny window? Are you supposed to water them? Thanks!

Wonderful! Thank you!

Hi! I did not cover the jar. They were on a table in front of window that did get sunlight at some point during the day. We did not water daily. I added a tiny bit here and there but not much at all. We actually went away for a week and came back to them being so tall which you can see in the picture above. Thats a week with no water what so ever!

What kind of beans did you use? Pinto? I’m wanting to start this activity here soon with my little in-home daycare. 🙂

We used green beans, sunflowers, and green peas!

Just double checking no soil, just paper towels. This is our spring break project. I can’t wait.

Right no soil!

hello! I’m going to try this with my kindergarten class. Did you use dried green beans infrom a bag (like at the supermarket)? Or fresh ones?

Where did you get your seeds? Did you buy them fresh and pick the seed out off the pods or take it out of the shell? I’m interested in doing this but I don’t want to buy the wrong ones.

Simple seed packets from the grocery store!

that was so cool

What a great learning activity. I am featuring this with a link on my blog.

We are getting ready to start this project today with our preschool class. One thing i have not been able to find is, how much water/how wet do the paper towels need to be?’

super cool!!!

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U just use dried peas you get in a box steep them over night then plant them absolutely excellent outcome 4 kids and grown ups alike lol

Interesting! Share a picture!

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you teach me something thanks very much.

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besides seed jar science is there anything else that kids can do?

What do you mean? Feel free to email me [email protected]

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I cant wait to try this out with the 4 year old children at the our Early Learning Centres I am grateful to have found this page. Thank you so much.

At any point do you add soil to the jar or transfer the plant out so it can grow bigger? If transferring, what’s the best way to move them out of the jar and into a pot? What stage of growth should they be at before doing so? Does this method work for any type of seeds? This is perfect for the plant project I want to start with my in-home daycare but I wanted to use seeds from foods they eat and can replant as a way of incorporating recycling into the other lessons learned but I’m new to all of this including being a first time mom/in-home daycare owner and have lots of questions lol! Thank you in advance for your time, patients, and wisdom! 🙂

You could potentially transfer it! We did not. You wouldn’t add soil to the jar though. Makes a great experiment to see if it takes outside or in a pot!

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Since we are getting to spring, a seed germination jar is a perfect activity. Thanks

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All you need to know to grow successfully!

Planting Depth:

Planting Guidelines

The following are general guides to follow. However, nothing is set in stone. Feel free to experiment!

Square Foot Spacing:

Tips to Growing Organically

Growing without the use of pesticides and herbicides is easier than you may think and it’s better for the environment!

Mustard is a leafy green vegetable that belongs to the same family as kale, broccoli, and Brussels sprouts. The plant is known for its pungent and spicy flavour, and its leaves are often used in salads, sandwiches, and as a garnish. Mustard greens are a good source of vitamins A, C, and K, as well as calcium and iron. They are also low in calories and high in fibre, making them a nutritious addition to any diet. Mustard seeds can also be used as a spice, and are commonly used to make mustard condiments.

How to Grow Mustard Organically

• Choose the right time: Mustard grows best in cool weather, so choose a time when the temperature is between 50°F to 75°F (10°C to 24°C). In most areas, this will be early spring or late summer to early fall.
• Select a location: Mustard plants prefer well-drained soil with a pH of 6.0 to 7.5. Choose a sunny or partially shaded location with good air circulation.
• Prepare the soil: Till the soil to a depth of 6 to 8 inches and remove any rocks, weeds, or debris. Mix in organic compost or well-rotted manure to improve soil fertility.
• Plant the seeds: Sow the seeds directly into the soil, about 1/4 inch deep and 1 inch apart. If you want to grow mustard in rows, space the rows about 12 inches apart. Water the soil lightly after planting.
• Water the plants: Mustard plants need regular watering, especially during dry spells. Water the plants deeply once a week or whenever the soil feels dry to the touch.
• Fertilize the plants: Mustard plants benefit from regular feeding with organic fertilizers like compost tea or fish emulsion. Apply the fertilizer every two weeks during the growing season.
• Control pests and diseases: Mustard plants are susceptible to pests like aphids, flea beetles, and cabbage worms. To control these pests, use organic methods like neem oil or insecticidal soap. If you notice any signs of disease, like wilting or yellowing leaves, remove and destroy the affected plants to prevent the spread of the disease.
• Harvest the plants: Mustard plants mature in 30 to 40 days. When the plants reach a height of 4 to 6 inches, you can start harvesting the leaves. Cut the outer leaves of the plant and leave the inner leaves to continue growing. If you want to harvest the seeds, wait until the seed pods turn brown and then cut the entire plant and hang it upside down in a warm, dry place until the pods open and release the seeds.

Following these steps will help you grow mustard organically and enjoy the benefits of fresh, healthy greens or seeds.

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Grow Mustard Seed In Your Garden

Ever wondered where mustard comes from? You can grow mustard seed at home and get tasty greens at the same time. We share how!

Written by Ann McCarron Last updated: June 22, 2023 | 9 min read

Mustard greens are one of those fail-safe vegetables that anyone can cultivate and produce great harvests. I always grow way more than I need, so this year I’ve decided to allow some plants to mature to grow mustard seed. Yes, you read that correctly!  Mustard greens produce mustard seeds as well as other greens for your next stir fry! 

Mustard is a fabulously versatile crop.  Mustard grown for seed is usually allowed to bolt, but before it bolts, it can be grown as mustard greens as the entire plant is edible. It can also be grown as mustard microgreens . The greens are a cool-weather peppery, slightly bitter cut-and-come-again salad leaf, rich in antioxidants and packed full of vitamins. It can also be grown as green manure or cover crop, used to suppress weed growth, and acts as a biofumigant when dug into the soil.

Finally, when mustard plants flower they produce mustard seeds, the key ingredient in mustard sauce, giving it that signature heat and spicy flavor.  Seeds can also be used to liven up potato, vegetable, and meat dishes as a powdered spice or cracked lightly and added to rubs, marinades, and curries.  I’m especially looking forward to trying homemade mustard sauce recipes that include ingredients like beer, port, honey, herbs, and stout!

Good Products At Amazon For Growing Mustard Seed:

• Safer Brand Insect Killing Soap
• Neem Bliss 100% Cold Pressed Neem Oil
• Bonide Sulfur Fungicide
• Southern Ag Liquid Copper Fungicide

Quick Care Guide

All About Mustard Plant

Mustard is the common name for a wide group of annual plants in the cabbage family, Brassicaceae , grown for their leaves and seeds.  There are several species of mustard producing different colors and flavor of seed such as Brassica juncea, Brassica nigra, and Brassica alba .  Mustard is a cool-weather crop believed to be adapted from wild radish and turnip with its origins in western Asia and Europe.

Leaves and flowers vary in appearance depending on the species or variety.  Leaf mustard can be deeply lobed, frilly, or oval in shape. It can be dark to light green, red, or purple in color, making them an attractive addition to any salad bowl.  Mustard plants tend to have yellow flowers but can sometimes be creamy white.  Flowers are produced on tall spikes ranging from 12 to 36 inches (30 – 90cms) in length.  Long thin green seed pods (approx. 1 inch/2.5 cm long) develop after flowering, slowly turning light brown as they mature and ripen.  Pods will burst when seeds are ready making for a slightly invasive plant if left unmanaged.

Mustard has a vigorous growth cycle.  Seeds germinate between 5 -10 days and grow quickly forming a rosette of basal leaves.  As plants mature a multi-branched flowering spike grows from the base producing pods when flowers are spent.  The time taken from sowing seed to harvesting seed is around 90 days.

All parts of the mustard plant are edible.  The leaves and flowers are used in salads and stir-fries and the root can be used as a root vegetable, roasted, boiled, or chipped.  The seeds can be used to flavor ferments, marinades, meat, vegetable, and fish dishes as well as used to make iconic mustard sauces.  

Mustard is also grown as green manure dug into the soil in spring adding organic matter, improving soil structure and moisture retention.  As a cover crop mustard suppresses weed development and protects bare soil from the elements. As a member of the cabbage family, mustard should follow the rotation cycle of other brassicas such as cauliflower, broccoli, and kale.

Types of Mustard Seed

Mustard is the second most used spice in the United States after peppercorns and there are over 40 mustard varieties to try.  Here are a few of the main types of mustard seeds available.

Brassica alba : Yellow/white mustard seeds. This is the mustard mainly used for moderately spicy mustards. It has the mildest flavor and the largest seeds. This is what’s used to make a traditional “Ball Park” mustard style of yellow mustard, as both the yellow seeds and white seeds can be combined to produce that brilliant color.

Brassica juncea : Brown mustard seeds have a darker seed coat and are used to make dijon style mustard.  It is also mixed with yellow mustard seeds to create English mustard or spicy brown mustards.  Other common names for these brown seeds include Chinese mustard or Indian mustard. B. juncea is used on its own to produce Chinese hot mustards but is also called true dijon mustard as its zingy flavor mellows when blended with wine. Red giant mustard is a Brassica juncea variety that produces purple leaves perfect as Asian greens in cooking. Another popular variety is Southern Giant.

Brassica nigra : Black mustard seeds which are smaller than other types.  The black seeds have the strongest flavor of all mustard seed types. Occasionally black mustard seeds will be blended with yellow mustard instead of brown ones to make a spicy mustard type.

Planting Mustard

Sow mustard seeds indoors in early spring, 4 – 6 weeks before the average last frost date, ½ inch deep (1cm) in cell trays filled with seed starting mix. If desired, select an organic mustard seed variety if you’d like to produce an organic mustard plant.  Seeds should germinate within 5–10 days.  Gently harden off transplants and mustard seedlings for at least a week and plant outside after the last frost. This builds up a tolerance to outside conditions, reducing the risk of stress that causes plants to go to seed.  When plants go to seed they produce less harvest with a milder flavor. 

Plants grown for seed require more space than if growing mustard greens. Space plants 10 inches apart (24cm) and 12 inches between rows.  Sow seeds direct after the last frost into prepared beds and thin seedlings to 10 inches apart (24cm).  More space means less competition for water and nutrients required for seed production. 

Choose a bright sunny spot to grow your mustard with fertile, well-drained soil.  In warmer areas provide a bit of shade from the midday sun.  Mustard will grow well in a large heavy container with some support when they grow quite tall.  The benefit of growing in containers is that seeds can be started off indoors and moved outside after the last frost to continue to grow in cool temperatures avoiding the increasing heat of the greenhouse. Try either the Root Pouch grow bags or Air Pots we stock in our store — or try both!

Growing mustard seed is straightforward. However, there are a few care tips you should follow to get the most from your crop.

Sun and Temperature

Mustard likes to grow in full sun to partial shade.  In hotter climates you may need to use shade covers to keep plants cool and prevent bolting.  6 hours of sunlight per day is sufficient to grow mustard in USDA zones 2 – 11. 

As a cool-season plant the ideal growing temperature range is between 50–75ºF (10-23ºC) although plants may show signs of wilt or a tendency to bolt and grow mustard seeds at the higher end of this scale.  Mustard can tolerate a light frost but will be killed by prolonged freezing temperatures.  

Water and Humidity

Mustard is not drought tolerant, so regular, consistent watering will reduce plant stress and the risk of bolting.  Watering requirements are dependent on soil type and local temperatures. As a general rule, aim to water when the top few centimeters of soil are dry.  Periods of drought or high heat may affect the flavor of both leaves and seeds. Container-grown plants will also require regular watering to keep plants in optimum condition.  Use timed soaker hoses , a watering can, or garden hoses in the morning or in the evening if plants show signs of wilt in warm weather. 

Grow mustard in fertile, loamy, well-drained soil. Plants will tolerate poor-quality soil but may require supplementary feeding. Organic mulches are perfect for boosting soil fertility and will help maintain moisture and soil temperatures. Soil pH from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline is adequate to plant mustard.

Fertilizing

Plants grown in amended soil will not need fertilizer until the first flowering stems appear. At this point feed plants with a well-balanced fertilizer to boost flower and seed production.  On poorer soils feed plants with a nitrogen-rich liquid fertilizer in spring to encourage leaf growth followed by a balanced fertilizer once plants are established.  

Harvesting and Storing

The key to harvesting lots of good quality mustard is knowing exactly when to harvest and how to dry your seeds ready for storing. 

You can harvest leaves for fresh eating regularly throughout the plant’s early life, but when the weather starts to get too warm, the plant will bolt and start to grow mustard seeds. At that point, the leaves often become bitter and less palatable, so be sure to visit your vegetable garden regularly for young greens during the right season.

Harvest seeds before they are fully ripe.  Leave it too late, and the pods will burst and the seeds will be lost (or at least self-sown into your garden to create volunteer plants next year!).  Seed pods ripen from green to light brown, so watch closely and choose the right time for your crop. Another indication that plants are almost ready to harvest is when the leaves at the base of the plant turn yellow.

To harvest simply cut stems and tie them together in bunches.  Hang upside down to dry somewhere cool and well ventilated making sure to tie a paper bag over the seed heads to catch seeds as they ripen and fall.  Alternatively, stems can be laid flat on a fine mesh or sheet to let the seed pods dry.

Once the pods are completely dry it’s time to shake out those seeds. Pods should feel crispy when rolled in your hands releasing the seeds easily. Hold the bunches in a bag or over a large tub and thresh the seeds from the pods. Seeds may have little bits of chaff from the pod still attached.  To remove this, slowly pour the seeds from one bowl to another in front of a fan and the little bits will winnow away leaving you with clean, dry fresh seed. You may need to repeat this process a few times.

Fresh mustard leaf should be used quickly for its best flavor but can be stored in a bag in the crisper drawer of the refrigerator for a day or two. 

Slow drying the seed at cool temperature retains the best mustard flavor. If possible, air-dry your mustard seed in a cool, dark, but well-ventilated area. A dehydrator set on an air-only cycle with no heat is another excellent option.

Store dried whole mustard seeds in an airtight container for up to 18 months. Ground mustard seed loses its flavor quicker than whole seed so hold off on grinding until just before you need to use it. 

Troubleshooting

There are a few growing problems, pests, and diseases to look out for when growing mustard, but nothing that isn’t easy to handle.

Growing Problems

Plant stress is the main problem when growing mustard seeds. Stress causes plants to go to seed reducing the quantity and quality of the harvest.  Types of stress include high temperatures , an unexpected cold spell, inconsistent watering , or lack of nutrients .  To avoid bolting try and grow your plants at the right time of year for where you live and always keep the soil slightly moist but not wet. Amend poor soils with rich organic matter before planting or supplement with suitable fertilizer.

Mustard plants grown for seed can grow to 3ft (90cm) making them susceptible to wind damage .  Provide stakes or other plant supports as soon as flower heads become tall and top-heavy. 

Young mustard leaves are often attacked by aphids ( Aphidoidea ), small and sticky, yellow, green, black, red, or white pests that feed on the sap of new growth. Companion planting with marigolds or calendula will help deter aphids and encourage beneficial insects into the garden to feed on them.   Alternatively, spray with an organic insecticidal soap or neem oil.  Squishing aphids with fingers or a quick blast of water can also help to reduce numbers. 

Mustard leaves can be attacked by flea beetles which chew tiny holes in leaves making them unsightly and will affect the health and viability of the whole plant.  The best form of defense is to use floating row covers to prevent the beetles from getting to the leaves.  Mustard should also follow the rotation cycle of other crops in the brassica family. Spraying neem oil may also help.

Mustard leaves are susceptible to powdery mildew if plants are grown too close together or are overshadowed.  It grows as thick dust on leaves, inhibiting photosynthesis and hindering growth.  Downy mildew is another disease affecting mustard causing white spots on the upper and underside of leaves. Both diseases seriously affect the health of plants and can result in reinfections in subsequent years. To avoid these diseases maintain good garden hygiene, remove infected foliage as soon as possible, and rotate crops every year.  Provide adequate sunlight and good air circulation and treat affected plants with an organic fungicide such as sulfur or potassium bicarbonate.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q: Can I grow my own mustard seed?

A:  Absolutely! Mustard plants are easy to grow and can be grown for their edible leaves, seeds, root, and flowers.

Q: How long does it take to grow mustard from seed?

A:  Depending on the variety of mustard seed you sow, seeds can be harvested in 85-95 days.

Q: Can I grow mustard greens from mustard seeds?

A:  Yes! Save your mustard seeds to grow mustard spicy greens the following growing season.

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Planting Mustard Seeds from the Grocery Store? Yes & Here’s How

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As the end of the season is approaching, we use loads of mustard seeds for all sorts of pickling liquids and salad dressings. You’re not the only one who is tired of running to the grocery store every week and buying a new, rather expensive packet of mustard seeds. So what about growing our own mustard?

Mustard is very easy to grow. Like way too easy that it’s actually considered a weed, invasively growing everywhere in nature. However, mustard seeds purchased in the spice aisle in your local grocery store can be a little harder to germinate. And for two main reasons.

First, it’s difficult to guess how long the seeds sat on the shelf. Although many spice packets are vacuum-sealed, so this shouldn’t be the biggest obstacle.

What’s worse is that spices are usually steam-treated before packaging. Heat treatment aims to kill all bacteria present, but it can also kill seeds’ ability to grow.

But we’ll try our best, right? Spoiler alert: My mustard seeds from the grocery store successfully germinated. So it’s time to plant yours. Let’s dig in!

Related articles

Heavy rain after planting garden: here’s how to protect it, how to grow kaffir lime tree from cuttings, does it matter if you use yellow or black mustard seeds.

When it comes to mustard seeds, you can find them in different colors in the grocery store. But does the color make a difference?

Well, the short answer is yes, it does matter, but not in a way that should keep you up at night. Both yellow and black mustard seeds can be grown successfully from store-bought packets, but there are subtle distinctions between them.

Yellow mustard seeds tend to be milder in flavor, making them a popular choice for pickling and creating classic yellow mustard. On the other hand, black mustard seeds pack a bit more heat.

So the choice between them depends on your flavor preferences and how you plan to use them. In terms of growing them in your garden, the process remains quite similar.

How to Plant Mustard Seeds from the Grocery Store?

To get your nearly infinite mustard seed supply, you’ll need just a few essentials: mustard seeds, a small pot or garden bed, well-draining soil, water, and some patience. Here’s how to get started.

1. Select your Container and Soil

A mustard plant has a somewhat shallow root system. My testing batch did very well in soil that was just about 6 inches (15 centimeters) deep. So the container doesn’t have to be super large.

If you are planning to plant the mustard seeds in your garden, choose a place that receives abundant sunlight, ideally six to eight hours a day. The same light requirements apply to a place to put your container in.

Mustard plants aren’t overly particular about soil type, but good drainage will only benefit their well-being.

Once you have everything ready, fill the container. If you want to enrich the soil’s quality, you can add a bit of compost before planting.

2. Plant the Seeds

Now that you’ve prepared your container and soil, it’s time to introduce those grocery store mustard seeds to their new home.

Gently sprinkle the mustard seeds onto the soil’s surface, spacing them about an inch apart.

This straightforward planting method is typically effective. But I have a more thorough approach for you.

Place some of the mustard seeds on a damp paper towel and seal them in a plastic bag or container. Over the course of a few days, you’ll notice some of the seeds sprouting.

This method not only speeds up the germination process but also allows you to identify and discard seeds that may not have been viable to begin with. It will usually take 3+ days. If you can’t see any signs of life after a week, those seeds can be discarded.

When using the second method, you want to place sprouted seeds below the soil surface. Using your finger, create holes in the soil and carefully transplant them in. Once the seedlings are in place, cover the holes with soil and lightly press down to secure them.

The next step is the same for both methods, and that’s to give the soil a shower. Gentle water the soil to settle the seeds or seedlings in.

3. Sun, Watering, and Finally Harvesting

Place your container in a spot where it receives ample sunlight, ideally 6-8 hours a day.

When it comes to watering, keep the soil consistently moist, but be cautious not to overwater, which can lead to problems like root rot. As a general rule of thumb, you should be giving your mustard plant about one or two inches of water per week. But it, of course, highly depends on the location and climate conditions.

Mustard seeds typically germinate in about 3 to 10 days. Growth rate can vary based on the age of seeds and growing conditions, but young mustard greens can be ready for harvest in approximately 30-40 days.

If you’re looking to get mustard seeds and not mustard greens (which are genial in any salad, strongly recommend them if you haven’t tried them yet), you’ll need to allow the plants to grow for longer. This essentially means waiting double the time. Mustard plants will eventually bolt, sending up tall flower stalks. Then, as the flowers fade, seed pods will form in their place.

Before you go…

Growing mustard seeds from the grocery store is just the first step. I mean, you won’t eat only mustard greens for the rest of the year, right? So what about growing spinach from scraps next? I promise you that it’s even easier than growing mustard seeds…

Here’s How you can Grow Spinach From Scraps, Without Seeds

Caitlyn Palmer

Meet Caitlyn, the founder, and author - a passionate gardener and plant lover with a degree in horticulture who turned her struggles with starting a business into creating GlowGreenery, a place where she shares her knowledge and love for indoor gardening with the world. Learn More about Caitlyn.

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Growing Glowing Martian Mustard

Adapted from a University of Florida press release

A team of University of Florida scientists has genetically modified a tiny plant to send reports back from Mars in a most unworldly way: by emitting an eerie, fluorescent glow.

The scientists have proposed an experiment that would send 10 varieties of the plant to the Red Planet as a Mars “Scout” mission. Scout missions are focused high-priority science experiments that can be achieved for less than $300 million apiece.

The plant experiment, which is funded by NASA ’s Human Exploration and Development in Space program, may be a first step toward making Mars habitable for humans, said Rob Ferl, assistant director of the Biotechnology Program at UF.

Christopher McKay, a planetary scientist at NASA Ames Research Center and a member of the NASA Astrobiology Institute, is the principle investigator for the Scout mission proposal. “I think this has a very good chance of working,” says McKay, “and thereby addressing one of the key goals in the Astrobiology program: ‘What is the potential for survival and biological evolution beyond the planet of origin?’” McKay is a strong advocate of sending biological experiments to Mars as an initial step toward eventual human exploration of the planet.

Ferl and a team of molecular biologists chose as their subject the Arabidopsis mustard plant. They picked it, Ferl said, because of three attributes that make it ideally suited for the Mars mission: Its maximum height is 8 inches, its life cycle is only one month and its entire genome has been mapped. (In December 2000 it became the first plant to have its genetic sequence completed.)

To create the glow, the team will insert “reporter genes” into varieties of the plant, which will express themselves by emitting a green glow under adverse conditions on Mars. Each reporter gene will react to an environmental stressor such as drought, disease or temperature. For example, one version will glow an incandescent green if it detects an excess of heavy metals in the Martian soil; another will turn blue in the presence of peroxides.

In fact, one of the reporter genes itself is somewhat otherworldly, having come from the depths of the ocean.

“What makes the plants glow blue is a protein derived from an incandescent jellyfish whose DNA is spliced into the mustard plant,” Ferl says. “The implanted DNA then synthesizes the iridescent blue protein in the plant, which expresses itself under stress.”

It wouldn’t be possible, of course, to directly see the plants glow from Earth. The camera onboard the Mars lander would record the glow and then relay this signal back to Earth.

In 1999, Ferl sent 40 reporter-gene plants into orbit aboard the space shuttle. On that flight, the lack of gravity had an adverse effect on the plants’ ability to utilize water, a condition called “space adaptation syndrome.” The scientists are using that experience to engineer smarter plants.

“Just like humans, plants must learn how to adapt to a new environment,” Ferl says. “We are using genetics to create plants that have the ability to give us data we can use to help them survive.”

In addition, says McKay, the scientists have to ensure that any seeds brought to Mars are completely free of any contaminating bacteria. “All missions to Mars must abide by the Planetary Protection regulations,” McKay says. “This would require that the plant growth experiment be carefully controlled so as not to inadvertently contaminate Mars.”

The mission would work like this: The seeds of the plant would make the trip aboard a small NASA spacecraft, which would land on the Martian surface. Upon arrival, the landing vehicle’s robot would scoop up a portion of Martian soil, which the scientists would analyze using the robot and a specialized camera. After modifying the soil with fertilizers, buffers and nutrients, the scientists would germinate the seeds and grow the plants in a miniature greenhouse on the landing vehicle.

Despite working with alien soil they know little about, the biologists are optimistic about the experiment.

“I’m confident we can grow plants if we know the pH levels and the oxidizing agents in the Martian soil,” Schuerger says. “We’ll test the soil before planting, and then we can raise or lower pH, flush excess salts and add nutrients as needed.”

As for long-term plans, Ferl and Schuerger have worked together on a concept called “terraforming” or “ecosynthesis,” which would use plants to produce oxygen for life processes. Although the plants are genetically engineered to detect — and then adapt to — certain environmental stressors, terraforming presents additional obstacles.

Schuerger says that on Mars, daily temperatures range from a high of 7 degrees Celsius (45 degrees Fahrenheit) at noon to a low of minus 112 C (minu 170 F) at night. Also, the planet’s moisture content is 0.3 percent, which is extremely low.

Because of the cold, arid conditions on Mars, McKay says that alpine plants would be best suited for future terraforming projects. But first, scientists would have to try to grow such plants under more Mars-like conditions. Because the current project would use greenhouses to grow the plants on Mars, it is not directly related to terraforming.

“In this project, the plant is growing under comfy, Earth-like conditions in terms of temperature and water activity,” says McKay. “But this experiment is directly relevant to future greenhouses on Mars that would provide food and oxygen for human exploration. It’s hard to imagine there will ever be greenhouses on Mars for life support if an experiment like this is not done first.”

“I have no doubt that we can get plants to survive on Mars,” Ferl says. “When we do, we will have shown that Earth-evolved life is capable of thriving in distant worlds, and we will have set the stage for human colonization.”

A workshop being held this week at NASA ’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory will review the dozens of proposed Scout missions. Six to ten will be funded for further study. The first Scout mission could fly as early as 2007.

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• Published: 03 June 2024

A method for screening salt stress tolerance in Indian mustard ( Brassica juncea ) (L.) Czern & Coss at seedling stage

• Garima Aggarwal 1   na1 ,
• Premnath Edhigalla 1   na1 ,
• Puneet Walia 1   na1 ,
• Suruchi Jindal 2 &
• Sanjeet Singh Sandal 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  12705 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Plant breeding
• Plant sciences
• Plant stress responses

Fifty-nine diverse Brassica juncea (Indian mustard) genotypes were used to find an effective screening method to identify salt tolerance at the germination and seedling stages. Salinity stress limits crop productivity and is difficult to simulate on farms, hindering parental selection for hybridization programmes and the development of tolerant cultivars. To estimate an optimum salt concentration for screening, seeds of 15 genotypes were selected randomly and grown in vitro at 0 mM/L, 75 mM/L, 150 mM/L, 225 mM/L, and 300 mM/L concentrations of NaCl in 2 replications in a complete randomized design. Various morphological parameters, viz., length of seedling, root and shoot length, fresh weight, and dry weight, were observed to determine a single concentration using the Salt Injury Index. Then, this optimum concentration (225 mM/L) was used to assess the salt tolerance of all the 59 genotypes in 4 replications while observing the same morphological parameters. With the help of Mean Membership Function Value evaluation criteria, the genotypes were categorized into 5 grades: 4 highly salt-tolerant (HST), 6 salt-tolerant (ST), 19 moderately salt-tolerant (MST), 21 salt-sensitive (SS), and 9 highly salt-sensitive (HSS). Seedling fresh weight (SFW) at 225 mM/L was found to be an ideal trait, which demonstrates the extent to which B. juncea genotypes respond to saline conditions. This is the first report that establishes a highly efficient and reliable method for evaluating the salinity tolerance of Indian mustard at the seedling stage and will facilitate breeders in the development of salt-tolerant cultivars.

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Introduction.

Several abiotic stresses, such as extreme temperatures, drought, floods and soil salinity, have negatively impacted the growth and cultivation of agricultural crops. Among these, soil salinity is particularly destructive, leading to significant decreases in arable land, crop yield, and quality 1 , 2 , 3 . In coastal areas, salinity is caused by ocean water influx, whereas inland salinity is caused by inadequate irrigation practices and high salt deposition in ground water 4 , 5 , 6 .Salinity affects around 33% of irrigated agricultural fields and 20% of all cultivated agricultural fields globally and such regions are increasing at an alarming rate of 10% every year due to a variety of factors such as weathering of rocks, low precipitation, irrigation with saline water, excessive surface evaporation, and inefficient cultural practices 7 , 8 . Soil salinity impacts crop physiology along with various molecular and biochemical functions. It affects seed germination and seedling growth while inhibiting root, shoot elongation and dry matter accumulation 9 , 10 , 11 . Osmotic stress is the first stress a plant encounters when exposed to saline conditions which immediately slows down the rate of germination and subsequent plant growth 12 , 13 , 14 . Excessive salinity has negative effects on plant photosynthetic activities, causing leaf injury, chlorosis, and senescence 15 . Due to the high concentration of soluble salts in the soil, such as Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na + , and Cl – , soil water availability decreases causing nutritional imbalance and production of toxic ions affecting the plant growth 16 , 17 . Moreover, plants affected by salt stress are more susceptible to disease outbreaks 2 . Several comprehensive analyses on techniques for addressing the salinity issue highlighted two main approaches: the reclamation of salt-affected soils through the application of chemical additives, or the use of saline soils for cultivating salt-tolerant plants 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 . The latter approach is more practical considering demonstrated availability of adapted genetic variation in various species.

Brassicas are the third-most important edible oil crop in the world, ranked after soybean and palm oil 22 . Higher salt tolerance is exhibited by amphidiploid Brassica species like B. carinata, B. juncea , and B. napus compared to their diploid progenitors, B. oleracea, B. nigra, and B. rapa 23 . Among them, B. juncea also known as Indian mustard was grown extensively in India and China until the late 1950s, when B. napus became more productive. New to Australia (1980s) and Canada (2002), it has substantial morphological and physiological heterogeneity 24 and stands out as one of the most essential oil-yielding crops in salinity affected soils 25 . Given that the salt tolerance level in B. juncea remains consistent throughout its entire life cycle, selecting for salt tolerance during the earliest development stages might yield individuals which are tolerant at all subsequent growth phases 19 , 26 . Earlier studies have used various morphological traits of seedlings as well as biochemical and physiological traits ranging from levels of osmoprotectants, K + /Na + ratio, total osmolytes, photosynthetic rate, water use efficiency rate and total chlorophyll content to assess salinity tolerance 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 . In recent times, morpho-physiological traits have been observed at the germination stage not only with the aim of screening salt tolerance but also to determine a reliable trait or indicator in different species. These studies have utilized a mathematical approach to screen for salinity stress known as Fuzzy set theory, it provides a framework for capturing the gradual and multifaceted nature of plant response to stress enabling a more nuanced understanding of complex traits as salinity and drought tolerance 33 . Root shoot length and shoot fresh weight have been reported as indicators for salt tolerance in B. napus 34 , 35 , germination index along with germination vigour index in sunflower 36 , seedling vigour index in rice 37 and root length in chickpea 38 . Multiple studies exist that explore salinity tolerance in Indian mustard; however, there is a noticeable gap in the literature concerning the identification of a single reliable trait for assessing salinity tolerance in Brassica juncea during the germination stage 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 . It is crucial to identify an effective and reliable trait for the assessment and screening of salt-tolerant lines for breeding salt tolerant varieties. It would be one step forward for breeders to screen large number of germplasm at the seedling stage itself and thus in this study, we investigate the salt tolerance of 59 B. juncea genotypes at different salinity levels to establish an effective salt concentration at which the germplasm can be screened for salt stress tolerance and a reliable screening parameter.

Experimental material

There were two main objectives of this study, first to determine the optimum salt concentration for screening salt tolerance and second to determine a reliable screening trait for salinity tolerance at the germination/seedling stage. For this purpose, seeds of 59 Brassica juncea genotypes were obtained from Lovely Professional University, these are a set of diverse released genotypes adapted to Indian sub-continent conditions. The experiment was conducted in 2023 using a completely randomized design (CRD) at the Lovely Professional University Plant Breeding Laboratory, wherein seeds were grown in vitro in petri plates in a growth chamber while maintaining a temperature of 28 °C during the day and 23 °C at night with humidity ranging from 50 to 70%.

Determination of an optimum NaCl concentration

Initially, to establish the ideal salt concentration, a total of fifteen genotypes were chosen at random on which four different salt concentrations were used 35 , 36 . The control treatment in this experiment consisted of distilled water (0 mM/L) and a range of four different NaCl concentrations (75, 150, 225, and 300 mM/L) were utilised. A selection of twenty seeds was made from each genotype, ensuring that they displayed uniformity and good health. These seeds were subjected to surface sterilisation using 15 mL of 70% ethanol for a duration of 15 min. Following this, they were rinsed thoroughly using distilled water. The seeds were then immersed in pure water for a period of 12 h. These seeds were then evenly distributed in petri plates using two layers of blotting paper as base. Seeds from two genotypes with the same NaCl concentrations were placed on either side of each petridish, which was divided into two halves using a thread. Each petri dish was then filled with 12 mL of either distilled water (control) or one of the aforementioned NaCl solutions. To prevent evaporation, the petri dishes were covered with a lid and kept in growth chamber with a constant 12 h of light and dark periods, at a temperature of 28 °C during the day and 23 °C at night. Two biological replicates were used in this stage of the experiment. Each petri dish was examined every two days, and using a dropper, the old solution was replaced with an equal amount of the new solution. In the control treatment, the same procedure was used to replace the old distilled water with new. When the length of a seed's radicle reached or went over 2 mm, it was considered that the seed had germinated. Various morphological parameters like rate of germination, root length, shoot length, seedling length, seedling fresh weight and dry weight were measured as mentioned below. The appropriate salt concentration was determined by assessing the salt-injury index (SII) for each parameter, which was regarded to be 0.5 to that of control. In other words the salt concentration was considered to be the best-fit concentration when the salt injury index (SII) was 50% of the control because at this point the seedlings begin to show the extent of damage or injury caused by salt stress on a plant 35 .

Rate of germination (G) was calculated using following formula 36 ;

where \({\text{G}}_{\text{t}}=\text{Number \, of \, seeds \, germinated }7\text{ DAS},\text{ T}=\text{Total \, seeds \, sown}, \) (DAS = days after sowing/placing).

Measurements for Lengths of root (RL), shoot (SHL) and seedling (SL) were taken in centimetres and for Fresh weight of seedling (SFW) in milligrams after 7 DAS.

Measurements for Dry weight of seedling (SDW) were taken individually in milligrams following uniform drying at 70 °C until a constant weight was attained.

Salt Injury Index (SII) and Salt Tolerance Index (STI) were calculated as follows:

STI was calculated for each parameter to eliminate the effect of genotypic background 34 , 35 .

Determination of tolerance at optimum salt concentration

The salt tolerance of all 59 B. juncea genotypes was determined using the optimum salt concentration (225 mM/L) determined in first experiment. Ten healthy seeds of the same genotype were placed in each half of each 9 cm petri dish, which was divided into two equal portions and treated with the 225 mM/L NaCl solution (Fig.  1 ). A separate control treatment with a concentration of 0 mM/L was also maintained. The biological replicates of each genotype were four. Each of the four replications, as well as the control, contained ten seeds each. A similar sterilisation procedure was carried out before administering NaCl solutions, as previously mentioned. The petri dishes were monitored on a regular basis, and old solution was replaced with new solution. To evaluate salt tolerance of all B. juncea genotypes, same morphological parameters as mentioned above were determined.

Germination of the genotypes #7 and #10 at various levels of salt stress concentration.

The estimation of salt tolerance levels was conducted by utilising the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation approach, which relied on the membership function value 44 . The MFV was determined as follows:

where \({\text{X}}_{\text{i }}=\text{MFV \, of \, a \, trait},\text{ X}=\text{STI \, of \, a \, trait}, {\text{X}}_{\text{max}}=\text{Maximum \, STI \, value}, {\text{X}}_{\text{min}}=\text{Minimum \, STI \, value}\)

Mean MFV values were calculated for each trait for all the genotypes. Range of mean MFV was from 0 to 1 and the higher MFV depicts higher salt tolerance.

Hierarchical cluster analysis

Furthermore, using hierarchical cluster analysis the genotypes were categorised into the following groups as per their salt tolerance levels:

The mathematical evaluation model of salt tolerance was developed using SPSS software. This model is represented by the following equation

where \(\upmu =\text{ constant \, denoting \, the \, random \, error \, term},\text{ Y}=\text{mean \, MFV \, of \, genotype}, {\beta }_{i}=\text{unstandardized \, coefficient}\)

Statistical analysis

ANOVA was performed to test the level of significance amongst different concentrations. Correlation analysis between different traits was performed using IBM SPSS V.25. Using the mean MFV and STI of different traits a linear regression analysis was performed along with a mathematical evaluation model was developed by performing multiple regression analysis using SPSS software (SPSS, Chicago IL, United States).

Research involving plants

Experimental materials used in this study are cultivated varieties available in public domain and the experiment complies with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation. No field trials were conducted.

Establishment of appropriate concentration of salt stress

To determine the optimum salt concentration for screening the salt tolerance of B. juncea genotypes, 15 genotypes were randomly selected from the experimental material. After 7 days, data pertaining to the RL, SHL, SL, SFW, SDW, and GR of 15 B. juncea genotypes was collected, demonstrating the negative effect of salt stress on developing seedlings (Fig.  2 ).

The germination of #15 genotype under different salt stress concentration on the seventh day.

The optimum concentration of salt stress can be assessed using the salt injury index (SII). SII provides an estimate of how much damage salinity stress causes to plants. It is the threshold at which half of the plants begin to show negative effects from salt stress. In this experiment, the salt concentration at which SII is 0.5 is regarded as the ideal concentration as the half of the seedlings show damage caused by salt stress, allowing the salinity tolerance to be characterised. Higher the SII, greater will be the damage caused by salinity stress.

Based on the recorded data, SII of each trait was calculated (Table S1 ). The SII of the morphological traits across all 15 B. juncea genotypes for each trait was subjected to a linear regression analysis (Fig.  3 ). For GR, 0.5 measure of SII was recorded at 260 mM/L NaCl treatment. Similarly, for RL, SHL, SL, SFW, and SDW, the SII of 0.5 was recorded at salt concentrations of 166.14, 168.2, 163.38, 192, and 266 mM/L respectively. The 0.5 average SII of all the morphological traits under study was recorded at 203 mM/L. Therefore, 225 mM/L NaCl treatment was considered as optimum salt stress concentration.

Selection of optimum salt concentration for evaluating salt tolerance ability of 59 Brassica juncea genotypes when salt injury index (SII) was reduced to 50% of the control. Linear fit between SII of each parameter against different NaCl concentrations ( A ) SII of germination rate vs NaCl (mM/L) ( B ) SII of Root length (RL) vs NaCl (mM/L) ( C ) SII of Shoot length (SHL) vs NaCl (mM/L) ( D ) SII of Seedling length (SL) vs NaCl (mM/L) ( E ) SII of Seedling fresh weight (SFW) vs NaCl (mM/L) ( F ) SII of Seedling dry weight (SDW) vs NaCl (mM/L) ( F ) Average SII vs NaCl (mM/L).

Analysis of correlation among physiological traits under stress

Using the determined optimum salt concentration (225 mM/L), the morphological data of the following traits namely, GR, RL, SHL, SL, SFW, and SDW of each genotype was measured (Table S2 ). STI value can be used for evaluating the impact of NaCl on salt tolerance parameters of B. juncea genotypes as it measures the ability of a plant to withstand and thrive in saline conditions. It is determined by contrasting the performance of plants in salinized and non-salinized (control) environments. Higher STI value indicates lesser impacts while lower value indicates more impact. STI values determined for the morphological traits under study are shown in the supplementary material (Table S3 ). A correlation analysis was performed to show the association between the morphological traits (Table 1 ). STI of all the morphological traits recorded were found to be positively correlated with each other. A high positive correlation was found between STI of RL and SHL (0.940), and STI of SHL and SL (0.935) which indicates the ability of the seedlings to tolerate salt stress by improving their morphological traits. Correlation for STI of SHL and SFW was 0.820, while the correlation between the STI of SL and SFW was 0.816. The weakest correlation coefficient (0.385) was found between STI of RL and SDW.

Fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method was used to obtain the MFV and mean MFV of each indicator. A higher mean MFV indicates stronger salt tolerance. A hierarchical cluster analysis based on the Furthest Neighbor was utilized to classify 59 genotypes into five categories based on their mean MFV values (Fig.  4 ). Out of 59 B. juncea genotypes, 4 genotypes were classified as HST, 6 genotypes as ST, 19 genotypes as MST, 21 genotypes as SS, and 9 genotypes as HSS (Fig.  5 ).

Hierarchical clustering of 59 Brassica juncea genotypes based on their mean membership function values (Mean MFV) where HSS Highly salt stressed, SS Salt stressed, MST Moderately salt tolerant, ST Salt tolerant, HST Highly salt tolerant.

Classification of 59 Brassica juncea genotypes on the basis of mean membership function value (mean MFV). ( A ) Categorization of 59 Brassica juncea genotypes according to salt tolerance based on mean MFV. ( B ) Comparison between control (0 mM/L) and stress condition (225 mM/L) at various salt tolerance categories where HSS Highly salt stressed, SS Salt stressed, MST Moderately salt tolerant, ST Salt tolerant, HST Highly salt tolerant.

Establishing a mathematical model for salt tolerance evaluation

The mean MFV and STI of each morphological trait was analyzed using multiple regression analysis to establish a mathematical model for evaluating the salt tolerance. The regression equation derived is given as: Y = 0.027 + 0.207 × STI RL  + 0.362 × STI SHL  + 0.328 × STI SL  + 0.345 × STI SFW  + 0.130 × STI SDW (P < 0.01) (Table 2 ). In this equation values of unstandardized coefficients of STI of RL, SHL, SL, SFW and SDW are 0.207, 0.362, 0.328, 0.345 and 0.130 respectively. µ (random error term) was 0.027. Y indicates the salt tolerant ability of a certain B. juncea genotype.

Verification of the mathematical evaluation model of salt tolerance

To verify the accuracy and usefulness for predicting the salt tolerance using the established mathematical model, three genotypes were randomly selected from each salt tolerance category to calculate the Y values (Table 3 ). The Y values were derived for each genotype by substituting the morphological data in the mathematical model and the resultant Y values were compared with their respective mean MFV of each genotype. For example, the Y value of the #48 (SS) genotype is 0.22, and its mean MFV is also 0.22; the Y value of the #18 genotype is 0.70, and its mean MFV is also 0.71, indicating that the mean MFV and Y values are very close. Higher mean MFV value indicates high salt tolerance. The obtained results have demonstrated that the formula can be used to determine any B. juncea genotype salt tolerance at the germination stage. The B. juncea genotypes chosen to determine the ideal salt concentration can also be estimated to have salt tolerance evaluation using this model (Table S5 ). Therefore, STI based Y value estimation of seedling growth parameters is accurate for predicting the salt tolerance of B. juncea genotypes (Table S6 ).

Identification of a reliable screening trait of salt tolerance

The seedling growth parameters STIs, however, affect mean MFV indicating that mean MFV increases with an increasing STI of each seedling parameter 45 . To determine the most reliable morphological trait for estimating salt tolerance, a linear regression model is fitted with the STI and mean MFV of all morphological traits. Correlation coefficient (R 2  = 0.859) between STI of the SFW and mean MFV (Fig.  6 ) was the highest (0.859) and the standardized coefficient β_SFW was also high (0.287) (Table 2 ) suggesting that the fresh weight of the seedling can be utilized to determine the salt tolerance of B. juncea genotypes at the seedling stage.

Linear correlation analysis between Salt tolerance index (STI) of each physiological parameter and Mean MFV. ( A ) Between STI of Root length and mean MFV; ( B ) between STI of Shoot length and mean MFV; ( C ) between STI of Seedling length and mean MFV; ( D ) between STI of Seedling fresh weight and mean MFV; ( E ) between STI of Seedling dry weight and mean MFV; ( F ) between STI of Germination rate and mean MFV. R 2 Linear is the coefficient of determination.

Validation of SFW as reliable parameter

Three genotypes were selected randomly from all salt tolerance levels, and their seedling fresh weight data was recorded at optimum concentration (225 mM/L) of NaCl, to see if the parameter accurately measures salinity tolerance. There were no significant variations in growth across all genotypes in control. However, the seedling fresh weight decreased under salt stress conditions (HSS < SS < MST < ST < HST). As compared to MST and HST genotypes, which had average seedling fresh weights of 20.19 mg and 27.77 mg, respectively, HSS genotypes had an average seedling fresh weight under stress of 2.008 mg.

Salinity stress is one of the bottlenecks in Indian mustard yield and productivity 46 as it hinders plant growth at the germination stage itself resulting in lower yield and biomass 47 . Developing salt tolerant cultivars has proven to be a challenging and time-consuming process as stress simulation in farm is challenging and does not provide for a robust and reproducible selection criterion which significantly impacts the efficiency of the screening procedures 48 . Expedited screening techniques should circumvent the necessity of cultivating plants under regulated circumstances and morphological characteristics serve as the foundation for effective germplasm screening protocols. Thus, different morpho physiological parameters associated with salt tolerance can serve as criteria for evaluating and selecting plants with salt tolerance at germination and early seedling stage thus saving time and effort 49 , 50 . Various studies have explored salinity tolerance in B. napus at germination stage and report shoot fresh weight and seedling fresh weight as reliable indicators for salinity stress 35 , 51 but no similar research has been done in Brassica juncea .

In the present study, five different salt concentrations were used to screen randomly selected genotypes of Brassica juncea at germination and seedling stage to determine a single effective salt concentration for screening purposes. It was observed that different concentrations affect fresh weight, root and shoot length in different ways. As compared to control, higher salt concentrations tend to significantly decrease the values of traits such as root, shoot and fresh weight while lower doses tend to show a slight increase 42 . The effects of salinity have been observed to have a significant effect on growth of root and shoot in sensitive genotypes but only to a lesser extent on tolerant ones. Sensitive genotypes shown marked reduction in dry matter accumulation due to restrained leaf area development 52 . The osmotic stress may be the reason of the early growth decrease in response to salt 13 . Significant reduction in leaf area, stem and root dry weight has been reported in a comparative study among a tolerant and sensitive Indian mustard cultivars where, salinity-tolerant cultivar showed less losses in combined dry weight and dry weights of plant components such as root and shoot 40 .

Utilizing either SII or STI has proven advantageous for investigating salt stress at both the phenotypic and molecular levels 35 , 36 , 53 therefore on the basis of STI value we found that 225 mM/L can be used as an effective concentration to screen for salt tolerance. Subsequently, tolerance of all the genotypes was determined under 225 mM/L NaCl concentration for same parameters and analyzed using the mean membership function value (MFV). The membership function value in fuzzy set theory provides an extensive analysis by employing membership functions based on fuzzy mathematics theory and the salinity-tolerant indices (STI) of observed parameters 33 and has been successfully used for salt tolerance evaluation in rapeseed 34 , 35 , 51 , mustard 42 , 43 , wheat 54 , sweet sorghum 45 , sunflower 36 , rice 37 and chickpea 38 . All genotypes were divided into 5 categories, where in,4 genotypes were classified as HST, 6 genotypes as ST, 19 genotypes as MST, 21 genotypes as SS, and 9 genotypes as HSS (Fig.  4 ). The maximum mean MFV was 0.820 indicating that salinity has a bigger influence on seed germination rates across the genotypes. MFV is an important indicator for the evaluation of salt tolerance 36 , 54 , the higher the mean MFV value, the higher the salt tolerance. Some of the genotypes exhibited lower mean MFV, indicating they have high salt sensitivity at the germination stage. Plants under salt stress experience ion stress, osmotic damage, and a buildup of reactive oxygen species. It has been anticipated that the genotypes which are salt tolerant may have efficient reactive oxygen species scavenging mechanism and are able to synthesize osmoprotectants 45 .

A mathematical formula based upon the multiple regression analysis was used for the reliable and efficient evaluation of salt tolerance in B. juncea lines 35 . The mathematical model was proved to be the time saving and convenient model for screening salt tolerance. The Y value was estimated for all the lines (Table S6 ) and used for the accurate evaluation of salt tolerance using the model. The highest value of Y depicted the higher salt tolerance which is in accordance with the results obtained for screening of salt tolerant B. napus lines 35 . Correlation analysis and linear fit model were used to find the relationship between various morphological parameters under NaCl stress based on the STI values of GR, RL, SHL, SL, SFW and SDW. According to the results of the correlation analysis, the STIs of SFW under the 225 mM/L NaCl treatment presented high correlation coefficients with STI of SHL and STI of SL (0.820 and 0.816, respectively). The linear fit model showed that STI of SFW had high coefficient of determination with mean MFV (R 2  = 0.859). Thus, SFW can be used as a reliable trait for screening salt-tolerant B. juncea genotypes on a large scale during the germination stage. In an assessment of Indian mustard’s early responses to salinity, kinetics of germination involving root length, shoot length and fresh weight highlighted that salinity has a strong negative correlation with fresh weight 39 , 55 . The shoot weight along with the root length and hypocotyl length were reported to be the most significant traits to find the genetic variability governing the salt tolerance among B. juncea varieties which is in accordance with this study where seedling fresh weight was found to be the most significant trait for screening of salt tolerance 42 .

To establish a reliable and accurate screening methodology for salt tolerance at the germination stage, a mathematical model was assessed and tested. Analysis of different growth parameters at germination stage across multiple salt stress concentrations using MFV revealed that seedling fresh weight (SFW) at an optimum concentration of 225 mM/L NaCl is the most reliable feature for screening salt tolerance in B. juncea . Better germination kinetics, which control biomass accumulation efficiency in developing seedlings, leads to successful earlier seedling establishment and Seedling fresh weight (SFW) might be seen as these combined processes' ultimate result. Rapid germination and strong development of seedlings increase the plant's salt resistance barrier, which is essential for sustaining plant growth and production potential. The model was used to assign a grade to each of the 59 different B. juncea , resulting in the following breakdown: 9 HSS, 4 ST, 19 MST, 21 SS, and 4 HST. Rapid, reproducible, and inexpensive identification of salt tolerant genotypes have direct implications in helping breeders in selection of parents in hybridization programs and developing salinity tolerant cultivars.

Data availability

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary materials .

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These authors contributed equally: Garima Aggarwal, Premnath Edhigalla and Puneet Walia.

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Garima Aggarwal, Premnath Edhigalla, Puneet Walia & Sanjeet Singh Sandal

Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, School of Bioengineering & Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India

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P.W. and S.S.S. designed the experiment, G.A. and P.E. executed the experiments; P.E. and S.J. analysed the data. G.A. and P.E. wrote first draft of manuscript. P.W., S.S.S. and S.J. revised and finalised the manuscript.

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Aggarwal, G., Edhigalla, P., Walia, P. et al. A method for screening salt stress tolerance in Indian mustard ( Brassica juncea ) (L.) Czern & Coss at seedling stage. Sci Rep 14 , 12705 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-63693-6

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Ohio has an invasive plant problem. Here are five you can eat

Some plants, such as poison oak, poison ivy and poison hemlock can't be eaten, but five of ohio's invasive plants can not only be eaten, but they taste good and provide health benefits, too..

Invasive plants are quickly becoming a nuisance to gardeners and plant enthusiasts this summer. Poison hemlock was recently identified in every Ohio county, which can pose a deadly risk to those who encounter it. Touching wild parsnip sap can also be toxic , but thankfully there are a handful of invasive species that are not only edible, but even contain health benefits.  

Ohio is home to more than 40 invasive plant species, and over 500 nonnative plant species overall, according to the Ohio Department of Natural Resources . Considered problematic, these invasive plants are known to potentially compromise water quality, challenge the state’s native plants, and even increase the risk of wildfires.  

Invasive plants that are edible are fair game for those who want to harvest them, elevate recipes, or simply have them as a snack. From bitter greens to sweet floral plants, we’ve rounded up five of Ohio’s most invasive plants that you can eat and are ideal for a meal.  

1. Garlic mustard can be made into pesto, sautéed, or eaten raw

Garlic mustard is found in all 88 Ohio counties. It has a fruiting period from May to early July, according to the Ohio Department of Natural Resources .

True to its name, the plant bears a notable garlic odor and a very garlic-esque bitter taste that’s often compared to horseradish. From the leaves to the sprouts, all parts of the garlic mustard plant are edible, and it can be ground into pesto, hummus, sautéed, or combined with other greens like a salad to reduce the bitterness.  

2. Flowering rush is a starchy food sometimes used to make bread

The root of the flowering rush, which flowers from June to September (per Eat the Weeds ), has edible starch. The seeds are small yet safe for consumption. Tubers, or specialized nutrient reservoirs (like ginger and potatoes), are considered edible if they’re peeled and the rootlets are removed before cooking, according to Edible Wild Food . Once the root is dried, it can be ground into a powder to use as a thickener or to make bread.  

3. The sweet and somewhat tart flavor of the white mulberry plant is ideal for pies, jellies, and jams 

White mulberry produces rapidly spreading roots that are known to clog drains, according to The Ohio State University . When ripe, the white mulberry plant can be eaten raw or made into desserts, juice, or tea. When dried, it can be baked into cookies, puddings, or bread.  

4. Water chestnuts have a surprising number of health benefits when consumed 

Low in calories yet nutrient rich, water chestnuts can be found in a variety of Asian dishes. The plant is high in antioxidants and a good source of potassium. The naturally sweet and crisp flavor is used in soups and salads. It can be washed, peeled, and added to a pan with asparagus, soy sauce and spices to create a stir-fry. 

5. The multiflora rose petals can be boiled into a sweet syrup or tea

The multiflora rose is one of the state’s most widespread and common invasive species, according to the Ohio Department of Natural Resources . The plant is found in every Ohio county. While it flowers from May to June, its fruiting season is from July to October.

The multiflora rose can be made into a rose petal tea or syrup when cooked over the stove. For an added challenge, you can harvest the rose hips (the seed-filled pods, also known as fruit of the rose) to make rose hip leather that’s particularly high in vitamin C . 

It's not in Ohio, but here's why you shouldn't eat poison oak

A reporter in California grew tired of losing his battle against the poison oak taking over his property, a problem Ohioans don't have to worry about since it doesn't grow here.

So he decided to eat it.

Instead of trying to defeat the pesky shrub that often brings severe itchiness, rashes and swelling with exposure, he decided to consume the plant in an attempt to build immunity against it, The Wall Street Journal reporter  wrote .

Although he reported success, he was lucky. Most experts recommend against ingesting poison oak, poison ivy, poison sumac and anything like it, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention warns of potential fatality with consumption.

So, you should steer clear of many problem plants unless you're trying to remove them. Meanwhile, if you see garlic mustard, water chestnuts, white mulberry or rose petals, you might have a dinner in the making.

Humans May Be Able to Grow New Teeth Within Just 6 Years

Scientists are on the verge of a dental miracle.

• While bones can regrow themselves when they break, teeth aren’t so lucky, and that leads to millions of people worldwide suffering from some form of edentulism, a.k.a. toothlessness.
• Now, Japanese researchers are moving a promising, tooth-regrowing medicine into human trials—the first patients will be receiving the drug intravenously in September of this year.
• If the trial is successful, the researchers hope the drug will become available for all forms of toothlessness sometime around 2030.

Teeth , however, are not bones . Although they’re made of some of the same stuff and are the hardest material in the human body (thanks to its protective layer of enamel), they lack the crucial ability to heal and regrow themselves. But that may not always be the case. Japanese researchers are moving forward with an experimental drug that promises to regrow human teeth, and human trials are set to begin in September.

“We want to do something to help those who are suffering from tooth loss or absence,” Katsu Takahashi, the head of dentistry at the medical research institute at Kitano Hospital in Osaka, told The Mainichi . “While there has been no treatment to date providing a permanent cure , we feel that people’s expectations for tooth growth are high.”

This development follows years of study around a particularly antibody named Uterine sensitization–associated gene-1 (USAG-1), which has been shown to inhibit the growth of teeth in ferrets and mice. Back in 2021, scientists from the Kyoto University—who will also be involved in future human trials —discovered a monoclonal antibody (a technique usually used in fighting cancer) that disrupted the interaction between USAG-1 and molecules known as bone morphogenetic protein, or BMP.

“We knew that suppressing USAG-1 benefits tooth growth. What we did not know was whether it would be enough,” Kyoto University’s Katsu Takahashi, a co-author of the study, said in a press statement at the time . “Ferrets are diphyodont animals with similar dental patterns to humans.”

Now, scientists will see just how similar, because humans will soon undergo a similar trial in September of this year. Lasting 11 months, this study will focus on 30 males between the ages of 30 and 64—each missing at least one tooth. The drug will be administered intravenously to prove its effectiveness and safety, and luckily, no side effects have been reported in previous animal studies.

If all goes well, Kitano Hospital will administer the treatment to patients between the ages of 2 to 7 who are missing at least four teeth, with the end goal of having a tooth-regrowing medicine available by the year 2030. While these treatments are currently focused on patients with congenital tooth deficiency, Takahashi hopes the treatment will be available for anyone who’s lost a tooth.

Darren lives in Portland, has a cat, and writes/edits about sci-fi and how our world works. You can find his previous stuff at Gizmodo and Paste if you look hard enough. 

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Cloning experiments: How to turn one tomato plant into multiple free plants - Saving You Money

• Updated: Jun. 18, 2024, 4:41 p.m. |
• Published: Jun. 18, 2024, 7:01 a.m.

The starts of what will become five free tomato plants I cloned from other plants already growing in my garden. Sean McDonnell, Cleveland.com

• Sean McDonnell, cleveland.com

CLEVELAND, Ohio — It’s mid-June and most vegetable gardeners have already moved on to pruning their tomato plants, instead of transplanting them. It’s far too late in the year to plant more tomato seedlings. Or is it?

One reader’s advice is to turn those pruned “suckers” into new tomato plants. And that’s what I’m working on right now.

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June 19, 2024

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Interaction with insects accelerates plant evolution, research finds

by University of Zurich

A team of researchers at the University of Zurich has discovered that plants benefit from a greater variety of interactions with pollinators and herbivores. Plants that are pollinated by insects and have to defend themselves against herbivores have evolved to be better adapted to different types of soil. The research is published in the journal Nature Communications .

Plants obtain nutrients and water from the soil. Since different soil types differ in their chemical and physical composition, plants need to adapt their physiology to optimize this process on different soil types.

This evolutionary process leads to the formation of ecotypes, i.e., locally adapted "plant breeds" that differ slightly in appearance and may no longer be easily crossbred. The latter effect is considered to be the first step toward the formation of separate species. The adaptation of crops to local soil types is also crucial for agricultural productivity .

Experiment with bumblebees and aphids

A team of researchers led by biologist Florian Schiestl of the Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany at the University of Zurich has now discovered that the interaction of plants with pollinators and herbivorous insects influences their adaptation to soil types and thus the formation of ecotypes.

In a two-year experiment, about 800 swede plants were grown over 10 generations on different soil types in a greenhouse. One group was pollinated by bumblebees , another by hand; in addition, the plants were cultivated with and without aphids (as herbivores).

At the end of the evolutionary experiment, the researchers investigated the extent to which the plants on the two soil types differed in shape and composition and how well they had adapted to the soil. In terms of shape, it was found that only the plants pollinated by bumblebees showed clear differences between the soil types, while the hand-pollinated plant groups remained largely the same.

Plants pollinated by bumblebees adapt best

When it comes to adaptation to soil types, the researchers even found significant adaptation only in bumblebee-pollinated plants with aphids after the two years of experimental evolution, while no significant adaptation to soil types was observed in the other groups.

The study also identified several genes that may play a critical role in this adaptation process. The results show that biotic interactions can have a strong influence on plants' ability to adapt to abiotic factors and that adaptation is most efficient when plants are exposed to a variety of interactions.

Journal information: Nature Communications

Provided by University of Zurich

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