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101 Fast Food Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Fast food is a popular topic for essays, as it offers a wide range of issues to discuss. From the health impacts of fast food to the environmental consequences of its production, there are countless angles to explore. If you're looking for inspiration for your next essay on fast food, here are 101 topic ideas and examples to get you started:

• The rise of fast food culture in America
• The impact of fast food on childhood obesity
• The economics of the fast food industry
• The environmental impact of fast food packaging
• The ethics of fast food marketing to children
• Fast food and food deserts in low-income communities
• The health risks of consuming fast food regularly
• The history of fast food chains like McDonald's and Burger King
• The relationship between fast food and mental health
• The globalization of fast food chains
• Fast food and its effects on the planet's climate
• The role of fast food in shaping cultural norms around food
• The future of fast food and the rise of plant-based options
• Fast food and its impact on agricultural practices
• The social justice implications of fast food labor practices
• Fast food and its ties to food addiction
• The role of fast food in shaping urban landscapes
• Fast food and its impact on food waste
• The connection between fast food and chronic diseases like diabetes and heart disease
• Fast food and its role in shaping dietary trends
• The influence of fast food on food policy and regulation
• The relationship between fast food and income inequality
• Fast food and its impact on food insecurity
• The cultural appropriation of traditional foods by fast food chains
• The role of fast food in shaping consumer preferences
• Fast food and its influence on food advertising
• The impact of fast food on animal welfare
• The connection between fast food and factory farming
• Fast food and its role in the obesity epidemic
• The marketing tactics used by fast food chains to target children
• The impact of fast food on the gut microbiome
• Fast food and its impact on mental health disorders like depression and anxiety
• The relationship between fast food and sleep disorders
• Fast food and its ties to food insecurity in developing countries
• The role of fast food in shaping dietary patterns in low-income communities
• Fast food and its impact on soil erosion and deforestation
• The connection between fast food and water pollution
• Fast food and its ties to antibiotic resistance
• The influence of fast food on food waste and recycling practices
• Fast food and its impact on marine ecosystems
• The relationship between fast food and foodborne illnesses
• The connection between fast food and the rise of superbugs
• Fast food and its role in shaping consumer demand for convenience
• The impact of fast food on the mental health of food service workers
• Fast food and its ties to income inequality and social mobility
• The role of fast food in shaping dietary trends among millennials
• The connection between fast food and social media influencers
• Fast food and its influence on body image and eating disorders
• The relationship between fast food and food safety regulations
• Fast food and its impact on child labor practices in developing countries
• The connection between fast food and agricultural subsidies
• The influence of fast food on food waste and food loss
• Fast food and its ties to deforestation and habitat destruction
• The impact of fast food on water scarcity and water pollution
• The relationship between fast food and air pollution
• Fast food and its role in shaping consumer demand for convenience and immediacy
• The connection between fast food and the rise of food delivery services
• The influence of fast food on food prices and inflation
• Fast food and its impact on food quality and nutritional value
• The role of fast food in shaping dietary patterns and food preferences
• The relationship between fast food and food insecurity in urban areas
• Fast food and its ties to social inequality and discrimination
• The impact of fast food on mental health and well-being
• The connection between fast food and the rise of food allergies
• The influence of fast food on food waste and food packaging
• Fast food and its role in shaping consumer demand for convenience and speed
• The relationship between fast food and food safety regulations and inspections
• The connection between fast food and the rise of foodborne illnesses and outbreaks
• The influence of fast food on food advertising and marketing
• Fast food and its impact on food access and affordability
• The role of fast food in shaping dietary patterns and food choices
• The relationship between fast food and the rise

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97 Fast Food Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on fast food, ✍️ fast food essay topics for college, 🎓 most interesting fast food research titles, 💡 simple fast food essay ideas, ❓ fast food research questions.

• Causes and Effects of Fast Food: Essay Example
• The Negative Effects of Fast Food: Essay Example
• Target Audience of Fast Food Restaurants’ Web Sites
• McDonalds Fast Food Company Organizational Change
• “Fast Food Nation” by Eric Schlosser
• Wendy’s Fast Food Franchise in the Chinese Market
• Fast Food Popularity in America: Cause and Effect
• Eric Schlosser’s “Fast Food Nation” In the past 40 years, the world of fast food has penetrated even the remote areas of the American society. It was an industry, which had been started by a few hamburgers
• McDonald’s Company: The Flawed Fast Food Tax McDonalds is one of the world’s leading fast food restaurants serving more than 57 million customers daily with branches all over the major cities.
• “Fast Food Nation” the Book by Eric Schlosser In his book Fast Food Nation, Eric Schlosser argues that fast food has greatly influenced American society and culture.
• Fast Food Harmful Effects on Children This paper states that the exposure of children to fast food early on has an adverse effect on them, resulting in the need to prevent the sale of fast food in schools.
• Fast Food Chain Locations, Non-Chain Restaurants and Bars As discussed in prior sections of the report, the competition for Moma Monaz can be distinguished into three categories: fast food chain locations, non-chain restaurants, and bars.
• Fast Food Nation: Annotated Bibliography Zepeda’s Bad Choices in Our Food System book explores how the food system, including relevant policies in the US, influences consumer food choices.
• McDonald’s: How Strategic Choices Shape Fast Food Supremacy This paper will focus on McDonald’s corporation’s business and corporate-level strategies, competitive environment, and market cycles.
• Eating Fast Food and Obesity Correlation Analysis The proposed study will attempt to answer the question of what is the relationship between eating fast food and obesity, using correlation analysis.
• How the Fast Food Industry Has Changed the Environment and the Health of American Society? More and more Americans eat fast food and since it is relatively inexpensive, tastes good and can be ordered and consumed quickly, fast food has become the national diet.
• The American Diet Influenced by Fast Food Ads McDonald’s is the largest provider of food services worldwide. It is one of the most well-known and reputable companies in the world, with a multi-level marketing campaign.
• Fast Food Addiction: Comparison of Articles Both presented articles argue the harmfulness of fast food, but the scientific article provides evidence of the existence of healthy fast food.
• McDonald’s: Fast Food Company’s Marketing Analysis McDonald’s will continue to develop as a fast-food retailer as long as it capitalizes on its strengths and takes advantage of the opportunities given by its operating environment.
• “Fast Food Nation”: The Development of the Food Industry in the USA In chapters 5-10, “Fast Food Nation” addresses a range of important issues that surround the development of the food industry in the United States of America.
• Firefly Burger Fast Food Marketing Plan The project aims to examine the internal and external environments that affect the success of Firefly restaurant and the need for changing its marketing strategy.
• Fast Food Restaurants in the US Convenient locations play a critical role in the success of fast-food kiosks. These points include the busy commercial strips, shopping malls, and high-traffic areas.
• Fast Food and Health Relations Fast food is a way of life for those who look for a quick and cheap alternative to homemade food. What diseases fast food may cause.
• Neighborhood Deprivation and Exposure to Fast Food in a Large Rural Area A review of an article “Focusing on fast food restaurants alone underestimates the relationship between neighborhood deprivation and exposure to fast food in a large rural area”.
• Is Fast Food Really Harmful and Can It Be Healthy? The aim of the paper is to evaluate the factors, associated with fast food alternatives and challenges, which may arise while implementing healthy fast food.
• White Thinking Hat Fast Food: Overview According to the Minnesota Attorney General’s Office guide “Fast Food Facts”, fast food is popular because it is convenient, predictable, and fast.
• The Fast Food Restaurants History in the United States Fast foods are often associated with recent times but when one reads Nicholas Howe’s “Fast Food America” it is easy to see that fast food joins have existed since the early 1990s.
• Fast Food Nation: Business Analysis Unless a company specifically lists the source of its natural ingredients on the label, the consumer is left without a clue.
• Fast Food as a Cause of Obesity in the US and World In the contemporary rapidly developing world people are always on the move. They want to save time whenever it is possible.
• Fast Food Consumption and Obesity Severity: Key Findings The scholars attempt to determine the influence of various behavioral factors on the degree of obesity. This is the main research question that the authors strive to examine.
• Nutrition: Causes and Effects of Fast Food In modern world productions of fast food and access to take-out combined with little exercise have raised very many health concerns.
• America’s Obsession With Fast Food and Its Effects on the Population
• Childhood Obesity and Unhappiness: The Influence of Soft Drinks and Fast Food Consumption
• Fast Food Restaurants in Guyana Do More Harm Than Good
• Big Fast Food Chains: What Are They Trying to Hide From You?
• Political, Social, and Legal Factors That Affect McDonald’s Fast Food Outlet and Haveli Restaurant
• Fast Food Eating Places Should Sell Healthier Foodstuff or Become Banished Composition
• Are Fast Food and Junk Food Companies Ethically Responsible for Customers?
• Product Positioning and Competition: The Role of Location in the Fast Food Industry
• Fast Food – The Early Years: Geography and the Growth of a Chain Store in the UK
• Epidemic Upon America’s Youth: Installing Fast Food Outlets in High Schools
• Calorie Overestimation Bias and Fast Food Products
• The Fast Food Industry Has Developed Into Something Bigger
• Fast Food Advertising and Marketing Directed at Children and Adolescents in the US
• Growing Preference for Fast Food and Changing Cuisine Habits Propel Global Condiment Sauces Market
• Fast Food Restaurants and Food Processing Companies Are the Ghost Murderer of Society
• How Eco Activists Take Action Towards the Fast Food Industries
• Fast Food Wars Between Burger Giants McDonald’s and Burger King
• Reasons for the Flourishing of the Fast Food Industry in India
• Fat Content Modulates Rapid Detection of Food: Fast Food and the Japanese Diet
• The Advantages and Disadvantages of Working at a Fast Food Franchise
• The Political Involvement in the Fast Food Industry and Its Impact on the World’s Population
• American Culture’s Infatuation With Fast Food
• Human Resource Strategies for Effective Business: The Fast Food Industry
• Fast Food Advertising Deceives Americans to Obesity
• Are Fast Food Restaurants to Blame for Obesity?
• The Reasons Why Home Cooking Is Better and Healthier Than Fast Food
• Fast Food Nation: Scary Truth About the Fast Food Industry
• Service Innovation Commercialization Factors in the Fast Food Industry
• Brand Prestige and the Mediating Role of Word of Mouth in the Fast Food Industry
• Fast Food and Its Effects on Life Expectancy and Mortality Rates
• Factors That Influence Consumer Buying Behavior for Fast Food at McDonald’s
• Should Fast Food Be Sold Only to People Eighteen and Older?
• Fast Food Restaurants Marketing Strategies Effects on Childhood and Adolescent Obesity
• George Ritzer’s Book “The McDonaldization of Society”: A View of the Domination of the Fast Food Restaurants
• Key Success Factors That Make the Fast Food Business Model Work
• Fast Food: The Unhealthy Combination of Inexpensive and Convenient Food
• How Fast Food Is Changing American Food Culture
• Fast Food Versus Healthy Living: Mcdonald’s Ongoing Battle
• Framing Regulation of Fast Food Advertising in the Australian Print Media
• Food Advertisements and the Role of Fast Food Chains and Food Manufacturers in the Country’s Weight Problem
• How the Fast Food Industry Has Changed From the 1950s to the Present
• Are Fast Food Restaurants the Leading Cause of Obesity?
• Has Fast Food Become Healthier?
• What Are the Key Success Factors That Make the Fast Food Business Model Work?
• How Does Consumer Preference Shift Away From Fast Food?
• Why Isn’t Fast Food Cheaper Than Healthy Food?
• Does Fast Food Have a Possible Connection With Obesity?
• What Marketing Strategies Does McDonald’s Use to Compete With Burger King in the Fast Food Industry?
• How Does Fast Food Affect Our Lives?
• Why Can America Not Just Eliminate Fast Food Restaurants?
• Can Fitness Overcome Fast Food?
• What Retention Strategies Can Be Used by Fast Food Companies?
• How Are Fast Food Advertising and Childhood Obesity Related?
• Why Is the Fast Food Industry Popular With Our Society?
• Should Fast Food Advertisements Be Banned?
• Whether Fast Food Should Be Supported?
• How Has Healthy Living Culture Brought About Changes in the Fast Food Industry?
• What Are the Most Serious Negative Effects of Eating Fast Food?
• How Does Lifestyle Affect the Consumption of Fast Food?
• Should Schools Offer Fast Food?
• What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Slow Food and Fast Food?
• How Did McDonald’s Change Fast Food?
• Should Fast Food Chains Be to Blame for Childhood Obesity?
• What Are the Causes of the Popularity of Fast Food Restaurants?
• How Has the Recession Affected the Fast Food Sector?
• Why Should Americans Eat Less Fast Food?

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This essay topic collection was updated on June 22, 2024 .

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A College Fast-Food Environment and Student Food and Beverage Choices: Developing an Integrated Database to Examine Food and Beverage Purchasing Choices among College Students

Elizabeth f racine, rachel schorno, shafie gholizadeh, morium barakat bably, faizeh hatami, casey stephens, wlodek zadrozny, lisa schulkind.

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Correspondence: [email protected] ; Tel.: +1-915-859-9111

Received 2022 Jan 21; Accepted 2022 Feb 16; Collection date 2022 Feb.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).

Universities typically offer residential students a variety of fast-food dining options as part of the student meal plan. When residential students make fast-food purchases on campus there is a digital record of the transaction which can be used to study food purchasing behavior. This study examines the association between student demographic, economic, and behavioral factors and the healthfulness of student fast-food purchases. The 3781 fast-food items sold at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte from fall 2016 to spring 2019 were given a Fast-Food Health Score. Each student participating in the university meal plan was given a Student Average Fast-Food Health Score; calculated by averaging the Fast-Food Health Scores associated with each food and beverage item the student purchased at a fast-food vendor, concession stand, or convenience store over a semester. This analysis included 14,367 students who generated 1,593,235 transactions valued at $10,757,110. Multivariate analyses were used to examine demographic, economic, and behavioral factors associated with Student Average Fast-Food Health Scores. Being of a low income, spending more money on fast-food items, and having a lower GPA were associated with lower Student Average Fast-Food Health Scores. Future research utilizing institutional food transaction data to study healthy food choices is warranted.

Keywords: emerging adults, food sales data, integrated dataset, healthy food score, university food environment, fast-food restaurants

1. Introduction

College students living on campus are a unique population—transitioning from home to a relatively independent environment. As children age, their eating habits tend to become less healthy and their preferences change, often leading to a greater intake of fast food [ 1 ]. University students report poor dietary intake [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ], and it is well-documented that transitioning to college is associated with excess weight gain [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. The college food environment allows students to determine their own food choices for possibly the first time in their lives as they choose where, when, and what to eat.

In the past 5 years, a number of studies have been published examining the dietary behaviors of college students. Many are conducted in Australia [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ], New Zealand [ 15 , 16 ], and Europe [ 2 , 17 , 18 ]. Poor dietary behaviors among college students are associated with lower academic achievement [ 9 , 19 ], poorer resilience [ 10 ], higher psychological distress [ 10 ], being male [ 2 , 3 , 11 ], being younger [ 12 , 20 ], being less physically active [ 6 , 17 ], and having lower socioeconomic status [ 20 , 21 ].

When college students make food choices, they are often selecting from foods offered on-campus. In the US there are no regulations for the healthfulness of university food environments as there are for public primary and secondary schools [ 22 ]. There are guidelines that universities can choose to follow from organizations such as the Partnership for America [ 23 ] Healthy Campus Initiative and the Menus of Change University Research Collaborative.

A few studies examining college student eating behavior found students that purchased food on-campus more frequently had poorer diet quality [ 13 , 16 , 20 ]. Additional research suggests that much of the food sold on-campus is not healthy [ 15 ]. Students report that there is a lack of tasty, healthy, affordable foods available [ 14 , 15 ]. Yet, it is not clear whether offering healthy food items will ensure selection of those items. A study by Lachat in 2009 assessed the foods purchased in a university dining hall by taking a picture of the student’s food tray once they made their selections from a cafeteria-style food line [ 3 ]. The authors compared the healthfulness of the foods offered at the dining hall to the foods purchased and found that the students purchased the less healthy items on the cafeteria line more frequently than they purchased the healthier items [ 3 ].

College food environment and student food choice research rarely uses food sales data to assess student food choice; except in the case of vending machine research [ 11 ]. Much of the student food research to date relies on student reports via a variety of methods such as surveys [ 11 , 13 , 15 , 17 , 20 ], 24 h recall [ 2 , 18 ], or direct observation [ 3 ].

Many universities and colleges in the United States hire private food service contractors, while others manage their own food service operations. Most colleges offer multiple options for on-campus dining, and the meal plans for students often include both dining hall access and some form of a declining balance funds system. These options allow students to choose between eating their meals at the dining hall and purchasing meals or individual food and beverage items at on-campus fast-food restaurants. At the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, a southeastern urban university, there are over 20 fast-food restaurants, concession stands, and convenience stores on campus, offering over 3700 food and beverage items. There are a variety of fast-food options, including coffee shops such as Starbucks and Peet’s, traditional fast-food restaurants such as Wendy’s and Chick-fil-A, and market-style convenience stores where students can purchase prepackaged sandwiches, snacks, and cooked food to go as well as concession stands that operate during sporting and other campus events. There are also two campus dining halls with all-you-can-eat buffet-style meals. Residential students can use their meal plan to purchase meals at the dining halls or to purchase food and beverage items at fast-food restaurants, concession stands, or convenience stores on campus.

In the United States about 40% of residents between the ages of 18–24 years attend a postsecondary education program; that equates to approximately 15 million college students [ 24 ]. As these students learn to live independently and develop healthy behaviors it is important to examine the role that the college food environment plays in their nutritional development. The purpose of this manuscript study is to determine which demographic, economic, and behavioral factors are associated with the healthfulness of fast-food choices among students attending a large, urban university in the southeastern United States.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. dataset development.

UNC Charlotte Integrated Food Sales Dataset was developed in 2016 by an interdisciplinary team of researchers in the areas of public health, computer science, public policy, and economics. The university division of Auxiliary Services maintains an electronic record of the food and beverage transactions that occur on campus. Students participating in the university meal plan use their student identification (ID) card to purchase food on campus. A student meal plan consists of a certain number of “meal swipes” per semester and a certain amount of “declining balance dollars” (hereafter DBD) per semester. The university offers a few meal plans; each provides a certain number of meal swipes and DBD. A meal swipe is used for a meal at a cafeteria style dining hall that offers the student a wide variety of food and beverage choices and is all-you-can-eat style. DBD are funds that can be used at the fast-food restaurants, concession stands, and convenience stores on campus. This analysis focuses specifically on the purchases made by students using their DBD at the campus fast-food retailers, concession stands, and convenience stores (hereafter referred to as fast food).

Each food or beverage electronic transaction at a university fast-food outlet captures the student’s ID number. This ID number is the same number used to identify the student for a variety of university purposes. The research team worked with the university’s department of Auxiliary Services to acquire the food and beverage transaction data retroactively to fall 2013 and continues to collect transaction data at the end of each academic year.

The food and beverage transaction data include factors regarding student purchases at university-based fast-food restaurants made with their declining balance dollars, such as date and time of transaction, price of item, balance of declining balance account, name of item, and modifications to the item (e.g., no lettuce, extra cheese, etc.).

Once provided with food and beverage transaction data, the research team worked with other university departments to acquire more details about the meal plan students’ demographics, grade point average (GPA), residential environment, income status, and visits to a recreational facility. Additionally, the research team obtained some nutrition information for the food and beverage items ( n = 3781). The US Food and Drug Administration requires all restaurants to have the following nutrition information available to customers, hereafter referred to as FDA Restaurant Nutrients: total calories, calories from fat, total fat in grams, saturated fat in grams, trans fat in milligrams, cholesterol in milligrams, sodium in milligrams, total carbohydrates in grams, fiber in grams, sugars in grams, protein in grams. The nutrition information for food and beverage items was acquired from the campus food service registered dietitian, as well as from the campus retailer official websites. A separate dataset was built containing all the food and beverage items available at the fast-food restaurants, concession stands, and convenience stores on campus during the time the sales data were collected and linked the nutrient information to each item.

To estimate the healthfulness of the food and beverage items, the research team used the nutrition information described above to construct the Fast-Food Health Score. The Fast-Food Health Score applies dietary recommendations from the 2020–2025 US Dietary Guidelines for Americans for total fat, saturated fat, total carbohydrates, fiber, protein; the 2005 National Institute of Medicine Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate for sodium, and the World Health Organization Guideline: sugar guidelines, Table 1 [ 24 , 25 ]. Virtually no food and beverage items included trans fat, therefore the Fast-Food Health Score does not include a component for trans fat [ 24 ]. The nutrients in the food or beverage item are evaluated in relation to the item’s calories. Each food and beverage item were evaluated on a seven-point scale. A food or beverage received one point for each of the seven FDA Restaurant Nutrient attributes classified as healthy. A nutritional component was classified as healthy if the amount of that nutrient in the food or beverage fell within recommended standards for a healthy diet, as shown in Table 1 . The greater the number of points (ranging 0–7) on the Fast-Food Health Score (FFHS) scale the healthier the food or beverage item.

Fast-Food Health Score (FFHS) Algorithm.

1 Number of Food and Beverage Items scored = 3781.

UNC Charlotte Integrated Food Sales Dataset includes 16 semesters of data (fall 2013–spring 2021). However, the data presented here includes six semesters (fall 2016, spring 2017, fall 2017, spring 2018, fall 2018, and spring 2019); these are the semesters that include information on Bojangles purchases, a popular new fast-food restaurant on campus, information on the recreational facility use visits, and complete dietary score measures. Data from fall 2019 to spring 2021 are not included for a few reasons (1) data cleaning is not complete for these semesters, and (2) university food sales operations changed temporarily because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, the number of students living on-campus decreased by two-thirds, many of the fast-food restaurants closed, and the ordering process moved from face-to-face to online only.

2.2. Setting/Participants

UNC Charlotte is a large urban university in the southeastern US. The cost of attendance is about $24,000 per year, similar to other public universities in the US [ 26 ]. UNC Charlotte serves a diverse student population by income level, first generation attending college status and race/ethnicity [ 27 ]. Residential and some commuter students at the university purchase meal plans. Freshman students who live on campus are required to purchase a meal plan, as are upper-class students living in residential halls that do not contain a kitchen area. These students are allowed to choose from meal plans that include varying quantities of meal swipes and DBD. Both the card swipes on the purchased meal plans and the DBD expire at the end of each semester, and do not carry over for winter or summer breaks. Most students in the study data are between the ages of 17 and 22.

Approximately 5500 students are participating in the meal plan per semester; representing approximately 20% of all students enrolled at the university. The study population consists of all students attending the university who purchased a meal plan for at least one semester during the academic years 2016 through to 2019. Many students participate in the meal plan for multiple semesters. If a student is enrolled in the meal plan for three semesters, information for that student (GPA, Student Average Fast Food Score, residence hall, etc.) is recorded as a unique observation for each semester. In the current study, 35,449 total student observations represent 14,367 unique students.

2.3. Measurement

The outcome variable in this study is the Student Average Fast-Food Health Score (Student Average FFHS) that has been calculated for each student by averaging the FFHS for each of the food and beverage items purchased at fast-food venues for that semester. This score is averaged for the purchases at outlets (fast food, concession, convenience) using DBD only; it does not include the food consumed at dining halls, as there are no current means of obtaining the exact food and beverages a student selected when using meal plan swipes due to the buffet style dining hall environment.

Independent variables are categorized as demographic, economic, and behavioral. Demographic variables are race/ethnicity as categorized by the university (African American, Asian or Pacific islander, Hispanic, White, or any other race) [ 28 ], International student (yes/no), and age [ 28 ]. Economic variables are being low income, measured by Federal Pell Grant recipient status (yes/no) [ 29 ] and money (measured in dollars) spent on fast food in a semester (continuous) [ 30 ]. Behavioral variables are semester grade point average (0–4) [ 31 , 32 ], frequency of dining hall use over a semester (continuous) [ 33 ], and average frequency of visits to a recreational center over a semester (continuous) [ 34 ].

2.4. Data Analysis

An FFHS was calculated for the 3781 food and beverage items purchased throughout the fall 2016-spring 2019 academic years. The average and median scores were also calculated. The Student Average FFHS was calculated for 35,449 student observations.

Descriptive statistics are presented for the complete population of students and stratified by sex. To address the primary research question, to determine which demographic, economic, and behavioral factors are associated with the healthfulness of fast-food choices among students participating in the meal plan, we used multiple linear regression models with heteroscedastic variances inversely proportional to the number of food items purchased by each student. The models included the Student Average FFHS as the dependent variable, and the independent variables listed above. All analyses used a significance level of p < 0.05, and all data were analyzed using R.

The distribution of Student Average FFH Scores for the 35,449 student observations is presented in Figure 1 . The distribution of the 3781 food and beverage items purchased throughout the fall 2016-spring 2019 academic years is presented in Figure 2 . Most food and beverage items had a FFHS of 2 or 3. Here are examples of food and beverage items by score: Monster Energy Drink 16 oz had a score of 0, Bojangles Sausage Biscuit had a score of 1, Chik-fil-A Fried Chicken Delux had a score of 2, Peete’s Bagel and Cream Cheese had a score of 3, Wendy’s Smoky Honey Mustard Flatbread Chicken Sandwich had a score of 4, Subway Buffalo Chicken 12” sandwich had a score of 5, and the Peet’s Turkey Sandwich on Wheat Bread had a score of 6.

Student Average Fast-food Health Food and Beverage Score by Sex, N = 35,449.

Distribution of food and beverage items (N = 3781) by Fast-Food Health Score.

Between fall 2016 and spring 2019, meal plan students spent $10,757,110 with DBD generated from 1,593,235 transactions. Table 2 shows the characteristics of the students in the study. Students spent on average $303 per semester with DBD. Most students self-identified as White (59%) or African American (22%). Half of the students (54%) had a GPA of 3.01–4.0. Finally, 33% of students on the meal plan were low income ( Table 2 ). Bivariate analyses confirm that the mean Student Average FFH score for females is slightly higher than the mean Student’s Average FFH score for males (2.87 compared to 2.82, with p ≤ 0.0001), Figure 2 .

Student Average Fast-Food Healthy Food and Beverage Score (FFHS) and Student Demographic, Economic, and Behavioral Characteristics 2016–2019, Stratified by Sex N = 35,449.

In adjusted analyses ( Table 3 ), females and males with a higher GPA and visiting the dining hall more frequently were associated with having a higher Student Average FFHS. Spending more money on fast food and being low income were associated with a lower Student Average FFHS. Compared to White students, African American and Other race/ethnicity students had a lower Student Average FFHS.

The Association between Demographic, Economic, and Behavioral Factors and Students’ Average Fast-Food Health Score (FFHS), N = 35,449.

** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.

Differences by sex were found in the areas of age, recreational facility visits, international student status, and race/ethnicity. Visiting the recreational facilities more frequently was associated with a lower Student Average FFHS among females yet a higher Student Average FFHS among males. Being older was associated with a lower Student Average FFHS for females and a higher Score for males. Asian and Hispanic males had a higher Student Average FFHS compared to White males. Among female students, no difference in Student Average FFHS was found between White, Asian/Pacific Islander, and Hispanic students. Male international students had lower Student Average FFHS compared to noninternational male students. No difference in Student Average FFHS was found between international and non-international female students.

4. Discussion

This study describes the development of the UNC Charlotte Integrated Food Sales Dataset. A Fast-Food Health Score was generated for the food and beverages sold. Then, the Fast-Food Health Scores for all the items purchased over a semester were averaged for each student, resulting in a Student Average Fast-Food Health Score. Multivariate analyses examined the demographic, economic, and behavioral factors associated with Student Average Fast-Food Health Score.

To our knowledge, UNC Charlotte is the first university in the US to utilize student food sales data to better understand the food purchasing behaviors of college students. The majority of research examining college student food purchasing behavior used student self-reported data [ 12 , 14 , 15 , 17 , 20 ]. This study provides an alternative source of dietary choice information that can be used to assess student preferences, assess the impact of food environment or policy changes on food purchasing behavior, or evaluate the impact of nutrition education interventions.

An algorithm was constructed utilizing nutrition information that the FDA requires restaurants to have available to customers to construct the Fast-Food Health Score. Further research to examine the utility of the FFHS among public health nutrition researchers and practitioners is warranted.

Similar to previous research, we found that the healthfulness of many food items sold on campus was poor [ 3 ], and the healthfulness of most food items purchased was also poor [ 3 ]. The majority of food and beverage items fall within the Fast-Food Health Score of 2–3. This parallels closely with the Student Average Fast-Food Health Score of approximately 2.8. If the number of fast-food items with higher Fast-Food Health Scores increased, would the Student Average Fast-Food Health Score also increase? Further research to study this would be useful.

As the students aged, the Student Average Fast-Food Health Scores decreased for females yet increased for males. Previous research found that older students had better diet quality measures yet did not stratify their analyses by sex [ 11 , 20 ]. It would be useful to follow young adults’ diet quality more closely as they develop from their late teens through to mid-20s, to better understand the relationship between development and dietary choice. Additionally, among both males and females, the more funds used to purchase fast-food items, the lower Student Average Fast-Food Health Scores. This finding is consistent with previous research [ 12 , 14 , 16 , 17 ]. Further research to examine the relationship between frequency of food intake and diet quality may be warranted. It may be that students that utilize on-campus food sources more frequently have less food preparation knowledge, or poorer time management or financial management skills. However, it is interesting that the students that used the dining hall facilities more frequently had higher Student Average FFHS. These students may be more health conscious and therefore prefer the buffet style foods in the dining halls which may have more healthy options. Then, when they do use their DBD, they select relatively healthy foods compared to other students.

Consistent with previous research [ 2 , 3 , 12 , 17 ], our study found that males had a lower Student Average Fast-Food Health Score compared to females. However, while the difference was statistically significant the scores were low for both males and females. Our study found that a greater academic achievement (higher GPA) was associated with higher Student Average FFHS among both male and female students. This finding is consistent with previous research [ 9 , 19 ]. Are students that are stronger academically better educated about nutrition and more attentive to food choice? Or does healthier dietary intake help students academically? More research is needed to understand this relationship.

A few factors influencing Student Average FFS differed by sex. For instance, more visits to the recreational center were associated with lower Student Average Fast-Food Health Score among females yet higher Scores among males. To our knowledge, the relationship between physical activity frequency and diet quality among university students by sex has not been previously reported. However, research by Sprake and colleagues (2018) found that higher levels of physical activity were associated with better diet quality. Additionally, the finding that international students that were male had lower Student Average FFHS compared to non-international male students is interesting. How different is the US college food environment compared to other countries? How do international students react to a typical US college food environment? Further research could help us understand the extent to which an individual’s dietary choices change when their environment changes. For example, when transferring from student status in one country to another.

There were limitations to this study. The study may not be generalizable to students attending other colleges or universities, particularly those in other countries. Students purchasing a meal plan at UNC Charlotte may be different on both observables and unobservable facets compared to UNC Charlotte students not purchasing a meal plan. Students may make healthier food choices in the dining hall venues. We did not have information regarding the food selected by students in the main dining halls on campus. Additionally, the dataset may not capture all fast-food purchases; particularly purchases made with alternate forms of payment, such as cash or credit card or purchases made at restaurants off campus. The nutrition information used to generate the Fast-Food Health Score was limited to seven nutrients, those required by the FDA, so future research linking fast-food items to more nutrients may be useful.

This study had several strengths. The study uses a novel data source. The analysis includes all the students that participated in the university meal plan. Our study also had a relatively equal balance of male and female students and includes a diverse population of students by income and race/ethnicity. We used food sales data to estimate diet quality as opposed to student self-reporting. Our study utilized sales data captured from over 20 fast-food restaurants

5. Conclusions

While there were factors that were either positively or negatively associated with Student Average FFHS, the differences attributable to these factors were small. Highlighting the finding that most of students’ scores were quite low regardless of student characteristics. Public health nutrition faculty based at colleges and universities are encouraged to work with university administration to assess the campus food environment, suggest modifications, then measure the impact of those modifications on food purchasing behavior and student health and well-being.

Colleges serve a large number of people, including students as well as faculty and staff. As more and more university operation systems leave an electronic record, there are a number of food environment research opportunities available. Other universities are encouraged to develop databases similar to the UNC Charlotte Integrated Food Sales database to study the impact of environmental, policy, operations, and demographic changes on dietary choice.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.F.R. and R.S.; methodology, S.G. and E.F.R.; data integration, S.G. and W.Z; formal analysis, R.S., R.P., F.H.; writing—original draft preparation, R.S., M.B.B. and E.F.R.; writing—review and editing, R.S., E.F.R., C.S., S.G., W.Z., M.B.B., F.H., R.P. and L.S.; supervision, E.F.R. funding acquisition, E.F.R., W.Z. and R.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research was funded by the UNC Charlotte Data Science Initiative Analytics for Social Good Program 2016.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical review and approval were waived for this study, as the analysis did not meet the definition of human subject research.

Informed Consent Statement

Participant consent was waived due to the administrative nature of the data.

Data Availability Statement

The data supporting the conclusions of this study are available upon reasonable request and under the supervision of Wlodek Zadrozny.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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• Published: 27 October 2020

Food and Health

Trends in the healthiness of U.S. fast food meals, 2008–2017

• Eleanore Alexander   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8998-4186 1 ,
• Lainie Rutkow 1 ,
• Kimberly A. Gudzune 2 , 3 ,
• Joanna E. Cohen 4 , 5 &
• Emma E. McGinty 1  

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition volume  75 ,  pages 775–781 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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• Cardiovascular diseases
• Risk factors

This study aimed to examine trends in the healthiness of U.S. fast food restaurant meals from 2008 to 2017, using the American Heart Association’s Heart-Check meal certification criteria.

Data were obtained from MenuStat, an online database of the leading 100 U.S. restaurant chains menu items, for the years 2008 and 2012 through 2017. All possible meal combinations (entrées + sides) were created at the 20 fast food restaurants that reported entrée and side calories, total fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, protein, and fiber. Chi-square tests compared the percent of meals meeting each American Heart Association (AHA) nutrient criterion; and the number of AHA criteria met for each year, by menu focus type.

Compared with 2008, significantly fewer fast food meals met the AHA calorie criterion in 2015, 2016, and 2017, and significantly fewer met the AHA total fat criterion in 2015 and 2016. Significantly more meals met the AHA trans fat criterion from 2012 to 2017, compared to 2008. There were no significant changes over time in the percent of meals meeting AHA criteria for saturated fat, cholesterol, or sodium.

Conclusions

Efforts to improve the healthiness of fast food meals should focus on reducing calories, total fat, saturated fat, and sodium.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene for the MenuStat data.

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Eleanore Alexander, Lainie Rutkow & Emma E. McGinty

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Alexander, E., Rutkow, L., Gudzune, K.A. et al. Trends in the healthiness of U.S. fast food meals, 2008–2017. Eur J Clin Nutr 75 , 775–781 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-020-00788-z

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Culinary and Food Research Topics: 100 Tasty Ideas for Students

The world of food is intriguing because of how it permeates every aspect of our life. In today’s fast-paced digital world, processed and fast food have risen to become the dominant options in the culinary scene.

The convenience of these choices is appealing, but they have also raised some health concerns. Therefore, it is crucial to look into food research paper topics. Research in this area is very important for a variety of reasons, including ensuring food safety, understanding the effects of the food industry, and discovering new sources of healthy food.

Here, we explore the varied world of food to provide you with some interesting research paper topics on this fascinating subject.

Food Research Paper Topics on Nutrition

Understanding the effects of food on our health requires extensive research on nutrition-related subjects. Included in the broad category of food research paper topics are issues like food safety, fast food, organic food, and even the food industry.

Exploring this topic via study helps us learn more about healthy food options, food science, and dietary practices. In addition, Edusson writing service can offer professionally written research papers on these subjects, with reliable sources and organized analysis.

• The Role of Dietary Fiber in Preventing Chronic Diseases.
• The Impact of Fast Food Restaurants on Eating Habits and Nutritional Intake Across Age Groups.
• Prevalence and Causes of Food Allergies in the Modern Population.
• Fast Food Intake and the Risk of Obesity and Chronic Diseases.
• Nutritional Education on Food Choices and Dietary Habits.
• Effects of Food Poisoning Outbreaks on Consumer Trust in the Fast Food Industry.
• Factors Influencing Food Safety Practices in Fast Food Establishments.
• Investigating the Impact of Organic Foods on Human Nutrition
• Organic Food Versus Conventionally Grown Food in Terms of Nutritional Value.
• Relationship Between Junk Food Consumption and Mental Health Outcomes.

Research Paper Topics on Food Safety and Quality Control

Topics for food research papers on food safety and quality control are very important for resolving issues in the food industry, as a whole. These discussions dive into food science and other related fields to find solutions to problems with food quality and safety.

A safer food system and greater public health are the direct results of research paper efforts to identify potential risks, and strengthen relevant laws. Listed below are some suggestions for research paper topics on the subjects of Food Safety and Quality Control:

• Investigating the Relationship Between Food Allergies and Food Safety Measures.
• Junk Food Intake on Food Safety Standards.
• Quality Control Systems in the Food Industry.
• The Role of Food Science in Enhancing Food Safety and Quality.
• Nutritional Profile and Safety of Fast Foods.
• Food Safety Regulations on the Fast Food Sector.
• Food Safety Measures and Waste Reduction.
• Food Safety and Quality Control in Preventing Foodborne Illnesses.
• Consumer Perceptions of Organic Foods and Food Safety.
• Food Safety Practices and Food Industry Sustainability.

Culinary Traditions and cultural heritage

Food research paper topics on culinary traditions and cultural heritage include a society’s history, values, and identity via food customs and recipes. Culinary research paper topics are important because they show how food has influenced different civilizations and foster understanding.

Fast food’s health impacts, food science, human nutrition, and overlooked regional cuisines are research paper topics in this area. Explore the paper topics samples below to help spark ideas for your next research paper:

• Culinary Traditions in Preserving Cultural Identity.
• Rediscovering Forgotten Culinary Traditions.
• Traditional Diets and Nutrition.
• Protecting Culinary Traditions and Intangible Cultural Heritage.
• Diaspora Food Traditions: Migrant Food Practices.
• Cultural Appropriation vs. Culinary Appreciation.
• From Antiquity to the Present: A History of Food and Cooking.
• The Impact of Globalization on Culinary Traditions
• Impact of Colonial Powers on Indigenous Food Practices.
• Culinary Traditions and Generational Shifts: Examining Age-Related Food Preferences and Preparation Methods.

Food Systems and Policy

The terms food systems and food policies refer to the intricate webs of relationships and rules that shape the food supply chain from farm to fork. Writing about food topics for research paper is important for a number of reasons. It aids policymakers in their quest for long-term, equitable answers to problems including fast food, junk food, food poisoning, and food science. Investigating food research paper topics in this field can  help us encourage constructive improvements to our food systems.

• Food Systems and Policies in Addressing Food Insecurity and Hunger.
• Organic Food Policies and Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Conservation.
• The Role of Government Regulations in Reducing Food Wastage Throughout the Supply Chain.
• Food Systems and the Promotion of Human Nutrition and Well-Being.
• Suggested Policies to Tackle Food Addiction and the Unhealthy Consumption of Junk Foods.
• Economic Implications of Organic Food Production and Marketing.
• Psychological Factors Contributing to Food Addiction and Its Implications for Policy.
• Possible Policies on Food Technologies on the Quality and Safety of Processed Foods.
• Agricultural Subsidies on Food Security and Sustainability.
• Social and Economic Implications of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) in the Food System.

Culinary Innovations

Innovations in the kitchen are major steps forward for the food industry. They feature deviations from conventional cooking in the ways of method, ingredients, and presentation. Researching food related topics in this field is essential for making advances in fast food, the culinary arts, and other related fields. Improved food quality, sustainability, and health are all possible outcomes of selecting a food research paper topic in this field.

Exploring food research paper topics in this field helps us find ways to improve our diets and have more enjoyable dining experiences. Here are some examples of culinary arts research paper topics to get you thinking about your own research topic about food;

• Culinary Innovations and Healthy Fast Foods
• Plant-Based and Vegan Culinary Innovations: A Growing Trend in The Food Industry
• Culinary Innovations on Fast Food Employee Training and Skill Development
• Role of Molecular Gastronomy in Culinary Innovations
• Sustainability and Culinary Innovations: Exploring Eco-Friendly Food Production
• Culinary Innovations in Food Packaging and Preservation
• Role of Food Science in Culinary Innovations: From Molecules to Dishes
• Social and Environmental Implications of Culinary Innovations in Fast Food Industry
• Culinary Innovations in Food Education
• Nutritional Implications of Culinary Innovations in Fast Food Menu Items

Food and psychology, consumer behavior

The interesting relationship between food and our minds is explored in food research topics on psychology and consumer behavior. This research examines mental, emotional, and sensory variables that influence human diets, such as the media’s effect on fast food intake.

Food related research topics in this discipline aim to understand consumer behavior and create effective ways to promote healthier eating choices. The effects of social media on eating habits and the psychology of food cravings are among the many food research paper topics available.

• Fast Food Packaging Design on Consumer Perception and Purchase Behavior.
• Sensory Marketing and Its Influence on Food Choices and Consumer Behavior.
• Psychological Factors that Drive Food Intake During Times of Stress.
• Social Media and Its Influence on Food Choices and Eating Behaviors.
• Food Advertising and Its Effects on Children’s Food Preferences and Consumption Patterns.
• Food Neophobia in Shaping Consumer Attitudes and Behaviors Towards New Food Products.
• Understanding Its Influence on Dietary Choices and Well-Being.
• Food Imagery and Visual Cues in Shaping Consumer Perceptions and Preferences.
• The Effects of Different Labeling Strategies on Consumer Behavior.
• Mood and Emotions in Food-Related Decision-Making and Consumption Behaviors.

Research Topics on Food Science

Among the many things that go under the umbrella of food science topics are nutritional analysis, sensory assessment, and various methods of safety and preservation of food. Improving food quality, addressing new issues, and creating novel solutions all need more study in this field.

If you’re interested in making a significant contribution to the development of food science, consulting a research paper guide might be a great resource for doing so. The following are some examples of potential food science research topics:

• Food Processing Techniques on Nutrient Retention and Bioavailability.
• Exploring the Potential Health Benefits of Functional Foods Fortified with Probiotics.
• Factors Influencing Consumer Acceptance of Genetically Modified (GM) Foods.
• Role of Antioxidants in Preventing Food Deterioration and Extending Product Shelf Life.
• Fast Food Production Practices on Food Safety and Microbial Contamination.
• Potential of Plant-Based Proteins as a Sustainable Alternative to Animal-Based Proteins.
• Nutritional Composition and Health Benefits of Traditional Fermented Foods.
• The Role of Food Additives in the Development of Food Allergies and Intolerances
• Food Storage Conditions and the Formation of Harmful Substances, Such as Acrylamide and Aflatoxins
• Fast Food Packaging Materials and The Migration of Harmful Chemicals Into Food Products

Argumentative Food Research Topics

In the realm of argumentative food research, a wide variety of controversial food topics are examined and argued. This field lays the groundwork for food argumentative essay ideas, allowing us to dive into the nuances of food-related problems and examine their effects on people, the planet, and agriculture.

Delving into argumentative essay topics about food, allows us to learn more about the pros and cons of various dietary options. Our selection of theme ideas might assist, whether you’re looking for fast food argumentative essay topics or more traditional food arguments topics.

• Should Genetically Modified Crops Be Embraced or Banned? Assessing the Implications for Agriculture and Food Security.
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and Human Health: Examining the Evidence and Debunking Misconceptions
• Sugar Consumption on Obesity and Chronic Diseases: Is Sugar the Main Culprit?
• Organic vs. Conventional Farming: Evaluating the Environmental and Health Implications
• Benefits and Drawbacks of Meat Consumption: Is a Plant-Based Diet Superior?
• Fast Food Chains and the Global Obesity Epidemic: Is Regulation the Solution?
• Are Food Allergens Safe and Health?
• Is the Western Diet Responsible for The Rise in Chronic Diseases? Investigating the Link Between Diet and Health Conditions.
• Should Food Education Be a Mandatory Part of the School Curriculum? Assessing the Importance of Nutrition Knowledge for Children.
• Is There a Connection Between Food Insecurity and Obesity? Investigating the Paradoxical Relationship and Potential Solutions.

Interesting Food Research Paper Topics for College/University Projects

There is a plethora of interesting food topics available in the realm of food research, making it ideal for use in academic writing. Students that are interested in nutrition, food science, sustainability, and the culinary arts can find many food topics to research to investigate.

To better understand food-related concerns, boost public health, and tackle global difficulties like food security, research topics about food are crucial. Buying research papers for sale might be helpful for students looking for both speed and quality. It helps them save time, gives them access to articles produced by experts, and provides useful information that may direct their own studies.

• Relationship between Dietary Patterns and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors.
• Cultural and Social Significance of Traditional Foods in Different Ethnic Communities.
• Impact of Climate Change on Food Production and Global Food Security.
• Relationship between Food Allergies and the Gut Microbiome.
• School-based Nutrition Interventions on Students’ Dietary Behaviors and Academic Performance.
• Relationship between Food Wastage and Environmental Sustainability.
• Genetic Engineering in Food Production: Benefits, Risks, and Ethical Considerations.
• Potential Health Benefits of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals.
• Food Additives and Human Health.
• Safety and Efficacy of Novel Food Ingredients and Food Supplements.

Food Sustainability and Waste Reduction

The food industry is an important framework in which to consider the themes of food sustainability and waste reduction. They are concerned with the sustainability of our food system, including its production, distribution, and consumption.

Researching the problems associated with fast food and related themes, such as fast food research topics or fast food essay topics, is crucial. We can reduce food waste, save resources, and build a more resilient food system for future generations if we work together to find new ways to do things and get the word out.

• Analyzing the Role of Technology in Reducing Food Wastage.
• Organic Farming and How It Fosters Reducing Food Wastage.
• Packaging Design and Minimizing Food Wastage.
• Promoting Sustainable Diets for Reducing Environmental Impact.
• The Impact of Food Wastage on Greenhouse Gas Emissions.
• Economic Implications of Food Waste Reduction.
• Potential of Edible Food Packaging Materials.
• Sustainable Approaches to Managing Food Surplus.
• Sustainable Strategies for Reducing Food Loss During Transportation.
• The Efficiency of Composting Systems for Food Management.

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• Open access
• Published: 04 June 2020

Satisfaction and revisit intentions at fast food restaurants

• Amer Rajput 1 &
• Raja Zohaib Gahfoor 2  

Future Business Journal volume  6 , Article number:  13 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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This study is to identify the positive association of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction with revisit intention of customers at fast food restaurants. Additionally, word of mouth is investigated as moderator on the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intentions of customers at fast food restaurants. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey from 433 customers of fast food restaurants through convenience sampling. Hypotheses of proposed model were tested using structural equation modeling with partial least squares SEM-PLS in SMART PLS 3. The results confirmed the positive association of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction with revisit intentions of customers at fast food restaurants. However, word of mouth does not positively moderate the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intentions of customers at fast food restaurants. This study emphasizes the importance of revisit intention as a vital behavioral reaction in fast food restaurants. This study reveals revisit intention’s positive association with food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction based on stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) theory. Furthermore, it is identified that social conformity theory does not hold its assumption when consumers experience quality and they are satisfied because word of mouth does not moderate the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention of customer.

Introduction

Background of the study.

Hospitality industry is observing diversified changes in highly competitive environment for restaurants [ 1 ]. Consumers are becoming conscious of food quality (FQ), restaurant service quality (RSQ), and physical environment quality (PEQ) of the fast food restaurants. Consumers switch easily in case of just one evasive experience [ 2 , 3 ]. Fast food restaurants must attract new customers and retain the existing customers. There is a growing trend in Pakistani culture to dine out at fast food restaurants with family, friends, and colleagues [ 4 ]. Restaurants focus to provide a dining experience by combining tangible and intangible essentials [ 5 ]. Decisive objective is to achieve customer satisfaction (CS), word of mouth (WOM), and future revisit intention (RVI) at fast food restaurant.

Restaurants differ in offerings, appearance, service models, and cuisines; this classifies restaurants as downscale and upscale [ 6 , 7 ]. Revisit intention is the willingness of a consumer to revisit a place due to satisfactory experience. Customer satisfaction generates a probability to revisit in presence or absence of an affirmative attitude toward the restaurant [ 8 ]. Revisit intention is a substantial topic in hospitality research [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. To date there has been little agreement on that word of mouth can affect revisit intention after experience of customer satisfaction. For instance, when a customer is satisfied at a fast food restaurant experience, however, the customer’s family and friends do not share the same satisfying experience. Will this word of mouth affect the customer’s revisit intention? Food quality is acknowledged as a basic component of the restaurant’s overall experience to affect consumer revisit intention. Fast food quality is substantially associated with customer satisfaction and it is an important predictor of behavioral intention [ 11 ]. Service quality is an essential factor to produce consumers’ revisit intentions [ 12 ]. Furthermore, physical environment quality affects behavior of consumers at restaurants, hotels, hospitals, retail stores, and banks [ 13 ]. Physical environment quality is a precursor of customer satisfaction [ 9 ]. This suggests that customer satisfaction is associated with fast food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and revisit intention.

Aims of the study

This study is to investigate the association of fast food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality with customer’s revisit intention through mediation of customer satisfaction using S-O-R theory and moderation of word of mouth on the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention based on social conformity theory. This study empirically tests a conceptual research framework based on S-O-R and social conformity theory adding value to the knowledge. Objectives of the study are given below.

To investigate the association of fast food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality with revisit intention through customer satisfaction based on S-O-R theory in the context of Pakistani fast food restaurants.

To investigate moderation of WOM on relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention based on social conformity theory in the context of Pakistani fast food restaurants.

Furthermore, little empirical evidence is present about customer satisfaction with respect to fast food restaurant service quality [ 14 ]. Customer satisfaction is a post-consumption assessment in service industry. Customer satisfaction acts as the feedback mechanism to boost consumer experience [ 15 ]. Customer satisfaction brings competitive advantage to the firm and produces positive behavioral revisit intention [ 16 ]. Marketing literature emphasizes customer satisfaction in anticipation of positive word of mouth, revisit intention, and revisit behavior [ 5 ]. Behavioral intention is assessed through positive WOM, and it is important in service industry [ 15 ], whereas social influence in shape of WOM affects the behavior of individuals toward conformity leading to a driving effect based on social conformity theory [ 17 ].

• Food quality

Food quality plays a central role in the restaurant industry. Food quality is essential to satisfy consumer needs. Food quality is a substantial condition to fulfill the needs and expectations of the consumer [ 18 ]. Food quality is acknowledged as a basic component of the restaurant’s overall experience. Food quality is a restaurant selection’s most important factor, and it is considerably related to customer satisfaction [ 11 ]. Food quality affects customer loyalty, and customer assesses the restaurant on the basis of food quality [ 19 ]. Food quality entails food taste, presentation, temperature, freshness, nutrition, and menu variety. Food quality influences customers’ decisions to revisit the restaurant [ 20 ]. Academic curiosity is increasing in the restaurant’s menus, as variety of menu items is considered the critical characteristic of food quality [ 11 ]. Taste is sensual characteristic of food. Taste is assessed after consumption. Nonetheless, customers foresee taste before consumption through price, quality, food labels, and brand name. Taste of food is important to accomplish customer satisfaction. Presentation of food enhances dining customer satisfaction [ 21 , 22 ]. Customer’s concerns of healthy food substantially affect customer’s expectations and choice of a restaurant [ 23 ]. Freshness is assessed with the aroma, juiciness, crispness, and fresh posture of the food. Food quality enhances customer satisfaction [ 24 ].

• Restaurant service quality

Quality as a construct is projected by Juran and Deming [ 25 , 26 ]. Service quality is comparatively a contemporary concept. Service quality assesses the excellence of brands in industry of travel, retail, hotel, airline, and restaurant [ 27 ]. Restaurant service quality affects dining experiences of customers. Service quality creates first impression on consumers and affects consumers’ perception of quality [ 28 ]. Service industry provides good service quality to the customers to attain sustainable competitive advantage. Customer satisfaction depends on quality of service at the restaurant [ 29 ]. Service quality entails price, friendliness, cleanliness, care, diversity, speed of service, and food consistency according to menu. Customer satisfaction also depends on communication between restaurant’s personnel and the customers [ 30 ]. Consumer’s evaluation of service quality is affected by level of friendliness and care. Service quality leads to positive word of mouth, customer satisfaction, better corporate image, attraction for the new customers, increase revisits, and amplified business performance. Service quality increases revisits and behavioral intentions of customers in hospitality industry [ 12 ].

• Physical environment quality

PEQ is a setting to provide products and services in a restaurant. Physical environment quality contains artifacts, decor, spatial layout, and ambient conditions in a restaurant. Customers desire dining experience to be pleasing; thus, they look for a physical environment quality [ 31 ]. Physical environment quality satisfies and attracts new customers. PEQ increases financial performance, and it creates memorable experience for the customers [ 9 ]. Consumers perceive the quality of a restaurant based on cleanliness, quirky, comfortable welcoming, physical environment quality, and other amenities that create the ambiance [ 32 ]. Effect of physical environment quality on behaviors is visible in service businesses such as restaurants, hotels, hospitals, retail stores, and banks [ 33 ]. Physical environment quality is an antecedent of customer satisfaction [ 34 ]. Thus, restaurants need to create attractive and distinctive physical environment quality.

• Customer satisfaction

Customer satisfaction contains the feelings of pleasure and well-being. Customer satisfaction develops from gaining what customer expects from the service. Customer satisfaction is broadly investigated in consumer behavior and social psychology. Customer satisfaction is described “as the customer’s subjective assessment of the consumption experience, grounded on certain associations between the perceptions of customer and objective characteristics of the product” [ 35 ]. Customer satisfaction is the extent to which an experience of consumption brings good feelings. Customer satisfaction is stated as “a comparison of the level of product or service performance, quality, or other outcomes perceived by the consumer with an evaluative standard” [ 36 ]. Customer satisfaction constructs as a customer’s wholesome evaluation of an experience. Customer satisfaction is a reaction of fulfilling customer’s needs.

Customer satisfaction brings escalated repeat purchase behavior and intention to refer [ 37 ]. Dissatisfied consumers are uncertain to return to the place [ 38 ]. Satisfactory restaurant experience can enhance revisit intention of the consumer. Positive WOM is generated when customers are not only satisfied with the brand but they demand superior core offering and high level of service [ 15 ].

• Word of mouth

Word of mouth is described as “person-to-person, oral communication between a communicator and receiver which is perceived as a non-commercial message” [ 39 ]. WOM is also defined as “the informal positive or negative communication by customers on the objectively existing and/or subjectively perceived characteristics of the products or services” [ 40 ]. Moreover, [ 41 ] defines it as “an informal person to person communication between a perceived non-commercial communicator and a receiver regarding a brand, a product, an organization or a service”. WOM is described as a positive or negative statement made by probable, actual or former customers about a product or a company, which is made available through offline or online channels [ 42 , 43 ]. WOM is an important and frequent sensation; it is known for long time that people habitually exchange their experiences of consumptions with others. Consumers complain about bad hotel stays, talk about new shoes, share info about the finest way of getting out tough stains, spread word about experience of products, services, companies, restaurants, and stores. Social talks made more than 3.3 billion of brand impressions per day [ 44 ].

WOM has substantial impact on consumer’s purchasing decision; therefore, a vital marketing strategy is to initiate positive WOM [ 45 ]. However, negative WOM is more informative and diagnostic where customers express their dissatisfaction [ 38 ]. Word of mouth communications are more informative than traditional marketing communications in service sector. WOM is more credible than advertisement when it is from friends and family [ 46 ]. WOM is a vital influencer in purchase intention. WOM escalates affection that enhances commitment of consumer purchase intention. WOM is generated before or after the purchase. WOM helps the consumers to acquire more knowledge for the product and to reduce the perceived risk [ 47 ]. WOM in the dining experience is very important. People tend to follow their peers’ opinions when they are to dine out.

• Revisit intention

To predicting and to explain human behavior is the key determination of consumer behavior research. Consumer needs differ and emerge frequently with diverse outlooks. Revisit intention is to endorse “visitors being willing to revisit the similar place, for satisfactory experiences, and suggest the place to friends to develop the loyalty” [ 48 ]. Consumer forms an attitude toward the service provider based on the experience of service. This attitude can be steady dislike or like of the service. This is linked to the consumer’s intention to re-patronize the service and to start WOM. Repurchase intention is at the core of customer loyalty and commitment. Repurchase intention is a significant part of behavioral and attitudinal constructs. Revisit intention is described as optimistic probability to revisit the restaurant. Revisit intention is the willingness of a consumer to visit the restaurant again. Furthermore, the ease of visitors, transportation in destination, entertainment, hospitability, and service satisfaction influence visitor’s revisit intention.

Consumer behavior encircles the upcoming behavioral intention and post-visit evaluation. Post-visit evaluation covers perceived quality, experience, value, and the satisfaction. Restaurant managers are interested to understand the factors of consumer revisit intention, as it is cost effective to retain the existing customers in comparison with attract new customers [ 49 ]. Substantial consideration is prevailing in literature for the relationship among quality attributes, customer satisfaction, and revisit intention. There is a positive association between customer satisfaction and revisit intention. Indifferent consumer, accessibility of competitive alternatives and low switching cost can end up in a state where satisfied consumers defect to other options [ 2 ]. Consumer behavior varies for choice of place to visit, assessments, and behavioral intentions [ 50 ]. The assessments are about the significance perceived by regular customers’ satisfactions. Whereas, future behavioral intentions point to the consumer’s willingness to revisit the similar place and suggest it to the others [ 51 ].

S-O-R model is primarily established on the traditional stimulus–response theory. This theory explicates individual’s behavior as learned response to external stimuli. The theory is questioned for oversimplifying ancestries of the behaviors and ignoring one’s mental state. [ 52 ] extended the S-O-R model through integrating the notion of organism between stimulus and response. S-O-R concept is embraced to reveal individual’s affective and cognitive conditions before the response behavior [ 53 ]. S-O-R framework considers that environment comprises stimuli (S) leading changes to the individual’s internal conditions called organism (O), further leading to responses (R) [ 52 ]. In S-O-R model, the stimuli comprise of various components of physical environment quality, organism indicates to internal structures and processes bridging between stimuli and final responses or actions of a consumer [ 9 ]. Behavioral responses of an individual in a physical environment quality are directly influenced by the physical environment quality stimulus [ 54 ]. S-O-R framework is implemented in diverse service contexts to examine how physical environment quality affects customer’s emotion and behavior [ 55 ]. The effect of stimulation in an online shopping environment on impulsive purchase is investigated through S-O-R framework [ 56 ]. The effects of background music, on consumers’ affect and cognition, and psychological responses influence behavioral intentions [ 57 ]. Perceived flow and website quality toward customer satisfaction affect purchase intention in hotel website based on S-O-R framework [ 58 ]. Therefore, this study conceptualizes food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality as stimuli; customer satisfaction as organism; and revisit intention as response.

Moreover, social conformity theory (SCT) is to support the logical presence of WOM in the conceptual framework as a moderator on the relationship of customer satisfaction and revisit intention. Social conformity influences individual’s attitudes, beliefs and behaviors leading to a herding effect [ 17 , 59 ]. Thus, social influence (WOM) moderates the relationship of customer satisfaction and revisit intention. Following hypotheses are postulated, see Fig.  1 .

Conceptual research framework

Food quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant.

Restaurant service quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant.

Physical environment quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction is positively associated with revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction mediates between food quality and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction mediates between restaurant service quality and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction mediates between physical environment quality and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

WOM positively moderates the relationship between customer satisfaction and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

There are two research approaches such as deductive (quantitative) and inductive (qualitative). This study utilized the quantitative research approach as it aligns with the research design and philosophy. Quantitative research approach mostly relies on deductive logic. Researcher begins with hypotheses development and then collects data. Data are used to determine whether empirical evidence supports the hypotheses [ 60 ]. The questionnaires survey is used. This study chose the mono-method with cross-sectional time horizon of 6 months. Deductive approach is utilized in this study. Cross-sectional time horizon also known as “snapshot” is used when investigation is related with the study of a specific phenomenon at a particular time [ 61 ]. Questionnaire survey is mostly used technique for data collection in marketing research due to its effectiveness and low cost [ 62 ]. Data are collected through self-administered questionnaires. Following the footsteps of Lai and Chen [ 63 ] and Widianti et al. [ 64 ] convenience sampling is applied. Famous fast food restaurants in twin cities (Rawalpindi and Islamabad) of Pakistan were chosen randomly. Furthermore, 650 questionnaires (with consideration of low response rate) were distributed to the customers at famous fast food restaurants. Moreover, researchers faced difficulty in obtaining fast food restaurant’s consumers data.

It yielded a response rate of 68.92% with 448 returned questionnaires. Fifteen incomplete questionnaires are not included; thus, 433 responses are employed for data analysis from fast food restaurant customers. The obtained number of usable responses was suitable to apply structural equation modeling [ 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ].

Sample characteristics describe that there are 39.7% females and 60.3% males. There are 31.4% respondents of age group 15–25 years, 48.3% of age group 26–35, 12.2% of age ranges between 36 and 45, 6.7% of age ranges between 46 and 55, and 1.4% of age group is above 56 years. The educational level of the respondents indicates that mostly respondents are undergraduate and graduate. Occupation of respondents reflects that 28.6% work in private organizations and 24.9% belong to student category. Monthly income of 29.3% respondents ranges between Rupees 20,000 and 30,000 and 25.6% have monthly income of Rupees 41,000–50,000. Average monthly spending in fast food restaurants is about Rupees 3000–6000, see Table  1 .

Measures of the constructs

Food quality is adopted from measures developed by [ 69 ]. Food quality contains six items such as: food presentation is visually attractive, the restaurant offers a variety of menu items, and the restaurant offers healthy options. Restaurant service quality is adopted with six items [ 70 ]. This construct contains items such as: efficient and effective process in the welcoming and ushering of the customers, efficient and effective explanation of the menu, efficient and effective process in delivery of food. Physical environment quality is adopted with four items [ 71 ], and one item is adopted from measures developed by [ 70 ]. The items are such as: the restaurant has visually striking building exteriors and parking space, the restaurant has visually eye-catching dining space that is comfortable and easy to move around and within, and the restaurant has suitable music and/or illumination in accordance with its ambience. Revisit intention is measured through four adapted items [ 8 ]; such as: I would visit again in the near future and I am interested in revisiting again. Customer satisfaction is measured by three adopted items [ 29 ]; such as: I am satisfied with the service at this restaurant, and the restaurant always comes up to my expectations. Word of mouth is measured with four adopted items such as: my family/friends mentioned positive things I had not considered about this restaurant, my family/friends provided me with positive ideas about this restaurant [ 72 ]. Each item is measured on 5-point Likert scale, where 1 = strongly disagree, 3 = uncertain, and 5 = strongly agree.

Results and discussion

Validity and reliability.

Validity taps the ability of the scale to measure the construct; in other words, it means that the representative items measure the concept adequately [ 73 ]. The content validity is executed in two steps; firstly, the items are presented to the experts for further modifications; secondly, the constructive feedback about understanding of it was acquired by few respondents who filled the questionnaires. Each set of items is a valid indicator of the construct as within-scale factor analysis is conducted.

The factor analyses allotted the items to their respective factor. Fornell and Lacker’s [ 74 ] composite reliability p is calculated for each construct using partial least squares (PLS) structural equation modeling and Cronbach’s coefficient α [ 75 ]. Cronbach’s α is used to evaluate the reliability of all items that indicates how well the items in a set are positively related to one another. Each Cronbach’s α of the instrument is higher than .7 (ranging from .74 to .91); see Table  2 .

Common method bias

Same measures are used to collect data for all respondents; thus, there can be common method bias [ 76 ]. Firstly, questionnaire is systematically constructed with consideration of study design. Secondly, respondents were assured for the responses to be kept anonymous [ 77 ]. Common method bias possibility is assessed through Harman’s single factor test [ 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 ]. Principal axis factor analysis on measurement items is exercised. The single factor did not account for most of the bias and it accounted for 43.82% variance that is less than 50%. Thus, common method bias is not an issue [ 80 , 81 ].

SEM-PLS model assessment

Survey research faces a challenge to select an appropriate statistical model to analyze data. Partial least squares grounded structural equation modeling (SEM-PLS) and covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) are generally used multivariate data analysis methods. CB-SEM is based on factor analysis that uses maximum likelihood estimation. PLS-SEM is based on the principal component concept; it uses the partial least squares estimator [ 84 ]. PLS-SEM is considered appropriate to examine complex cause–effect relationship models. PLS-SEM is a nonparametric approach with low reservations on data distribution and sample size [ 84 ].

Measurement model assessment

To evaluate convergent validity measurement model (outer model) is assessed that includes composite reliability (CR) to evaluate internal consistency, individual indicator reliability, and average variance extracted (AVE) [ 85 ]. Indicator reliability explains the variation in the items by a variable. Outer loadings assess indicator reliability; a higher value (an item with a loading of .70) on a variable indicates that the associated measure has considerable mutual commonality [ 85 ]. Two items RSQ 14 and PEQ 24 are dropped due to lower value less than .60 [ 86 ]. Composite reliability is assessed through internal consistency reliability. CR values of all the latent variables have higher values than .80 to establish internal consistency [ 85 ]; see Table  2 .

Convergent validity is the extent to which a measure correlates positively with alternative measures of the same variable. Convergent validity is ensured through higher values than .50 of AVE [ 74 ], see Table  2 . Discriminant validity is the degree to which a variable is truly distinct from other variables. Square root of AVE is higher than the inter-construct correlations except customer satisfaction to hold discriminant validity [ 74 ]. Additional evidence for discriminant validity is that indicators’ individual loadings are found to be higher than the respective cross-loadings, see Table  3 .

Structural model assessment

Structural model is assessed after establishing the validity and reliability of the variables. Structural model assessment includes path coefficients to calculate the importance and relevance of structural model associations. Model’s predictive accuracy is calculated through R 2 value. Model’s predictive relevance is assessed with Q 2 , and value of f 2 indicates substantial impact of the exogenous variable on an endogenous variable in PLS-SEM [ 85 ]. SEM is rigueur in validating instruments and testing linkages between constructs [ 87 ]. SMART-PLS produces reports of latent constructs correlations, path coefficients with t test values. The relationships between six constructs of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, customer satisfaction, word-of-mouth, and revisit intention are displayed in Fig.  2 after bootstrapping. Bootstrapping is a re-sampling approach that draws random samples (with replacements) from the data and uses these samples to estimate the path model multiple times under slightly changed data constellations [ 88 ]. Purpose of bootstrapping is to compute the standard error of coefficient estimates in order to examine the coefficient’s statistical significance [ 89 ].

Bootstrapping and path coefficients

Food quality is positively associated to customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant; H 1 is supported as path coefficient = .487, T value = 8.349, P value = .000. Restaurant service quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction; H 2 is supported as path coefficient = .253, T value = 4.521, P value = .000. Physical environment quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant; H 3 is supported as path coefficient = .149, T value = 3.518, P value = .000. Customer satisfaction is positively associated with revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant; H 4 is supported as path coefficient = .528, T value = 11.966, P value = .000. WOM positively moderates the relationship between customer satisfaction and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant; H 8 is not supported as path coefficient = − .060, T value = 2.972, P value = .003; see Table  4 .

Assessing R 2 and Q 2

Coefficient of determination R 2 value is used to evaluate the structural model. This coefficient estimates the predictive precision of the model and is deliberated as the squared correlation between actual and predictive values of the endogenous construct. R 2 values represent the exogenous variables’ mutual effects on the endogenous variables. This signifies the amount of variance in endogenous constructs explained by total number of exogenous constructs associated to it [ 88 ]. The endogenous variables customer satisfaction and revisit intention have R 2  = .645 and .671, respectively, that assures the predictive relevance of structural model. Further the examination of the endogenous variables’ predictive power has good R 2 values.

Blindfolding is to cross-validate the model’s predictive relevance for each of the individual endogenous variables with value of Stone–Geisser Q 2 [ 90 , 91 ]. By performing the blindfolding test with an omission distance of 7 yielded cross-validated redundancy Q 2 values of all the endogenous variables [ 88 ]. Customer satisfaction’s Q 2  = .457 and RVI’s Q 2  = .501; this indicates large effect sizes. PLS structural model has predictive relevance because values of Q 2 are greater than 0, see Table  5 .

Assessing f 2

Effect size f 2 is the measure to estimate the change in R 2 value when an exogenous variable is omitted from the model. f 2 size effect illustrates the influence of a specific predictor latent variable on an endogenous variable. Effect size f 2 varies from small to medium for all the exogenous variables in explaining CS and RVI as shown Table  6 .

Additionally, H 5 : CS mediates between food quality and RVI is supported as CS partially mediates between FQ and RVI. Variation accounted for (VAF) value indicates that 70% of the total effect of an exogenous variable FQ on RVI is explained by indirect effect. Therefore, the effect of FQ on RVI is partially mediated through CS. Similarly, the VAF value indicates that 70% of the total effect of an exogenous variable RSQ and 35% VAF of PEQ on RVI is explained by indirect effect. Therefore, the effects of RSQ and PEQ on RVI are also partially mediated through CS. H 6 is supported as the effect of CS is partially mediated between RSQ and RVI of customer in fast food restaurant. H 7 is supported as the effect of CS is partially mediated between PEQ and RVI of customer in fast food restaurant, see Table  7 . This clearly indicates that customer satisfaction mediates between all of our exogenous variables (food quality, restaurant service quality and physical environment quality) and dependent variable revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant [ 88 , 92 ] (Additional files 1 , 2 and 3 ).

This is interesting to note that food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction are important triggers of revisit intention at fast food restaurants. However, surprisingly, word of mouth does not moderate the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention of customer at fast food restaurant. The results of the study correspond with some previous findings [ 15 , 29 , 32 , 69 , 93 ]. Positive relationship between customer satisfaction and revisit intention is consistent with the findings of the previous studies [ 5 , 8 , 94 , 95 , 96 ]. Food quality is positively associated with revisit intention; this result as well corresponds to a previous study [ 24 ]. Furthermore, interior and amusing physical environment is an important antecedent of revisit intention at a fast food restaurant; this finding is congruent with previous findings [ 29 , 70 , 97 , 98 ] and contrary to some previous studies [ 9 , 15 ].

Intensified competition, industry’s volatile nature, and maturity of the business are some challenges that fast food restaurants face [ 5 ]. Amid economic crunch, competition becomes even more evident, driving fast food restaurants to look for unconventional ways to appeal the customers. In fact, these findings somehow show that significance of physical environment quality in creating revisit intention is probably lower in comparison with food quality and restaurant service quality. Nonetheless, fast food restaurant’s management should not underrate the fact that physical environment quality considerably affects the revisit intention. Due to this, the importance of physical environment quality must not be overlooked when formulating strategies for improving customer satisfaction, revisit intention and creating long-term relationships with customers.

Managerial implications

The results imply that restaurant management should pay attention to customer satisfaction because it directly affects revisit intention. Assessing customer satisfaction has become vital to successfully contest in the modern fast food restaurant business. From a managerial point of view, the results of this study will help restaurant managers to better understand the important role of food quality, restaurant service quality and physical environment quality as marketing tool to retain and satisfy customers.

Limitations

There are certain limitations with this study. This study is cross sectional, and it can be generalized to only two cities of Pakistan. Scope of research was limited as the data were collected from two cities of Pakistan (Islamabad and Rawalpindi) using convenience sampling.

Future research

A longitudinal study with probability sampling will help the researchers to comprehensively investigate the relationships among the constructs. Moreover, it would be useful for future research models to add information overload as an explanatory variable and brand image as moderating variable in the research framework. Additionally, moderation of WOM can be investigated in other relationships of conceptual model.

The study encircles the key triggers of customer satisfaction and revisit intention in fast food restaurants. It also offers a model that defines relationships between three factors of restaurant offer (food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality), customer satisfaction, word of mouth, and revisit intention at fast food restaurants. The model specially focuses the revisit intention as dependent variable of conceptual model despite behavior intentions. The findings suggest the revisit intention is positively associated with customer satisfaction, food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality in a fast food restaurant.

However, contrary to the findings of a previous study [ 99 ], WOM do not positively moderate between the relationship of customer satisfaction and revisit intention. The empirical findings confirm the significant impact of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction which are important antecedents of revisit intention at fast food restaurant through mediation of customer satisfaction. Moreover, findings of the research support the assumptions of SOR theory strengthening our conceptual model which states the external stimuli (FQ, RSQ, PEQ) produced internal organism (CS) which led to the response (RVI). However; assumption of social conformity theory failed to influence the satisfied customer. In other words, customer satisfaction plays dominating role over social influence (i.e. WOM) in making revisit intention. Therefore, WOM was not able to influence the strength of relationship of CS and RVI.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Social conformity theory

Stimulus-organism-response

Structural equation modeling with partial least squares

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Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the conducive research environment support provided by Department of Management Sciences at COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus and Higher Education Commission Pakistan for provision of free access to digital library.

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Amer Rajput

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Raja Zohaib Gahfoor

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Supplementary information

Additional file 1..

PLS Algorithm.

Additional file 2.

Bootstrapping.

Additional file 3.

Blindfolding.

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Rajput, A., Gahfoor, R.Z. Satisfaction and revisit intentions at fast food restaurants. Futur Bus J 6 , 13 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-020-00021-0

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Articles on Fast food

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75 Fast Food Research Topics & Essay Examples

📝 fast food research papers examples, 🍔 best fast food essay titles, ❓ fast food research questions.

• Fast Food and Culture Fast food is used to refer to the food that is prepared and served within a short period of time which is sold in a restaurant or store.
• Obesity Problem in American Schools American schools are in a unique position to help improve youth dietary behaviors and prevent cases of obesity.
• The Effects of Media on Child Obesity This paper will demonstrate that the media has contributed to the prevalence of childhood obesity in the country by highlighting the effects that the media has on child obesity.
• Fast Food Addiction Essay – the Case of UAE This fast food addiction essay explores the causes of obesity in UAE. The United Arab Emirates in one of the world’s most obese countries, and one of the key reasons is junk food consumption.
• Hispanic Adolescents' Obesity and Fast Food Consumption The current study sought to establish the relationship between Hispanic adolescents and fast food consumption.
• Fast Food and Financial Impatience The roots of fast food come from North America, where people often eat out and have a much more hectic lifestyle.
• Poverty Cycle and Children in the United States Discussing the issue of the present day chronic cycle of poverty, it would be relevant to mention that children might be regarded as the most unprotected social group that suffers form the above mentioned problem.
• The Fast Food Industry: Negative Impacts Review The fast food industry is one of the largest businesses in the world. Fast food has been recognized to be a large area of assets concerning food.
• Impacts of Fast Foods on the Economy and People Schlosser is right about the addictive nature of eating fast foods by Americans who are already addicted to this diet.
• Preparations of a Food and Nutrition Policy This paper discusses regulating food advertising to children, obesity as a strong health concern, children’s obesity statistics, television ads and child obesity.
• McDonald's Entry into Africa McDonald’s already has limited business in South Africa as well as some few countries in the northern parts of the continent.
• Fast Food’ Effects on Children This is a research paper on the effects of fast food on the society, but specifically, more emphasis is put on the younger generation, the children.
• Argument for and Against the Fast Food Industry in USA Fast food has quickly gained preference in modern society becoming a major source of nutrition in many countries among different demographics and cultures across the world
• Fast Food Companies Should Not Advertise Children Exposing juveniles to processed food has a negative impact on their dietary preferences. Fast food mostly has high fat and artificial sweetener content
• Raising Minimum Wage for Fast Food Workers
• Fast Food and Its Effect on the Body
• America’s Obsession With Fast Food and Its Effects on the Population
• Positive and Negative Aspects of Fast Food Restaurants
• Fast Food Employees and Minimum Wage
• Student Preferences Regarding Fast Food
• The Risks and Negative Effects From Fast Food
• The Reasons for the Popularity of Fast Food in America
• Fast Food as the Main Cause of Diabetes and Obesity
• The Relationship Between Fast Food and Obesity
• Fast Food Advertising to Children and Childhood Obesity
• Causes of the Rapid Rise of Fast Food Restaurants
• Positive Improvements From Fast Food Industry
• The Role Fast Food Restaurants Play in Rising Obesity Rates
• Fast Food Consumption and Its Impact on Today’s Generation
• The Effect of Fast Food Accessibility and Availability on Childhood Obesity
• Fast Food and Its Effects on Health
• The Dangers and Risks of Eating Fast Food
• The Positive and Negative Experiences of Working in the Fast Food Industry
• Business Plan for Fast Food Restaurants
• Behavior Towards Fast Food McDonalds’ in Malaysia
• The Causes for the Popularity of Fast Food Restaurants
• The Demand for Food Away From Home: Full-Service or Fast Food
• Fast Food Consumption Proposition
• Practical Steps to Enjoy Fast Foods Without Getting Obese
• Fast Food Consumer Goods’ Marketing
• Marketing Strategies for Fast Food Restaurants
• Fast Food Consumption Among College Students
• Marketing Plan for the Fast Food Industry
• Causes for the Popularity of Fast Food Restaurants
• Ethical Issues With Fast Food Companies
• Strategy and Global Fast Food Industry Business
• Business Ethics and the Fast Food Industry
• Providing Low-Quality Food for Customers of the Fast Food Industry
• Marketing Strategies for Fast Food Outlets
• The Reasons Why People Consume Fast Food
• Fast Food and Why It Should Be Banned
• The Controversies Surrounding the Issue of Raising the Wages of Fast Food Workers
• The Apparent and Hidden Dangers of Fast Food
• Do Fast Food Items Have Any Nutritional Value?
• How to Deal With Fast Food Obesity in Kids?
• Should Fast Foods Be Sold in Hospitals?
• Should Packed Fast Foods Have Health Warnings and Guidelines?
• Should Fast Foods Be Taxed More, and Why?
• Why Are Fast Foods So Prevalent in American Society?
• Should Fast-Food Advertising Be Banned?
• Why People Should Reduce Their Intake of Fast Foods, and How to Do It Safely?
• Should Fast Foods Being Considered Unhealthy for Human Intake?
• Some Funny Reasons You Should Stop Consuming Fast Foods
• How to Eat Fast Foods and Still Maintain Your Health Look and Body?
• Are Fast Food Restaurants the Leading Cause of Obesity?
• What Are Most Serious Negative Effects of Eating Fast Food?
• Why Are Americans Obsessed With Fast Food?
• How Do Fast Foods Affect the Health of Children?
• Are Homemade Foods Healthier Than Fast Foods, and Why?
• How Does Fast Food Affect Food Service Wages in the Us?
• What Are the Economic and Social Advantages of the Fast Food Industry?
• Does Fast Food Influence the Economic Situation of the State? How?
• Why Do People Continue Consuming Fast Food Even if They Know That It’s Unhealthy?
• What Is More Dangerous for Health – Smoking or Fast Food?

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20 Fast Food Survey Questions & Sample Questionnaire Template

This fast-food survey template aims at gathering critical insights regarding the fast-food consumption habits among the customers and the amount of money spent by them on purchasing fast food. Gather feedback from your audience on the effects of junk food on health. This questionnaire sample can be edited according to the objective of the survey and sent out to the target audience to get better insights about fast food consumption.

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Fast Food Nation

Eric schlosser.

Diet, Nutrition, and Food Safety

Eric Schlosser’s Fast Food Nation is, above all, an expose of the conditions in the fast-food industry. It discusses the following topics: how fast-food corporations—like McDonald’s, Burger King, Wendy’s, and Taco Bell—came into being (who founded them and franchised them); how these fast-food companies shaped the production of food products (especially meat and potatoes); and how systems of food production and consumption shape the American consumer. Schlosser describes the nutritional effects of high-fat, low-nutrient fast…

Greed, Corporations, and “The Bottom Line”

Schlosser begins the book by tracing the genesis of fast-food companies, especially McDonald’s. Like Disney, another company based in southern California, McDonald’s was invested in a product—hamburgers, rather than cartoons—that could be marketed effectively to children, and created in bulk. Disney, McDonald’s, and countless similar corporations participated in a post-war economic boom, coupled with the explosion of the automobile and the Eisenhower federal interstate highway system. The “suburbanization” of the United States—whereby middle-class families moved…

Independence vs. the Social Contract

Schlosser emphasizes the relationship between one’s personal independence—the freedom it implies—and of social welfare, or the common bond between people. This independence cuts different ways. For individuals, independence can be understood as the ability to shop locally, or to run one’s own business; thus, fast-food corporations make it more difficult, as a consumer, to receive an individually-tailored meal, or dining experience—food across America becomes the same. For small-business owners, the freedom to run a restaurant…

Bureaucracy and Complex Systems

Schlosser’s examination of the food industry also applies more broadly to the analysis of bureaucracies (especially of the government variety) and of complex systems. Every step of the food production process in America, as it has become streamlined for maximum efficiency, has counter intuitively become more complicated, because food is now manufactured so quickly, and in such volume, that new problems present themselves at newer, faster, larger scales. When one man slaughters one cow, he…

Work and “The Good Life”

Throughout the book, Schlosser talks about the natural beauty of the North American continent, especially the West, and of the people who (used to) work the land, raising cattle and farming potatoes, starting small businesses, and helping to feed their communities. These workers have a holistic relationship to what they do— ranchers see the cattle they raise, and men and women running small businesses have a more direct connection to the places they live.

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