animals to write a research paper on

162 Best Animal Research Topics To Nail Your Paper In 2023

The world is filled with living things. There are some animals that we know about, some that we will discover, and there are many that we might never know about. All our knowledge about animals is mostly dependant on researchers.

Well, we are rooting for you to be the next great researcher. Be it zoology, veterinary, or live wild stock, your study needs a research topic. If you’re looking for the best animal research topics to nail this year, we’re here with your help.

Table of Contents

Best Animal Research Topics

We have 162 Animal Research Topics that will help you get the best grades this year.

Physiology of Animals Research Topics

• Description of the knowledge required to work in animal physiology
• Study of animal species with different specialties in the sciences of nature and life
• Life sciences and socioeconomic impacts
• Neurulation appendages birds
• Exercises on gastrulation and neurulation
• Gastrulation amphibians birds
• Fertilization segmentation in the sea species
• Gametogenesis: A Detailed Introduction
• Study of Delimitation: bird appendages
• Particularities of the developmental biology of certain species
• Technical-commercial animal physiology
• Terrestrial and marine ecosystems
• Animal biology and forensic science: Is there a connection?
• Animal Biology Biotechnology and molecules of interest regarding food and industry
• The interest in biology in the diagnosis of animal and plant diseases
• Toxicology and environmental health concerns in animal physiology
• Animal and plant production
• Fundamentals of animal physiology research and analysis
• Behavior and evolution Genetics of behavior in animals
• Adaptation and evolution of behavior
• Comparative studies of general ecology, zoology, and animal physiology
• Study of animals about the conditions prevailing in their immediate environment
• Endocrine and neuroendocrine systems in animals
• Studying the nervous systems in birds
• Genitals and reproductive physiology of birds
• Understanding of the anatomical and functional particularities of invertebrates
• Biology and physiology of invertebrates
• Reconstruction of phylogenetic trees
• Morpho-anatomical arguments and the importance of fossils
• Argued classification of animals
• Study of the evolution of living organisms by making updates on recent advances in Animalia
• Phylogeny and Animal Evolution
• Principles of echolocation in the bats
• Possible evolution of the increase in complexity of the primitive nervous system
• The nervous system of the insect
• Circulation in animal physiology
• Animals without a differentiated circulatory system
• Water and mineral balance in animals
• Thermoregulation in animals
• Musculoskeletal system in animals
• Study of animal blood
• Biological rhythms of animals
• Skin and teguments of mammals
• Animal nutrition and metabolism
• Hormones and endocrine system of animals
• Emerging organic pollutants
• Mechanisms of toxicity in animals
• Animal physiology in animals from temperate regions
• Genetic correlations between animal species
• Animal communities, forest ecology, and forest birds
• Wildlife-habitat modeling

Looking for research topics in general? Read 402  General Research Paper Topics

Animal Research Topics For Student

• Impact of the agricultural raw materials crisis on the marketing of livestock feed
• Analysis of the competitiveness of poultry produced in the USA
• Animal cruelty in USA and European countries
• Seroprevalence of neosporosis in cattle herds
• The peri-urban dairy sector
• Effect of the liberalization of the veterinary profession on the vaccination coverage of livestock
• Why do people kill animals? The psyche behind animal cruelty
• Evaluation of the growth performance of three sheep breeds
• Study on the protection of terrestrial ecosystems
• Ecology of African dung beetles
• Effects of road infrastructure on wildlife in developing countries
• Analysis of the consequences of climate change related to pastoral livestock
• Strategies for management in the animal feed sector
• The feeding behavior of mosquitoes
• Bee learning and memory
• Immediate response to the animal cruelty
• Study of mass migration of land birds over the ocean
• A study of crocodile evolution
• The cockroach escape system
• The resistance of cockroaches against radiation: Myth or fact?
• Temperature regulation in the honey bee swarm
• Irresponsible dog breeding can often lead to an excess of stray dogs and animal cruelty
• Reliable communication signals in birds

Also see:  How to Write an 8 Page Research Paper ?

Animal Research Topics For University

• Color patterns of moths and moths
• Mimicry in the sexual signals of fireflies
• Ecophysiology of the garter snake
• Memory, dreams regarding cat neurology
• Spatiotemporal variation in the composition of animal communities
• Detection of prey in the sand scorpion
• Internal rhythms in bird migration
• Genealogy: Giant Panda
• Animal dissection: Severe type of animal cruelty and a huge blow to animal rights
• Cuckoo coevolution and patterns
• Use of plant extracts from Amazonian plants for the design of integrated pest management
• Research on flying field bug
• The usefulness of mosquitoes in biological control serves to isolate viruses
• Habitat use by the Mediterranean Ant
• Genetic structure of the  African golden wolf  based on its habitat
• Birds body odor on their interaction with mosquitoes and parasites
• The role of ecology in the evolution of coloration in owls
• The invasion of the red swamp crayfish
• Molecular taxonomy and biogeography of caprellids
• Bats of Mexico and the United States
• What can animal rights NGOs do in case of animal cruelty during animal testing initiatives?

Or you can try 297 High School Research Paper Topics to Top The Class

Controversial Animal Research Topics

• Is it okay to adopt an animal for experimentation?
• The authorization procedures on animals for scientific experiments
• The objective of total elimination of animal testing
• Are there concrete examples of successful scientific advances resulting from animal experimentation?
• Animal rights for exotic animals: Protection of forests and wildlife
• How can animal rights help endangered animals
• Animal experimentation are a type of animal cruelty: A detailed analysis
• Animal testing: encouraging the use of alternative methods
• Use of animals for the evaluation of chemical substances
• Holding seminars on the protection of animals
• Measures to take against animal cruelty
• Scientific research on marine life
• Scientific experiments on animals for medical research
• Experimentation on great apes
• Toxicological tests and other safety studies on chemical substances
• Why isn’t research done directly on humans rather than animals?
• Are animals necessary to approve new drugs and new medical technologies?
• Are the results of animal experiments transferable to humans?
• Humans are not animals, which is why animal research is not effective
• What medical advances have been made possible by animal testing?
• Animals never leave laboratories alive
• Scientific interest does not motivate the use of animal research
• Animal research is torture 
• How can a layperson work against animal testing?

Every crime is a controversy too, right? Here are some juicy  Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics  as well.

Animal Research Topics: Animal Rights

• Growing awareness of the animal suffering generated by these experiments
• What are the alternatives to animal testing?
• Who takes care of animal welfare?
• Major global organizations working for animal rights
• Animal rights in developing countries
• International animal rights standards to work against animal cruelty
• Animal cruelty in developing countries
• What can a layperson do when seeing animal cruelty
• Role of society in the prevention of animal cruelty
• Animal welfare and animal rights: measures taken against animal cruelty in developing countries
• Animal cruelty in the name of science
• How can we raise a better, empathetic and warm-hearted children to put a stop to animal cruelty
• Ethical animal testing methods with safety
• Are efforts being made to reduce the number of animals used?
• The welfare of donkeys and their socioeconomic roles in the subcontinent
• Animal cruelty and superstitious conceptions of dogs, cats, and donkeys in subcontinent
• Efforts made by international organizations against the tragedy of animal cruelty
• International organizations working for animal welfare
• Animal abuse: What are the immediate measures to take when we see animal cruelty
• Efforts to stop animal abuse in South Asian Countries
• Animal abuse in the name of biomedical research

Talking about social causes, let’s have a look at social work topics too: 206  Social Work Research Topics

Interesting Animal Research Topics

• The urbanization process and its effect on the dispersal of birds:
• Patterns of diversification in Neotropical amphibians
• Interactions between non-native parrot species
• Impact of landscape anthropization dynamics and wild birds’ health
• Habitat-driven diversification in small mammals
• Seasonal fluctuations and life cycles of amphipods
• Animal cruelty in African countries
• Evolution of the environmental niche of amphibians
• Biological studies on Louisiana crawfish
• Biological studies on Pink bollworm
• Biological studies on snails
• Biological Studies on Bush Crickets
• Biological Studies on Mountain Gorillas
• Biological studies on piranha
• Consequences of mosquito feeding
• Birds as bioindicators of environmental health
• Biological studies on victoria crowned pigeon
• Biological studies on black rhinoceros
• Biological studies on European spider
• Biological studies on dumbo octopus
• Biological studies on Markhor
• Study of genetic and demographic variation in amphibian populations
• Ecology and population dynamics of the blackberry turtle
• Small-scale population differentiation in ecological and evolutionary mechanisms
• Challenges in vulture conservation

Also interesting: 232  Chemistry Research Topics  To Make Your Neurochemicals Dance

Submarine Animals Research Topics

• The physiology behind the luminous fish
• A study of Fish population dynamics
• Study of insects on the surface of the water
• Structure and function of schools of fish
• Physiological ecology of whales and dolphins
• Form and function in fish locomotion
• Why do whales and dolphins jump?
• Impact of Noise on Early Development and Hearing in Zebrafish
• Animal cruelty against marine life on the hand of fishermen

Read More:  Accounting Research Topics

Animal Biology Research Topics

• Systematic and zoogeographical study of the ocellated lizards
• Morphological study of neurohistogenesis in the diencephalon of the chick embryo
• Anatomical study of three species of Nudibranch
• The adaptive strategy of two species of lagomorphs
• The Black vulture: population, general biology, and interactions with other birds
• Ocellated lizards: their phylogeny and taxonomy
• Studies on the behavior of ocellated lizards in captivity
• Comparative studies of the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards
• Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards
• The taxonomic and phylogenetic implications of ocellated lizards
• Research on the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards
• Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards in their natural environment
• Comparative studies of the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards in different countries
• Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards in their natural environment in the light of evolutionary and ecological insights

Animal research topics are not hard to find for you anymore. As you have already read a load of them. You can use any of them and ace your research paper, and you don’t even need to ask permission. If you are looking for a  paper writing service , be it animal research, medical research, or any sort of research, you can contact us 24/7.

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Argumentative Essay Topics about Animals

Looking for a good argumentative essay topic about animals? You’re in luck! We’ve put together a list of 20 topics that will get you started.

Argumentative essay topics about animals can be divided into three categories: animal rights, animal welfare, and animal testing. Each one of these topics could be argued from multiple perspectives.

Animal rights is the belief that animals should have the same basic rights as humans, including the right to life and liberty. Animal welfare is the view that animals should be treated humanely and with compassion, and that their well-being should be given consideration. Animal testing is the use of animals in scientific experiments to further our understanding of health and disease.

All three of these topics are controversial , which makes them perfect for an argumentative essay. So without further ado, here are 20 argumentative essay topics about animals!

What You'll Learn

Thirty Argumentative Essay Topics about Animals

1. Zoos are inhumane and should be banned. 2. Animal testing is cruel and should be outlawed. 3. Pets should not be allowed in public places. 4. Service animals should be exempt from laws banning animals in public places. 5. Hunter education should be mandatory for all hunters. 6. Trapping should be banned because it’s inhumane. 7. Fur coats should be banned because of the cruelty involved in obtaining the fur. 8. The exotic animal trade should be banned because it’s cruel and often results in the animal’s death. 9. Animal hoarders should be required to get help for their mental health issues and have their animals seized. 10. It should be illegal to breed dogs for physical characteristics that cause them health problems.

11. Puppy mills should be outlawed because of the inhumane conditions the animals are kept in. 12. Animal fighting should be banned because it’s cruel and often results in the animal’s death. 13. The use of animals in entertainment should be banned because it’s cruel. 14. Factory farming should be banned because of the inhumane conditions the animals are kept in. 15. Animals should not be kept in zoos because it’s cruel and they’re often not able to live a natural life. 16. It should be illegal to hunt animals for sport because it’s cruel and often results in the animal’s death. 17. The use of animals for research should be banned because it’s cruel and often results in the animal’s death. 18. It should be illegal to buy or sell ivory because it contributes to the poaching of elephants. 19. It should be illegal to buy or sell endangered animal parts because it contributes to the decline of those species. 20. The ownership of exotic animals should be banned because it’s cruel and often results in the animal’s death

Twenty Argumentative Essay Topics on Animals to Write About

1. Is it morally wrong to keep animals in captivity? 2. Should the hunting of animals be banned? 3. Is it cruel to declaw cats? 4. Should there be a ban on bullfighting? 5. How does the animal welfare movement impact the lives of animals? 6. Is it morally wrong to eat meat? 7. Should more be done to protect endangered species? 8. What is the impact of zoos on animals? 9. How do humans benefit from keeping animals in zoos? 10. Are factory farms cruel to animals? 11. What is the impact of animal testing on human health? 12. Should the use of fur be banned? 13. What are the benefits of having a pet? 14. How does animal agriculture impact the environment? 15. What is the relationship between humans and animals? 16. How does our treatment of animals reflect our values as a society? 17. Do we have a responsibility to care for all animals, or just those that are cute and cuddly? 18. How can we make sure that all animals are treated humanely? 19. What are some ways that people mist

Animal topics for research papers

There are many different animal topics that you can choose to write about for your research paper. Here are some ideas to get you started:

1. Animal testing: Is it necessary? 2. The pros and cons of zoos 3. Are exotic animals good or bad pets? 4. The link between animal abuse and domestic violence 5. How do we define “humane” treatment of animals? 6. Should there be more regulations on the breeding of animals? 7. The impact of climate change on wildlife 8. How humans can coexist with dangerous animals 9. The ethical debate surrounding the consumption of animal products 10. Are there alternatives to using animals for research purposes?

Animal topics for essay

There are many different animal topics that you can choose to write about for your essay . Here are some ideas to get you started:

-The pros and cons of keeping animals in captivity -The ethical considerations of animal testing -The impact of human activity on endangered species -The complex social hierarchies of animal societies -The fascinating world of animal communication -The incredible adaptability of animals to changing environments-The unique and important role of animals in ecosystem

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196 Animal Essay Topics & Animals Abuse Ideas

• Icon Calendar 18 May 2024
• Icon Page 1555 words
• Icon Clock 8 min read

Animal essay topics offer an incredibly diverse range of subjects for exploration and discussion. The complex world of animal behavior and cognition, for example, presents intriguing questions about the minds and emotional lives of different species. The critical issue of conservation, driven by deforestation, climate change, and poaching, invites scrutiny and advocacy. Likewise, topics centered around human-animal bonds and the therapeutic benefits of animal companionship can shed light on the emotional and psychological benefits of these relationships. Delving into these animal essay topics not only provides a good platform to express love and appreciation for the animal kingdom but also promotes crucial discussions about biodiversity, animal rights, and wildlife protection. From curious animal lovers to budding biologists, these topics offer a chance to engage with the wonders, challenges, and remarkable diversity of the animal world.

Best Animal Topics

• Conservation of Endangered Species: A Global Perspective
• Influence of Climate Change on Migration Patterns
• Coral Reef Ecosystems: Importance and Threats
• Ethical Considerations in Animal Testing
• Invasive Species and Their Effect on Biodiversity
• Disease Transmission Between Animals and Humans: Zoonotic Diseases
• Understanding Animal Communication and Language
• Adaptation Strategies of Desert Dwelling Creatures
• Marine Pollution: Effects on Aquatic Life
• Tracking Animal Population Dynamics Through Citizen Science
• Wildlife Trafficking and International Law
• Bee Colony Collapse Disorder: Causes and Consequences
• Genetic Diversity and Conservation of Rare Breeds
• Endocrinology of Stress in Captive Animals
• Effects of Deforestation on Primate Habitats
• Animal-Assisted Therapy: Benefits and Challenges
• Domestication and Its Genetic Implications in Animals
• Coping Mechanisms of Animals in Extreme Environments
• Birds of Prey and Their Ecological Significance
• Aquaculture Sustainability: Balancing Demand and Conservation

Simple Animal Topics

• Understanding the Social Structure of Ant Colonies
• Feeding Habits of Herbivorous Animals
• Life Cycle of the Monarch Butterfly
• Unique Defense Mechanisms in the Animal Kingdom
• Animal Habitats: From Deserts to Rainforests
• Migration Patterns of Arctic Birds
• Reptile Varieties and Their Characteristics
• Study of Amphibians: Frogs, Toads, and Salamanders
• Exotic Pets: Care and Ethical Considerations
• Exploring Nocturnal Animals and Their Adaptations
• Marine Life: A Glimpse Into the Deep Sea
• Mammalian Reproduction and Life Cycles
• Different Breeds of Domestic Dogs
• Hibernation and Estivation in Animals
• Bird Watching: Identifying Common Species
• Discovering Endangered Species on Our Planet
• Diet and Nutrition of Domestic Cats
• Understanding Animal Tracks and Signs
• Life in the Savanna: African Wildlife

Interesting Animal Essay Topics

• Exploring Speciation in Galapagos Finches
• Animal Sentience and Cognitive Capabilities
• Mimicry as a Survival Strategy in Nature
• Interpreting the Language of Dolphins
• Decoding the Dance of Honeybees
• Anthropomorphism: Human Perception of Animals
• Climate Change Effects on Polar Bear Populations
• Marsupial Diversity: Beyond Kangaroos and Koalas
• Biofluorescence and Bioluminescence in Deep-Sea Creatures
• Cryptic Species: Unraveling Hidden Biodiversity
• Wildlife Conservation Policies: Case Studies
• Symbiosis in Coral Reef Ecosystems
• Understanding Avian Navigational Abilities
• Extinct Megafauna and Their Ecological Roles
• Cephalopods: Masters of Camouflage and Deception
• Unveiling Mysteries of Animal Migration
• Animal Societies: Ant Colonies to Elephant Families
• Bizarre Mating Rituals in the Animal Kingdom
• The Biological Rationale Behind Animal Play Behavior
• Genetic Basis of Animal Domestication

Animal Research Topics for High School

• Exploring Birdsong: Music or Communication?
• Bats and Echolocation: A Deep Dive
• Insects as Indicators of Environmental Change
• Chimpanzee Social Structures and Behaviors
• Penguin Adaptations for Harsh Climates
• Exploring Threats to Sea Turtles Populations
• The Fascinating World of Spider Webs
• Investigating Adaptations in Desert Animals
• Venomous vs. Poisonous: Animals’ Defense Mechanisms
• Elephants: Intelligence and Emotional Capacity
• Dietary Habits of Carnivores, Herbivores, and Omnivores
• Snake Behavior: More than Just Slithering
• Study on Monarch Butterfly Migration Patterns
• Endangered Species and Conservation Efforts
• Bees and the Importance of Pollination
• Animal Camouflage: Examples and Effectiveness
• Dolphin Intelligence: Evidence and Examples
• Physiology of Flight in Birds
• Gorillas: Social Behavior and Habitat Loss
• Reptile Biodiversity in Rainforest Ecosystems

Animal Research Topics for College Students

• Marine Biology: The Complex Ecosystem of Coral Reefs
• Microorganisms in the Rumen of Cows: How They Aid Digestion?
• Animal Assisted Therapy: Benefits and Challenges
• Physiological Impact of Climate Change on Polar Bears
• Ethology: Aggression in Animal Species
• Cephalopods and Camouflage: An Exploration
• Study of Animal Cognition: Intelligence in Non-Primates
• Threats Facing the African Lion: Conservation Strategies
• Environmental Stressors and Their Effects on Amphibians
• Biotic Factors Influencing the Habitats of Whales
• Parasitology: Host-Parasite Relationships in Animals
• Investigation into the Social Behavior of Wolves
• Comparative Analysis of Primate Communication Systems
• Cross-Species Disease Transmission: From Animals to Humans
• Aquatic Toxicology: How Pollution Affects Aquatic Life
• Animal Welfare in Agriculture: Ethics and Practices
• Population Dynamics of the Snow Leopard in the Himalayas
• Exploration of Bioluminescence in Deep-Sea Creatures
• Hibernation Mechanisms in Mammals: A Comparative Study

Animal Essay Topics to Research

• Migration Patterns: Mystery of Monarch Butterflies
• Biodiversity Loss: Consequences for Global Ecosystems
• Chimpanzee Cultures: Differences Across Africa
• Eco-Physiology of Desert Creatures: Surviving Extreme Conditions
• Animal Ethics: Questioning the Use of Animals in Research
• Unraveling the Secrets of Dolphin Communication
• Birdsong and Neurobiology: Insights into Human Speech
• Peculiar Reproductive Strategies in the Animal Kingdom
• Killer Bees: An Invasive Species Spreading Fear
• Insects as Pollinators: Their Importance in Agriculture
• The Vitality of Sharks in Oceanic Food Chains
• Life Strategies of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Fauna
• Venomous Creatures and Biomedical Research Opportunities
• Biomimicry: Nature’s Inspirations for Technological Advancements
• Hybridization in the Wild: Case of the Coywolf
• Decoding the Waggle Dance of Honeybees
• The Secret Lives of Bats: Echolocation and Beyond
• Resilience in Nature: How Animals Recover From Disaster
• Bioacoustics in Animal Communication: From Insects to Whales
• Predator-Prey Dynamics in African Savannah Ecosystems

Animal Argumentative Essay Topics

• Zoo Ethics: Animal Rights Versus Education Benefits
• Veganism versus Meat Consumption: Gauging the Ecological Footprint
• Is Pet Ownership Compatible With Animal Rights?
• Whale Hunting: Cultural Practice or Inhumane Act?
• Genetic Engineering: Crossing Ethical Boundaries With Designer Pets?
• Animal Sentience: Do We Underestimate Non-Human Intelligence?
• Animal Experimentation: Is There a Justifiable Trade-Off?
• Hunting for Conservation: Paradox or Viable Strategy?
• Aquariums as Conservation Tools: Are They Effective?
• Wild Animals as Pets: Exploring the Controversy
• Endangered Species Act: Time for an Overhaul?
• Factory Farming: Is the Price of Cheap Meat Too High?
• Feral Cats: Euthanasia Versus Trap-Neuter-Return Programs
• Rewilding Efforts: Romantic Ideal or Feasible Conservation Strategy?
• Animal Performance: Should Circuses Stop Using Animals?
• Emotional Support Animals: Right or Privilege?
• Dissecting Animals in Education: Essential Learning or Outdated Practice?
• Animal Cloning: Promising Technology or Ethical Misstep?
• Invasive Species Control: Is Eradication Ethically Defensible?
• Wildlife Tourism: Conservation Tool or Harmful Industry?

Animal Persuasive Essay Topics

• Promoting the Adoption of Shelter Animals Over Breeding
• Animal Rights: Is It Time to Rethink Meat Consumption?
• Fur Industry: Time to Take a Stand against Animal Cruelty
• Exotic Pet Trade: Advocating for Tighter Legislation
• Embracing Insect Eating as a Sustainable Food Source
• Shark Finning: A Call for Global Ban
• Zoos: Enforcing Higher Welfare Standards
• Dairy Industry: Unmasking the Cruelty Behind Milk
• Captivity versus Conservation: The Case Against Marine Parks
• Illegal Wildlife Trade: Implementing Stricter Penalties
• Hunting Trophies: Upholding the Ban on Imports
• Rodeos and Animal Cruelty: Time to Say No?
• Animal Dissection in Schools: Advocating for Virtual Alternatives
• Greyhound Racing: A Sport or Animal Exploitation?
• Vivisection: Encouraging the Use of Non-Animal Testing Methods
• Dog Breeding: The Case Against Purebreds
• Bullfighting: A Cultural Tradition or Barbaric Sport?
• Horse Carriages in Cities: Romantic Charm or Animal Abuse?
• Culling Wildlife: Arguing Against the “Overpopulation” Myth

Animal Abuse Essay Topics

• Dissecting the Psychological Factors Behind Animal Cruelty
• Preventing Animal Neglect: Insights and Interventions
• Animal Hoarding: An Understudied Form of Animal Cruelty
• Addressing Puppy Mills: A Look at Inhumane Breeding Conditions
• Blood Sports: Unveiling the Truth Behind Dog Fighting Rings
• Cockfighting: Its Hidden Costs and Damages to Animal Welfare
• Exotic Animal Trade: Unseen Agonies of Captive Wildlife
• Dolphin Slaughter in Drive Hunts: A Call for Action
• Live Animal Markets: Uncovering the Injustices
• Investigating the Dark Side of the Horse Racing Industry
• Factory Farming: The Harsh Reality Behind Our Meals
• Cruel Practices in the Wool Industry: Shedding Light on Shearing
• Unregulated Breeding of Exotic Pets: Addressing the Hidden Cruelty
• Fur Trapping: An Unnecessary Tradition in Modern Society
• Unmasking the Cruelty in the Foie Gras Industry
• Live Baiting Scandal in Greyhound Racing: A Call for Change
• Misuse of Animals in Tourist Attractions: Riding Elephants to Harm
• The Dark Side of Circuses: Life Behind the Big Top
• Unveiling Animal Abuse in the Movie Industry: A Push for Change

Animal Debate Topics

• Zoos and Animal Welfare: Ethical Perspectives
• Should Animal Testing Be Abolished in Biomedical Research?
• Biodiversity Conservation: The Imperative for Animal Rights
• Interdisciplinary Approaches to Reducing Stray Populations
• Exotic Pets Ownership: Freedom of Choice or Animal Exploitation?
• Animal Intelligence: Reevaluating Cognitive Capacities of Non-Human Species
• Symbiotic Relationship or Exploitation: Pets and Their Owners
• Aquariums and Marine Parks: Conservation or Captivity?
• Considering Veganism: Ethical Obligation or Personal Choice?
• Lab-Grown Meat: A Viable Solution to Reduce Farm Animal Suffering?
• Pesticides and Bee Colonies: Environmental Ethics and Responsibilities
• Should Animals Have Legal Rights Comparable to Humans?
• Birdsong and Language: Understanding Avian Communication
• Hunting for Conservation: A Paradox or Viable Strategy?
• Ecotourism: Opportunity for Wildlife Protection or Threat?
• Horse Racing Industry: Sport or Animal Abuse?
• Dolphin-Assisted Therapy: Healing or Harmful Practice?
• Culling for Conservation: Justifiable or Short-Sighted?
• Should Service Animals Be Used in Mental Health Therapy?
• Anthropocentrism and Environmental Ethics: Rethinking Our Approach to Animals

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How To Write An Animal Report

Are you writing animal reports with your students? Want an easy step-by-step process to support your students? Check out this simple process.

Steps On How To Write An Animal Report

There are  seven steps (with an optional 8th step) to follow when teaching your students to write an animal report. The steps are:

• Choose Your Animal
• Research Your Animal
• Make Jot Notes
• Write a Draft
• Revise and Edit
• Write a Good Copy
• Illustrate Report
• Assess Report (Optional)

How To Write An Animal Report Writing Objectives

In this writing activity students will:

• conduct research to find out about their animals,
• write sentences that contain important information, and
• create reports that provide information to their readers.

Materials For Animal Research Activity

Here are the files you’ll need for the animal research report writing activity:

• Animal Topic Cards (FREE)
• Animal Report Writing Posters – Black and White (FREE)
• Animal Report Writing Posters – Color (Members Only)
• Jot Note Templates (FREE)
• Animal Report – Draft Templates (FREE)
• Animal Report – Final Copy Templates Primary Lines (FREE)
• Animal Report – Final Copy Templates Regular Lines (FREE)
• Animal Report – Cover (FREE)
• Editing Checklist 1 – Black and White (FREE)
• Editing Checklist 1 – Color (Members Only)
• Editing Checklist 2 – Black and White (FREE)
• Editing Checklist 2 – Color (Members Only)
• Editing Checklist 3 – Black and White (FREE)
• Editing Checklist 3 – Color (Members Only)
• Editing Checklist 4 – Black and White (FREE)
• Editing Checklist 4 – Color (Members Only)
• Report Writing Rubric – Black and White  (FREE)
• Report Writing Rubric – Color (Members Only)
• Writing Mechanics Rubric – Black and White (FREE)
• Writing Mechanics Rubric – Color (Members Only)

Directions For Report Writing Activity

Step one: choose topic for animal report.

To begin, students choose an animal for their report. There are different ways that students can choose the topic for their animal reports. Students can:

• choose their own topic.
• pick an animal out of a hat.
• be assigned an animal.

Step Two: Research Animal For Report

Next, students can use different sources to find information about their animals depending on the resources you have available. Students can use:

• websites such as  National Geographic For Kids  and  San Diego Zoo ,
• magazines, and
• trading cards.

*** These jot notes are a part of the animal report found in the Teaching With a Touch of Honey Writing Club.

Step Three: Make Jot Notes On Animal Research Report Template

Students look through the sources and make notes about the information they find. Making jot notes is a difficult skill for students to master. Provide your students with jot note templates to support them with this process. Students can write one category that they are researching on each template. Categories may include:

• Description
• Family or Life Cycle
• Other Interesting Facts

Step Four: Write A Draft Copy of Animal Report

Once students have finished writing their jot notes, they can write their draft reports. Students take the information they have gathered on their jot note templates and make them into paragraphs for their reports.

Give students a draft template for each category they researched. If they found information on all six categories, provide students with 6 draft templates. Students write the category at that top of the draft template and then use their jot notes to write their paragraphs.

Step Five: Revise and Edit Animal Report

Next, students revise and edit their reports. Teachers can support their students as they revise and edit with differentiated writing checklists. Choose a checklist that matches the individual learning needs of your students. Students work through the checklist to make their writing better. 

Step Six: Write Animal Report Good Copy

After students edit and revise their draft reports, they’re ready to write the good copy of their report. Students can use the final copy templates to write their good copy of their report.

Step Seven: Illustrate Animal Research Report

The last step of the report writing process is adding illustrations to the final copy templates to enhance what students have written in their reports.

Step Eight: Assess Report (Optional)

An optional step of the report writing process is to assess the work done by the students. This can be accomplished through self, peer, and teacher assessments. Rubrics could also be used.

Differentiated Instruction Ideas

There are different ways you can differentiate this activity in your classroom.

• Draft Templates: There are 3 different draft templates provided for each of the writing activities. You can provide each student with a copy of the draft template that matches their learning needs. The templates look similar but require students to provide a different number of details in their story.
• Number of Categories and Facts:
• Partner Writing: Studnets
• Provide Choice: Let students choose the animal they research.
• Editing Bookmarks: There are 4 different editing bookmarks. Provide each student with a copy of the bookmark that matches their learning needs. The bookmarks are similar but include a different number of editing skills.

What Teachers are Saying About the Animal Report Writing Activity:

❤️ “This is a well planned out project. I invited my students to select an animal from the list that they wanted to learn about. Then over three weeks in the computer lab, they were charged with learning about their animal and took notes on the pages provided. Their final project was written and they received a writing grade for their hard work. My principal said she really like this project. Thank you!”  – Peggy R.

❤️ “I am using this for our research/informational writing unit. I love how there are differentiated pages for learners of all types, visual steps of the process, and the rubrics at the end!” – Kristin Y. 

❤️ “My students were able to use this resource with little help. It is well organized and gives them step by step guidance. I look forward to using it again this year.”  – JoAnne V. 

❤️ “ I loved this resource. It was a perfect packet to use as I introduced writing a research paper. The note taking options for different level students was perfect. The note taking step helped the students pick important information instead of writing everything! I only had to get books from the library in order to make this project a success! Loved this resource!”  – Nancy B.

Here are even more Report Writing FREEBIES :

Ant report writing activities.

• Ant Report Cut-and-Paste Jot Notes (FREE)
• Ant Report Cut-and Paste Jot Notes – Answer Key (Members Only)
• Ant Report Draft Templates (FREE)
• Ant Report Final Copy Templates (FREE)
• Ant Report Cover (FREE)
• Ant Report Table of Contents (FREE)

Bumblebee Report Writing Activities

• Bumblebee Cut-and-Paste Jot Notes (Members Only)
• Bumblebee Report Cut-and Paste Jot Notes – Answer Key (Members Only)
• Bumblebee Report – Draft Copy Template (Members Only)
• Bumblebee Report – Final Copy Template (Members Only)
• Bumblebee Report – Cover (Members Only)
• Bumblebee Report – Table of Contents (Members Only)

Butterfly Report Writing Activities

• Butterfly Cut-and Paste Jot Notes (Members Only)
• Butterfly Report Cut-and Paste Jot Notes – Answer Key (Members Only)
• Butterfly Report – Draft Copy Template (Members Only)
• Butterfly Report – Final Copy Template (Members Only)
• Butterfly Report – Cover (Members Only)
• Butterfly Report – Table of Contents (Members Only)

Dragonfly Report Writing Activities

• Dragonfly Cut-and Paste Jot Notes (Members Only)
• Dragonfly Report Cut-and Paste Jot Notes – Answer Key (Members Only)
• Dragonfly Report – Draft Copy Template (Members Only)
• Dragonfly Report – Final Copy Template (Members Only)
• Dragonfly Report – Cover (Members Only)
• Dragonfly Report – Table of Contents (Members Only)

Grasshopper Report Writing Activities

• Grasshopper Cut-and Paste  Jot Notes (Members Only)
• Grasshopper Report Cut-and Paste Jot Notes – Answer Key (Members Only)
• Grasshopper Report – Draft Copy Template (Members Only)
• Grasshopper Report – Final Copy Template (Members Only)
• GrasshopperReport – Cover (Members Only)
• Grasshopper Report – Table of Contents (Members Only)

House Fly Report Writing Activities

• House Fly Cut-and Paste JotNotes (Members Only)
• House Fly Report Cut-and Paste Jot Notes – Answer Key (Members Only)
• House Fly Report – Draft Copy Template (Members Only)
• House Fly Report – Final Copy Template (Members Only)
• House Fly Report – Cover (Members Only)
• House Fly Report – Table of Contents (Members Only)

Ladybug Report Writing Activities

• Ladybug Cut-and Paste Jot Notes (Members Only)
• Ladybug Report Cut-and Paste Jot Notes – Answer Key (Members Only)
• Ladybug Report – Draft Copy Template (Members Only)
• Ladybug Report – Final Copy Template (Members Only)
• Ladybug Report – Cover (Members Only)
• Ladybug Report – Table of Contents (Members Only)

Mosquito Report Writing Activities

• Mosquito Cut-and Paste Jot Notes (Members Only)
• Mosquito Report Cut-and Paste Jot Notes – Answer Key (Members Only)
• Mosquito Report – Draft Copy Template (Members Only)
• Mosquito Report – Final Copy Template (Members Only)
• Mosquito Report – Cover (Members Only)
• Mosquito Report – Table of Contents (Members Only)

Editing Bookmarks

• Editing Bookmark 1 – Black and White (FREE)
• Editing Bookmark 1 – Color (Members Only)
• Editing Bookmark 2 – Black and White (FREE)
• Editing Bookmark 2 – Color (Members Only)
• Editing Bookmark 3 – Black and White (FREE)
• Editing Bookmark 3 – Color (Members Only)
• Editing Bookmark 4 – Black and White (FREE)
• Editing Bookmark 4 – Color (Members Only)

Assessments and Rubrics (Insects)

• Self-Assessment – Happy Faces Black and White (Members Only)
• Self-Assessment – Happy Faces Color (Members Only)
• Self-Assessment – 4 Point Scale Black and White (Members Only)
• Self-Assessment – 4 Point Scale Color (Members Only)
• Peer-Assessment – Happy Faces Black and White (Members Only)
• Peer-Assessment – Happy Faces Color (Members Only)
• Peer-Assessment – 4 Point Scale Black and White (Members Only)
• Peer-Assessment – 4 Point Scale Color (Members Only)
• Teacher Assessment – Happy Faces Black and White (Members Only)
• Teacher Assessment – Happy Faces Color (Members Only)
• Teacher Assessment – 4 Point Scale Black and White (Members Only)
• Teacher Assessment – 4 Point Scale Color (Members Only)
• Narrative Writing Rubric – Color (Members Only)
• Writing Mechanics – Color (Members Only)

Benefits of Writing an Animal Report

Writing animal reports is a great way to develop various skills and help students become better writers. These benefits include:

• expand their vocabulary,
• improve sentence structure, and
• enhance their overall language skills.
• Research Skills – Students develop their research skills when they search for information for their reports. They learn how to locate information from books, websites, and other sources.
• the topic they will write about,
• how to organize the information they discover, 
• how to present the information to their readers.
• Organizational Skills – When students organize their report, they learn the structure of a report that is a skill they will use throughout their school career and beyond.
• Communication Skills – Students develop their written communication skills as they write their animal reports. They learn how to clearly communicate their ideas in their report.
• Self- Confidence – Students are proud of the reports they create which helps to increase their self-confidence in writing and the products they produce.

Report Writing Activities

The animal report activities, along with the report writing projects, are included in the Writing Club . If you want to purchase the report writing materials individually, click on the topic to check it out in my TpT store.

• animals , arctic animals ,
• biographies,
• community helpers , coral reef animals ,
• desert animals , dinosaurs and other prehistoric reptiles ,
• pets , plants,

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Other teaching ideas.

Hopefully, you enjoyed How To Write An Animal Report . Want more teaching ideas and resources? Check out:

• How To Teach Inquiry-Based Learning
• Dinosaur Narrative Writing Activities
• How To Teach Vocabulary to Kids

How to write an animal report

Your teacher wants a written report on the beluga whale . Not to worry. Use these organizational tools from the Nat Geo Kids Almanac so you can stay afloat while writing a report.

STEPS TO SUCCESS:

Your report will follow the format of a descriptive or expository essay and should consist of a main idea, followed by supporting details and a conclusion. Use this basic structure for each paragraph as well as the whole report, and you’ll be on the right track.

Introduction

State your main idea .

The beluga whale is a common and important species of whale.

Provide supporting points for your main idea.

1. The beluga whale is one of the smallest whale species.

2. It is also known as the “white whale” because of its distinctive coloring.

3. These whales are common in the Arctic Ocean’s coastal waters.

Then expand on those points with further description, explanation, or discussion.

1a. Belugas range in size from 13 to 20 feet (4 to 6.1 m) in length.

2a. Belugas are born gray or brown. They fade to white at around five years old.

3a. Some Arctic belugas migrate south in large herds when sea ice freezes over.

Wrap it up with a summary of your whole paper.

Because of its unique coloring and unusual features, belugas are among the most familiar and easily distinguishable of all the whales.

Key Information

Here are some things you should consider including in your report:

What does your animal look like? To what other species is it related? How does it move? Where does it live? What does it eat? What are its predators? How long does it live? Is it endangered? Why do you find it interesting?

SEPARATE FACT FROM FICTION: Your animal may have been featured in a movie or in myths and legends. Compare and contrast how the animal has been portrayed with how it behaves in reality. For example, penguins can’t dance the way they do in Happy Feet.

PROOFREAD AND REVISE: As with any essay, when you’re finished, check for misspellings, grammatical mistakes, and punctuation errors. It often helps to have someone else proofread your work, too, as he or she may catch things you have missed. Also, look for ways to make your sentences and paragraphs even better. Add more descriptive language, choosing just the right verbs, adverbs, and adjectives to make your writing come alive.

BE CREATIVE: Use visual aids to make your report come to life. Include an animal photo file with interesting images found in magazines or printed from websites. Or draw your own! You can also build a miniature animal habitat diorama. Use creativity to help communicate your passion for the subject.

THE FINAL RESULT: Put it all together in one final, polished draft. Make it neat and clean, and remember to cite your references.

Download the pdf .

More resources

Homework help, science lab, (ad) national geographic kids almanac.

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Best Animal Research Topics for Your Research Papers

Animals, of course is what almost everyone can relate with. However, you may never know you don’t know much about animals until your professor ask you to write a research paper on animals. Then you will begin to realize you have limited or no idea about some animals you have seen regularly.

Animal research paper may not be as easy as you think. Getting the right topic idea before the proper writing is as difficult as writing itself. Since you are writing about a general subject such as animals, the most impressive thing is to write about a seemingly unpopular idea about animals. This will make your research paper more valuable and commendable.

Your next question will then be, how do I get the right animal research topics? No doubt, it seems difficult to get the right topic to write about animals. However, we have helped to compile the best topics to consider in your next research paper. In this piece, you will find several topics for different types of essays and research papers.

Easy Animals Research Topics

There is no doubt about it, there are topics that can be considered as easy for research writing. Such topics are easy to research and develop. Students who do not enjoy tedious research will rather go for this kind of topic. The following are easy animal research paper topics you can consider;

• What is an Asiatic horse breed and what are its characteristics?
• Dog vs cat: What are the similarities and differences between these two pets?
• Simple ways to train a pony quickly.
• Can Polar bears be seen at the South Pole?
• Identifying the top 3 weirdest animals on Earth and their characteristics.
• What is poaching and what are the negative effects?
• What are penguins and why are they known as flightless birds?
• An in-depth analysis of Africa and its vast wildlife.
• What are migratory birds: Identifying the classification and characteristics.
• Poaching and its negative effects on wildlife and methods to discourage it.

Best Animal Research Topics and Questions

Every research paper must be able to give answers to a research question. In the case of animals, some questions beg for answers that can be considered for research writing. These kinds of questions present your research writing as a valid and relatable one. You can consider the following animal research questions in your next paper writing;

• Testing of antibiotics on animals: is it appropriate or the wrong approach?
• The extinction of dinosaurs: what are the factors responsible for their extinction?
• What is an exotic pet and how do you care for it?
• What is a better pet between a dog and a cat?
• What animal should be considered the largest predator and what are its characteristics?
• Keeping animals in zoos: will you consider this inhumane treatment?
• Do humans have the right to kill animals and what are animal rights?
• Hunting for sport: Is this activity improper and should it be banned?
• What are endangered species and how can they be protected?
• Exotic pets in the United Kingdom: What are the excesses and why should they be banned?

Simple Animal Topics for Research Papers on Animal Rescue

Animal rescue is an important discussion on animals in recent times. There are mixed submissions about this subject and these discussions have given birth to a lot of controversies. Addressing any of such topics in your research paper writing proves your knowledge about animals. Here are topics on animal rescue you can consider for your research writing;

• Rescuing animals in need or danger: what we should all know.
• A simple review of the Australian bushfire and its effects on wildlife.
• Poor social skills in rescuing animals and how to develop effectiveness.
• A simple review of wildfire in the United State and the consequent effect on wildlife.
• Rescuing dogs in the military: what are the resources guarding problems and how to address them?
• Analyzing the lack of proper veterinary care for rescued animals.
• What is an anxiety problem in animals using rescuing dogs as a case study?
• Evaluating rescue cats and their destructive problem.
• Analyzing the end of life of rescue animals: What eventually happened to these animals?
• Inadequate screening for the adoption of rescue animals and its effects on the entire process.

Animal Research Project Ideas College

College students who study animal science-related courses are likely to write often about animals. As such, there should be a dedicated topic section for college students. Writing about animals as a college student is no less than writing as a university student. However, college students should consider writing on the following topics about animals;

• Should a college student consider having a pet and what pet is the best consideration?
• Tardigrades: Do tardigrades live in space and how do they survive?
• Evaluating the process of using snake venom in the production of anticancer drugs.
• What are the factors to consider before buying your kids a pet?
• Analyzing the animal fight in the United Kingdom and the effect on animal rights.
• What are psychological issues present in zoo animals?
• Cats’ vaccination: What are the effects and why is it important?
• Evaluating animals in extreme weather conditions: What are their features and adaptation methods?
• Lab mice: why are these animals considered a perfect fit for experiments?
• What are dog vaccines and what is their importance?

Best Dog Research Topics

Dogs by far seem to be the most popular animals and pets on Earth. There are a lot of interesting things to explore about this unique animal. You may then want to write some research papers on dogs and their uniqueness. Here are research topics about dogs to consider;

• Research paper on the evolution of dogs from Gray Wolf.
• Dog as a human best pet ever: What are the factors responsible for dog wide acceptance as the best pet?
• All you need to know about classical conditioning and how to teach new tricks to your dog.
• What is ropeless dog lead and how feasible is this dog leading model?
• How to address the moral dilemma of incessant barking in dogs.
• Identifying the aggressive and unaggressive breeds of dogs and factors responsible for such behaviors.
• How does tail wagging signify the emotion and expression of happiness in dogs?
• What is animal-assisted therapy and how does your dog qualify for one?
• What is operant conditioning in dogs and what are the consequences?
• Why is a protection dog important and what breeds are the most suitable?

Animal Rights Topics for Research Paper

Animal rights have been one of the most trending topics about animals in recent times. While it is difficult to believe that animals have rights, a lot of people need to understand that they really do. Writing a research paper on animal rights can be an attempt to establish the truth about animals and their rights. The following are animal rights research topics to consider in your next research writing;

• Animal rights movement in the United State: an overview of the goals of the movement.
• Do animals require more rights and what should they be?
• An overview of animal rights in China and how effective it is.
• Discussing animal rights in the United Kingdom and evaluating the implementation so far.
• Does keeping animals in zoos violate animal rights and what are the best zoological practices?
• What are the violations of animal rights in fishing practices?
• What is the implication of animal rights on invasive species?
• Analyzing animal rights in Europe and what are the clauses that make up the right?
• Evaluating cow rights in India and Africa: what are the best practices to maintain animal rights?
• Can predator animals be killed without breaking animal rights rules?

Persuasive Essay Topics About Animals

Discussions on animals will either take the form of support or oppose the motion. While everyone may not have the same idea, persuasive essays help establish your idea in the best way to convince others. There are a lot of topics about animals that are best discussed in a persuasive essay. The following are persuasive animal topics to write about;

• Stopping deforestation and how it can help in preserving wildlife.
• A persuasive essay on stopping the eating of animal food to preserve animal life.
• What are the effects of global warming on wildlife and what we can do to ease the effect?
• What is using animals in circuses and why you should stop the act.
• What is pet insurance, does it worth it and why should you consider it?
• What are the negative effects of pollution on animals and what we should do to help the situation?
• Why should pet owners adopt their pets rather than buy them?
• Why you should not consider foxes as pets.
• Why you should stop eating pork and what are the health benefits attached to this action?
• Why you should get your pet a microchip for easy control and communication?

Argumentative Topics About Animals

An argumentative essay is the type of essay that seeks to argue out a point to convince others. The topic for such an essay must be one that allows for heated discussion on the subject of animals. There are quite a lot of animal topics that have generated debates over time. You can write an argumentative essay on the following research topics about animals;

• Do cats make the best pets as opposed to dogs?
• Why is it inappropriate to hold animals in captivity and what should be the right practices?
• Should exotic pet ownership be banned and why should this happen?
• Should a man feed wildlife and why?
• Debate on whether zoos should be more regulated and why?
• Debates on whether the Massai should be stopped from hunting lions and why?
• Are Hyenas becoming endangered species and arguing the causes.
• Why do we need more elephant sanctuaries and what is their importance?
• Debates on why dogs should be considered the best service animals and why?
• Arguing on the importance of flies to mankind as opposed to their disadvantages.

Veterinarian Research Paper Topics

Veterinarians are known to be the closest to animals. They are considered to have more understanding of animals than any other kind of person. As such, veterinarian subjects about animals must be more complex and detailed. Here are topics about animals for veterinarian research paper writing;

• Veterinarian: Explain the concept of veterinary and what are its unique functions?
• What are the dangers and the challenges of being a veterinary?
• How does a veterinarian explain Brucellosis?
• What are the most common health challenges of cats in the United Kingdom?
• Discussion on the recent biomedical research on animals.
• Poor veterinary care in rural Europe and the effects on animals.
• Identifying the technological breakthroughs in veterinary medicine and how they have enhanced animal care.
• Tapeworm infection in animals: what is the best approach to address it in dogs and cats?
• What is the veterinarian’s conclusion on using punishment for pet training purposes?
• What is mycotoxicosis and why are the implications on the health of animals?

Interesting Animal Research Topics

Animals research papers can be an interesting topic to discuss. Animals of course can be interesting to study in certain aspects. You must consider intriguing topics about animals to create an interesting animal research paper. The following are good topics for interesting animal research topics;

• Should mosquitoes be considered useless insects and what are the reasons?
• Analyzing the Lion pride of African wildlife.
• Exploring the anatomy of the hyena and what are its most striking features?
• What are Tardigrades: Exploring the features of this special animal.
• What is the IUCN red list of threatened species and what are the implications?
• Animal adaptation and survival in the desert: what features are responsible for the adaptation process?
• A cross-analysis of the butterfly life cycle and what are the interesting things to note?
• Dolphin: What factors make them intelligent animals as they are portrayed?
• Medical testing on animals: Is it a justifiable act or an inappropriate action?
• What are the unique features of monkeys that make tree climbing so easy for them?

Animal Topics About Your Favorite Pet

Writing about your favorite pet might be one of the easiest animal essay writings. Since you are close to your favorite pet, you should have more to say about the pet. As such, your writing must be written from a standpoint of a firsthand experience. The following are animal research paper topics good for your research writing on your favorite pet;

• What animal would you consider your favorite animal and why have you made the decision?
• Which animal can be considered the funniest animal and what are its characteristics?
• What features of the dog contribute to it being the most favorite pet of man?
• Should you consider owning an exotic pet? Why and why not?
• What can be considered the trait of your favorite animal?
• Can animals ever be loyal? Using a case study of your favorite animal.
• What is the best animal in the world and why will you consider it so?
• An essay on the death of your favorite pet and what led to the death.
• What animal would be your favorite pet if you could tame wildlife?
• Comparing dogs and cats: Which animal is best for pets and what are the reasons?  

Animal Research Topics for High School Students

High School students study a subject called animal science. This subject exposes them to some theories about animals and their characteristics. As such, high school students may write an essay or mini research on any animal of their choice. Here are some animal research topics high school students can consider;

• Expensive veterinary care: what factors are responsible for the high cost of service?
• Identifying the similarities and the difference between camels and dromedaries.
• Should high school students be allowed to come with their pets?
• Analyzing the conversion of wild animals to pets in the United States.
• What is a local animal shelter and how can you adopt animals from there?
• Can an elephant ever swim or it is just an assumption?
• First-hand comparison of a cat and dog from a student who has both as pets.
• Identifying irresponsible breeding of dogs and what are the consequences?
• Killer whale and how it hunts its prey.
• What is an Orangutan and analyzing its habitat loss?

Animal Abuse Research Topics

Animal rights advocates have over time insisted that animals are being abused. In fact, keeping animals in zoos is considered to be one such act of animal cruelty. Being a controversial topic, you can choose to write a research paper on it. Here are topics on animal abuse you can write about in your research paper;

• Prevailing animal abuse acts in the United States.
• What is the difference between animal abuse and animal cruelty?
• Animal abuses in China and what are the moves to curtail the act.
• What is animal hoarding behavior and what are the effects on animal health?
• The relationship between cruelty towards animals and their aggressive response.
• Can we consider animal testing as animal abuse?
• Analyzing animal neglect as a form of animal abuse.
• India and the rising case of animal abuse: Cow and bull as a case study.
• Animal fights and sports as a form of animal abuse and cruelty.
• An overview of the animal abuse law in the United States.

Endangered Animal Research Topics

Certain animals are considered to be endangered species. This is because due to manhunts and poaching they are becoming extremely rare. There are many of these animals and you can choose to write a research paper on any of them. Here are the best research questions about animals called endangered species;

• What is the whooping crane and can it be saved?
• The Bonobo monkey and how it can be saved from extinction.
• Peregrine falcon: Where was it found, what treatment is it subjected to, and how can it be preserved?
• What is the Galapagos penguin and what factors make it an endangered species?
• The black-footed ferret and its high chances of getting extinct.
• Whale shark: what are its vulnerabilities and the moves to save it from extinction?
• What is the monarch butterfly, where is it found, and how can it be preserved?
• What are the factors responsible for the dwindling population of the loggerhead sea turtle?
• The shout Asian dolphin, its vulnerability, and how it can be saved.
• Evaluating the extinction of the dinosaur and factors that may be responsible for this.

How Can I Get My Animal Research Paper?

Writing your animal research topics become an easy task when you have the right topic to research. You only do the task of carrying out research and developing your point. However, when you are a student with a lot of social activities alongside your academics, these simple tasks may seem cumbersome also.

We have got you covered as we have a service that allows you to order your research paper. Our league of writers features experts in animal science and related courses who can write you a perfect research paper. You can achieve this by contacting our support agent to inquire about the ordering process. You can rest assured of a high-quality paper with no grammatical errors or plagiarism when you use this service.

Research papers on animal topics are inevitable for students who study animal science, zoology, biology, and some other related courses. All levels of education including universities, colleges, and high school students can write on this subject matter. There are various subject matters in animal science to discuss and evaluate.

There is a lot of discourse such as animal abuse, animal rights, and animal cruelty that can be the central idea of a research paper. While some of these ideas might be difficult to analyze, having the right topics can make it a seamless task as it will give you headway. However, if you still find it difficult to write your research paper, you can order an animal research paper expert on our platform.

Hire a dissertation writer and explore a wide range of captivating animal research topics with the expertise of our professional writers. Our skilled team is ready to assist you in selecting compelling topics and crafting high-quality research papers that meet the highest academic standards.

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Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

Veterinary medicine research paper topics encompass a wide range of subjects that contribute to the advancement of animal healthcare. This page provides a comprehensive guide for students studying veterinary medicine who are tasked with writing research papers. Explore the intricacies of this field, delve into diverse categories, and discover a multitude of compelling topics to delve into. Whether you’re interested in animal behavior, infectious diseases, pharmacology, or veterinary surgery, this guide will help you navigate the realm of veterinary medicine research paper topics. By offering expert advice on topic selection and providing valuable insights on how to write an impactful research paper, we aim to empower students to make significant contributions to the field of veterinary medicine. Furthermore, iResearchNet’s writing services ensure that students receive top-quality, customized research papers tailored to their unique requirements. Let us help you unleash your academic potential and make a lasting impact in the world of veterinary medicine.

100 Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

Introduction: The field of veterinary medicine encompasses a vast array of disciplines and areas of study, offering a wealth of research opportunities for students. This comprehensive list of veterinary medicine research paper topics is divided into 10 categories, each containing 10 unique topics. By exploring these topics, students can gain a deeper understanding of various aspects of veterinary medicine and contribute to the advancement of animal healthcare.

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Animal Behavior and Psychology:

• The impact of environmental enrichment on animal behavior and welfare
• Behavioral interventions for managing aggression in dogs
• Understanding the role of animal cognition in training and behavior modification
• The relationship between human-animal interaction and animal behavior
• Investigating stress and coping mechanisms in companion animals
• The effects of socialization on the behavior and development of puppies and kittens
• Exploring the psychological well-being of captive animals in zoos
• Behavioral indicators and management strategies for pain in animals
• Understanding the behavior and welfare of farm animals in intensive production systems
• Investigating the impact of fear and anxiety on animal welfare in veterinary settings

Infectious Diseases:

• Emerging zoonotic diseases and their impact on public health
• Antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine: challenges and strategies
• The role of vaccination in preventing infectious diseases in companion animals
• Epidemiology and control measures for common bacterial infections in livestock
• Investigating the transmission dynamics of vector-borne diseases in animals
• Diagnostic methods and advancements in the detection of viral infections in animals
• One Health approach: addressing the link between animal and human infectious diseases
• The impact of climate change on the prevalence and distribution of infectious diseases in wildlife
• Surveillance and control measures for emerging viral diseases in aquaculture
• Exploring the impact of biosecurity measures in preventing the spread of infectious diseases in veterinary clinics and hospitals

Pharmacology and Therapeutics:

• Investigating the efficacy and safety of new veterinary drugs and therapies
• Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of commonly used drugs in veterinary practice
• Adverse drug reactions and drug interactions in veterinary medicine
• Exploring alternative therapies in veterinary medicine: acupuncture, herbal medicine, and more
• The role of personalized medicine in veterinary practice
• Drug-resistant parasites and strategies for their control in companion animals
• Investigating the use of pain management protocols in veterinary surgery
• The impact of nutraceuticals and dietary supplements on animal health
• Pharmacogenomics in veterinary medicine: implications for personalized treatment
• Exploring the challenges and opportunities in veterinary drug development

Veterinary Surgery and Anesthesia:

• Advancements in minimally invasive surgery in veterinary medicine
• Anesthetic management and monitoring in exotic animal species
• Investigating surgical techniques for the treatment of orthopedic conditions in companion animals
• Complications and management of anesthesia in geriatric patients
• Exploring the role of regenerative medicine in veterinary surgery
• Surgical interventions for the management of oncological conditions in animals
• Investigating novel approaches for pain management in postoperative veterinary patients
• Surgical techniques and rehabilitation strategies for the treatment of spinal cord injuries in animals
• Exploring the use of robotic surgery in veterinary medicine
• Investigating the impact of surgical interventions on the quality of life in animals

Diagnostic Imaging and Radiology:

• Advancements in imaging techniques for the early detection of cancer in animals
• Investigating the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in veterinary neurology
• The role of ultrasound in diagnosing and managing cardiovascular diseases in animals
• Radiographic evaluation and interpretation of musculoskeletal disorders in small animals
• Investigating the use of computed tomography (CT) in veterinary oncology
• Diagnostic imaging in avian and exotic animal medicine
• The impact of advanced imaging modalities on the diagnosis of gastrointestinal diseases in animals
• Exploring the role of nuclear medicine in veterinary diagnostics
• Radiographic evaluation and interpretation of respiratory disorders in large animals
• Investigating the use of contrast-enhanced imaging techniques in veterinary medicine

Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology:

• One Health approach in the surveillance and control of zoonotic diseases
• Investigating foodborne pathogens and their impact on animal and human health
• The role of veterinarians in disaster preparedness and response
• Veterinary epidemiology: studying disease patterns and risk factors in animal populations
• Investigating the impact of environmental factors on animal health and well-being
• Exploring the relationship between animal agriculture and antimicrobial resistance
• Veterinary public health interventions for the prevention of zoonotic diseases
• The role of wildlife in the transmission of infectious diseases to domestic animals
• Investigating the impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases in veterinary medicine
• Surveillance and control measures for emerging and re-emerging diseases in veterinary public health

Animal Nutrition and Feed Science:

• Investigating the impact of diet and nutrition on companion animal health
• The role of nutritional interventions in the management of obesity in animals
• Exploring the nutritional requirements and feed formulations for exotic animal species
• Nutritional strategies for the prevention and management of metabolic diseases in livestock
• Investigating the impact of feed additives on animal performance and health
• The role of probiotics and prebiotics in promoting gut health in animals
• Nutritional management of common gastrointestinal disorders in companion animals
• Exploring sustainable and environmentally friendly feed options for livestock
• Investigating the impact of nutrition on reproductive performance in animals
• Nutritional considerations for the optimal growth and development of neonatal animals

Veterinary Education and Professional Development:

• Evaluating the effectiveness of veterinary education programs in preparing students for practice
• Investigating the role of simulation-based training in veterinary education
• Exploring innovative teaching methods in veterinary schools
• Assessing the impact of continuing education on veterinary professionals’ knowledge and skills
• Investigating the factors influencing career choices among veterinary students
• The impact of telemedicine on veterinary practice and client communication
• Exploring the challenges and opportunities in veterinary entrepreneurship
• Veterinary leadership and management skills for effective practice management
• Investigating the role of mentorship in veterinary education and professional development
• Exploring the ethical considerations in veterinary practice and research

Equine Medicine and Surgery:

• Investigating advancements in diagnostic imaging techniques for equine lameness
• Management strategies for musculoskeletal disorders in performance horses
• The impact of nutrition and exercise on the prevention and management of metabolic diseases in horses
• Exploring the use of regenerative therapies in equine orthopedics
• Investigating the impact of respiratory diseases on the performance and welfare of horses
• Equine dentistry: advancements in dental care and oral health management
• Exploring novel surgical interventions for the treatment of orthopedic conditions in horses
• The role of physical therapy and rehabilitation in equine medicine
• Investigating the impact of exercise physiology on performance enhancement in horses
• Infectious diseases and vaccination strategies in equine healthcare

Wildlife Medicine and Conservation:

• Investigating the impact of habitat loss on wildlife health and conservation
• Wildlife forensic medicine: techniques for investigating wildlife crimes
• The role of veterinarians in wildlife rehabilitation and release programs
• Exploring the impact of emerging infectious diseases on wildlife populations
• Investigating the use of contraception in wildlife population management
• Wildlife anesthesia and immobilization techniques for veterinary interventions
• Exploring the role of veterinary medicine in endangered species conservation
• Investigating the impact of pollution and environmental contaminants on wildlife health
• Wildlife diseases and their potential for spillover to domestic animal populations
• Conservation genetics: utilizing molecular techniques in wildlife management

This comprehensive list of veterinary medicine research paper topics provides students with a wide range of subjects to explore within the field. Whether you are interested in animal behavior, infectious diseases, pharmacology, surgery, or any other aspect of veterinary medicine, there are countless opportunities for research and innovation. By selecting a topic that aligns with your interests and career goals, and following the expert advice on how to choose and write a research paper, you can contribute to the advancement of veterinary medicine and make a lasting impact on animal health and welfare.

Veterinary Medicine: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Veterinary medicine plays a vital role in the health and well-being of animals, from beloved pets to livestock and wildlife. As a student studying veterinary medicine, you have the opportunity to delve into various research areas and contribute to advancements in animal healthcare. This article will explore the diverse range of research paper topics available within the field of veterinary medicine, offering you insights into the exciting and impactful areas of study.

• Animal Nutrition and Feed Science : Proper nutrition is fundamental to the health and well-being of animals. Research topics in this area could include investigating the impact of diet and nutrition on companion animal health, exploring nutritional interventions for managing metabolic diseases in livestock, and examining sustainable and environmentally friendly feed options for animals.
• Infectious Diseases : Infectious diseases pose significant challenges to animal health and public health. Research paper topics in this category could encompass emerging zoonotic diseases and their impact on human health, antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine, vaccination strategies for preventing infectious diseases in animals, and exploring the transmission dynamics of vector-borne diseases.
• Animal Behavior and Psychology : Understanding animal behavior and psychology is essential for providing optimal care. Research topics in this field may involve studying the impact of environmental enrichment on animal behavior and welfare, behavioral interventions for managing aggression in dogs, investigating the cognitive abilities of animals, and exploring the role of human-animal interaction in animal behavior.
• Pharmacology and Therapeutics : Pharmacology plays a critical role in treating and preventing diseases in animals. Research paper topics in this area could include investigating the efficacy and safety of new veterinary drugs and therapies, exploring alternative therapies such as acupuncture and herbal medicine, and studying the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of commonly used drugs in veterinary practice.
• Veterinary Surgery and Anesthesia : Surgical interventions are often necessary for diagnosing and treating various conditions in animals. Research topics in this category could focus on advancements in minimally invasive surgery, investigating anesthesia management and monitoring in different animal species, exploring regenerative medicine in veterinary surgery, and studying the impact of surgical interventions on the quality of life in animals.
• Diagnostic Imaging and Radiology : Diagnostic imaging techniques play a crucial role in diagnosing and monitoring diseases in animals. Research paper topics in this field may include advancements in imaging techniques for detecting cancer in animals, exploring the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) in veterinary diagnostics, and investigating the application of radiography and ultrasound in diagnosing specific conditions.
• Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology : Veterinary medicine intersects with public health in various ways. Research topics in this area could involve the One Health approach in the surveillance and control of zoonotic diseases, studying the impact of environmental factors on animal and human health, and investigating the link between animal agriculture and antimicrobial resistance.
• Equine Medicine and Surgery : Horses require specialized veterinary care due to their unique physiology and performance demands. Research paper topics in this category may include investigating advancements in diagnostic imaging techniques for equine lameness, studying the management strategies for musculoskeletal disorders in performance horses, and exploring the impact of respiratory diseases on horse performance and welfare.
• Wildlife Medicine and Conservation : The health and conservation of wildlife are essential for maintaining biodiversity. Research topics in this field could include studying the impact of habitat loss on wildlife health, investigating wildlife rehabilitation and release programs, exploring the role of veterinarians in wildlife conservation, and understanding the diseases that affect wildlife populations.
• Veterinary Education and Professional Development : Ensuring the competency and continuous development of veterinary professionals is crucial. Research paper topics in this area may involve evaluating veterinary education programs, exploring innovative teaching methods, studying the impact of continuing education on veterinary professionals’ knowledge and skills, and investigating the factors influencing career choices among veterinary students.

The field of veterinary medicine offers a wide range of research opportunities, spanning various disciplines and species. Whether you are interested in animal nutrition, infectious diseases, surgery, diagnostic imaging, public health, or any other aspect of veterinary medicine, there are numerous fascinating topics to explore. By selecting a research paper topic that aligns with your interests and goals, you can contribute to the advancement of veterinary medicine, improve animal health and welfare, and make a meaningful impact in the field.

Choosing Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

Selecting the right research paper topic is crucial for your success as a student of veterinary medicine. It allows you to delve into an area of interest, contribute to existing knowledge, and explore the latest advancements in the field. In this section, we will provide you with expert advice on how to choose veterinary medicine research paper topics that align with your interests and academic goals.

• Identify Your Interests : Start by reflecting on your personal interests within the field of veterinary medicine. Consider the areas that fascinate you the most, such as animal behavior, infectious diseases, surgery, diagnostic imaging, wildlife medicine, or public health. Identifying your passions will make the research process more enjoyable and rewarding.
• Consult Your Professors and Mentors : Seek guidance from your professors and mentors who have expertise in different veterinary medicine disciplines. They can provide valuable insights into current research trends, emerging topics, and areas that need further exploration. Discuss your interests with them, and they can help you narrow down potential research paper topics based on their knowledge and experience.
• Stay Updated with Current Literature : Stay abreast of the latest research publications, scientific journals, and conference proceedings in the field of veterinary medicine. Regularly reading scientific literature will expose you to new research findings, innovative techniques, and emerging topics. This will help you identify gaps in the existing knowledge that you can address through your research paper.
• Consider Relevance and Impact : When selecting a research topic, consider its relevance and potential impact on veterinary medicine. Look for topics that address current challenges, emerging issues, or areas where advancements are needed. Research that can contribute to animal health, welfare, conservation, or public health will not only be academically fulfilling but also have real-world implications.
• Analyze Feasibility : Assess the feasibility of your chosen research topic in terms of available resources, time constraints, and access to data. Consider the availability of research materials, laboratory facilities, animal populations, or specialized equipment required for your study. Ensure that your chosen topic is practical and achievable within the given timeframe and available resources.
• Collaborate with Peers : Consider collaborating with your peers or fellow researchers who share similar research interests. Collaborative research projects can broaden your perspective, enhance the quality of your research, and facilitate knowledge sharing. Engaging in interdisciplinary collaborations can also help you explore topics that combine veterinary medicine with other fields, such as biology, ecology, or public health.
• Seek Inspiration from Case Studies and Clinical Experience : Drawing inspiration from case studies, clinical experiences, or real-world scenarios can lead to intriguing research topics. Reflect on challenging cases you have encountered during clinical rotations, unique observations, or clinical questions that have piqued your interest. These experiences can spark ideas for research that address practical veterinary medicine issues.
• Consider Ethical Considerations : When choosing a research topic, consider ethical considerations related to animal welfare and human subjects. Ensure that your research adheres to ethical guidelines and regulations. If your research involves animal subjects, be mindful of the ethical treatment and use of animals, and obtain necessary approvals from relevant ethics committees.
• Explore Emerging Technologies and Techniques : Advancements in technology and techniques have a significant impact on veterinary medicine. Consider topics that explore the application of emerging technologies such as genomics, telemedicine, artificial intelligence, or novel diagnostic tools in veterinary practice. Research in these areas can contribute to the evolution of veterinary medicine and improve animal healthcare outcomes.
• Seek Practical Relevance and Application : Choose research topics that have practical relevance and application in the veterinary field. Look for topics that address challenges faced by veterinarians, animal owners, or the industry. Research that can provide evidence-based solutions, improve clinical practices, or enhance disease prevention and management will have a direct impact on veterinary medicine.

Selecting a suitable research paper topic is a crucial step in your journey as a veterinary medicine student. By identifying your interests, seeking guidance, staying updated with current literature, considering relevance and impact, and analyzing feasibility, you can choose a research topic that is both intellectually stimulating and practically valuable. Remember to consider ethical considerations, collaborate with peers, and explore emerging technologies. By following these expert tips, you will be well-equipped to embark on a research project that contributes to the advancement of veterinary medicine and makes a positive impact on animal health and welfare.

How to Write a Veterinary Medicine Research Paper

Writing a research paper in veterinary medicine allows you to contribute to the field, explore new knowledge, and develop critical thinking and scientific communication skills. In this section, we will guide you through the process of writing a veterinary medicine research paper, from selecting a topic to crafting a compelling paper that effectively communicates your findings.

• Define Your Research Objectives : Clearly define the objectives of your research paper. Determine what you aim to accomplish and the specific research questions you want to answer. This will provide a clear focus and direction for your study.
• Conduct a Thorough Literature Review : Begin by conducting a comprehensive literature review to gather existing knowledge and identify gaps in the research. Analyze and critically evaluate relevant studies, articles, and scientific literature to establish the context for your research.
• Refine Your Research Question : Based on your literature review, refine your research question or hypothesis. Ensure that your question is specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). This will guide your research and help you stay focused.
• Design Your Study : Select an appropriate research design and methodology that aligns with your research question and objectives. Determine the sample size, data collection methods, and statistical analyses required. Ensure that your study design is rigorous and ethically sound.
• Gather and Analyze Data : Collect relevant data using appropriate research methods, whether it involves conducting experiments, surveys, interviews, or analyzing existing datasets. Ensure that your data collection is thorough, reliable, and accurately recorded. Use appropriate statistical tools to analyze your data and draw meaningful conclusions.
• Organize Your Paper : Structure your research paper in a logical and organized manner. Include sections such as the introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Follow a clear and coherent flow of information that guides the reader through your research process.
• Write an Engaging Introduction : Start your paper with an engaging introduction that provides background information on the topic, states the research problem, and highlights the significance of your study. Clearly articulate your research objectives and hypotheses to set the stage for the rest of the paper.
• Present a Comprehensive Literature Review : Incorporate a thorough literature review in the body of your paper. Summarize and critically analyze relevant studies, theories, and findings that inform your research. Identify gaps in the literature and highlight the unique contribution of your study.
• Describe Your Methods and Results : Clearly explain the methods you employed to conduct your research and gather data. Provide sufficient detail for others to replicate your study. Present your results objectively, using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to support your findings. Interpret the results and discuss their implications.
• Engage in a Thoughtful Discussion : In the discussion section, interpret your findings in the context of existing knowledge and theories. Discuss the implications of your results, their limitations, and any future directions for research. Address any unanswered questions and propose areas for further investigation.
• Write a Strong Conclusion : Summarize your main findings and their significance in a concise and impactful conclusion. Restate your research objectives and hypotheses, and emphasize how your study contributes to the field of veterinary medicine. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.
• Cite Sources Accurately : Ensure that you cite all the sources used in your research paper accurately. Follow the appropriate citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, and adhere to the specific guidelines for referencing scientific literature and other relevant sources.
• Revise and Proofread : After completing the initial draft, revise your paper for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Check for grammatical and spelling errors, and ensure that your writing is concise and precise. Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or professors to improve the quality of your paper.

Writing a veterinary medicine research paper requires careful planning, attention to detail, and effective communication skills. By defining your research objectives, conducting a thorough literature review, designing a rigorous study, and organizing your paper coherently, you can produce a high-quality research paper. Remember to write an engaging introduction, present a comprehensive literature review, describe your methods and results accurately, engage in thoughtful discussion, and provide a strong conclusion. Cite your sources properly and revise your paper meticulously. Through this process, you will contribute to the field of veterinary medicine and advance knowledge in the domain.

iResearchNet’s Writing Services

At iResearchNet, we understand the challenges that students face when it comes to writing research papers in veterinary medicine. We are here to provide you with professional writing services that cater to your specific needs. Our team of expert writers and researchers are well-versed in the field of veterinary medicine and can assist you in producing high-quality research papers. In this section, we will outline the range of services we offer and the benefits of choosing iResearchNet for your veterinary medicine research paper needs.

• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : Our team consists of expert writers with advanced degrees in veterinary medicine and related fields. They have a deep understanding of the subject matter and can deliver well-researched and meticulously written research papers.
• Custom Written Works : We provide custom written works that are tailored to your specific requirements. Whether you need a research paper from scratch or assistance with specific sections, our writers can create unique and original content that meets your academic standards.
• In-Depth Research : Our writers conduct extensive research to gather the most relevant and up-to-date information for your research paper. They have access to reputable sources and scientific databases to ensure the accuracy and validity of the information presented in your paper.
• Custom Formatting : We understand the importance of adhering to specific formatting styles required by academic institutions. Our writers are well-versed in various citation styles, including APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. They will format your paper according to the specific guidelines provided.
• Top Quality : Quality is our utmost priority. We strive to deliver research papers that meet the highest standards of academic excellence. Our writers pay attention to every detail, ensuring that your paper is well-structured, coherent, and free from grammatical errors.
• Customized Solutions : We recognize that each research paper is unique. Our writers work closely with you to understand your specific research objectives, requirements, and preferences. They can customize their approach to meet your specific needs and deliver a paper that aligns with your expectations.
• Flexible Pricing : We offer flexible pricing options to accommodate the budgetary constraints of students. Our pricing is competitive and transparent, ensuring that you receive the best value for your investment. We offer affordable rates without compromising on the quality of our services.
• Short Deadlines : We understand that students often face tight deadlines. Our team is equipped to handle urgent requests and can deliver high-quality research papers within short timeframes, even as tight as 3 hours. You can rely on us to meet your deadlines without compromising on quality.
• Timely Delivery : We prioritize timely delivery to ensure that you have sufficient time to review and submit your research paper. Our writers work diligently to complete your paper within the agreed-upon timeframe, allowing you ample time for any revisions or modifications you may require.
• 24/7 Support : We provide round-the-clock support to address any queries or concerns you may have. Our customer support team is available 24/7 to assist you with any questions regarding our services, order placement, or ongoing projects. Feel free to reach out to us at any time.
• Absolute Privacy : We understand the importance of confidentiality. Your personal information and the details of your research paper are treated with the utmost privacy and confidentiality. We adhere to strict data protection protocols to ensure the security of your information.
• Easy Order Tracking : Our user-friendly platform allows you to easily track the progress of your research paper. You can communicate with your assigned writer, provide additional instructions or clarifications, and monitor the status of your order throughout the writing process.
• Money Back Guarantee : We are committed to customer satisfaction. In the unlikely event that you are not satisfied with the quality of the research paper or the services provided, we offer a money-back guarantee. Your investment is protected, and we strive to ensure your complete satisfaction.

Choosing iResearchNet for your veterinary medicine research paper needs ensures that you receive professional, reliable, and customized writing services. Our team of expert writers, in-depth research capabilities, adherence to formatting guidelines, and commitment to quality will ensure that your research paper meets the highest academic standards. With flexible pricing options, timely delivery, 24/7 support, absolute privacy, and easy order tracking, we strive to make your experience with iResearchNet seamless and rewarding. Place your trust in us and let our expertise guide you towards academic success.

Achieve Excellence with iResearchNet!

Are you struggling with your veterinary medicine research papers? Do you find it challenging to choose the right topics, conduct in-depth research, and meet the high academic standards of your institution? Look no further! iResearchNet is here to provide you with the professional support you need to excel in your veterinary medicine studies. Our team of expert writers and researchers is ready to assist you in crafting top-quality research papers that will impress your professors and elevate your academic performance.

By choosing iResearchNet, you gain access to a range of benefits that will make your research paper writing experience smooth, efficient, and stress-free. Our team consists of highly qualified writers with expertise in veterinary medicine and related fields. They are equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to tackle even the most complex research topics. Whether you need assistance in selecting research paper topics, conducting thorough research, or structuring your paper, our experts are here to guide you every step of the way.

iResearchNet is your trusted partner in veterinary medicine research paper writing. With our experienced team, commitment to quality, customer-oriented approach, and range of services, we are dedicated to helping you succeed in your academic journey. Place your trust in us and experience the difference that professional assistance can make. Take the first step towards veterinary medicine research paper excellence and unlock your full potential with iResearchNet.

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How to Write Scientific Names of Plant and Animal Species in Journal Manuscripts (Part 1)

The format for writing scientific names of animals and plants is standardized and internationally accepted. “Scientific nomenclature” refers to various names according to a specific field of study. This article is the first in a series on scientific nomenclature within specific kingdoms.

Usually, animals & plants are identified by common and scientific names.

Common name: These are used locally and may vary by region or country. Scientific name: These are unique names used by the scientific community to accurately and universally identify species.

International Codes of Nomenclature

Taxonomists have established several “codes” for scientific nomenclature. These codes are universal and are periodically updated by consensus. The protocol for naming species was invented in the 1700s by Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus. Linnaeus created the system of “binomial nomenclature,” which uses only two designations – genus and specific epithet as the species name.

In the mid-1800s, scientists agreed on an expanded system of nomenclature. The following codes are used today:

• International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.
• International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.
• International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria recently changed to International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes.
• International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.
• International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature.
• International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses–publishes several reports including How to Write a Virus Name.

Common names of species can vary by geographic region but a universal protocol helps avoid ambiguity and ensures consistency.

Known as the “ taxonomic hierarchy ,” the system consists of several groups of species based on genetic and phylogenic characteristics. The highest level is the “kingdom.” The first kingdom comprised only two types of living organisms—animals and plants. We have seven classifications within the kingdom domain—Bacteria, Archaea, Protozoa, Chromista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.

Note that the designations are in Latin . This could be challenging for some who are not familiar with that language; however, the terms are globally consistent. There is no need to interpret them or translate them into another language.

Using this system, the gray wolf, for example, would be identified as follows:

• Domain: Eukarya.
• Kingdom: Animalia.
• Phylum: Chordata.
• Class: Mammalia.
• Order: Carnivora.
• Suborder: Caniformia.
• Family: Canidae.
• Genus: Canis.
• Species: lupus.

Binomial Name

The binomial name consists of a genus name and specific epithet.  The scientific names of species are italicized . The genus name is always capitalized and is written first; the specific epithet follows the genus name and is not capitalized. There is no exception to this.

From above example, note that the classifications go from general (Animalia) to specific ( C. lupus ). A species, by definition, is the combination of both the genus and specific epithet , not just the epithet. For example, we can use the term gray wolf but we cannot use just Canis or lupus to describe this animal. Canis lupus is a species.

Writing Scientific Names of Animals

When writing, we use both the scientific name and the “common” name on the first mention. We then choose which to use throughout and make it consistent.

• Gray wolf ( Canis lupus ) is native to North America and Eurasia.

In subsequent references, we can use either the common or scientific name. If we use the scientific name, we need only to use the first letter of the genus followed by a period and the specific epithet. For example:

• In North America, the gray wolf was nearly hunted to extinction.
• In North America, C. lupus was nearly hunted to extinction.

It is also common to refer to several species under one genus when you want to point out some similar characteristics within a genus. For example:

• All species of Canis are known to be moderate to large and have large skulls.

You could also write this same information another way as follows:

• Canis spp. are known to be moderate to large and have large skulls.

In this case, “spp.” is an abbreviation for “several species” (“sp” is the designation for one species) in the genus. Either of the above is acceptable. If you are focusing on a few species in particular, you would refer to the species name of each one.

You might also see a scientific name followed by an initial or abbreviation. This would denote the person who discovered or named the species. For example, in Amaranthus retroflexus L., the L (not italicized) refers to the original name given by Linnaeus.

There are a few exceptions to some of these rules. First, the entire genus name must be spelled out if it begins a sentence, even if a subsequent reference:

• Canis lupus was nearly hunted to extinction in North America.

Second, when more than one species has the same genus initial but come from different genera, the genera names are spelled out to avoid confusion:

• Both the gray wolf ( Canis lupus ) and the beaver ( Castor canadensis ) are native to North America.

In this case, it is best to use the common name after the first mention, but either format is correct.

Related: Do you have questions on manuscript drafting? Get personalized answers on the FREE Q&A Forum!

Titles and Headers

In titles, it is appropriate to write the entire scientific name of animals in uppercase letters. For example:

• A Study of the History of CANIS LUPUS in North America

In an italicized header, the species name can be written in non-italic style. For example:

• Canis lupus is nearly extinct in North America

Writing Scientific Names of Plants

Plant names also follow binomial nomenclature (similar to animal names).

• Royal grevillea (Grevillea victoriae) is found in New South Wales and Victoria.

In the plant kingdom , classification after species is subspecies (subsp.) and variety (var.). For example, there are three subspecies of Grevillea victoriae.

•   Grevillea victoriae  subsp.  victoriae
• Grevillea victoriae  subsp.  nivalis  
• Grevillea victoriae  subsp.  brindabella

When the species of a plant is unknown, a plant can be referred as Grevillea sp.

Moreover, when we collectively want to refer few or all species, we use Grevillea spp.

Similar to animal names, it is common to see a specific epithet that refers to a geographic area or the person who discovered it. For example, Grevillea victoriae F.Muell. Although these are proper nouns, they are still written in lowercase font. Be mindful that some word processors might attempt to capitalize these references.

This is something to check when proofreading your text.

Cultivar names are dictated by International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants

When writing, the cultivar name is added after genus or specific epithet and is put in single quotes without italicization. For example,  

•   Grevillea  ‘Robyn Gordon’       
•  Grevillea rosmarinifolia  ‘Rosy Posy’

Consistency

One of the basic rules of scientific writing is consistency. Regardless of your choice of scientific or common name, you must maintain consistency. Always check the author guidelines when preparing manuscripts. Formats for citations and references, headings, and section placement can be different. Be assured that the format for writing scientific names is internationally consistent regardless of the intended journal. The rules presented above will help.

In the next article in this series, we will discuss tips on how to write scientific names of bacterial species in a journal manuscript.

You see that the common name of the species you are studying has several variations depending on the geographic area. Which do you use and why? What other challenges do you face when using scientific nomenclature? Please share your thoughts with us in the comments section below.

Trying to identify species of plants is difficult when it changes from one reference to another. Is there a classification resource available to laymen with the most recently agreed upon name?

Hi Sandra, Thank you for your question. Some databases give you updated information on plant taxonomy. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) https://www.itis.gov/ is one such database. It gives you the flexibility to search taxonomic data of a particular plant based on its common name, scientific name, or taxonomic serial number. This database is not limited to plants and can be used to access taxonomic information about other organisms as well. Meanwhile, please visit https://www.enago.com/academy/ and consider subscribing to our newsletter. Need instant answers for burning queries on academic writing and publishing? Install our mobile app today! https://www.enago.com/academy/mobile-app/

when we write only the genus name should it be italicized? for example we wan t to write leishmania parasites is that necessary to write the genus name italicized?,

Hi Mohammad,

The rules for the scientific nomenclature vary with the organism. In case of botanical nomenclature, generally both the genus and the species names have to be italicized. For protozoans, the genus name when used in singular form should always be in italics. e.g., Leishmania donovani . However, when used in the plural form, you need not italicize the genus name. e.g., Leishmania are responsible for causing the disease leishmaniasis.

Explained in a simple and easy to understand way. It was helpful.

when writing the manuscript, does the family name of the plant have be italicized?

Which one is inside the parenthesis in the title, common name or scientific name?

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Reporting animal research: Explanation and elaboration for the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0

Nathalie percie du sert.

1 NC3Rs, London, United Kingdom

Amrita Ahluwalia

2 The William Harvey Research Institute, London, United Kingdom

3 Barts Cardiovascular CTU, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom

Sabina Alam

4 Taylor & Francis Group, London, United Kingdom

Marc T. Avey

5 Health Science Practice, ICF, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America

Monya Baker

6 Nature, San Francisco, California, United States of America

William J. Browne

7 School of Education, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

Alejandra Clark

8 PLOS ONE, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Innes C. Cuthill

9 School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

Ulrich Dirnagl

10 QUEST Center for Transforming Biomedical Research, Berlin Institute of Health & Department of Experimental Neurology, Charite Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Michael Emerson

11 National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom

Paul Garner

12 Centre for Evidence Synthesis in Global Health, Clinical Sciences Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom

Stephen T. Holgate

13 Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom

David W. Howells

14 Tasmanian School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia

Natasha A. Karp

15 Data Sciences & Quantitative Biology, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Stanley E. Lazic

16 Prioris.ai Inc, Ottawa, Canada

Katie Lidster

Catriona j. maccallum.

17 Hindawi Ltd, London, United Kingdom

Malcolm Macleod

18 Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Esther J. Pearl

Ole h. petersen.

19 Academia Europaea Knowledge Hub, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom

Frances Rawle

20 Medical Research Council, London, United Kingdom

Penny Reynolds

21 Statistics in Anesthesiology Research (STAR) Core, Department of Anesthesiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America

Kieron Rooney

22 Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

Emily S. Sena

Shai d. silberberg.

23 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America

Thomas Steckler

24 Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium

Hanno Würbel

25 Veterinary Public Health Institute, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

Associated Data

Improving the reproducibility of biomedical research is a major challenge. Transparent and accurate reporting is vital to this process; it allows readers to assess the reliability of the findings and repeat or build upon the work of other researchers. The ARRIVE guidelines (Animal Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments) were developed in 2010 to help authors and journals identify the minimum information necessary to report in publications describing in vivo experiments. Despite widespread endorsement by the scientific community, the impact of ARRIVE on the transparency of reporting in animal research publications has been limited. We have revised the ARRIVE guidelines to update them and facilitate their use in practice. The revised guidelines are published alongside this paper. This explanation and elaboration document was developed as part of the revision. It provides further information about each of the 21 items in ARRIVE 2.0, including the rationale and supporting evidence for their inclusion in the guidelines, elaboration of details to report, and examples of good reporting from the published literature. This document also covers advice and best practice in the design and conduct of animal studies to support researchers in improving standards from the start of the experimental design process through to publication.

The NC3Rs developed the ARRIVE guidelines in 2010 to help authors and journals identify the minimum information necessary to report in publications describing in vivo experiments. This article explains the rationale behind each item in the revised and updated ARRIVE guidelines 2019, clarifying key concepts and providing illustrative examples.

See S1 Annotated byline for individual authors’ positions at the time this article was submitted . See S1 Annotated References for further context on the works cited in this article .

Introduction

Transparent and accurate reporting is essential to improve the reproducibility of scientific research; it enables others to scrutinise the methodological rigour of the studies, assess how reliable the findings are, and repeat or build upon the work.

However, evidence shows that the majority of publications fail to include key information and there is significant scope to improve the reporting of studies involving animal research [ 1 – 4 ]. To that end, the UK National Centre for the 3Rs (NC3Rs) published the ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments) guidelines in 2010. The guidelines are a checklist of information to include in a manuscript to ensure that publications contain enough information to add to the knowledge base [ 5 ]. The guidelines have received widespread endorsement from the scientific community and are currently recommended by more than a thousand journals, with further endorsement from research funders, universities, and learned societies worldwide.

Studies measuring the impact of ARRIVE on the quality of reporting have produced mixed results [ 6 – 11 ], and there is evidence that in vivo scientists are not sufficiently aware of the importance of reporting the information covered in the guidelines and fail to appreciate the relevance to their work or their research field [ 12 ].

As a new international working group—the authors of this publication—we have revised the guidelines to update them and facilitate their uptake; the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0 are published alongside this paper [ 13 ]. We have updated the recommendations in line with current best practice, reorganised the information, and classified the items into two sets. The ARRIVE Essential 10 constitute the minimum reporting requirement, and the Recommended Set provides further context to the study described. Although reporting both sets is best practice, an initial focus on the most critical issues helps authors, journal staff, editors, and reviewers use the guidelines in practice and allows a pragmatic implementation. Once the Essential 10 are consistently reported in manuscripts, items from the Recommended Set can be added to journal requirements over time until all 21 items are routinely reported in all manuscripts. Full methodology for the revision and the allocation of items into sets is described in the accompanying publication [ 13 ].

A key aspect of the revision was to develop this explanation and elaboration document to provide background and rationale for each of the 21 items of ARRIVE 2.0. Here, we present additional guidance for each item and subitem, explain the importance of reporting this information in manuscripts that describe animal research, elaborate on what to report, and provide supporting evidence. The guidelines apply to all areas of bioscience research involving living animals. That includes mammalian species as well as model organisms such as Drosophila or Caenorhabditis elegans . Each item is equally relevant to manuscripts centred around a single animal study and broader-scope manuscripts describing in vivo observations along with other types of experiments. The exact type of detail to report, however, might vary between species and experimental setup; this is acknowledged in the guidance provided for each item.

We recognise that the purpose of the research influences the design of the study. Hypothesis-testing research evaluates specific hypotheses, using rigorous methods to reduce the risk of bias and a statistical analysis plan that has been defined before the study starts. In contrast, exploratory research often investigates many questions simultaneously without adhering to strict standards of rigour; this flexibility is used to develop or test novel methods and generate theories and hypotheses that can be formally tested later. Both study types make valuable contributions to scientific progress. Transparently reporting the purpose of the research and the level of rigour used in the design, execution, and analysis of the study enables readers to decide how to use the research, whether the findings are groundbreaking and need to be confirmed before building on them, or whether they are robust enough to be applied to other research settings.

To contextualise the importance of reporting information described in the Essential 10, this document also covers experimental design concepts and best practices. This has two main purposes: First, it helps authors understand the relevance of this information for readers to assess the reliability of the reported results, thus encouraging thorough reporting. Second, it supports the implementation of best practices in the design and conduct of animal research. Consulting this document at the start of the process when planning an in vivo experiment will enable researchers to make the best use of it, implement the advice on study design, and prepare for the information that will need to be collected during the experiment to report the study in adherence with the guidelines.

To ensure that the recommendations are as clear and useful as possible to the target audience, this document was road tested alongside the revised guidelines with researchers preparing manuscripts describing in vivo research [ 13 ]. Each item is written as a self-contained section, enabling authors to refer to particular items independently, and a glossary ( Box 1 ) explains common statistical terms. Each subitem is also illustrated with examples of good reporting from the published literature. Explanations and examples are also available from the ARRIVE guidelines website: https://www.arriveguidelines.org .

Box 1. Glossary

Bias: The over- or underestimation of the true effect of an intervention. Bias is caused by inadequacies in the design, conduct, or analysis of an experiment, resulting in the introduction of error.

Descriptive and inferential statistics: Descriptive statistics are used to summarise the data. They generally include a measure of central tendency (e.g., mean or median) and a measure of spread (e.g., standard deviation or range). Inferential statistics are used to make generalisations about the population from which the samples are drawn. Hypothesis tests such as ANOVA, Mann-Whitney, or t tests are examples of inferential statistics.

Effect size: Quantitative measure of differences between groups, or strength of relationships between variables.

Experimental unit: Biological entity subjected to an intervention independently of all other units, such that it is possible to assign any two experimental units to different treatment groups. Sometimes known as unit of randomisation.

External validity: Extent to which the results of a given study enable application or generalisation to other studies, study conditions, animal strains/species, or humans.

False negative: Statistically nonsignificant result obtained when the alternative hypothesis (H 1 ) is true. In statistics, it is known as the type II error.

False positive: Statistically significant result obtained when the null hypothesis (H 0 ) is true. In statistics, it is known as the type I error.

Independent variable: Variable that either the researcher manipulates (treatment, condition, time) or is a property of the sample (sex) or a technical feature (batch, cage, sample collection) that can potentially affect the outcome measure. Independent variables can be scientifically interesting, or nuisance variables. Also known as predictor variable.

Internal validity: Extent to which the results of a given study can be attributed to the effects of the experimental intervention, rather than some other, unknown factor(s) (e.g., inadequacies in the design, conduct, or analysis of the study introducing bias).

Nuisance variable: Variables that are not of primary interest but should be considered in the experimental design or the analysis because they may affect the outcome measure and add variability. They become confounders if, in addition, they are correlated with an independent variable of interest, as this introduces bias. Nuisance variables should be considered in the design of the experiment (to prevent them from becoming confounders) and in the analysis (to account for the variability and sometimes to reduce bias). For example, nuisance variables can be used as blocking factors or covariates.

Null and alternative hypotheses: The null hypothesis (H 0 ) is that there is no effect, such as a difference between groups or an association between variables. The alternative hypothesis (H 1 ) postulates that an effect exists.

Outcome measure: Any variable recorded during a study to assess the effects of a treatment or experimental intervention. Also known as dependent variable, response variable.

Power: For a predefined, biologically meaningful effect size, the probability that the statistical test will detect the effect if it exists (i.e., the null hypothesis is rejected correctly).

Sample size: Number of experimental units per group, also referred to as n .

Definitions are adapted from [ 14 , 15 ] and placed in the context of animal research.

ARRIVE Essential 10

The ARRIVE Essential 10 ( Box 2 ) constitute the minimum reporting requirement to ensure that reviewers and readers can assess the reliability of the findings presented. There is no ranking within the set; items are presented in a logical order.

Box 2. ARRIVE Essential 10

• Study design
• Sample size
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Randomisation
• Outcome measures
• Statistical methods
• Experimental animals
• Experimental procedures

Item 1. Study design

For each experiment, provide brief details of study design including :

1a . The groups being compared, including control groups . If no control group has been used, the rationale should be stated .

Explanation. The choice of control or comparator group is dependent on the experimental objective. Negative controls are used to determine whether a difference between groups is caused by the intervention (e.g., wild-type animals versus genetically modified animals, placebo versus active treatment, sham surgery versus surgical intervention). Positive controls can be used to support the interpretation of negative results or determine if an expected effect is detectable.

It may not be necessary to include a separate control with no active treatment if, for example, the experiment aims to compare a treatment administered by different methods (e.g., intraperitoneal administration versus oral gavage) or animals that are used as their own control in a longitudinal study. A pilot study, such as one designed to test the feasibility of a procedure, might also not require a control group.

For complex study designs, a visual representation is more easily interpreted than a text description, so a timeline diagram or flowchart is recommended. Diagrams facilitate the identification of which treatments and procedures were applied to specific animals or groups of animals and at what point in the study these were performed. They also help to communicate complex design features such as whether factors are crossed or nested (hierarchical/multilevel designs), blocking (to reduce unwanted variation, see Item 4. Randomisation), or repeated measurements over time on the same experimental unit (repeated measures designs); see [ 16 – 18 ] for more information on different design types. The Experimental Design Assistant (EDA) is a platform to support researchers in the design of in vivo experiments; it can be used to generate diagrams to represent any type of experimental design [ 19 ].

For each experiment performed, clearly report all groups used. Selectively excluding some experimental groups (for example, because the data are inconsistent or conflict with the narrative of the paper) is misleading and should be avoided [ 20 ]. Ensure that test groups, comparators, and controls (negative or positive) can be identified easily. State clearly if the same control group was used for multiple experiments or if no control group was used.

Subitem 1a—Example 1

‘The DAV1 study is a one-way, two-period crossover trial with 16 piglets receiving amoxicillin and placebo at period 1 and only amoxicillin at period 2. Amoxicillin was administered orally with a single dose of 30 mg.kg -1 . Plasma amoxicillin concentrations were collected at same sampling times at each period: 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 h’ [ 21 ].

Subitem 1a—Example 2

1b . The experimental unit (e.g., a single animal, litter, or cage of animals) .

Explanation. Within a design, biological and technical factors will often be organised hierarchically, such as cells within animals and mitochondria within cells, or cages within rooms and animals within cages. Such hierarchies can make determining the sample size difficult (is it the number of animals, cells, or mitochondria?). The sample size is the number of experimental units per group. The experimental unit is defined as the biological entity subjected to an intervention independently of all other units, such that it is possible to assign any two experimental units to different treatment groups. It is also sometimes called the unit of randomisation. In addition, the experimental units should not influence each other on the outcomes that are measured.

Commonly, the experimental unit is the individual animal, each independently allocated to a treatment group (e.g., a drug administered by injection). However, the experimental unit may be the cage or the litter (e.g., a diet administered to a whole cage, or a treatment administered to a dam and investigated in her pups), or it could be part of the animal (e.g., different drug treatments applied topically to distinct body regions of the same animal). Animals may also serve as their own controls, receiving different treatments separated by washout periods; here, the experimental unit is an animal for a period of time. There may also be multiple experimental units in a single experiment, such as when a treatment is given to a pregnant dam and then the weaned pups are allocated to different diets [ 23 ]. See [ 17 , 24 , 25 ] for further guidance on identifying experimental units.

Conflating experimental units with subsamples or repeated measurements can lead to artificial inflation of the sample size. For example, measurements from 50 individual cells from a single mouse represent n = 1 when the experimental unit is the mouse. The 50 measurements are subsamples and provide an estimate of measurement error and so should be averaged or used in a nested analysis. Reporting n = 50 in this case is an example of pseudoreplication [ 26 ]. It underestimates the true variability in a study, which can lead to false positives and invalidate the analysis and resulting conclusions [ 26 , 27 ]. If, however, each cell taken from the mouse is then randomly allocated to different treatments and assessed individually, the cell might be regarded as the experimental unit.

Clearly indicate the experimental unit for each experiment so that the sample sizes and statistical analyses can be properly evaluated.

Subitem 1b—Example 1

‘The present study used the tissues collected at E15.5 from dams fed the 1X choline and 4X choline diets ( n = 3 dams per group, per fetal sex; total n = 12 dams). To ensure statistical independence, only one placenta (either male or female) from each dam was used for each experiment. Each placenta, therefore, was considered to be an experimental unit’ [ 28 ].

Subitem 1b—Example 2

‘We have used data collected from high-throughput phenotyping, which is based on a pipeline concept where a mouse is characterized by a series of standardized and validated tests underpinned by standard operating procedures (SOPs)…. The individual mouse was considered the experimental unit within the studies’ [ 29 ].

Subitem 1b—Example 3

‘Fish were divided in two groups according to weight (0.7–1.2 g and 1.3–1.7 g) and randomly stocked (at a density of 15 fish per experimental unit) in 24 plastic tanks holding 60 L of water’ [ 30 ].

Subitem 1b—Example 4

‘In the study, n refers to number of animals, with five acquisitions from each [corticostriatal] slice, with a maximum of three slices obtained from each experimental animal used for each protocol (six animals each group)’ [ 31 ].

Item 2. Sample size

2a . Specify the exact number of experimental units allocated to each group, and the total number in each experiment . Also indicate the total number of animals used .

Explanation. The sample size relates to the number of experimental units in each group at the start of the study and is usually represented by n (see Item 1. Study design for further guidance on identifying and reporting experimental units). This information is crucial to assess the validity of the statistical model and the robustness of the experimental results.

The sample size in each group at the start of the study may be different from the n numbers in the analysis (see Item 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria); this information helps readers identify attrition or if there have been exclusions and in which group they occurred. Reporting the total number of animals used in the study is also useful to identify whether any were reused between experiments.

Report the exact value of n per group and the total number in each experiment (including any independent replications). If the experimental unit is not the animal, also report the total number of animals to help readers understand the study design. For example, in a study investigating diet using cages of animals housed in pairs, the number of animals is double the number of experimental units.

Subitem 2a –example 1

2b . Explain how the sample size was decided . Provide details of any a priori sample size calculation, if done .

Explanation. For any type of experiment, it is crucial to explain how the sample size was determined. For hypothesis-testing experiments, in which inferential statistics are used to estimate the size of the effect and to determine the weight of evidence against the null hypothesis, the sample size needs to be justified to ensure experiments are of an optimal size to test the research question [ 33 , 34 ] (see Item 13. Objectives). Sample sizes that are too small (i.e., underpowered studies) produce inconclusive results, whereas sample sizes that are too large (i.e., overpowered studies) raise ethical issues over unnecessary use of animals and may produce trivial findings that are statistically significant but not biologically relevant [ 35 ]. Low power has three effects: first, within the experiment, real effects are more likely to be missed; second, when an effect is detected, this will often be an overestimation of the true effect size [ 24 ]; and finally, when low power is combined with publication bias, there is an increase in the false positive rate in the published literature [ 36 ]. Consequently, low-powered studies contribute to the poor internal validity of research and risk wasting animals used in inconclusive research [ 37 ].

Study design can influence the statistical power of an experiment, and the power calculation used needs to be appropriate for the design implemented. Statistical programmes to help perform a priori sample size calculations exist for a variety of experimental designs and statistical analyses, both freeware (web-based applets and functions in R) and commercial software [ 38 – 40 ]. Choosing the appropriate calculator or algorithm to use depends on the type of outcome measures and independent variables, and the number of groups. Consultation with a statistician is recommended, especially when the experimental design is complex or unusual.

When the experiment tests the effect of an intervention on the mean of a continuous outcome measure, the sample size can be calculated a priori, based on a mathematical relationship between the predefined, biologically relevant effect size, variability estimated from prior data, chosen significance level, power, and sample size (see Box 3 and [ 17 , 41 ] for practical advice). If you have used an a priori sample size calculation, report

Box 3. Information used in a power calculation

Sample size calculation is based on a mathematical relationship between the following parameters: effect size, variability, significance level, power, and sample size. Questions to consider are the following:

The primary objective of the experiment—What is the main outcome measure?

The primary outcome measure should be identified in the planning stage of the experiment; it is the outcome of greatest importance, which will answer the main experimental question.

The predefined effect size—What is a biologically relevant effect size?

The effect size is estimated as a biologically relevant change in the primary outcome measure between the groups under study. This can be informed by similar studies and involves scientists exploring what magnitude of effect would generate interest and would be worth taking forward into further work. In preclinical studies, the clinical relevance of the effect should also be taken into consideration.

What is the estimate of variability?

Estimates of variability can be obtained

• From data collected from a preliminary experiment conducted under identical conditions to the planned experiment, e.g., a previous experiment in the same laboratory, testing the same treatment under similar conditions on animals with the same characteristics
• From the control group in a previous experiment testing a different treatment
• From a similar experiment reported in the literature

Significance threshold—What risk of a false positive is acceptable?

The significance level or threshold (α) is the probability of obtaining a false positive. If it is set at 0.05, then the risk of obtaining a false positive is 1 in 20 for a single statistical test. However, the threshold or the p -values will need to be adjusted in scenarios of multiple testing (e.g., by using a Bonferroni correction).

Power—What risk of a false negative is acceptable?

For a predefined, biologically meaningful effect size, the power (1 − β) is the probability that the statistical test will detect the effect if it genuinely exists (i.e., true positive result). A target power between 80% and 95% is normally deemed acceptable, which entails a risk of false negative between 5% and 20%.

Directionality—Will you use a one- or two-sided test?

The directionality of a test depends on the distribution of the test statistics for a given analysis. For tests based on t or z distributions (such as t tests), whether the data will be analysed using a one- or two-sided test relates to whether the alternative hypothesis is directional or not. An experiment with a directional (one-sided) alternative hypothesis can be powered and analysed with a one-sided test with the goal of maximising the sensitivity to detect this directional effect. Controversy exists within the statistics community on when it is appropriate to use a one-sided test [ 42 ]. The use of a one-sided test requires justification of why a treatment effect is only of interest when it is in a defined direction and why they would treat a large effect in the unexpected direction no differently from a nonsignificant difference [ 43 ]. Following the use of a one-sided test, the investigator cannot then test for the possibility of missing an effect in the untested direction. Choosing a one-tailed test for the sole purpose of attaining statistical significance is not appropriate.

Two-sided tests with a nondirectional alternative hypothesis are much more common and allow researchers to detect the effect of a treatment regardless of its direction.

Note that analyses such as ANOVA and chi-squared are based on asymmetrical distributions (F-distribution and chi-squared distribution) with only one tail. Therefore, these tests do not have a directionality option.

• the analysis method (e.g., two-tailed Student t test with a 0.05 significance threshold)
• the effect size of interest and a justification explaining why an effect size of that magnitude is relevant
• the estimate of variability used (e.g., standard deviation) and how it was estimated
• the power selected

There are several types of studies in which a priori sample size calculations are not appropriate. For example, the number of animals needed for antibody or tissue production is determined by the amount required and the production ability of an individual animal. For studies in which the outcome is the successful generation of a sample or a condition (e.g., the production of transgenic animals), the number of animals is determined by the probability of success of the experimental procedure.

In early feasibility or pilot studies, the number of animals required depends on the purpose of the study. When the objective of the preliminary study is primarily logistic or operational (e.g., to improve procedures and equipment), the number of animals needed is generally small. In such cases, power calculations are not appropriate and sample sizes can be estimated based on operational capacity and constraints [ 44 ]. Pilot studies alone are unlikely to provide adequate data on variability for a power calculation for future experiments. Systematic reviews and previous studies are more appropriate sources of information on variability [ 45 ].

If no power calculation was used to determine the sample size, state this explicitly and provide the reasoning that was used to decide on the sample size per group. Regardless of whether a power calculation was used or not, when explaining how the sample size was determined take into consideration any anticipated loss of animals or data, for example, due to exclusion criteria established upfront or expected attrition (see Item 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria).

Subitem 2b—Example 1

‘The sample size calculation was based on postoperative pain numerical rating scale (NRS) scores after administration of buprenorphine (NRS AUC mean = 2.70; noninferiority limit = 0.54; standard deviation = 0.66) as the reference treatment… and also Glasgow Composite Pain Scale (GCPS) scores… using online software (Experimental design assistant; https://eda.nc3rs.org.uk/eda/login/auth ). The power of the experiment was set to 80%. A total of 20 dogs per group were considered necessary’ [ 46 ].

Subitem 2b—Example 2

‘We selected a small sample size because the bioglass prototype was evaluated in vivo for the first time in the present study, and therefore, the initial intention was to gather basic evidence regarding the use of this biomaterial in more complex experimental designs’ [ 47 ].

Item 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

3a . Describe any criteria used for including or excluding animals (or experimental units) during the experiment, and data points during the analysis . Specify if these criteria were established a priori . If no criteria were set, state this explicitly .

Explanation. Inclusion and exclusion criteria define the eligibility or disqualification of animals and data once the study has commenced. To ensure scientific rigour, the criteria should be defined before the experiment starts and data are collected [ 8 , 33 , 48 , 49 ]. Inclusion criteria should not be confused with animal characteristics (see Item 8. Experimental animals) but can be related to these (e.g., body weights must be within a certain range for a particular procedure) or related to other study parameters (e.g., task performance has to exceed a given threshold). In studies in which selected data are reanalysed for a different purpose, inclusion and exclusion criteria should describe how data were selected.

Exclusion criteria may result from technical or welfare issues such as complications anticipated during surgery or circumstances in which test procedures might be compromised (e.g., development of motor impairments that could affect behavioural measurements). Criteria for excluding samples or data include failure to meet quality control standards, such as insufficient sample volumes, unacceptable levels of contaminants, poor histological quality, etc. Similarly, how the researcher will define and handle data outliers during the analysis should also be decided before the experiment starts (see subitem 3b for guidance on responsible data cleaning).

Exclusion criteria may also reflect the ethical principles of a study in line with its humane endpoints (see Item 16. Animal care and monitoring). For example, in cancer studies, an animal might be dropped from the study and euthanised before the predetermined time point if the size of a subcutaneous tumour exceeds a specific volume [ 50 ]. If losses are anticipated, these should be considered when determining the number of animals to include in the study (see Item 2. Sample size). Whereas exclusion criteria and humane endpoints are typically included in the ethical review application, reporting the criteria used to exclude animals or data points in the manuscript helps readers with the interpretation of the data and provides crucial information to other researchers wanting to adopt the model.

Best practice is to include all a priori inclusion and exclusion/outlier criteria in a preregistered protocol (see Item 19. Protocol registration). At the very least, these criteria should be documented in a laboratory notebook and reported in manuscripts, explicitly stating that the criteria were defined before any data was collected.

Subitem 3a—Example 1

‘The animals were included in the study if they underwent successful MCA occlusion (MCAo), defined by a 60% or greater drop in cerebral blood flow seen with laser Doppler flowmetry. The animals were excluded if insertion of the thread resulted in perforation of the vessel wall (determined by the presence of sub-arachnoid blood at the time of sacrifice), if the silicon tip of the thread became dislodged during withdrawal, or if the animal died prematurely, preventing the collection of behavioral and histological data’ [ 51 ].

3b . For each experimental group, report any animals, experimental units, or data points not included in the analysis and explain why . If there were no exclusions, state so .

Explanation. Animals, experimental units, or data points that are unaccounted for can lead to instances in which conclusions cannot be supported by the raw data [ 52 ]. Reporting exclusions and attritions provides valuable information to other investigators evaluating the results or who intend to repeat the experiment or test the intervention in other species. It may also provide important safety information for human trials (e.g., exclusions related to adverse effects).

There are many legitimate reasons for experimental attrition, some of which are anticipated and controlled for in advance (see subitem 3a on defining exclusion and inclusion criteria), but some data loss might not be anticipated. For example, data points may be excluded from analyses because of an animal receiving the wrong treatment, unexpected drug toxicity, infections or diseases unrelated to the experiment, sampling errors (e.g., a malfunctioning assay that produced a spurious result, inadequate calibration of equipment), or other human error (e.g., forgetting to switch on equipment for a recording).

Most statistical analysis methods are extremely sensitive to outliers and missing data. In some instances, it may be scientifically justifiable to remove outlying data points from an analysis, such as obvious errors in data entry or measurement with readings that are outside a plausible range. Inappropriate data cleaning has the potential to bias study outcomes [ 53 ]; providing the reasoning for removing data points enables the distinction to be made between responsible data cleaning and data manipulation. Missing data, common in all areas of research, can impact the sensitivity of the study and also lead to biased estimates, distorted power, and loss of information if the missing values are not random [ 54 ]. Analysis plans should include methods to explore why data are missing. It is also important to consider and justify analysis methods that account for missing data [ 55 , 56 ].

There is a movement toward greater data sharing (see Item 20. Data access), along with an increase in strategies such as code sharing to enable analysis replication. These practices, however transparent, still need to be accompanied by a disclosure on the reasoning for data cleaning and whether methods were defined before any data were collected.

Report all animal exclusions and loss of data points, along with the rationale for their exclusion. For example, this information can be summarised as a table or a flowchart describing attrition in each treatment group. Accompanying this information should be an explicit description of whether researchers were blinded to the group allocations when data or animals were excluded (see Item 5. Blinding and [ 57 ]). Explicitly state when built-in models in statistics packages have been used to remove outliers (e.g., GraphPad Prism’s outlier test).

Subitem 3b—Example 1

‘Pen was the experimental unit for all data. One entire pen (ZnAA90) was removed as an outlier from both Pre-RAC and RAC periods for poor performance caused by illness unrelated to treatment…. Outliers were determined using Cook’s D statistic and removed if Cook’s D > 0.5. One steer was determined to be an outlier for day 48 liver biopsy TM and data were removed’ [ 58 ].

Subitem 3b—Example 2

‘Seventy-two SHRs were randomized into the study, of which 13 did not meet our inclusion and exclusion criteria because the drop in cerebral blood flow at occlusion did not reach 60% (seven animals), postoperative death (one animal: autopsy unable to identify the cause of death), haemorrhage during thread insertion (one animal), and disconnection of the silicon tip of the thread during withdrawal, making the permanence of reperfusion uncertain (four animals). A total of 59 animals were therefore included in the analysis of infarct volume in this study. In error, three animals were sacrificed before their final assessment of neurobehavioral score: one from the normothermia/water group and two from the hypothermia/pethidine group. These errors occurred blinded to treatment group allocation. A total of 56 animals were therefore included in the analysis of neurobehavioral score’ [ 51 ].

Subitem 3b—Example 3

3c . For each analysis, report the exact value of n in each experimental group .

Explanation. The exact number of experimental units analysed in each group (i.e., the n number) is essential information for the reader to interpret the analysis; it should be reported unambiguously. All animals and data used in the experiment should be accounted for in the data presented. Sometimes, for good reasons, animals may need to be excluded from a study (e.g., illness or mortality), or data points excluded from analyses (e.g., biologically implausible values). Reporting losses will help the reader to understand the experimental design process, replicate methods, and provide adequate tracking of animal numbers in a study, especially when sample size numbers in the analyses do not match the original group numbers.

For each outcome measure, indicate numbers clearly within the text or on figures and provide absolute numbers (e.g., 10/20, not 50%). For studies in which animals are measured at different time points, explicitly report the full description of which animals undergo measurement and when [ 33 ].

Subitem 3c—Example 1

‘Group F contained 29 adult males and 58 adult females in 2010 ( n = 87), and 32 adult males and 66 adult females in 2011 ( n = 98). The increase in female numbers was due to maturation of juveniles to adults. Females belonged to three matrilines, and there were no major shifts in rank in the male hierarchy. Six mid to low ranking individuals died and were excluded from analyses, as were five mid-ranking males who emigrated from the group at the beginning of 2011’ [ 60 ].

Subitem 3c—Example 2

‘The proportion of test time that animals spent interacting with the handler (sniffed the gloved hand or tunnel, made paw contact, climbed on, or entered the handling tunnel) was measured from DVD recordings. This was then averaged across the two mice in each cage as they were tested together and their behaviour was not independent…. Mice handled with the home cage tunnel spent a much greater proportion of the test interacting with the handler (mean ± s.e.m., 39.8 ± 5.2 percent time of 60 s test, n = 8 cages) than those handled by tail (6.4 ± 2.0 percent time, n = 8 cages), while those handled by cupping showed intermediate levels of voluntary interaction (27.6 ± 7.1 percent time, n = 8 cages)’ [ 61 ].

Item 4. Randomisation

4a . State whether randomisation was used to allocate experimental units to control and treatment groups . If done, provide the method used to generate the randomisation sequence .

Explanation. Using appropriate randomisation methods during the allocation to groups ensures that each experimental unit has an equal probability of receiving a particular treatment and provides balanced numbers in each treatment group. Selecting an animal ‘at random’ (i.e., haphazardly or arbitrarily) from a cage is not statistically random, as the process involves human judgement. It can introduce bias that influences the results, as a researcher may (consciously or subconsciously) make judgements in allocating an animal to a particular group, or because of unknown and uncontrolled differences in the experimental conditions or animals in different groups. Using a validated method of randomisation helps minimise selection bias and reduce systematic differences in the characteristics of animals allocated to different groups [ 62 – 64 ]. Inferential statistics based on nonrandomised group allocation are not valid [ 65 , 66 ]. Thus, the use of randomisation is a prerequisite for any experiment designed to test a hypothesis. Examples of appropriate randomisation methods include online random number generators (e.g., https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/randomize1/ ) or a function like Rand() in spreadsheet software such as Excel, Google Sheets, or LibreOffice. The EDA has a dedicated feature for randomisation and allocation concealment [ 19 ].

Systematic reviews have shown that animal experiments that do not report randomisation or other bias-reducing measures such as blinding are more likely to report exaggerated effects that meet conventional measures of statistical significance [ 67 – 69 ]. It is especially important to use randomisation in situations in which it is not possible to blind all or parts of the experiment, but even with randomisation, researcher bias can pervert the allocation. This can be avoided by using allocation concealment (see Item 5. Blinding). In studies in which sample sizes are small, simple randomisation may result in unbalanced groups; here, randomisation strategies to balance groups such as randomising in matched pairs [ 70 – 72 ] and blocking are encouraged [ 17 ]. Reporting the precise method used to allocate animals or experimental units to groups enables readers to assess the reliability of the results and identify potential limitations.

Report the type of randomisation used (simple, stratified, randomised complete blocks, etc.; see Box 4 ), the method used to generate the randomisation sequence (e.g., computer-generated randomisation sequence, with details of the algorithm or programme used), and what was randomised (e.g., treatment to experimental unit, order of treatment for each animal). If this varies between experiments, report this information specifically for each experiment. If randomisation was not the method used to allocate experimental units to groups, state this explicitly and explain how the groups being compared were formed.

Box 4. Considerations for the randomisation strategy

Simple randomisation

All animals/samples are simultaneously randomised to the treatment groups without considering any other variable. This strategy is rarely appropriate, as it cannot ensure that comparison groups are balanced for other variables that might influence the result of an experiment.

Randomisation within blocks

Blocking is a method of controlling natural variation among experimental units. This splits up the experiment into smaller subexperiments (blocks), and treatments are randomised to experimental units within each block [ 17 , 66 , 73 ]. This takes into account nuisance variables that could potentially bias the results (e.g., cage location, day or week of procedure).

Stratified randomisation uses the same principle as randomisation within blocks, only the strata tend to be traits of the animal that are likely to be associated with the response (e.g., weight class or tumour size class). This can lead to differences in the practical implementation of stratified randomisation as compared with block randomisation (e.g., there may not be equal numbers of experimental units in each weight class).

Other randomisation strategies

Minimisation is an alternative strategy to allocate animals/samples to treatment group to balance variables that might influence the result of an experiment. With minimisation, the treatment allocated to the next animal/sample depends on the characteristics of those animals/samples already assigned. The aim is that each allocation should minimise the imbalance across multiple factors [ 74 ]. This approach works well for a continuous nuisance variable such as body weight or starting tumour volume.

Examples of nuisance variables that can be accounted for in the randomisation strategy

• Time or day of the experiment
• Litter, cage, or fish tank
• Investigator or surgeon—different level of experience in the people administering the treatments, performing the surgeries, or assessing the results may result in varying stress levels in the animals or duration of anaesthesia
• Equipment (e.g., PCR machine, spectrophotometer)—calibration may vary
• Measurement of a study parameter (e.g., initial tumour volume)
• Animal characteristics (e.g., sex, age bracket, weight bracket)
• Location—exposure to light, ventilation, and disturbances may vary in cages located at different height or on different racks, which may affect important physiological processes

Implication for the analysis

If blocking factors are used in the randomisation, they should also be included in the analysis. Nuisance variables increase variability in the sample, which reduces statistical power. Including a nuisance variable as a blocking factor in the analysis accounts for that variability and can increase the power, thus increasing the ability to detect a real effect with fewer experimental units. However, blocking uses up degrees of freedom and thus reduces the power if the nuisance variable does not have a substantial impact on variability.

Subitem 4a—Example 1

‘Fifty 12-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing 320–360g, were obtained from Guangdong Medical Laboratory Animal Center (Guangzhou, China) and randomly divided into two groups (25 rats/group): the intact group and the castration group. Random numbers were generated using the standard = RAND() function in Microsoft Excel’ [ 75 ].

Subitem 4a—Example 2

‘Animals were randomized after surviving the initial I/R, using a computer based random order generator’ [ 76 ].

Subitem 4a—Example 3

‘At each institute, phenotyping data from both sexes is collected at regular intervals on age-matched wildtype mice of equivalent genetic backgrounds. Cohorts of at least seven homozygote mice of each sex per pipeline were generated…. The random allocation of mice to experimental group (wildtype versus knockout) was driven by Mendelian Inheritance’ [ 29 ].

4b . Describe the strategy used to minimise potential confounders such as the order of treatments and measurements, or animal/cage location . If confounders were not controlled, state this explicitly .

Explanation. Ensuring there is no systematic difference between animals in different groups apart from the experimental exposure is an important principle throughout the conduct of the experiment. Identifying nuisance variables (sources of variability or conditions that could potentially bias results) and managing them in the design and analysis increases the sensitivity of the experiment. For example, rodents in cages at the top of the rack may be exposed to higher light levels, which can affect stress [ 77 ].

Reporting the strategies implemented to minimise potential differences that arise between treatment groups during the course of the experiment enables others to assess the internal validity. Strategies to report include standardising (keeping conditions the same, e.g., all surgeries done by the same surgeon), randomising (e.g., the sampling or measurement order), and blocking or counterbalancing (e.g., position of animal cages or tanks on the rack), to ensure groups are similarly affected by a source of variability. In some cases, practical constraints prevent some nuisance variables from being randomised, but they can still be accounted for in the analysis (see Item 7. Statistical methods).

Report the methods used to minimise confounding factors alongside the methods used to allocate animals to groups. If no measures were used to minimise confounders (e.g., treatment order, measurement order, cage or tank position on a rack), explicitly state this and explain why.

Subitem 4b—Example 1

‘Randomisation was carried out as follows. On arrival from El-Nile Company, animals were assigned a group designation and weighed. A total number of 32 animals were divided into four different weight groups (eight animals per group). Each animal was assigned a temporary random number within the weight range group. On the basis of their position on the rack, cages were given a numerical designation. For each group, a cage was selected randomly from the pool of all cages. Two animals were removed from each weight range group and given their permanent numerical designation in the cages. Then, the cages were randomized within the exposure group’ [ 78 ].

Subitem 4b—Example 2

‘… test time was between 08.30am to 12.30pm and testing order was randomized daily, with each animal tested at a different time each test day’ [ 79 ].

Subitem 4b—Example 3

‘Bulls were blocked by BW into four blocks of 905 animals with similar BW and then within each block, bulls were randomly assigned to one of four experimental treatments in a completely randomized block design resulting in 905 animals per treatment. Animals were allocated to 20 pens (181 animals per pen and five pens per treatment)’ [ 80 ].

Item 5. Blinding

Describe who was aware of the group allocation at the different stages of the experiment (during the allocation, the conduct of the experiment, the outcome assessment, and the data analysis) .

Explanation. Researchers often expect a particular outcome and can unintentionally influence the experiment or interpret the data in such a way as to support their preferred hypothesis [ 81 ]. Blinding is a strategy used to minimise these subjective biases.

Although there is primary evidence of the impact of blinding in the clinical literature that directly compares blinded versus unblinded assessment of outcomes [ 82 ], there is limited empirical evidence in animal research [ 83 , 84 ]. There are, however, compelling data from systematic reviews showing that nonblinded outcome assessment leads to the treatment effects being overestimated, and the lack of bias-reducing measures such as randomisation and blinding can contribute to as much as 30%–45% inflation of effect sizes [ 67 , 68 , 85 ].

Ideally, investigators should be unaware of the treatment(s) animals have received or will be receiving, from the start of the experiment until the data have been analysed. If this is not possible for every stage of an experiment (see Box 5 ), it should always be possible to conduct at least some of the stages blind. This has implications for the organisation of the experiment and may require help from additional personnel—for example, a surgeon to perform interventions, a technician to code the treatment syringes for each animal, or a colleague to code the treatment groups for the analysis. Online resources are available to facilitate allocation concealment and blinding [ 19 ].

Box 5. Blinding during different stages of an experiment

During allocation

Allocation concealment refers to concealing the treatment to be allocated to each individual animal from those assigning the animals to groups, until the time of assignment. Together with randomisation, allocation concealment helps minimise selection bias, which can introduce systematic differences between treatment groups.

During the conduct of the experiment

When possible, animal care staff and those who administer treatments should be unaware of allocation groups to ensure that all animals in the experiment are handled, monitored, and treated in the same way. Treating different groups differently based on the treatment they have received could alter animal behaviour and physiology and produce confounds.

Welfare or safety reasons may prevent blinding of animal care staff, but in most cases, blinding is possible. For example, if hazardous microorganisms are used, control animals can be considered as dangerous as infected animals. If a welfare issue would only be tolerated for a short time in treated but not control animals, a harm-benefit analysis is needed to decide whether blinding should be used.

During the outcome assessment

The person collecting experimental measurements or conducting assessments should not know which treatment each sample/animal received and which samples/animals are grouped together. Blinding is especially important during outcome assessment, particularly if there is a subjective element (e.g., when assessing behavioural changes or reading histological slides) [ 83 ]. Randomising the order of examination can also reduce bias.

If the person assessing the outcome cannot be blinded to the group allocation (e.g., obvious phenotypic or behavioural differences between groups), some, but not all, of the sources of bias could be mitigated by sending data for analysis to a third party who has no vested interest in the experiment and does not know whether a treatment is expected to improve or worsen the outcome.

During the data analysis

The person analysing the data should know which data are grouped together to enable group comparisons but should not be aware of which specific treatment each group received. This type of blinding is often neglected but is important, as the analyst makes many semisubjective decisions such as applying data transformation to outcome measures, choosing methods for handling missing data, and handling outliers. How these decisions will be made should also be decided a priori.

Data can be coded prior to analysis so that the treatment group cannot be identified before analysis is completed.

Specify whether blinding was used or not for each step of the experimental process (see Box 5 ) and indicate what particular treatment or condition the investigators were blinded to, or aware of.

If blinding was not used at any of the steps outlined in Box 5 , explicitly state this and provide the reason why blinding was not possible or not considered.

Item 5—Example 1

‘For each animal, four different investigators were involved as follows: a first investigator (RB) administered the treatment based on the randomization table. This investigator was the only person aware of the treatment group allocation. A second investigator (SC) was responsible for the anaesthetic procedure, whereas a third investigator (MS, PG, IT) performed the surgical procedure. Finally, a fourth investigator (MAD) (also unaware of treatment) assessed GCPS and NRS, mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT), and sedation NRS scores’ [ 46 ].

Item 5—Example 2

‘… due to overt behavioral seizure activity the experimenter could not be blinded to whether the animal was injected with pilocarpine or with saline’ [ 86 ].

Item 5—Example 3

‘Investigators could not be blinded to the mouse strain due to the difference in coat colors, but the three-chamber sociability test was performed with ANY-maze video tracking software (Stoelting, Wood Dale, IL, USA) using an overhead video camera system to automate behavioral testing and provide unbiased data analyses. The one-chamber social interaction test requires manual scoring and was analyzed by an individual with no knowledge of the questions’ [ 87 ].

Item 6. Outcome measures

6a . Clearly define all outcome measures assessed (e.g., cell death, molecular markers, or behavioural changes) .

Explanation. An outcome measure (also known as a dependent variable or a response variable) is any variable recorded during a study (e.g., volume of damaged tissue, number of dead cells, specific molecular marker) to assess the effects of a treatment or experimental intervention. Outcome measures may be important for characterising a sample (e.g., baseline data) or for describing complex responses (e.g., ‘haemodynamic’ outcome measures including heart rate, blood pressure, central venous pressure, and cardiac output). Failure to disclose all the outcomes that were measured introduces bias in the literature, as positive outcomes (e.g., those statistically significant) are reported more often [ 88 – 91 ].

Explicitly describe what was measured, especially when measures can be operationalised in different ways. For example, activity could be recorded as time spent moving or distance travelled. When possible, the recording of outcome measures should be made in an unbiased manner (e.g., blinded to the treatment allocation of each experimental group; see Item 5. Blinding). Specify how the outcome measure(s) assessed are relevant to the objectives of the study.

Subitem 6a—Example 1

‘The following parameters were assessed: threshold pressure (TP; intravesical pressure immediately before micturition); post-void pressure (PVP; intravesical pressure immediately after micturition); peak pressure (PP; highest intravesical pressure during micturition); capacity (CP; volume of saline needed to induce the first micturition); compliance (CO; CP to TP ratio); frequency of voiding contractions (VC) and frequency of non-voiding contractions (NVCs)’ [ 92 ].

6b . For hypothesis-testing studies, specify the primary outcome measure, i.e., the outcome measure that was used to determine the sample size .

Explanation. In a hypothesis-testing experiment, the primary outcome measure answers the main biological question. It is the outcome of greatest importance, identified in the planning stages of the experiment and used as the basis for the sample size calculation (see Box 3 ). For exploratory studies, it is not necessary to identify a single primary outcome, and often multiple outcomes are assessed (see Item 13. Objectives).

In a hypothesis-testing study powered to detect an effect on the primary outcome measure, data on secondary outcomes are used to evaluate additional effects of the intervention, but subsequent statistical analysis of secondary outcome measures may be underpowered, making results and interpretation less reliable [ 88 , 93 ]. Studies that claim to test a hypothesis but do not specify a predefined primary outcome measure or those that change the primary outcome measure after data were collected (also known as primary outcome switching) are liable to selectively report only statistically significant results, favouring more positive findings [ 94 ].

Registering a protocol in advance protects the researcher against concerns about selective outcome reporting (also known as data dredging or p-hacking) and provides evidence that the primary outcome reported in the manuscript accurately reflects what was planned [ 95 ] (see Item 19. Protocol registration).

In studies using inferential statistics to test a hypothesis (e.g., t test, ANOVA), if more than one outcome was assessed, explicitly identify the primary outcome measure, state whether it was defined as such prior to data collection and whether it was used in the sample size calculation. If there was no primary outcome measure, explicitly state so.

Subitem 6b—Example 1

‘The primary outcome of this study will be forelimb function assessed with the staircase test. Secondary outcomes constitute Rotarod performance, stroke volume (quantified on MR imaging or brain sections, respectively), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) connectome mapping, and histological analyses to measure neuronal and microglial densities, and phagocytic activity…. The study is designed with 80% power to detect a relative 25% difference in pellet-reaching performance in the Staircase test’ [ 96 ].

Subitem 6b—Example 2

‘The primary endpoint of this study was defined as left ventricular ejection fraction (EF) at the end of follow-up, measured by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Secondary endpoints were left ventricular end diastolic volume and left ventricular end systolic volume (EDV and ESV) measured by MRI, infarct size measured by ex vivo gross macroscopy after incubation with triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) and late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) MRI, functional parameters serially measured by pressure volume (PV-)loop and echocardiography, coronary microvascular function by intracoronary pressure- and flow measurements and vascular density and fibrosis on histology’ [ 76 ].

Item 7. Statistical methods

7a . Provide details of the statistical methods used for each analysis, including software used .

Explanation. The statistical analysis methods implemented will reflect the goals and the design of the experiment; they should be decided in advance before data are collected (see Item 19. Protocol registration). Both exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies might use descriptive statistics to summarise the data (e.g., mean and SD, or median and range). In exploratory studies in which no specific hypothesis was tested, reporting descriptive statistics is important for generating new hypotheses that may be tested in subsequent experiments, but it does not allow conclusions beyond the data. In addition to descriptive statistics, hypothesis-testing studies might use inferential statistics to test a specific hypothesis.

Reporting the analysis methods in detail is essential to ensure readers and peer reviewers can assess the appropriateness of the methods selected and judge the validity of the output. The description of the statistical analysis should provide enough detail so that another researcher could reanalyse the raw data using the same method and obtain the same results. Make it clear which method was used for which analysis.

Analysing the data using different methods and selectively reporting those with statistically significant results constitutes p-hacking and introduces bias in the literature [ 90 , 94 ]. Report all analyses performed in full. Relevant information to describe the statistical methods include

• the outcome measures
• the independent variables of interest
• the nuisance variables taken into account in each statistical test (e.g., as blocking factors or covariates)
• what statistical analyses were performed and references for the methods used
• how missing values were handled
• adjustment for multiple comparisons
• the software package and version used, including computer code if available [ 97 ]

The outcome measure is potentially affected by the treatments or interventions being tested but also by other factors, such as the properties of the biological samples (sex, litter, age, weight, etc.) and technical considerations (cage, time of day, batch, experimenter, etc.). To reduce the risk of bias, some of these factors can be taken into account in the design of the experiment, for example, by using blocking factors in the randomisation (see Item 4. Randomisation). Factors deemed to affect the variability of the outcome measure should also be handled in the analysis, for example, as a blocking factor (e.g., batch of reagent or experimenter) or as a covariate (e.g., starting tumour size at point of randomisation).

Furthermore, to conduct the analysis appropriately, it is important to recognise the hierarchy that can exist in an experiment. The hierarchy can induce a clustering effect; for example, cage, litter, or animal effects can occur when the outcomes measured for animals from the same cage/litter, or for cells from the same animal, are more similar to each other. This relationship has to be managed in the statistical analysis by including cage/litter/animal effects in the model or by aggregating the outcome measure to the cage/litter/animal level. Thus, describing the reality of the experiment and the hierarchy of the data, along with the measures taken in the design and the analysis to account for this hierarchy, is crucial to assessing whether the statistical methods used are appropriate.

For bespoke analysis—for example, regression analysis with many terms—it is essential to describe the analysis pipeline in detail. This could include detailing the starting model and any model simplification steps.

When reporting descriptive statistics, explicitly state which measure of central tendency is reported (e.g., mean or median) and which measure of variability is reported (e.g., standard deviation, range, quartiles, or interquartile range). Also describe any modification made to the raw data before analysis (e.g., relative quantification of gene expression against a housekeeping gene). For further guidance on statistical reporting, refer to the Statistical Analyses and Methods in the Published Literature (SAMPL) guidelines [ 98 ].

Subitem 7a—Example 1

‘Analysis of variance was performed using the GLM procedure of SAS (SAS Inst., Cary, NC). Average pen values were used as the experimental unit for the performance parameters. The model considered the effects of block and dietary treatment (5 diets). Data were adjusted by the covariant of initial body weight. Orthogonal contrasts were used to test the effects of SDPP processing (UV vs no UV) and dietary SDPP level (3% vs 6%). Results are presented as least squares means. The level of significance was set at P < 0.05’ [ 99 ].

Subitem 7a—Example 2

‘All risk factors of interest were investigated in a single model. Logistic regression allows blocking factors and explicitly investigates the effect of each independent variable controlling for the effects of all others…. As we were interested in husbandry and environmental effects, we blocked the analysis by important biological variables (age; backstrain; inbreeding; sex; breeding status) to control for their effect. (The role of these biological variables in barbering behavior, particularly with reference to barbering as a model for the human disorder trichotillomania, is described elsewhere …). We also blocked by room to control for the effect of unknown environmental variables associated with this design variable. We tested for the effect of the following husbandry and environmental risk factors: cage mate relationships (i.e. siblings, non-siblings, or mixed); cage type (i.e. plastic or steel); cage height from floor; cage horizontal position (whether the cage was on the side or the middle of a rack); stocking density; and the number of adults in the cage. Cage material by cage height from floor; and cage material by cage horizontal position interactions were examined, and then removed from the model as they were nonsignificant. N = 1959 mice were included in this analysis’ [ 100 ].

7b . Describe any methods used to assess whether the data met the assumptions of the statistical approach, and what was done if the assumptions were not met .

Explanation. Hypothesis tests are based on assumptions about the underlying data. Describing how assumptions were assessed and whether these assumptions are met by the data enables readers to assess the suitability of the statistical approach used. If the assumptions are incorrect, the conclusions may not be valid. For example, the assumptions for data used in parametric tests (such as a t test, z test, ANOVA, etc.) are that the data are continuous, the residuals from the analysis are normally distributed, the responses are independent, and different groups have similar variances.

There are various tests for normality, for example, the Shapiro-Wilk and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. However, these tests have to be used cautiously. If the sample size is small, they will struggle to detect non-normality; if the sample size is large, the tests will detect unimportant deviations. An alternative approach is to evaluate data with visual plots, e.g., normal probability plots, box plots, scatterplots. If the residuals of the analysis are not normally distributed, the assumption may be satisfied using a data transformation in which the same mathematical function is applied to all data points to produce normally distributed data (e.g., log e , log 10 , square root).

Other types of outcome measures (binary, categorical, or ordinal) will require different methods of analysis, and each will have different sets of assumptions. For example, categorical data are summarised by counts and percentages or proportions and are analysed by tests of proportions; these analysis methods assume that data are binary, ordinal or nominal, and independent [ 18 ].

For each statistical test used (parametric or nonparametric), report the type of outcome measure and the methods used to test the assumptions of the statistical approach. If data were transformed, identify precisely the transformation used and which outcome measures it was applied to. Report any changes to the analysis if the assumptions were not met and an alternative approach was used (e.g., a nonparametric test was used, which does not require the assumption of normality). If the relevant assumptions about the data were not tested, state this explicitly.

Subitem 7b—Example 1

‘Model assumptions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk normality test and Levene’s Test for homogeneity of variance and by visual inspection of residual and fitted value plots. Some of the response variables had to be transformed by applying the natural logarithm or the second or third root, but were back-transformed for visualization of significant effects’ [ 101 ].

Subitem 7b—Example 2

‘The effects of housing (treatment) and day of euthanasia on cortisol levels were assessed by using fixed-effects 2-way ANOVA. An initial exploratory analysis indicated that groups with higher average cortisol levels also had greater variation in this response variable. To make the variation more uniform, we used a logarithmic transform of each fish’s cortisol per unit weight as the dependent variable in our analyses. This action made the assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity (standard deviations were equal) of our analyses reasonable’ [ 102 ].

Item 8. Experimental animals

8a . Provide species-appropriate details of the animals used, including species, strain and substrain, sex, age or developmental stage, and, if relevant, weight .

Explanation. The species, strain, substrain, sex, weight, and age of animals are critical factors that can influence most experimental results [ 103 – 107 ]. Reporting the characteristics of all animals used is equivalent to standardised human patient demographic data; these data support both the internal and external validity of the study results. It enables other researchers to repeat the experiment and generalise the findings. It also enables readers to assess whether the animal characteristics chosen for the experiment are relevant to the research objectives.

When reporting age and weight, include summary statistics for each experimental group (e.g., mean and standard deviation) and, if possible, baseline values for individual animals (e.g., as supplementary information or a link to a publicly accessible data repository). As body weight might vary during the course of the study, indicate when the measurements were taken. For most species, precise reporting of age is more informative than a description of the developmental status (e.g., a mouse referred to as an adult can vary in age from 6 to 20 weeks [ 108 ]). In some cases, however, reporting the developmental stage is more informative than chronological age—for example, in juvenile Xenopus , in which rate of development can be manipulated by incubation temperature [ 109 ].

Reporting the weight or the sex of the animals used may not feasible for all studies. For example, sex may be unknown for embryos or juveniles, or weight measurement may be particularly stressful for some aquatic species. If reporting these characteristics can be reasonably expected for the species used and the experimental setting but are not reported, provide a justification.

Subitem 8a—Example 1

‘One hundred and nineteen male mice were used: C57BL/6OlaHsd mice ( n = 59), and BALB/c OlaHsd mice ( n = 60) (both from Harlan, Horst, The Netherlands). At the time of the EPM test the mice were 13 weeks old and had body weights of 27.4 ± 0.4 g and 27.8 ± 0.3 g, respectively (mean ± SEM)’ [ 110 ].

Subitem 8a—Example 2

‘Histone Methylation Profiles and the Transcriptome of X . tropicalis Gastrula Embryos. To generate epigenetic profiles, ChIP was performed using specific antibodies against trimethylated H3K4 and H3K27 in Xenopus gastrula-stage embryos (Nieuwkoop-Faber stage 11–12), followed by deep sequencing (ChIP-seq). In addition, polyA-selected RNA (stages 10–13) was reverse transcribed and sequenced (RNA-seq)’ [ 111 ].

8b . Provide further relevant information on the provenance of animals, health/immune status, genetic modification status, genotype, and any previous procedures .

Explanation. The animals’ provenance, their health or immune status, and their history of previous testing or procedures can influence their physiology and behaviour, as well as their response to treatments, and thus impact on study outcomes. For example, animals of the same strain but from different sources, or animals obtained from the same source but at different times, may be genetically different [ 16 ]. The immune or microbiological status of the animals can also influence welfare, experimental variability, and scientific outcomes [ 112 – 114 ].

Report the health status of all animals used in the study and any previous procedures the animals have undergone. For example, if animals are specific pathogen free (SPF), list the pathogens that they were declared free of. If health status is unknown or was not tested, explicitly state this.

For genetically modified animals, describe the genetic modification status (e.g., knockout, overexpression), genotype (e.g., homozygous, heterozygous), manipulated gene(s), genetic methods and technologies used to generate the animals, how the genetic modification was confirmed, and details of animals used as controls (e.g., littermate controls [ 115 ]).

Reporting the correct nomenclature is crucial to understanding the data and ensuring that the research is discoverable and replicable [ 116 – 118 ]. Useful resources for reporting nomenclature for different species include

• Mice—International Committee on Standardized Genetic Nomenclature ( https://www.jax.org/jax-mice-and-services/customer-support/technical-support/genetics-and-nomenclature )
• Rats—Rat Genome and Nomenclature Committee ( https://rgd.mcw.edu/ )
• Zebrafish—Zebrafish Information Network ( http://zfin.org/ )
• Xenopus —Xenbase ( http://www.xenbase.org/entry/ )
• Drosophila —FlyBase ( http://flybase.org/ )
• C . elegans —WormBase ( https://wormbase.org/ )

Subitem 8b—Example 1

‘A construct was engineered for knockin of the mi R-128 ( mi R-128-3p) gene into the Rosa26 locus. Rosa26 genomic DNA fragments (~1.1 kb and ~4.3 kb 5′ and 3′ homology arms, respectively) were amplified from C57BL/6 BAC DNA, cloned into the pBasicLNeoL vector sequentially by in-fusion cloning, and confirmed by sequencing. The mi R-128 gene, under the control of tetO-minimum promoter, was also cloned into the vector between the two homology arms. In addition, the targeting construct also contained a loxP sites flanking the neomycin resistance gene cassette for positive selection and a diphtheria toxin A (DTA) cassette for negative selection. The construct was linearized with ClaI and electroporated into C57BL/6N ES cells. After G418 selection, seven-positive clones were identified from 121 G418-resistant clones by PCR screening. Six-positive clones were expanded and further analyzed by Southern blot analysis, among which four clones were confirmed with correct targeting with single-copy integration. Correctly targeted ES cell clones were injected into blastocysts, and the blastocysts were implanted into pseudo-pregnant mice to generate chimeras by Cyagen Biosciences Inc. Chimeric males were bred with Cre deleted mice from Jackson Laboratories to generate neomycin-free knockin mice. The correct insertion of the mi R-128 cassette and successful removal of the neomycin cassette were confirmed by PCR analysis with the primers listed in Supplementary Table… ’ [ 119 ].

Subitem 8b—Example 2

‘The C57BL/6J (Jackson) mice were supplied by Charles River Laboratories. The C57BL/6JOlaHsd (Harlan) mice were supplied by Harlan. The α-synuclein knockout mice were kindly supplied by Prof…. (Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.) and were congenic C57BL/6JCrl (backcrossed for 12 generations). TNFα−/− mice were kindly supplied by Dr…. (Queens University, Belfast, Northern Ireland) and were inbred on a homozygous C57BL/6J strain originally sourced from Bantin & Kingman and generated by targeting C57BL/6 ES cells. T286A mice were obtained from Prof…. (University of California, Los Angeles, CA). These mice were originally congenic C57BL/6J (backcrossed for five generations) and were then inbred (cousin matings) over 14 y, during which time they were outbred with C57BL/6JOlaHsd mice on three separate occasions’ [ 120 ].

Item 9. Experimental procedures

For each experimental group, including controls, describe the procedures in enough detail to allow others to replicate them, including :

9a . What was done, how it was done, and what was used .

Explanation. Essential information to describe in the manuscript includes the procedures used to develop the model (e.g., induction of the pathology), the procedures used to measure the outcomes, and pre- and postexperimental procedures, including animal handling, welfare monitoring, and euthanasia. Animal handling can be a source of stress, and the specific method used (e.g., mice picked up by tail or in cupped hands) can affect research outcomes [ 61 , 121 , 122 ]. Details about animal care and monitoring intrinsic to the procedure are discussed in further detail in Item 16. Animal care and monitoring. Provide enough detail to enable others to replicate the methods and highlight any quality assurance and quality control used [ 123 , 124 ]. A schematic of the experimental procedures with a timeline can give a clear overview of how the study was conducted. Information relevant to distinct types of interventions and resources are described in Table 1 .

AVMA, American Veterinary Medical Association; RRID, Research Resource Identifier.

When available, cite the Research Resource Identifier (RRID) for reagents and tools used [ 126 , 127 ]. RRIDs are unique and stable, allowing unambiguous identification of reagents or tools used in a study, aiding other researchers to replicate the methods.

Detailed step-by-step procedures can also be saved and shared online, for example, using Protocols.io [ 128 ], which assigns a digital object identifier (DOI) to the protocol and allows cross-referencing between protocols and publications.

Subitem 9a—Example 1

Subitem 9a—Example 2

‘For the diet-induced obesity (DIO) model, eight-week-old male mice had ad libitum access to drinking water and were kept on standard chow (SFD, 10.9 kJ/g) or on western high-fat diet (HFD; 22 kJ/g; kcal from 42% fat, 43% from carbohydrates and 15% from protein; E15721-34, Ssniff, Soest, Germany) for 15 weeks ( https://dx.doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io.kbacsie )’ [ 130 ].

Subitem 9a—Example 3

‘The frozen kidney tissues were lysed. The protein concentration was determined with the Pierce BCA assay kit (catalogue number 23225; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA). A total of 100–150 μg total proteins were resolved on a 6–12% SDS-PAGE gel. The proteins were then transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane, blocked with 5% skimmed milk for 1 h at room temperature and incubated overnight at 4°C with primary antibodies against the following proteins: proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA; Cat# 2586, RRID: AB_2160343), phospho-AMPK (Cat# 2531, RRID: AB_330330), phospho-mTOR (Cat# 2971, RRID: AB_330970)…. The β-actin (Cat# A5441, RRID: AB_476744) antibody was obtained from Sigma. The blots were subsequently probed with HRP-conjugated anti-mouse (Cat# A0216) or anti-rabbit IgG (Cat# A0208; Beyotime Biotechnology, Beijing, China) at 1:1000. Immunoreactive bands were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence, and densitometry was performed using ImageJ software (RRID: SCR_003070, Bio-Rad Laboratories)’ [ 131 ].

9b . When and how often .

Explanation. Clearly report the frequency and timing of experimental procedures and measurements, including the light and dark cycle (e.g., 12L:12D), circadian time cues (e.g., lights on at 8:00 AM), and experimental time sequence (e.g., interval between baseline and comparator measurements or interval between procedures and measurements). Along with innate circadian rhythms, these can affect research outcomes such as behavioural, physiological, and immunological parameters [ 132 , 133 ]. Also report the timing and frequency of welfare assessments, taking into consideration the normal activity patterns (see Item 16. Animal care and monitoring). For example, nocturnal animals may not show behavioural signs of discomfort during the day [ 134 ].

If the timing of procedures or measurements varies between animals, this information can be provided as a supplementary table listing each animal.

Subitem 9b—Example 1

‘Blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen saturation and amount of blood extracted were recorded every 5 minutes. Blood samples were drawn at baseline (pre injury), 0 minutes (immediately after injury), and after 30 and 60 minutes’ [ 135 ].

Subitem 9b—Example 2

‘After a 5-h fast (7:30–12:30am), awake and freely moving mice were randomized and subjected to three consecutive clamps performed in the same mice as described above, with a 2 days recovery after each hyperinsulinemic/hypoglycemic (mHypo, n = 6) or hyperinsulinemic/euglycemic (mEugly, n = 4) clamps’ [ 136 ].

9c . Where (including detail of any acclimatisation periods) .

Explanation. Physiological acclimatisation after a stressful event, such as transport (e.g., between supplier, animal facility, operating theatre, and laboratory), but before the experiment begins allows stabilisation of physiological responses of the animal [ 137 , 138 ]. Protocols vary depending on species, strain, and outcome; for example, physiological acclimatisation following transportation of different animals can take anywhere from 24 hours to more than 1 week [ 139 ]. Procedural acclimatisation immediately before a procedure allows stabilisation of the animals’ responses after unaccustomed handling, novel environments, and previous procedures, which otherwise can induce behavioural and physiological changes [ 140 , 141 ]. Standard acclimatisation periods may vary between research laboratories, and this information cannot be inferred by readers.

Indicate where studies were performed (e.g., dedicated laboratory space or animal facility, home cage, open field arena, water maze) and whether periods of physiological or procedural acclimatisation were included in the study protocol, including type and duration. If the study involved multiple sites, explicitly state where each experiment and sample analysis was performed. Include any accreditation of laboratories if appropriate (e.g., if samples were sent to a commercial laboratory for analysis).

Subitem 9c –example 1

‘Fish were singly housed for 1 week before being habituated to the conditioning tank over 2 consecutive days. The conditioning tank consisted of an opaque tank measuring 20 cm (w) 15 cm (h) 30 cm (l) containing 2.5L of aquarium water with distinct visual cues (spots or stripes) on walls at each end of the tank…. During habituation, each individual fish was placed in the conditioning apparatus for 20 minutes with free access to both compartments and then returned to its home tank’ [ 142 ].

9d . Why (provide rationale for procedures) .

Explanation. There may be numerous approaches to investigate any given research problem; therefore, it is important to explain why a particular procedure or technique was chosen. This is especially relevant when procedures are novel or specific to a research laboratory or constrained by the animal model or experimental equipment (e.g., route of administration determined by animal size [ 143 ]).

Subitem 9d—Example 1

‘Because of the very small caliber of the murine tail veins, partial paravenous injection is common if 18 F-FDG is administered by tail vein injection (intravenous). This could have significantly biased our comparison of the biodistribution of 18 F-FDG under various conditions. Therefore, we used intraperitoneal injection of 18 F-FDG for our experiments evaluating the influence of animal handling on 18 F-FDG biodistribution’ [ 144 ].

Subitem 9d—Example 2

‘Since Xenopus oocytes have a higher potential for homologous recombination than fertilized embryos… we next tested whether the host transfer method could be used for efficient HDR-mediated knock-in. We targeted the C-terminus of X . laevis Ctnnb1 (β-catenin), a key cytoskeletal protein and effector of the canonical Wnt pathway, because previous studies have shown that addition of epitope tags to the C-terminus do not affect the function of the resulting fusion protein (Fig …). CRISPR components were injected into X . laevis oocytes followed by host transfer or into embryos’ [ 145 ].

Item 10. Results

For each experiment conducted, including independent replications, report :

10a . Summary/descriptive statistics for each experimental group, with a measure of variability where applicable (e.g., mean and SD, or median and range) .

Explanation. Summary/descriptive statistics provide a quick and simple description of the data; they communicate quantitative results easily and facilitate visual presentation. For continuous data, these descriptors include a measure of central tendency (e.g., mean, median) and a measure of variability (e.g., quartiles, range, standard deviation) to help readers assess the precision of the data collected. Categorical data can be expressed as counts, frequencies, or proportions.

Report data for all experiments conducted. If a complete experiment is repeated on a different day or under different conditions, report the results of all repeats rather than selecting data from representative experiments. Report the exact number of experimental units per group so readers can gauge the reliability of the results (see Item 2. Sample size and Item 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria). Present data clearly as text, in tables, or in graphs, to enable information to be evaluated or extracted for future meta-analyses [ 146 ]. Report descriptive statistics with a clearly identified measure of variability for each group. Fig 5 shows data summarised as means and standard deviations and, in brackets, ranges. Box plots are a convenient way to summarise continuous data, plotted as median and interquartile range, as shown in Fig 6 .

Subitem 10a—Example 1

Subitem 10a—Example 2

10b . If applicable, the effect size with a confidence interval .

Explanation. In hypothesis-testing studies using inferential statistics, investigators frequently confuse statistical significance and small p -values with biological or clinical importance [ 149 ]. Statistical significance is usually quantified and evaluated against a preassigned threshold, with p < 0.05 often used as a convention. However, statistical significance is heavily influenced by sample size and variation in the data (see Item 2. Sample size). Investigators must consider the size of the effect that was observed and whether this is a biologically relevant change.

Effect sizes are often not reported in animal research, but they are relevant to both exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies. An effect size is a quantitative measure that estimates the magnitude of differences between groups or strength of relationships between variables. It can be used to assess the patterns in the data collected and make inferences about the wider population from which the sample came. The confidence interval for the effect indicates how precisely the effect has been estimated and tells the reader about the strength of the effect [ 150 ]. In studies in which statistical power is low and/or hypothesis-testing is inappropriate, providing the effect size and confidence interval indicates how small or large an effect might really be, so a reader can judge the biological significance of the data [ 151 , 152 ]. Reporting effect sizes with confidence intervals also facilitates extraction of useful data for systematic review and meta-analysis. When multiple independent studies included in a meta-analysis show quantitatively similar effects, even if each is statistically nonsignificant, this provides powerful evidence that a relationship is ‘real’, although small.

Report all analyses performed, even those providing non-statistically significant results. Report the effect size to indicate the size of the difference between groups in the study, with a confidence interval to indicate the precision of the effect size estimate.

Subitem 10b—Example 1

Recommended Set

The Recommended Set ( Box 6 ) adds context to the study described, including further detail about the methodology and advice on what to include in the more narrative parts of a manuscript. Items are presented in a logical order; there is no ranking within the set.

Box 6. ARRIVE Recommended Set

• Ethical statement
• Housing and husbandry
• Animal care and monitoring
• Interpretation/scientific implications
• Generalisability/translation
• Protocol registration
• Data access
• Declaration of interests

Item 11. Abstract

Provide an accurate summary of the research objectives, animal species, strain and sex, key methods, principal findings, and study conclusions .

Explanation. A transparent and accurate abstract increases the utility and impact of the manuscript and allows readers to assess the reliability of the study [ 153 ]. The abstract is often used as a screening tool by readers to decide whether to read the full article or whether to select an article for inclusion in a systematic review. However, abstracts often either do not contain enough information for this purpose [ 11 ] or contain information that is inconsistent with the results in the rest of the manuscript [ 154 , 155 ]. In systematic reviews, initial screens to identify papers are based on titles, abstracts, and keywords [ 156 ]. Leaving out of the abstract information such as the species of animal used or the drugs being tested limits the value of preclinical systematic reviews as relevant studies cannot be identified and included. For example, in a systematic review of the effect of the MVA85A vaccine on tuberculosis challenge in animals, the largest preclinical trial did not include the vaccine name in the abstract or keywords of the publication; the paper was only included in the systematic review following discussions with experts in the field [ 157 ].

To maximise utility, include details of the species, sex, and strain of animals used and accurately report the methods, results, and conclusions of the study. Also describe the objectives of the study, including whether it was designed either to test a specific hypothesis or to generate a new hypothesis (see Item 13. Objectives). Incorporating this information will enable readers to interpret the strength of evidence and judge how the study fits within the wider knowledge base.

Item 11—Example 1

‘Background and Purpose

‘Asthma is an inflammatory disease that involves airway hyperresponsiveness and remodelling. Flavonoids have been associated to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities and may represent a potential therapeutic treatment of asthma. Our aim was to evaluate the effects of the sakuranetin treatment in several aspects of experimental asthma model in mice.

‘Experimental Approach

‘Male BALB/c mice received ovalbumin (i.p.) on days 0 and 14, and were challenged with aerolized ovalbumin 1% on days 24, 26 and 28. Ovalbumin-sensitized animals received vehicle (saline and dimethyl sulfoxide, DMSO), sakuranetin (20 mg kg –1 per mice) or dexamethasone (5 mg kg –1 per mice) daily beginning from 24th to 29th day. Control group received saline inhalation and nasal drop vehicle. On day 29, we determined the airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation and remodelling as well as specific IgE antibody. RANTES, IL- 5, IL -4, Eotaxin, IL -10, TNF -α, IFN -γ and GMC-SF content in lung homogenate was performed by Bioplex assay, and 8-isoprostane and NF -kB activations were visualized in inflammatory cells by immunohistochemistry.

‘Key Results

‘We have demonstrated that sakuranetin treatment attenuated airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation and remodelling; and these effects could be attributed to Th2 pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress reduction as well as control of NF -kB activation.

‘Conclusions and Implications

‘These results highlighted the importance of counteracting oxidative stress by flavonoids in this asthma model and suggest sakuranetin as a potential candidate for studies of treatment of asthma’ [ 158 ].

Item 11—Example 2

‘In some parts of the world, the laboratory pig (Sus scrofa) is often housed in individual, sterile housing which may impose stress. Our objectives were to determine the effects of isolation and enrichment on pigs housed within the PigTurn ® —a novel penning system with automated blood sampling—and to investigate tear staining as a novel welfare indicator. Twenty Yorkshire × Landrace weaner pigs were randomly assigned to one of four treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial combination of enrichment (non-enriched [NE] or enriched [E]) and isolation (visually isolated [I] or able to see another pig [NI]). Pigs were catheterised and placed into the PigTurns ® 48 h post recovery. Blood was collected automatically twice daily to determine white blood cell (WBC) differential counts and assayed for cortisol. Photographs of the eyes were taken daily and tear staining was quantified using a 0–5 scoring scale and Image-J software to measure stain area and perimeter. Behaviour was video recorded and scan sampled to determine time budgets. Data were analysed as an REML using the MIXED procedure of SAS. Enrichment tended to increase proportion of time standing and lying laterally and decrease plasma cortisol, tear-stain area and perimeter. There was a significant isolation by enrichment interaction. Enrichment given to pigs housed in isolation had no effect on plasma cortisol, but greatly reduced it in non-isolated pigs. Tear-staining area and perimeter were highest in the NE-I treatment compared to the other three treatments. Eosinophil count was highest in the E-NI treatment and lowest in the NE-I treatment. The results suggest that in the absence of enrichment, being able to see another animal but not interact may be frustrating. The combination of no enrichment and isolation maximally impacted tear staining and eosinophil numbers. However, appropriate enrichment coupled with proximity of another pig would appear to improve welfare’ [ 159 ].

Item 12. Background

12a . Include sufficient scientific background to understand the rationale and context for the study, and explain the experimental approach .

Explanation. Scientific background information for an animal study should demonstrate a clear evidence gap and explain why an in vivo approach was warranted. Systematic reviews of the animal literature provide the most convincing evidence that a research question has not been conclusively addressed, by showing the extent of current evidence within a field of research. They can also inform the choice of animal model by providing a comprehensive overview of the models used along with their benefits and limitations [ 160 – 162 ].

Describe the rationale and context of the study and how it relates to other research, including relevant references to previous work. Outline evidence underpinning the hypothesis or objectives and explain why the experimental approach is best suited to answer the research question.

Subitem 12a –example 1

‘For decades, cardiovascular disease has remained the leading cause of mortality worldwide… [and] cardiovascular research has been performed using healthy and young, non-diseased animal models. Recent failures of cardioprotective therapies in obese insulin-resistant …, diabetic …, metabolic syndrome-affected… and aged… animals that were otherwise successful in healthy animal models has highlighted the need for the development of animal models of disease that are representative of human clinical conditions…. The majority of laboratory-based studies investigating cardiovascular disease and myocardial tolerance to ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) are currently conducted using normogonadic models with either genetically-induced… or diet-induced… obesity and metabolic syndrome (MetS). In the clinical setting, elderly male patients often present with both testosterone deficiency (TD) and MetS…. A strong and compounding association exists between metabolic syndrome and testosterone deficiency which may have significant impact on cardiovascular disease and its outcomes which is not addressed by current models…. Although laboratory investigations generally rely on animal models of isolated metabolic syndrome or hypogonadism, their mutual presentation in the clinical setting warrants the development of appropriate animal models of the MetS with hypogonadism, especially in the context of cardiovascular disease research’ [ 163 ].

12b . Explain how the animal species and model used address the scientific objectives and, where appropriate, the relevance to human biology .

Explanation. Provide enough detail for the reader to assess the suitability of the animal model used to address the research question. Include information on the rationale for choosing a particular species and explain how the outcome measures assessed are relevant to the condition under study and how the model was validated. Stating that an animal model is commonly used in the field is not appropriate, and a well-considered, detailed rationale should be provided.

When the study models an aspect of a human disease, indicate how the model is appropriate for addressing the specific objectives of the study [ 164 ]. This can include a description of how the induction of the disease, disorder, or injury is sufficiently analogous to the human condition; how the model responds to known clinically effective treatments; how similar symptoms are to the clinical disease; and how animal characteristics were selected to represent the age, sex, and health status of the clinical population [ 14 ].

Subitem 12b—Example 1

‘For this purpose, we selected a pilocarpine model of epilepsy that is characterized by robust, frequent spontaneous seizures acquired after a brain insult …, well-described behavioral abnormalities …, and poor responses to antiepileptic drugs…. These animals recapitulate several key features of human temporal lobe epilepsy, the most common type of epilepsy in adults’ [ 165 ].

Subitem 12b—Example 2

‘Transplantation of healthy haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is a critical therapy for a wide range of malignant haematological and non-malignant disorders and immune dysfunction…. Zebrafish are already established as a successful model to study the haematopoietic system, with significant homology with mammals…. Imaging of zebrafish transparent embryos remains a powerful tool and has been critical to confirm that the zebrafish Caudal Haematopoietic Tissue (CHT) is comparable to the mammalian foetal haematopoietic niche…. Xenotransplantation in zebrafish embryos has revealed highly conserved mechanisms between zebrafish and mammals. Recently, murine bone marrow cells were successfully transplanted into zebrafish embryos, revealing highly conserved mechanism of haematopoiesis between zebrafish and mammals…. Additionally, CD34 enriched human cells transplanted into zebrafish were shown to home to the CHT and respond to zebrafish stromal-cell derived factors’ [ 166 ].

Item 13. Objectives

Clearly describe the research question, research objectives and, where appropriate, specific hypotheses being tested .

Explanation. Explaining the purpose of the study by describing the question(s) that the research addresses allows readers to determine whether the study is relevant to them. Readers can also assess the relevance of the model organism, procedures, outcomes measured, and analysis used.

Knowing whether a study is exploratory or hypothesis-testing is critical to its interpretation. A typical exploratory study may measure multiple outcomes and look for patterns in the data or relationships that can be used to generate hypotheses. It may also be a pilot study, which aims to inform the design or feasibility of larger subsequent experiments. Exploratory research helps researchers to design hypothesis-testing experiments by choosing what variables or outcome measures to focus on in subsequent studies.

Testing a specific hypothesis has implications for both the study design and the data analysis [ 16 , 167 ]. For example, an experiment designed to detect a hypothesised effect will likely need to be analysed with inferential statistics, and a statistical estimation of the sample size will need to be performed a priori (see Item 2. Sample size). Hypothesis-testing studies also have a predefined primary outcome measure, which is used to assess the evidence in support of the specific research question (see Item 6. Outcome measures).

In contrast, exploratory research investigates many possible effects and is likely to yield more false positive results because some will be positive by chance. Thus, results from well-designed hypothesis-testing studies provide stronger evidence than those from exploratory or descriptive studies. Independent replication and meta-analysis can further increase the confidence in conclusions.

Clearly outline the objective(s) of the study, including whether it is hypothesis-testing or exploratory, or if it includes research of both types. Hypothesis-testing studies may collect additional information for exploratory purposes; it is important to distinguish which hypotheses were prespecified and which originated after data inspection, especially when reporting unanticipated effects or outcomes that were not part of the original study design.

Item 13—Example 1

‘The primary objective of this study was to investigate the cellular immune response to MSC injected into the striatum of allogeneic recipients (6-hydroxydopamine [6-OHDA]-hemilesioned rats, an animal model of Parkinson’s disease [PD]), and the secondary objective was to determine the ability of these cells to prevent nigrostriatal dopamine depletion and associated motor deficits in these animals’ [ 168 ].

Item 13—Example 2

‘In this exploratory study, we aimed to investigate whether calcium electroporation could initiate an anticancer immune response similar to electrochemotherapy. To this end, we treated immunocompetent balb/c mice with CT26 colon tumors with calcium electroporation, electrochemotherapy, or ultrasound-based delivery of calcium or bleomycin’ [ 169 ].

Item 13—Example 3

‘While characterizing a rab-6 . 2 -null C . elegans strain for another study, we observed that rab-6 . 2(ok2254) animals were fragile. We set out to analyze the fragile-skin phenotype in rab-6 . 2(ok2254) animals genetically…. We observed several ruptured animals on our rab-6 . 2(ok2254) culture plates during normal maintenance, a phenotype very rarely observed in wild-type cultures…. We hypothesized that RAB-6.2 is required for skin integrity’ [ 170 ].

Item 14. Ethical statement

Provide the name of the ethical review committee or equivalent that has approved the use of animals in this study and any relevant licence or protocol numbers (if applicable) . If ethical approval was not sought or granted, provide a justification .

Explanation. Authors are responsible for complying with regulations and guidelines relating to the use of animals for scientific purposes. This includes ensuring that they have the relevant approval for their study from an appropriate ethics committee and/or regulatory body before the work starts. The ethical statement provides editors, reviewers, and readers with assurance that studies have received this ethical oversight [ 12 ]. This also promotes transparency and understanding about the use of animals in research and fosters public trust.

Provide a clear statement explaining how the study conforms to appropriate regulations and guidelines. Include the name of the institution where the research was approved and the ethics committee who reviewed it (e.g., Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee [IACUC] in the United States or Animal Welfare and Ethical Review Body [AWERB] in the United Kingdom) and indicate protocol or project licence numbers so that the study can be identified. Also add any relevant accreditation, e.g., American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC) [ 171 ] or Good Laboratory Practice (GLP).

If the research is not covered by any regulation and formal ethical approval is not required (e.g., a study using animal species not protected by regulations or law), demonstrate that international standards were complied with and cite the appropriate reference. In such cases, provide a clear statement explaining why the research is exempt from regulatory approval.

Item 14—Example 1

‘All procedures were conducted in accordance with the United Kingdom Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, approved by institutional ethical review committees (Alderley Park Animal Welfare and Ethical Review Board and Babraham Institute Animal Welfare and Ethical Review Board) and conducted under the authority of the Project Licence (40/3729 and 70/8307, respectively)’ [ 172 ].

Item 14—Example 2

‘All protocols in this study were approved by the Committee on the Ethics of Animal Experiments of Fuwai Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and the Beijing Council on Animal Care, Beijing, China (IACUC permit number: FW2010-101523), in compliance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH publication no.85-23, revised 1996)’ [ 173 ].

Item 14—Example 3

‘Samples and data were collected according to Institut de Sélection d’Animale (ISA) protocols, under the supervision of ISA employees. Samples and data were collected as part of routine animal data collection in a commercial breeding program for layer chickens in The Netherlands. Samples and data were collected on a breeding nucleus of ISA for breeding purposes only, and is a non-experimental, agricultural practice, regulated by the Act Animals, and the Royal Decree on Procedures. The Dutch Experiments on Animals Act does not apply to non-experimental, agricultural practices. An ethical review by the Statement Animal Experiment Committee was therefore not required. No extra animal discomfort was caused for sample collection for the purpose of this study’ [ 174 ].

Item 15. Housing and husbandry

Provide details of housing and husbandry conditions, including any environmental enrichment .

Explanation. The environment determines the health and wellbeing of the animals, and every aspect of it can potentially affect their behavioural and physiological responses, thereby affecting research outcomes [ 175 ]. Different studies may be sensitive to different environmental factors, and particular aspects of the environment necessary to report may depend on the type of study [ 176 ]. Examples of housing and husbandry conditions known to affect animal welfare and research outcomes are listed in Table 2 ; consider reporting these elements and any other housing and husbandry conditions likely to influence the study outcomes.

Environment, either deprived or enriched, can affect a wide range of physiological and behavioural responses [ 206 ]. Specific details to report include, but are not limited to, structural enrichment (e.g., elevated surfaces, dividers); resources for species-typical activities (e.g., nesting material, shelters, or gnawing sticks for rodents; plants or gravel for aquatic species); and toys or other tools used to stimulate exploration, exercise (e.g., running wheel), and novelty. If no environmental enrichment was provided, this should be clearly stated with justification. Similarly, scientific justification needs to be reported for withholding food and water [ 207 ] and for singly housing animals [ 208 , 209 ].

If space is an issue, relevant housing and husbandry details can be provided in the form of a link to the information in a public repository or as supplementary information.

Item 15—Example 1

‘Breeding colonies were kept in individually ventilated cages (IVCs; Tecniplast, Italy) at a temperature of 20°C to 24°C, humidity of 50% to 60%, 60 air exchanges per hour in the cages, and a 12/12-hour light/dark cycle with the lights on at 5:30 AM. The maximum caging density was five mice from the same litter and sex starting from weaning. As bedding, spruce wood shavings (Lignocel FS-14; J. Rettenmaier und Soehne GmbH, Rosenberg, Germany) were provided. Mice were fed a standardized mouse diet (1314, Altromin, Germany) and provided drinking water ad libitum . All materials, including IVCs, lids, feeders, bottles, bedding, and water were autoclaved before use. Sentinel mice were negative for at least all Federation of laboratory animal science associations (FELASA)-relevant murine infectious agents… as diagnosed by our health monitoring laboratory, mfd Diagnostics GmbH, Wendelsheim, Germany’ [ 210 ].

Item 15—Example 2

‘Same sex litter mates were housed together in individually ventilated cages with two or four mice per cage. All mice were maintained on a regular diurnal lighting cycle (12:12 light:-dark) with ad libitum access to food (7012 Harlan Teklad LM-485 Mouse/Rat Sterilizable Diet) and water. Chopped corn cob was used as bedding. Environmental enrichment included nesting material (Nestlets, Ancare, Bellmore, NY, USA), PVC pipe, and shelter (Refuge XKA-2450-087, Ketchum Manufacturing Inc., Brockville, Ontario, Canada). Mice were housed under broken barrier-specific pathogen-free conditions in the Transgenic Mouse Core Facility of Cornell University, accredited by AAALAC (The Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International)’ [ 211 ].

Item 16. Animal care and monitoring

16a . Describe any interventions or steps taken in the experimental protocols to reduce pain, suffering, and distress .

Explanation. A safe and effective analgesic plan is critical to relieve pain, suffering, and distress. Untreated pain can affect the animals’ biology and add variability to the experiment; however, specific pain management procedures can also introduce variability, affecting experimental data [ 212 , 213 ]. Underreporting of welfare management procedures contributes to the perpetuation of noncompliant methodologies and insufficient or inappropriate use of analgesia [ 213 ] or other welfare measures. A thorough description of the procedures used to alleviate pain, suffering, and distress provides practical information for researchers to replicate the method.

Clearly describe pain management strategies, including

• specific analgesic
• administration method (e.g., formulation, route, dose, concentration, volume, frequency, timing, and equipment used)
• rationale for the choice (e.g., animal model, disease/pathology, procedure, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, personnel safety)
• protocol modifications to reduce pain, suffering, and distress (e.g., changes to the anaesthetic protocol, increased frequency of monitoring, procedural modifications, habituation, etc.)

If analgesics or other welfare measures, reasonably expected for the procedure performed, are not performed for experimental reasons, report the scientific justification [ 214 ].

Subitem 16a—Example 1

‘If piglets developed diarrhea, they were placed on an electrolyte solution and provided supplemental water, and if the diarrhea did not resolve within 48 h, piglets received a single dose of ceftiofur (5.0 mg ceftiofur equivalent/kg of body weight i.m [Excede, Zoetis, Florham Park, NJ]). If fluid loss continued after treatment, piglets then received a single dose of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim oral suspension (50 mg/8 mg per mL, Hi-Tech Pharmacal, Amityville, NY) for 3 consecutive days’ [ 215 ].

Subitem 16a—Example 2

‘One hour before surgery, we administered analgesia to the mice by offering them nut paste (Nutella; Ferrero, Pino Torinese, Italy) containing 1 mg per kg body weight buprenorphine (Temgesic; Schering-Plough Europe, Brussels, Belgium) for voluntary ingestion, as described previously…. The mice had been habituated to pure nut paste for 2 d prior to surgery’ [ 216 ].

Subitem 16a—Example 3

‘If a GCPS score equal or greater than 6 (out of 24) was assigned postoperatively, additional analgesia was provided with methadone 0.1 mg kg −1 IM (or IV if required) … and pain reassessed 30 minutes later. The number of methadone doses was recorded’ [ 46 ].

16b . Report any expected or unexpected adverse events .

Explanation. Reporting adverse events allows other researchers to plan appropriate welfare assessments and minimise the risk of these events occurring in their own studies. If the experiment is testing the efficacy of a treatment, the occurrence of adverse events may alter the balance between treatment benefit and risk [ 34 ].

Report any adverse events that had a negative impact on the welfare of the animals in the study (e.g., cardiovascular and respiratory depression, central nervous system disturbance, hypothermia, reduction of food intake). Indicate whether they were expected or unexpected. If adverse events were not observed, or not recorded during the study, explicitly state this.

Subitem 16b—Example 1

‘Murine lymph node tumors arose in 11 of 12 mice that received N2-transduced human cells. The neo gene could be detected in murine cells as well as in human cells. Significant lymphoproliferation could be seen only in the murine pre-T cells. It took 5 months for murine leukemia to arise; the affected mice displayed symptoms of extreme sickness rapidly, with 5 of the 12 mice becoming moribund on exactly the same day (Figure …), and 6 others becoming moribund within a 1-month period…. Of the 12 mice that had received N2-transduced human cells, 11 had to be killed because they developed visibly enlarged lymph nodes and spleen, hunching, and decrease in body weight, as shown in Figure…. The 12th mouse was observed carefully for 14 months; it did not show any signs of leukemia or other adverse events, and had no abnormal tissues when it was autopsied…. The mice were observed at least once daily for signs of illness, which were defined as any one or more of the following: weight loss, hunching, lethargy, rapid breathing, skin discoloration or irregularities, bloating, hemi-paresis, visibly enlarged lymph nodes, and visible solid tumors under the skin. Any signs of illness were logged as “adverse events” in the experiment, the mouse was immediately killed, and an autopsy was performed to establish the cause of illness’ [ 217 ].

Subitem 16b—Example 2

‘Although procedures were based on those reported in the literature, dogs under Protocol 1 displayed high levels of stress and many experienced vomiting. This led us to significantly alter procedures in order to optimize the protocol for the purposes of our own fasting and postprandial metabolic studies’ [ 218 ].

16c . Describe the humane endpoints established for the study, the signs that were monitored, and the frequency of monitoring . If the study did not set humane endpoints, state this .

Explanation. Humane endpoints are predetermined morphological, physiological, and/or behavioural signs that define the circumstances under which an animal will be removed from an experimental study. The use of humane endpoints can help minimise harm while allowing the scientific objectives to be achieved [ 219 ]. Report the humane endpoints that were established for the specific study, species, and strain. Include clear criteria of the clinical signs monitored [ 134 ] and clinical signs that led to euthanasia or other defined actions. Include details such as general welfare indicators (e.g., weight loss, reduced food intake, abnormal posture) and procedure-specific welfare indicators (e.g., tumour size in cancer studies [ 50 ], sensory-motor deficits in stroke studies [ 220 ]).

Report the timing and frequency of monitoring, taking into consideration the normal circadian rhythm of the animal and timing of scientific procedures, as well as any increase in the frequency of monitoring (e.g., postsurgery recovery, critical times during disease studies, or following the observation of an adverse event). Publishing score sheets of the clinical signs that were monitored [ 221 ] can help guide other researchers to develop clinically relevant welfare assessments, particularly for studies reporting novel procedures.

This information should be reported even if no animal reached any of the humane endpoints. If no humane endpoints were established for the study, explicitly state this.

Subitem 16c—Example 1

‘Both the research team and the veterinary staff monitored animals twice daily. Health was monitored by weight (twice weekly), food and water intake, and general assessment of animal activity, panting, and fur condition…. The maximum size the tumors allowed to grow in the mice before euthanasia was 2000 mm 3 ’ [ 222 ].

Item 17. Interpretation/scientific implications

17a . Interpret the results, taking into account the study objectives and hypotheses, current theory, and other relevant studies in the literature .

Explanation. It is important to interpret the results of the study in the context of the study objectives (see Item 13. Objectives). For hypothesis-testing studies, interpretations should be restricted to the primary outcome (see Item 6. Outcome measures). Exploratory results derived from additional outcomes should not be described as conclusive, as they may be underpowered and less reliable.

Discuss the findings in the context of current theory, ideally with reference to a relevant systematic review, as individual studies do not provide a complete picture. If a systematic review is not available, take care to avoid selectively citing studies that corroborate the results or only those that report statistically significant findings [ 223 ].

When appropriate, describe any implications of the experimental methods or research findings for improving welfare standards or reducing the number of animals used in future studies (e.g., the use of a novel approach reduced the results’ variability, thus enabling the use of smaller group sizes without losing statistical power). This may not be the primary focus of the research, but reporting this information enables wider dissemination and uptake of refined techniques within the scientific community.

Subitem 17a—Example 1

‘This is in contrast to data provided by an ‘intra-renal IL-18 overexpression’ model …, and may reflect an IL-18 concentration exceeding the physiologic range in the latter study’ [ 224 ].

Subitem 17a—Example 2

‘The new apparatus shows potential for considerably reducing the number of animals used in memory tasks designed to detect potential amnesic properties of new drugs… approximately 43,000 animals have been used in these tasks in the past 5 years but with the application of the continual trials apparatus we estimate that this could have been reduced to 26,000 … with the new paradigm the number of animals needed to obtain reliable results and maintain the statistical power of the tasks is greatly reduced’ [ 225 ].

Subitem 17a—Example 3

‘In summary, our results show that IL-1Ra protects against brain injury and reduces neuroinflammation when administered peripherally to aged and comorbid animals at reperfusion or 3 hours later. These findings address concerns raised in a recent systematic review on IL-1Ra in stroke… and provide further supporting evidence for IL-1Ra as a lead candidate for the treatment of ischemic stroke’ [ 226 ].

17b . Comment on the study limitations, including potential sources of bias, limitations of the animal model, and imprecision associated with the results .

Explanation. Discussing the limitations of the work is important to place the findings in context, interpret the validity of the results, and ascribe a credibility level to its conclusions [ 227 ]. Limitations are unavoidable in scientific research, and describing them is essential to share experience, guide best practice, and aid the design of future experiments [ 228 ].

Discuss the quality of evidence presented in the study and consider how appropriate the animal model is to the specific research question. A discussion on the rigour of the study design to isolate cause and effect (also known as internal validity [ 229 ]) should include whether potential risks of bias have been addressed [ 9 ] (see Item 2. Sample size, Item 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria, Item 4. Randomisation, and Item 5. Blinding).

Subitem 17b—Example 1

‘Although in this study we did not sample the source herds, the likelihood of these herds to be IAV positive is high given the commonality of IAV infections in the Midwest…. However, we cannot fully rule out the possibility that new gilts became infected with resident viruses after arrival to the herd. Although new gilts were placed into isolated designated areas and procedures were in place to minimize disease transmission (eg. isolation, vaccination), these areas or procedures might not have been able to fully contain infections within the designated areas’ [ 230 ].

Subitem 17b—Example 2

‘Even though our data demonstrates that sustained systemic TLR9 stimulation aggravates diastolic HF in our model of gene-targeted diastolic HF, there are several limitations as to mechanistic explanations of causality, as well as extrapolations to clinical inflammatory disease states and other HF conditions. First, our pharmacological inflammatory model does not allow discrimination between effects caused by direct cardiac TLR9 stimulation to that of indirect effects mediated by systemic inflammation. Second, although several systemic inflammatory conditions have disturbances in the innate immune system as important features, and some of these again specifically encompassing distorted TLR9 signalling… sustained TLR9 stimulation does not necessarily represent a clinically relevant inflammatory condition. Finally, the cardiac myocyte SERCA2a KO model does not adequately represent the molecular basis for, or the clinical features of, diastolic HF’ [ 231 ].

Item 18. Generalisability/translation

Comment on whether, and how, the findings of this study are likely to generalise to other species or experimental conditions, including any relevance to human biology (where appropriate) .

Explanation. An important purpose of publishing research findings is to inform future research. In the context of animal studies, this might take the form of further in vivo research or another research domain (e.g., human clinical trial). Thoughtful consideration is warranted, as additional unnecessary animal studies are wasteful and unethical. Similarly, human clinical trials initiated based on insufficient or misleading animal research evidence increase research waste and negatively influence the risk-benefit balance for research participants [ 229 , 232 ].

Consider the type of study conducted to assess the implications of the findings. Well-designed hypothesis-testing studies provide more robust evidence than exploratory studies (see Item 13. Objectives). Findings from a novel, exploratory study may be used to inform future research in a broadly similar context. Alternatively, enough evidence may have accumulated in the literature to justify further research in another species or in humans. Discuss what (if any) further research may be required to allow generalisation or translation. Discuss and interpret the results in relation to current evidence and, in particular, whether similar [ 233 ] or otherwise supportive [ 234 ] findings have been reported by other groups. Discuss the range of circumstances in which the effect is observed and factors that may moderate that effect. Such factors could include, for example, the population (e.g., age, sex, strain, species), the intervention (e.g., different drugs of the same class), and the outcome measured (e.g., different approaches to assessing memory).

Item 18—Example 1

‘Our results demonstrate that hDBS robustly modulates the mesolimbic network. This finding may hold clinical relevance for hippocampal DBS therapy in epilepsy cases, as connectivity in this network has previously been shown to be suppressed in mTLE. Further research is necessary to investigate potential DBS-induced restoration of MTLE-induced loss of functional connectivity in mesolimbic brain structures’ [ 235 ].

Item 18—Example 2

‘The tumor suppressor effects of GAS1 had been previously reported in cell cultures or in xenograft models, this is the first work in which the suppressor activity of murine Gas1 is reported for primary tumors in vivo . Recent advances in the design of safe vectors for transgene delivery… may result in extrapolating our results to humans and so a promising field of research emerges in the area of hepatic, neoplastic diseases’ [ 236 ].

Item 19. Protocol registration

Provide a statement indicating whether a protocol (including the research question, key design features, and analysis plan) was prepared before the study, and if and where this protocol was registered .

Explanation. Akin to the approach taken for clinical trials, protocol registration has emerged as a mechanism that is likely to improve the transparency of animal research [ 232 , 237 , 238 ]. Registering a protocol before the start of the experiment enables researchers to demonstrate that the hypothesis, approach, and analysis were planned in advance and not shaped by data as they emerged; it enhances scientific rigour and protects the researcher against concerns about selective reporting of results [ 239 , 240 ]. A protocol should consist of (1) the question being addressed and the key features of the research that is proposed, such as the hypothesis being tested, the primary outcome measure (if applicable), and the statistical analysis plan; and (2) the laboratory procedures to be used to perform the planned experiment.

Protocols may be registered with different levels of completeness. For example, in the Registered Report format offered by an increasing number of journals, protocols undergo peer review, and if accepted, the journal commits to publishing the completed research regardless of the results obtained [ 237 ].

Other online resources include the Open Science Framework [ 241 ], which is suitable to deposit PHISPS (Population; Hypothesis; Intervention; Statistical Analysis Plan; Primary; Outcome Measure; Sample Size Calculation) protocols [ 242 ] and provide researchers with the flexibility to embargo the preregistration, keep it from public view until the research is published, and selectively share it with reviewers and editors. The EDA can also be used to generate a time-stamped PDF, which sets out key elements of the experimental design [ 19 ]. This can be used to demonstrate that the study conduct, analysis, and reporting were not unduly driven by emerging data. As a minimum, we recommend registering protocols containing all PHISPS components as outlined above.

Provide a statement indicating whether or not any protocol was prepared before the study, and if applicable, provide the time-stamped protocol or the location of its registration. When there have been deviations from the protocol, describe the rationale for these changes in the publication so that readers can take this into account when assessing the findings.

Item 19—Example 1

‘A detailed description of all protocols can be found in the Registered Report (Kandela et al., 2015). Additional detailed experimental notes, data, and analysis are available on the Open Science Framework (OSF) (RRID: SCR_003238) ( https://osf.io/xu1g2/ )’ [ 243 ].

Item 19—Example 2

‘To maximize the objectivity of the presented research, we preregistered this study with its 2 hypotheses, its planned methods, and its complete plan of data analysis before the start of data collection ( https://osf.io/eb8ua/register/565fb3678c5e4a66b5582f67 , accessed 29 December 2017). We closely adhered to our plan…. All statistical analyses closely followed our preregistered analysis plan ( https://osf.io/eb8ua/ )’ [ 244 ].

Item 19—Example 3

‘We preregistered our analyses with the Open Science Framework which facilitates reproducibility and open collaboration in science research…. Our preregistration: Sheldon and Griffith (2017), was carried out to limit the number of analyses conducted and to validate our commitment to testing a limited number of a priori hypotheses. Our methods are consistent with this preregistration …’ [ 245 ].

Item 20. Data access

Provide a statement describing if and where study data are available .

Explanation. A data-sharing statement describes how others can access the data on which the paper is based. Sharing adequately annotated data allows others to replicate data analyses so that results can be independently tested and verified. Data sharing allows the data to be repurposed and new datasets to be created by combining data from multiple studies (e.g., to be used in secondary analyses). This allows others to explore new topics and increases the impact of the study, potentially preventing unnecessary use of animals and providing more value for money. Access to raw data also facilitates text and automated data mining [ 246 ].

An increasing number of publishers and funding bodies require authors or grant holders to make their data publicly available [ 247 ]. Journal articles with accompanying data may be cited more frequently [ 248 , 249 ]. Datasets can also be independently cited in their own right, which provides additional credit for authors. This practice is gaining increasing recognition and acceptance [ 250 ].

When possible, make available all data that contribute to summary estimates or claims presented in the paper. Data should follow the FAIR guiding principles [ 251 ]; that is, data are findable, accessible (i.e., do not use outdated file types), interoperable (can be used on multiple platforms and with multiple software packages), and reusable (i.e., have adequate data descriptors).

Data can be made publicly available via a structured, specialised (domain-specific), open-access repository such as those maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ ) or European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI, https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ ). If such a repository is not available, data can be deposited in unstructured but publicly available repositories (e.g., Figshare [ https://figshare.com/ ], Dryad [ https://datadryad.org/ ], Zenodo [ https://zenodo.org/ ], or Open Science Framework [ https://osf.io/ ]). There are also search platforms to identify relevant repositories with rigorous standards, e.g., FairSharing ( https://fairsharing.org/ ) and re3data ( https://www.re3data.org/ ).

Item 20—Example 1

‘Data Availability: All data are available from Figshare at http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.1288935 ’ [ 252 ].

Item 20—Example 2

‘A fundamental goal in generating this dataset is to facilitate access to spiny mouse transcript sequence information for external collaborators and researchers. The sequence reads and metadata are available from the NCBI (PRJNA342864) and assembled transcriptomes (Trinity_v2.3.2 and tr2aacds_v2) are available from the Zenodo repository ( https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.808870 ), however accessing and utilizing this data can be challenging for researchers lacking bioinformatics expertise. To address this problem we are hosting a SequenceServer… BLAST-search website ( http://spinymouse.erc.monash.edu/sequenceserver/ ). This resource provides a user-friendly interface to access sequence information from the tr2aacds_v2 assembly (to explore annotated protein-coding transcripts) and/or the Trinity_v2.3.2 assembly (to explore non-coding transcripts)’ [ 253 ].

Item 21. Declaration of interests

21a . Declare any potential conflicts of interest, including financial and nonfinancial . If none exist, this should be stated .

Explanation. A competing or conflict of interest is anything that interferes with (or could be perceived as interfering with) the full and objective presentation, analysis, and interpretation of the research. Competing or conflicts of interest can be financial or nonfinancial, professional or personal. They can exist in institutions, in teams, or with individuals. Potential competing interests are considered in peer review, editorial, and publication decisions; the aim is to ensure transparency, and in most cases, a declaration of a conflict of interest does not obstruct the publication or review process.

Examples are provided in Box 7 . If unsure, declare all potential conflicts, including both perceived and real conflicts of interest [ 254 ].

Box 7. Examples of competing or conflicts of interest

Funding and other payments received or expected by the authors directly arising from the publication of the study, or funding or other payments from an organisation with an interest in the outcome of the work.

Nonfinancial

Research that may benefit the individual or institution in terms of goods in kind. This includes unpaid advisory position in a government, nongovernment organisation, or commercial organisations.

Affiliations

Employed by, on the advisory board, or a member of an organisation with an interest in the outcome of the work.

Intellectual property

Patents or trademarks owned by someone or their organisation. This also includes the potential exploitation of the scientific advance being reported for the institution, the authors, or the research funders.

Friends, family, relationships, and other close personal connections to people who may potentially benefit financially or in other ways from the research.

Beliefs or activism (e.g., political or religious) relevant to the work. Membership of a relevant advocacy or lobbying organisation.

Subitem 21a—Example 1

‘The study was funded by Gubra ApS. LSD, PJP, GH, KF and HBH are employed by Gubra ApS. JJ and NV are the owners of Gubra ApS. Gubra ApS provided support in the form of materials and salaries for authors LSD, PJP, GH, KF, HBH, JJ and NV’ [ 255 ].

Subitem 21a—Example 2

‘The authors have declared that no competing interests exist’ [ 256 ].

21b . List all funding sources (including grant identifier) and the role of the funder(s) in the design, analysis, and reporting of the study .

Explanation. The identification of funding sources allows the reader to assess any competing interests and any potential sources of bias. For example, bias, as indicated by a prevalence of more favourable outcomes, has been demonstrated for clinical research funded by industry compared with studies funded by other sources [ 257 – 259 ]. Evidence for preclinical research also indicates that funding sources may influence the interpretation of study outcomes [ 254 , 260 ].

Report the funding information including the financial supporting body(s) and any grant identifier(s). If the study was supported by several sources of funding, list them all, including internal grants. Specify the role of the funder in the design, analysis, reporting, and/or decision to publish. If the research did not receive specific funding but was performed as part of the employment of the authors, name the employer.

Subitem 21b—Example 1

‘Support was provided by the Italian Ministry of Health: Current research funds PRC 2010/001 [ http://www.salute.gov.it/ ] to MG. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript’ [ 261 ].

Subitem 21b—Example 2

‘This study was financially supported by the Tuberculosis and Lung Research Center of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences and the Research Council of University of Tabriz. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript’ [ 262 ].

Subitem 21b—Example 3

‘This work was supported by the salary paid to AEW. The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript’ [ 263 ].

Supporting information

S1 annotated byline, s1 annotated references, acknowledgments.

We would like to acknowledge the late Doug Altman’s contribution to this project. Doug was a dedicated member of the working group, and his input into the guidelines’ revision has been invaluable.

Abbreviations

Funding Statement

This work was supported by the National Centre of the Replacement, Refinement & Reduction on Animals in Research (NC3Rs, https://www.nc3rs.org.uk/ ). NPdS, KL, VH, and EJP are employees of the NC3Rs.

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• Published: 19 June 2015

Choosing the right species in research

• Michael D. Mann 1 , 2  

Lab Animal volume  44 ,  pages 274–278 ( 2015 ) Cite this article

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When designing animal studies, investigators must choose a species that is appropriate for the research. In this paper, the author examines various criteria that can be used to guide this selection. He discusses the concepts of phylogenetic group and sentience and finds them not to be useful in the selection of appropriate species in biomedical research. He identifies other criteria that are more useful as justifications for species selection, including susceptibility to a targeted disease process, tendency to engage in a targeted behavior, suitable size for the experimental techniques to be used, presence of a large body of data relevant to the study, species specificity (the species itself is the target of the research), intergenerational interval, similarity to humans, contractual specification and existing guidelines. He proposes that investigators should use these justifications, and perhaps others, to choose the most scientifically appropriate species for animal studies.

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Acknowledgements

I thank Drs. Randall Nelson, Ernest Prentice, Koren Mann and Roger Balk and Ms. Sally Mann for their valuable critiques of this essay.

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Michael D. Mann

CITI Program, University of Miami, Miami, FL

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Mann, M. Choosing the right species in research. Lab Anim 44 , 274–278 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/laban.742

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/laban.742

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72 Dog Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

To find good research titles for your essay about dogs, you can look through science articles or trending pet blogs on the internet. Alternatively, you can check out this list of creative research topics about dogs compiled by our experts .

🐩 Dog Essays: Things to Consider

🏆 best dog titles for essays, 💡 most interesting dog topics to write about, ❓ questions about dog.

There are many different dog essays you can write, as mankind’s history with its best friends is rich and varied. Many people will name the creatures their favorite animals, citing their endearing and inspiring qualities such as loyalty, obedience, bravery, and others.

Others will discuss dog training and the variety of important roles the animals fulfill in our everyday life, working as shepherds, police members, guides to blind people, and more.

Some people will be more interested in dog breeding and the incredible variety of the animals show, ranging from decorative, small Yorkshire terriers to gigantic yet peaceful Newfoundland dogs. All of these topics are interesting and deserve covering, and you can incorporate all of them a general essay.

Dogs are excellent pet animals, as their popularity, rivaled only by cats, shows. Pack animals by nature, they are open to including members of other species into their groups and get along well with most people and animals.

They are loyal to the pack, and there are examples of dogs adopting orphaned kittens and saving other animals and children from harm.

This loyalty and readiness to face danger makes them favorite animals for many people, and the hundreds of millions of dogs worldwide show that humans appreciate their canine friends.

It also allows them to work many important jobs, guarding objects, saving people, and using their noses to sniff out various trails and substances.

However, dogs are descended from wolves, whose pack nature does not prevent them from attacking those outside the group. Some larger dogs are capable of killing an adult human alone, and most can at least inflict severe harm if they attack a child.

Dogs are trusted and loved because of their excellent trainability. They can be taught to be calm and avoid aggression or only attack once the order is given.

They can also learn a variety of other behaviors and tricks, such as not relieving themselves in the house and executing complex routines. This physical and mental capacity to perform a variety of tasks marks dogs as humanity’s best and most versatile helpers.

The variety of jobs dogs perform has led humans to try to develop distinct dog breeds for each occupation, which led to the emergence of numerous and different varieties of the same animal.

The observation of the evolution of a specific type of dog as time progressed and its purposes changed can be an interesting topic. You can also discuss dog competitions, which try to find the best dog based on various criteria and even have titles for the winners.

Comparisons between different varieties of the animal are also excellent dog argumentative essay topics. Overall, there are many interesting ideas that you can use to write a unique and excellent essay.

Regardless of what you ultimately choose to write about, you should adhere to the central points of essay writing. Make sure to describe sections of your paper with dog essay titles that identify what you will be talking about clearly.

Write an introduction that identifies the topic and provides a clear and concise thesis statement. Finish the paper with a dog essay conclusion that sums up your principal points. It will be easier and more interesting to read while also adhering to literature standards if you do this.

Below, we have provided a collection of great ideas that you can use when writing your essays, research papers, speeches, or dissertations. Take inspiration from our list of dog topics, and don’t forget to check out the samples written by other students!

• An Adventure with My Pet Pit-Bull Dog “Tiger” One look at Tiger and I knew that we were not going to leave the hapless couple to the mercies of the scary man.
• Dogs Playing Poker The use of dogs in the painting is humorous in that the writer showed them doing human things and it was used to attract the attention of the viewer to the picture.
• “Dog’s Life” by Charlie Chaplin Film Analysis In this film, the producer has used the comic effect to elaborate on the message he intends to deliver to the audience. The function of a dog is to serve the master.
• How to Conduct the Dog Training Properly At the same time, it is possible to work with the dog and train it to perform certain actions necessary for the owner. In the process of training, the trainer influences the behavior of the […]
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• The Feasibility Analysis for the Ropeless Dog Lead This is because it will have the ability to restrict the distance between the dog and the master control radio. The exploration of different sales models and prices for other devices indicates that the Rope-less […]
• Classical Conditioning: Teaching an Old Dog New Tricks According to Basford and Stein’s interpretation, classical conditioning is developed in a person or an animal when a neutral stimulus “is paired or occurs contingently with the unconditioned stimulus on a number of occasions”, which […]
• The Movements and Reactions of Dogs in Crates and Outside Yards This study discusses the types of movements and reactions exhibited by dogs in the two confinement areas, the crate and the outside yard.
• Evolution of Dogs from the Gray Wolf However, the combined results of vocalisation, morphological behavior and molecular biology of the domesticated dog now show that the wolf is the principle ancestor of the dog.
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Animals Used in Research

Any animal can be used in research. But which animal will be chosen will depend on the research question. If a biologist is interested in the mating behavior of toads or zebras, then it will only make sense for her or him to study that specific animal.

Scientists select the animal they use for research carefully. But in general mice and rats are the most commonly used. Image by metalgearsolid5.

This approach may have some limitations, for example when the species of interest is endangered. But, in general, scientists can study any animal of interest to their work. This is  basic research —studying an animal to learn more about it.

Choosing the Right Animal

Sometimes a scientist won’t pick an animal they are interested in studying, but one that helps them to answer a specific question. For example, if scientists are interested in studying a new medication or a pathway in the brain, they will use whatever animal will best allow them to do that.

For such research questions, scientists can use a wide range of animals. The United States Department of Agriculture  (USDA) is one agency in the U.S. that keeps track of how many animals are used each year for research. The animals that this agency reported being used in research in 2014 include a total of 834,453 animals. The table below shows the animals included in their data:

Other Animals Used in Research

Other animals not included in this list include birds, fish, mice and rats. It turns out that mice and rats are the most commonly used animals in research. Because of this, some argue that the numbers mentioned above don't properly report the total number of animals used in research. In fact, this number is likely to be much higher than it's currently reported by the USDA. 

Approving the Use of an Animal for Research

As mentioned above, there are some limitations for scientists when choosing the animal to best help them to answer a research question. And in addition to endangered animals, others such as chimpanzees and cephalopods, have special rules for use.  

If a scientist would like to use one of these animals for their work, she or he must clearly explain why this choice is important for the proposed work. This is in addition to the other documentation that must be filled out for using an animal in a research setting.

Human Participation in Research

Humans will be used in place of animals for research purposes, at least at first, when there is no expected harm to the human. Image by Kris D.

While oftentimes an animal is used for a research study, there are also cases when humans are used. One example of this is when there is no harm to using a human for a study, such as taking blood pressure, heart rate, or other similar data. When there is little to no risk related to a study it is common for only humans to be used.

When the work may cause harm to humans, this testing  will often only occur after the work has been done using an animal model. Here scientists will study a particular topic in animals, and once they have successful results they will then apply their work to humans. There are many advantages to first using animals for a research study. Despite this, the decision to use animals first (before humans) is one that many scientists and non-scientists debate about. This is an ethical debate  related to animal research that is still ongoing. 

The requirement of both human  and  other animal studies relates to a  disadvantage of animal research . The physiology of humans and non-human animals can be very different, so the results of animal studies cannot always be directly compared to humans. One example of this is in drug research. A drug may have different effects on the body when given to a non-human animal versus when it is given to a human.

When human research occurs, scientists will ask people to volunteer to be a part of the study. The people who volunteer to particpate will be informed of any risks involved before the experiment begins. And similar to animal research, there are many guidelines in place to protect the safety of any person participating in a given research project. The guidelines for using humans in research are unique to those for animal use.

Additional images via Wikimedia Commons. Frog image via Fredlyfish4.

Read more about: Using Animals in Research

View citation, bibliographic details:.

• Article: What Animals Are Used in Research?
• Author(s): Patrick McGurrin and Christian Ross
• Publisher: Arizona State University School of Life Sciences Ask A Biologist
• Site name: ASU - Ask A Biologist
• Date published: December 4, 2016
• Date accessed: September 16, 2024
• Link: https://askabiologist.asu.edu/research-animals

Patrick McGurrin and Christian Ross. (2016, December 04). What Animals Are Used in Research?. ASU - Ask A Biologist. Retrieved September 16, 2024 from https://askabiologist.asu.edu/research-animals

Chicago Manual of Style

Patrick McGurrin and Christian Ross. "What Animals Are Used in Research?". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 04 December, 2016. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/research-animals

MLA 2017 Style

Patrick McGurrin and Christian Ross. "What Animals Are Used in Research?". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 04 Dec 2016. ASU - Ask A Biologist, Web. 16 Sep 2024. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/research-animals

Scientists use a variety of animals for research purposes. These include different types of reptiles, insects, mammals, and amphibians, among others.

Using Animals in Research

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6 Steps for Guiding Students Through Researching and Writing an Animal Report with a FREE Template

Are you looking for an exciting way to engage your students in learning how to write animal reports ? Are you interested in a FREE Animal Report Template ?

Not only will students be encouraged to explore and discover interesting facts about animals , but they will also gain valuable research and writing skills through this process.

In this blog post, we’ll provide easy tips on teaching your elementary students about animals while also educating them on the structure of a great animal report. We’ll explain different ways for kids to research their chosen topic and take notes about the animal facts they learn. Additionally, we will link resources such as an animal report template, which offers a fast yet effective framework for completing the project.

So let’s dive in – it’s time to learn more about teaching your class all things useful with fun-filled reports about animals!

Introduce the project – explain to students what an animal report is and why they should write animal reports

Introducing animal reports to your students is a great way to get them thinking about animals and animal research! An animal report is an assignment requiring students to research an animal of their choosing and present information such as diet, habitat, and lifestyle to build their knowledge.

With animal research resources and a report template for guidance, students can explore new animal information that will help improve their understanding of the animal kingdom. Encouraging your students to write animal reports can also help develop essential research and writing skills while they have fun learning about animals at the same time!

Brainstorm a List of Animals and Choose An Animal to Write About

Start by having students brainstorm a list of animals. Teachers can do open brainstorming without categories or they ask students to brainstorm animals within specific categories, such as mammals, birds, and fish.

We have a FREE Brainstorming tool in the FREE Animal Report Template resource! Click the image below to download the free animal report template!

Once students have brainstormed their list of animals, ask them to choose the top four animals they want to learn about and then choose the one animal they are most interested in studying. Asking students to give you several animals and their favorite will help you assign separate animals to each student.

Outline the tasks and necessary components of an animal report

Writing an animal report is a lot of fun for your students, as it will help them become acquainted with different animals and develop their research skills.

The steps that I have students take when writing an animal report include:

• Choosing an animal
• Reading about the animal and watching videos about it
• Taking notes about the animal
• Organizing their notes and facts into categories
• Using a template or graphic organizer to start their writing
• Writing a rough draft
• Writing a final draft
• Putting it all together

I don’t present all of these steps to students all at once, but I will provide a general overview, like researching, organizing, and writing.

Research and Write down Facts About the Animal

To begin the process, set your students off with a task to research a particular animal. They need to include information such as the animal’s physical features, behavior, and habitat, as well as any interesting facts about their subject.

At this point, I allow students to write down their facts as a brainstormed list or using a circle map. I do not require students to organize and categorize the facts yet. This allows them to just focus on the information they have and get it down on paper. After the facts are written, I will ask students to look at their list of facts and try to group things together that have a common theme or idea.

Provide online resources and books for animal research topics

Finding ideas for animal research topics can be a fun and engaging way to get kids started on their animal report project. There are plenty of online resources available, such as National Geographic Kids , where students can access information about different types of animals and their habitats.

Books are also an excellent resource, with specific titles focusing on individual species or whole collections about different types of animals. Encourage your students to search for interesting creatures they wouldn’t normally encounter in everyday life – from unique insects to fascinating fish.

High-Interest Animal Articles for Elementary Students

It’s hard to find informational articles and books written for students to use as research tools. In fact, it was so challenging, I decided to write my own!

I have Animal Articles available individually , by habitats, and all together as a collection! Each animal article resource includes engaging, high-interest text, scaffolded reading comprehension resources, a fact sort that will help students organize all the facts and details, and mini-report writing options.

With my collection of 142 Animal Articles , your students will get invaluable materials for reading, research, note-taking, and writing about animals. The Animal Article Collection gives you access to ALL 142 animals, an animal report, informational writing tools, and more! Check it out here.

Researching these unique animals could not only spark a new love for the animal kingdom but also give them access to a wealth of knowledge that can help shape the outline and template for their reports.

Teach Students How to Research, Take Notes, and Organize Facts

I start our animal report project with an introduction to informational writing. We read about an animal, take notes on it using a circle map, and work with the facts and details to organize a paragraph about the animal.

Check out this blog post to discover the specifics of our initial week in teaching informational writing . You won’t want to miss how we kick off this unit!

Once they’ve finished their research and gathered enough animal facts, you can provide them with an animal report writing template to help them structure and organize the facts into something cohesive. This should include sections like Introduction and Description, Habitat, Behaviour, and Conclusion.

Offer tips on using facts and evidence in their writing

When teaching your students about writing an animal report, it’s important to emphasize the importance of using facts and evidence. Encourage them to back up their opinions or arguments with credible research from experts, as well as general knowledge. Using facts and evidence in their writing will help your students create an effective animal report that is both informative and accurate.

If you are looking for guidance on how to help your students organize facts when writing about animals, then this comprehensive series of blog posts is the answer . Through the use of engaging nonfiction articles and fact sorts, I effectively show students how to extract information from a text, break apart the information into usable parts, then move the parts around to organize the facts and details into a cohesive paragraph or multi-paragraph report about an animal.

Create a template or provide guidelines on the structure of an animal report

Writing an animal report can be a fun and educational way to teach students about the different species on our planet. To help guide your students through this project, create a template or provide guidelines on the structure of their report.

Animal reports are a great way to provide insight into different species while at the same time teaching important research and writing skills.

Our Animal Report for Any Animal is designed specifically to make research and report writing fun and engaging. It’s packed with differentiated graphic organizers, animal report templates, various options as well as other useful items! By taking advantage of this versatile resource your students will be able to explore their favorite animals in a unique way.

FREE Animal Report Template

Would you like a FREE Animal Report Template to use with your students?

With an animal report, teachers have the unique opportunity to help students engage in complex critical thinking and communication skills. We provided several resources and tips to guide them through the entire process. From introducing the report to helping them research their chosen topic and sorting facts into categories, having a clear understanding of each step is integral for the successful completion of this task.

Ultimately, with the appropriate guidance, students will have what they need to confidently approach and complete their own animal reports. Thank you for taking the time to learn about teaching animal reports – we hope that your class enjoys this project!

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Zoology — Animals

Essays on Animals

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Wildlife and Coexistence: The Conflict Between Wild Animals and Humans

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An Overview of The White Peacock

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Writing Unit of Study: Animal Research Project

This free animal research project will provide you with a writing unit of study that will help you build excitement about writing informational text in your classroom.

You can download this free animal research project to help your writers develop their research and writing skills.

This project will be a great fit for your first, second or third grade writing workshop.

This is another free resource for teachers and homeschool families from The Curriculum Corner.

Why should I introduce my students to research through animal study?

Animal research can be a great topic for writing informational text because students tend to be curious about animals.

Nothing seems to spark interest in most kids like learning about animals in our world. Turn their enthusiasm into an engaging animal research writing project.

They can take the time to learn about different habitats and diets.

You can also encourage students to expand their vocabulary by having them create a glossary to accompany their writing.

About this animal research project

Within this post you will find over 30 pages of anchor charts, mini-lesson ideas, writing planners and graphic organizers.

The unit will help guide your students through the complete process. In the end, you will be helping to teach your students how to write their own pieces of informational text.

The intended end product for students is an animal booklet that they can staple together to share with others.

Students who are ready for more advanced work, can create a larger project with less direction.

A description of the mini-lessons

Lesson 1: introduction.

• Begin the unit by having the students brainstorm a list of animals that they might see everyday.
• Then, have them brainstorm a list of animals they see when they visit the zoo or walk in the forest. You can do this on the blank anchor chart provided or on cart paper.
• Another option is to place students in groups. They could work to create a list together.  
• You might assign each group a continent and have them find animals that live there.
• Pull the class together and have each group share what animals they found that live on their continent.

Lesson 2: Noticings

• Next you might want to get your students familiar with common characteristics about informational texts that teach about animals.
• Have them work in pairs or small groups to go through some books and record their “noticings” about the writing.
• Then come together in a community circle to discuss those noticings and create a class anchor chart.

Lesson 3: Opinion vs. Facts

• Before getting truly into this unit, you might need to conduct a lesson on opinions vs. facts.
• After a brief discussion you can use the giraffe paragraph provided in our resources to give your students some practice differentiating between the two. This paragraph contains both opinions and facts.
• With your class read through the paragraph and record facts and opinions on the T-chart.
• Discuss both sides and how they are different from each other.
• A black & white copy of this giraffe paragraph has also been provided.  You can have them work in pairs or groups to distinguish between the facts and opinions.
• If you need more resources for your students surrounding fact & opinion check out our   Fact & Opinion Sort .

Lesson 4: Choosing a Topic for the Animal Research Project

• We want to help students to narrow their topic choices by giving them some guidance.
• Gather students and begin a discussion about choosing an animal research topic.
• For this lesson we have provided two pages where students can individually brainstorm the animals they are interested in.
• You might have students work in groups or independently to make their choice. Conference with students as needed to help.
• Don’t shy away from letting more than one student research about the same animal.  This can be a great way to promote group work. It might also help out with some of your literacy center choices throughout this unit.

Lesson 5: Good Places to Find Information about an Animal

• At this age we want students to begin to understand that all they read online about animals isn’t always true. Sometimes writing might sound true without being filled with facts.
• Show students two possible places to find information online about their animal. One should be a trusted site with reliable and accurate information. Another should be a site that perhaps a child has created.  (There are many that you can find if you search.)
• Pose these questions: Is everything on the internet true? Why?  How can you tell? Why is it important for your research writing to contain accurate information?

Lesson 6: Taking Notes

• Sometimes giving students resources and a blank sheet of notebook paper can be too overwhelming for them. Some students will copy word for word. Others might feel overwhelmed.  We need to guide them to read and pull out facts & relevant information to use later in their writing.
• For this lesson we have provided four templates for note-taking that you might choose to use for your students.
• You might need to provide different organizers to students depending on their needs.
• You will want to model the organizers your students are use. Show them how to take notes as they read.
• After initial teaching, you may find that you need to pull small groups for extra practice. Others might benefit from a conference as you take a look at the notes they are taking.

Lesson 7: Word Choice in Research Writing

• To help students think about making their writing more interesting, have them brainstorm words about their animal.
• Together brainstorm words that would be appropriate for animals. They might add words about what they look like, their movement, their habitats, their life cycles, their diets, etc. You can create a class anchor chart on the page provided.  You might even think about using the real life picture of the wolf in the download. This can get the students to begin thinking of more interesting words for animals (fierce, mighty, strong, etc).
• Then, pass out the individual brainstorm pages. Students can use the anchor chart as a guide to begin their own word choice pages about their animal. This might be a good partner activity as well.

Lesson 8: Writing Sketch for the Animal Research Project

• Next, you can model the writing sketch planner for your class.
• One idea to help your students narrow down all of the information they have learned about their animals is to give them a specific number of animals facts that they can focus on.
• Each of these facts can serve as the actual text that they will put on each page of their animal research book. Or the facts could serve as a focus for each paragraph in their writing.
• You might find that this would be a good mini-lesson to do with smaller groups of children.

Lesson 9: Creating a Table of Contents

• Another idea that can be a writing planner AND a page in their animal research book is the table of contents. Pull out one of the Table of Contents pages from the resources provided and model how to fill in the blanks on each page.
• This page will then serve as their Table of Contents (with a focus discussion on what that is and the purpose it serves) and also their writing planner so they know what they will put in the pages of their booklet.

Lesson 10: Creating a Glossary

• There are two pages provided in the resources that might help your students to learn to pull out topic specific words to put into a glossary for the end of their animal research book.
• Be sure to model how you would like for your students to use these organizers (keeping in mind that you may need to copy more than one page if there are more words than the page provides for).
• If your students need a refresher on ABC order check out these links for some added practice/review: ABC Order Task Cards & Fry Word ABC Order Task Cards

Lesson 11: Writing Your Animal Research

• You will decide on the best method for your students to showcase their published animal research.
• You may want your students to use their own creativity in the texts that they write and share. If you’d like a first experience to provide a bit more guidance, we have provided two different sets of pages for booklets.
• One is more guided and the other has less structure and smaller lines for more writing.  15 pages are provided so that you or students can pick what fits their needs.
• This “lesson” may actually become a series of lessons if you choose to model how each page can be used.  (We have also included a page with simple writing lines in case students need less guidance than the booklet pages provided.)

Lesson 12: Labeling Pictures

• One final lesson idea that pairs well with writing informational text is to teach your students how to label pictures.
• Since most nonfiction writing has real photographs, students can find some pictures online to print out and label for their booklet.  Hand-drawn pictures are also great if you would rather encourage some or all of your students in that direction.
• Whatever you choose, show your class how to effectively label a picture so that it teaches the reader more.  You can use the picture of the polar bear provided to model how to add words or even short facts as labels.  (For example if the simple label “fur” wouldn’t add additional information to the book, you might teach them to label it with a short fact such as “dense fur protects the animal’s skin from the weather”.
• To make this idea more user friendly, you might want them to use the page of blank white boxes provided to write their labels for their pictures.  Then all they need to do is cut them out and glue them to a printed picture.

Lesson 13: Writing Celebration

As always, find a way to celebrate your students’ writing.  

Invite guests (younger students or special adults) to read the books with your young authors. You might simply want to pair or group them, or some students might choose to present their book to everyone.  

Provide some light snacks if possible to give it a party atmosphere and pass out the author certificates to each child for his/her hard work.

You can download this free writing unit of study here:

Writing Download

As with all of our resources, The Curriculum Corner creates these for free classroom use. Our products may not be sold. You may print and copy for your personal classroom use. These are also great for home school families!

You may not modify and resell in any form. Please let us know if you have any questions.

Christine E.

Saturday 8th of May 2021

Thank you so much for this resource and the many pages that I can use in my homeschooling. It is exactly what I've been looking for to help me get my kids to write about our animal units! You are doing a great job, keep up the amazing work you do. I appreciate the hard work you put into putting these together.

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Essay on Animals: How to Write a Persuasive Paper

When writing a persuasive paper, your purpose is to convince your audience to agree with your idea or accept your recommendation for a course of action. If you’ve decided to write an essay on animals (either for a school assignment or for another purpose), here are the steps to follow.

1. Choose a topic

Some sample topics for an essay on animals include:

• Everyone should spay or neuter their pets .
• Adoption is the best option.
• Dogs should be treated as individuals, not discriminated against because of breed.
• Microchipping is important to keep pets with their families.

2. Research information on the topic

You can do research online and at the library, plus talk to experts in the field, to get more information. While reviewing the materials, look for interesting facts or tidbits that will hook your readers.

3. Create a flow chart 

Home starts with you

Reason 2   

   Supporting data   

Reason 3   

4. Write the thesis statement for your paper

Now it's time to fill in the flow chart, first with your thesis statement. For example: "Everyone should spay or neuter their pets." This statement will go in the first box in your flow chart. The flow chart is a visual way to help you create an outline. An outline will help you organize the information in a logical order. Your finished product will have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

5. Write the reasons and supporting data

The body will contain the reasons and the supporting data listed on your flow chart. The body not only contains evidence to support your opinion but also addresses one or two opposing views. 

Be sure to include your counter-argument when stating the opposing view. For example, one opposing view to the above statement might be this: "Many people think that an animal who has been spayed or neutered will become lazy and fat." Your counter-argument could be this: "This is a misconception. The main reason pets become overweight is lack of exercise and overfeeding."

6. Note engaging facts

Keep the flow chart handy as you read through all the information you have gathered. In a separate place, write “Hooks and facts to grab the reader’s attention,” and as you review your material, jot down cool facts that you come across. For example: "Just one female cat and her offspring can produce an estimated 420,000 cats in only seven years."

7. Consider all angles

Be sure to address a wide variety of reasons to support your topic statement. For example: Think about pet overpopulation, overcrowded shelters, the costs to your city or town, the effects on pet health, and pet behavior. What would your audience find most important?

8. Expand each reason individually

Before writing your actual paper, keep your facts straight by writing each reason and the supporting evidence on separate sheets of paper or documents.

9. Write your essay

Write your first draft. Then, revise your outline and draft as needed until you have your final draft. If necessary, include a bibliography.

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How to Use Chat GPT to Write a Research Paper?

Table of contents

• 1 Understanding ChatGPT’s Capabilities and Limitations
• 2 Preparation for Using ChatGPT
• 3.1 Ponder with ChatGPT!
• 3.2 Evaluate Topic Viability
• 3.3 Refine Your Research Question
• 3.4 Integrate AI Insights
• 4 Perform Research with ChatGPT
• 5 Build an Outline
• 6 Prepare the Draft
• 7.1 Ethical Considerations and Academic Honesty
• 8.1 Final Words

In the rapidly evolving world of academia, artificial intelligence is revolutionizing how we approach writing and research. Among the tools available today, ChatGPT stands out as a versatile online research paper assistance capable of transforming how we draft and refine research papers. ChatGPT provides a special fusion of creativity and efficiency. It can be useful both for students under pressure to meet deadlines and experienced researchers looking to optimize the writing research papers process.

However, using this tool effectively requires more than typing a prompt! It entails knowing its potential, establishing precise goals, and following academic standards. The ease of writing the prompt misleads many users dissatisfied with the results. Users just need to learn how to utilize ChatGPT to write research papers!

This guide will walk you through the essential steps to maximize ChatGPT! After reading it, you will craft coherent and well-structured research papers. Dive in to discover how AI can become your co-author in the journey of academic writing!

Understanding ChatGPT’s Capabilities and Limitations

We would like to give you a complete guide on how to work with AI tools. But before that, it’s essential to grasp ChatGPT’s strengths and limitations.

ChatGPT is a powerful AI tool designed to generate human-like text based on your prompts. It can assist in:

• Brainstorming
• Organizing content
• Drafting sections
• Even suggesting relevant literature

ChatGPT can significantly enhance your paper. However, it’s not a replacement for critical thinking, thorough research, or the nuanced understanding that a human writer brings.

When you use AI, you should be aware of originality and academic integrity. These aspects are two major issues for ChatGPT. Remember, this AI writes texts from the existing content. Although

ChatGPT can help you generate answers quickly, reviewing and editing the output carefully is crucial. Ensure it aligns with your unique voice!

Additionally, you’ll need to prove you didn’t plagiarize . To do that, check the AI-generated content against reliable plagiarism detection tools. This step is vital to ensure your research paper remains original and credible.

You can use ChatGPT to its full potential while avoiding frequent traps that could lower the caliber of your work. You just have to be aware of its possibilities and limitations! In the following parts, we’ll look at how to create a well-structured research report using ChatGPT ethically and responsibly.

Preparation for Using ChatGPT

It is time to use ChatGPT for writing research papers! It’s vital to lay the groundwork. The Chat GPT-generated text must complement your research and align with academic standards. Preparation is the key to making the most out of this powerful tool. A good start allows you to streamline the writing process and maintain the quality of your work.

Brainstorm and Pick a Topic

Let’s start at the very beginning of the creation process. No, it is not about writing the introduction. It is about the ideas!

Selecting a compelling topic is one of the most challenging aspects of writing research papers. ChatGPT can be an invaluable resource in the brainstorming phase! Are you diving into chemistry, art, or philosophy? Chat GPT will help with anything! How to do that?

Ponder with ChatGPT!

Start by asking ChatGPT for a list of potential research topics related to your field. For instance, if you’re focused on chemistry, you could prompt the AI to suggest interesting chemistry topics that align with current trends in the field.

Evaluate Topic Viability

Once you have a list of potential topics, evaluate each for feasibility and relevance. You can ask the AI to highlight key research findings or summarize scientific papers related to your specific topic. It gives you a clearer picture of what has already been explored and where there may be gaps in the literature.

Refine Your Research Question

Use ChatGPT to help refine your research question. You can input your preliminary suggestions and ask ChatGPT to generate variations or related questions, which can spark new perspectives or angles you hadn’t considered.

Integrate AI Insights

As you finalize your topic, think about how the insights generated by ChatGPT can be integrated into your research process.

Perform Research with ChatGPT

Regarding research, ChatGPT can be a powerful tool that helps you gather valuable insights quickly. Research can often be time-consuming, especially when you’re sifting through numerous sources to find relevant information. ChatGPT simplifies this by generating text, synthesizing data, explaining concepts, or suggesting research directions. How should you research together with the Chat GPT? Follow these easy steps:

Build an Outline

An effective outline is the backbone of any well-structured research paper. It helps organize your thoughts, ensuring that your arguments flow logically from one point to the next. Crafting an outline with the assistance of ChatGPT can be a game-changer. Especially when dealing with complex data or specific methodologies like case study analysis .

Chat GPT is an amazing tool to use while crafting your outline. It can:

• Organize Your Thoughts

When faced with a broad topic, it can be challenging to know where to start. ChatGPT helps by generating an outline that breaks down your topic into manageable sections. If you input key aspects of your research, ChatGPT will suggest an outline that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, and discussion.

• Integrate Complex Information

Dealing with different info can be daunting. ChatGPT’s ability to process and generate content from large data sets can simplify this task. Generative AI can outline sections that require in-depth analysis, such as discussions on neural networks. ChatGPT generates subheadings and bullet points, breaking the concepts into digestible sections.

• Refining the Outline

Once ChatGPT generates an initial outline, you can refine it to suit your needs better. This might involve adding or rearranging sections to ensure your research paper has a clear narrative. Using ChatGPT to craft an outline is not just about comfort! It’s about enhancing the quality of your academic writing. ChatGPT serves as a helpful tool that can elevate the overall structure of your research paper. Nevertheless, the final outline should reflect your work and understanding.

Prepare the Draft

With a well-structured outline, the next step is writing the draft of your research paper. This phase involves expanding your outline into a full-fledged paper, where you develop your central argument, critically evaluate sources, and address your own research question. ChatGPT can be a valuable ally at this stage!

Revise and Refine

Finally, you completed your initial draft. But it is not the end. The revision process begins. This phase is crucial for ensuring your research paper is coherent, properly cited, and adheres to academic standards.

• Reviewing your draft for clarity and coherence is the first revision step. Each section of your paper should flow logically, supporting your argument and research questions. As you read through your draft, identify areas where the text may be unclear or needs improvement. You can also ask ChatGPT to rephrase/restructure sentences to enhance readability and present your points clearly.
• Adhering to APA guidelines for research paper is essential for maintaining academic credibility. Ensure all citations are properly formatted according to APA standards during revision. This includes double-checking that any generated text is appropriately cited and integrated into your work.
• Ensure your methodology is clearly explained and your analysis is thorough. ChatGPT can assist in refining these sections by suggesting ways to clarify your data collection process or by helping you better articulate your findings.
• Proper citation is a cornerstone of academic values. During the revision process, carefully review all references and in-text citations to ensure they are accurate and complete. If you used AI-generated text in your draft, be mindful of how you integrate it into your paper and double-check the original sources.

As you near the end of the revision process, focus on polishing your draft to ensure it meets the highest standards of academic writing. This includes:

• Checking for grammar and spelling errors.
• Refining sentence structure.
• Ensuring that the paper adheres to all required guidelines.
• Reviewing your paper’s overall length is also helpful to ensure it aligns with the expected pages long, as specified by your assignment or publication guidelines.

Ethical Considerations and Academic Honesty

When using ChatGPT to help write your paper, it’s important to keep things honest. Plagiarism isn’t just a bad thing! It is a serious breach of scientific integrity. Therefore, your main goal should be to write a paper without plagiarism !

Even if ChatGPT outputs some great content, blend it with your ideas and give credit where it’s due. Think of ChatGPT as your research assistant, not the author of your paper. Always include only double-checked facts and rely on primary sources! You’ll maintain the originality and strength of your work and prevent plagiarism by doing this!

Putting the Paper in Final Form

Finalizing your research paper is the last but certainly not least step. At this stage, conducting a comprehensive review of the entire document is important to ensure that every detail aligns with your research objectives. ChatGPT-generated content can significantly enhance your work. Still, the author acknowledges the importance of critically evaluating and refining this content.

You should carefully verify the accuracy of any data or claims presented. Use your knowledge base to cross-check facts and ensure your research is well-supported. This is also the time to ensure that all citations are correctly formatted and that the paper adheres to any required guidelines, such as APA. Remember to include real-world examples. It can provide accurate context and strengthen your arguments, making your research more compelling.

Final Words

We hope now it is clearer how important it is to know how ChatGPT works. ChatGPT is a nice assistant when creating a research paper. This cooperation can be revolutionary. Nevertheless, it’s crucial to keep in mind that it’s only one step in the process!

The real magic happens when human authors take the lead and contribute their ideas, creativity, and critical thinking to the process. Even though you may have asked ChatGPT for assistance, ChatGPT can assist you with idea generation, cognitive organization, and text polishing. Yet, the finished work should always showcase your style and area of expertise.

Remember, you can write a research paper that really stands out! Especially when you combine the greatest aspects of both worlds — human creativity and AI support!

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Critical Writing Program: Craft of Prose - Fall 2024: Researching the White Paper

• Getting started
• News and Opinion Sites
• Academic Sources
• Grey Literature
• Substantive News Sources
• What to Do When You Are Stuck
• Understanding a citation
• Examples of Quotation
• Examples of Paraphrase
• Chicago Manual of Style: Citing Images
• Researching the Op-Ed
• Researching Prospective Employers
• Resume Resources
• Cover Letter Resources
• Resources/Databases
• Research Skills for Undergradutes Flyer
• Know your AI Tools

Research the White Paper

Researching the White Paper:

The process of researching and composing a white paper shares some similarities with the kind of research and writing one does for a high school or college research paper. What’s important for writers of white papers to grasp, however, is how much this genre differs from a research paper.  First, the author of a white paper already recognizes that there is a problem to be solved, a decision to be made, and the job of the author is to provide readers with substantive information to help them make some kind of decision--which may include a decision to do more research because major gaps remain. 

Thus, a white paper author would not “brainstorm” a topic. Instead, the white paper author would get busy figuring out how the problem is defined by those who are experiencing it as a problem. Typically that research begins in popular culture--social media, surveys, interviews, newspapers. Once the author has a handle on how the problem is being defined and experienced, its history and its impact, what people in the trenches believe might be the best or worst ways of addressing it, the author then will turn to academic scholarship as well as “grey” literature (more about that later).  Unlike a school research paper, the author does not set out to argue for or against a particular position, and then devote the majority of effort to finding sources to support the selected position.  Instead, the author sets out in good faith to do as much fact-finding as possible, and thus research is likely to present multiple, conflicting, and overlapping perspectives. When people research out of a genuine desire to understand and solve a problem, they listen to every source that may offer helpful information. They will thus have to do much more analysis, synthesis, and sorting of that information, which will often not fall neatly into a “pro” or “con” camp:  Solution A may, for example, solve one part of the problem but exacerbate another part of the problem. Solution C may sound like what everyone wants, but what if it’s built on a set of data that have been criticized by another reliable source?  And so it goes. 

For example, if you are trying to write a white paper on the opioid crisis, you may focus on the value of  providing free, sterilized needles--which do indeed reduce disease, and also provide an opportunity for the health care provider distributing them to offer addiction treatment to the user. However, the free needles are sometimes discarded on the ground, posing a danger to others; or they may be shared; or they may encourage more drug usage. All of those things can be true at once; a reader will want to know about all of these considerations in order to make an informed decision. That is the challenging job of the white paper author.     
 The research you do for your white paper will require that you identify a specific problem, seek popular culture sources to help define the problem, its history, its significance and impact for people affected by it.  You will then delve into academic and grey literature to learn about the way scholars and others with professional expertise answer these same questions. In this way, you will create creating a layered, complex portrait that provides readers with a substantive exploration useful for deliberating and decision-making. You will also likely need to find or create images, including tables, figures, illustrations or photographs, and you will document all of your sources. 

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Home > Blog > Best AI Tool for Research Papers: Top 7 Options

Best AI Tool for Research Papers: Top 7 Options

• Smodin Editorial Team
• Updated: September 24, 2024
• All About Content and Writing

Are you looking for the best AI tool for research papers to get work done faster and to higher accuracy levels? It’s impressive how far AI tools have come in a short period of time, and keeping up can be tricky. Fortunately, we have summarized the best tools in this article for your convenience

Furthermore, we’ll share the top benefits of advanced AI models for research processes. This ensures you can better understand the value for money of these tools. Also, we provide noteworthy points to consider when selecting the right AI service for your specific needs.

Keep reading to discover how you can produce high-quality academic papers with the help of AI-powered tools.

5 Advantages of Using AI Tools for Research Papers

Let’s start by taking a look at some of the top benefits of using AI tools in academic writing. This allows you to better understand the value of artificial intelligence in scientific research papers. Overall, it’s an investment that can dramatically improve the way you approach research on a daily basis.

Continue reading for the top reasons to add AI tools to your next research paper project.

1. Enhanced Data Collection and Analysis

AI tools streamline the process of gathering and analyzing data for research papers. They can swiftly sift through vast amounts of information to identify relevant studies, data points, and trends. It’s easy for humans to miss some of these data points or make the right connections.

Additionally, these tools enable advanced data analysis, depending on the specific one that you choose. You can potentially receive help through predictive analytics, pattern recognition, and natural language processing.

This efficiency allows researchers to focus more on interpretation and synthesis rather than data collection. Also, the ability to automate repetitive tasks enhances the accuracy and comprehensiveness of scientific writing.

2. Improved Literature Review Efficiency

AI tools significantly improve the efficiency of conducting literature reviews, which is a critical component of research papers. Therefore, you can leverage machine learning algorithms to rapidly scan and categorize thousands of academic articles, books, and other sources. The idea is to identify key themes and gaps in the existing literature.

In addition, an AI-powered writing assistant can highlight relevant citations and suggest related works. This impressive level of automation saves time and reduces the risk of overlooking important studies. Therefore, you can concentrate on writing better sentences instead of spending multiple hours scanning other research papers.

3. Automated Citation and Plagiarism Checking

AI-powered tools provide robust automated citation and plagiarism checking to ensure the academic integrity of research papers. These tools can accurately generate citations in various formats and cross-check references against extensive databases to prevent errors.

They also scan the content for potential plagiarism by comparing the text with billions of documents online. This process helps researchers maintain ethical standards by avoiding unintentional plagiarism and ensuring proper attribution of ideas.

4. Streamlined Writing and Editing Assistance

You can streamline writing and editing processes in research papers with advanced grammar checking, style suggestions, and content enhancement. Furthermore, the AI tools can detect and correct errors, suggest improvements in clarity and coherence, and even generate text based on prompts or outlines.

Are you having trouble coming up with a good research paper structure? Then you’ll love the help that AI-powered tools can provide. They can support a consistent academic tone and structure, which makes the paper more readable and professional.

Furthermore, AI-driven editing tools provide feedback on the logical flow of arguments and the strength of evidence. Ultimately, this ensures that the research paper is well-organized and persuasive.

5. Precision in Data Interpretation

You can take advantage of AI tools for research papers to enhance precision in data interpretation by utilizing advanced algorithms. They can detect subtle patterns and correlations in complex datasets. Something that most humans might miss in comparison.

This feature is especially valuable in fields requiring nuanced analysis, such as genomics, economics, or social sciences. Furthermore, an AI research assistant can process and interpret data at a granular level. This leads to more accurate conclusions and helps formulate hypotheses or identify trends that might otherwise be overlooked.

Best AI Tool for Research Papers: How To Choose One

Choosing the best AI tool for writing research papers is an exciting process with so many excellent options available. However, before you spend countless hours searching through numerous websites, consider the following noteworthy factors:

• Test for ease of use: Choose an AI tool with a user-friendly interface and straightforward functionality. That’s because a tool that is easy to navigate and learn will reduce the time spent on training and allow you to focus more on your research.
• Check for user support and resources: Look for an AI-powered research tool that offers robust user support. Ideally, this will include tutorials, customer service, and community forums. Furthermore, adequate support ensures you can quickly resolve issues and fully utilize the tool’s capabilities.
• Consider cost and value: Balance the cost of the AI tool with the value it offers. That’s because while some tools might be expensive, they could provide significant time savings or enhanced research capabilities. Furthermore, consider whether the tool’s features justify the price and if it fits within your budget.
• Evaluate accuracy and reliability: Choose an AI tool known for its accuracy and reliability, such as Smodin AI’s Research Paper Generator . Additionally, research user reviews, expert evaluations, and case studies to understand its performance in real-world scenarios.
• Define your search needs: Identify the specific tasks you need assistance with, such as data analysis, literature review, writing, or citation management. Different AI tools specialize in various aspects of the research process.

Top AI Tools for Research Papers: 7 Noteworthy Options

Now let’s turn our attention toward the industry-leading AI tools that are ideal for working on research papers. These tools are packed with helpful features and offer high accuracy levels. However, it’s important to compare them to get a feel of what’s available.

Keep reading for the top AI tool you can try today.

1. Smodin AI

Smodin AI is an AI-powered writing assistant designed to help users draft, edit, and enhance research papers. It offers features such as text generation based on prompts, rephrasing, and grammar checking. Overall, it is useful for both novice and experienced researchers.

The tool aims to simplify the writing process by providing suggestions for content structure, improving readability, and ensuring proper grammar and style. This is ideal if you want to concentrate on academic research and finding relevant articles for citation instead of worrying about the small details.

Additionally, Smodin AI supports multiple languages, which makes it accessible to a global audience. Therefore, academic professionals can use Smodin AI to bridge the gap with colleagues across the world.

2. Grammarly

Grammarly is a widely used AI tool that enhances writing quality by providing advanced grammar, spelling, and style suggestions. It’s been one of the top tools for multiple years and has built a strong reputation over that time.

Furthermore, it helps researchers ensure clarity, coherence, and proper academic tone in their papers. As a side note, Grammarly also offers plagiarism detection and citation suggestions. This makes it a comprehensive tool for maintaining academic integrity.

Also, its user-friendly interface integrates seamlessly with various writing platforms, which include Microsoft Word and Google Docs. Hence, you can engage in real-time editing for your work.

Finally, Grammarly’s premium version offers more in-depth feedback, such as suggestions for improving sentence structure and vocabulary.

3. QuillBot

QuillBot is an AI-powered paraphrasing tool designed to help researchers rewrite and enhance their text. It offers multiple writing modes, such as standard, fluency, and formal. This means that you can adjust the tone and style of your writing to suit academic standards.

Furthermore, QuillBot can also assist with summarization, grammar checking, and citation generation. Each of these is important for scientific writing, and your ability to analyze citations will improve.

Do you find it hard to write clearly in your research papers? Fortunately, this AI-powered tool is useful for refining complex ideas, avoiding repetition, and ensuring that research papers are clear and concise. Also, its integration with Google Docs and Microsoft Word makes it easy to use alongside other writing tools.

Scribbr is a comprehensive academic writing tool that focuses on plagiarism detection, proofreading, and citation generation. It also uses advanced algorithms to compare research papers against a vast database of academic works to ensure originality and prevent plagiarism.

The comprehensive AI tool also provides personalized feedback from professional editors to help researchers improve the clarity, structure, and coherence of their papers.

Don’t forget to try out the citation generator for referencing styles. Some of the top options include APA , MLA, and Chicago to facilitate accuracy and consistent citations. Finally, Scribbr’s combination of AI and human expertise makes it a reliable tool for producing high-quality research papers.

Zotero is an AI-driven reference management tool that helps researchers organize and manage their sources effectively. For example, you can collect, cite, and share research materials. This streamlines the process of creating bibliographies and in-text citations.

Furthermore, Zotero integrates with word processors like Microsoft Word and Google Docs to automatically generate citations in various formats. This provides a browser extension for easy capture of online resources.

Finally, the tool offers an AI-powered search engine so researchers can quickly find relevant sources. You’ll love using this tool since it saves a lot of time and offers excellent accuracy levels.

6. Turnitin

Turnitin is an AI-based plagiarism detection tool widely used in academic institutions. It scans research papers against a vast database of academic publications, student papers, and online content to identify potential plagiarism.

Furthermore, the toolkit provides detailed reports by highlighting matched text and offers suggestions for proper citation. Hence, this tool is essential for maintaining academic integrity and ensuring the originality of research papers.

Do you want to write higher-quality research papers? Then you’ll enjoy the feature that offers a writing feedback service. It helps researchers improve the quality of their work by providing suggestions on grammar, style, and content structure.

7. Scrivener

Scrivener is a powerful AI-driven writing tool that is ideal for managing large research projects and writing research papers. It offers a flexible and organized writing environment, thereby allowing researchers to break down their work into manageable sections.

The AI features include project templates, keyword tagging, and a corkboard view for visual organization. Furthermore, you” find support for multiple file formats and integration with citation management tools.

Therefore, Scrivener is especially beneficial for complex research projects since it enables researchers to keep track of their sources, notes, and drafts in one place.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are ai tools for research papers.

AI tools for research papers are software applications that use artificial intelligence to assist in various aspects of the research process. These tools can help with tasks such as data analysis, literature review, writing, editing, citation management, and plagiarism detection.

Furthermore, they are designed to enhance the efficiency, accuracy, and quality of academic writing. They are an excellent way for overwhelmed researchers to get ahead by automating mundane tasks.

Are AI tools reliable for checking plagiarism?

Yes, many AI tools are highly reliable for checking plagiarism. They can compare your text against vast databases of academic works, online content, and other student papers to identify potential matches.

Additionally, these tools can provide detailed reports highlighting duplicated content and offering suggestions for proper citation. This helps to ensure the originality and integrity of your research paper.

Do AI tools work well for non-native English speakers?

Yes, AI tools can be particularly helpful for non-native English speakers if they have a multi-lingual approach like Smodin AI. They can offer grammar and style corrections, suggest alternative phrases, and help ensure that the writing is free of common language errors. Some tools also provide translation support or multilingual capabilities, which makes them accessible to a broader audience.

How do AI tools assist with literature reviews?

AI tools assist with literature reviews by quickly scanning and categorizing large volumes of academic articles, books, and other sources. In comparison, it would take a human countless hours to perform the same task.

Furthermore, they can identify key themes, relevant studies, and gaps in the existing literature. This helps researchers build a comprehensive review. Finally, some tools suggest related works and generate summaries to make the literature review process more efficient.

How secure are AI tools when handling research data?

Most reputable AI tools prioritize data security and confidentiality by using encryption and other security measures to protect your research data. However, it’s important to review the privacy policies and security features of any tool you use. This gives you confidence that your data is handled securely when it involves sensitive or unpublished research.

Write Your Research Paper With Smodin AI

Several amazing research tools with strong AI capabilities are available for researchers. However, it’s important to choose the tool that offers the most help for your use case.

Therefore, you need to consider the top practices for choosing the best AI tool for research papers. For example, you need to pay attention to the pricing and specific features to find the right balance. Ideally, you will get value for money and a helping hand with your research documents.

Do you not have time to compare every AI tool in this article? Then consider choosing Smodin AI for a top-tier option. It offers a wide range of tools for researchers that will make it easier for you to compile a top research paper. Get Smodin.io now and create a research paper that will impress your professors!

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National Argumentative Essay Writing Competition for Young Scholars

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Topic: Simultaneous Elections in India: One Nation, One Election

The Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) is committed to promoting social science research in the country. The research schemes and initiatives of the ICSSR have played a key role in enlarging the country’s social science research base.

The National Education Policy 2020 asserts that nurturing a culture of outstanding research is fundamental to the development of a robust education system in the country. The policy envisions overhauling the higher education system by bringing in frameworks to “actively seed research in universities and colleges”. The ICSSR, in its consistent efforts to develop and re-energize the higher education system in the country, aims to inspire critical thinking, methodological and composition skills among young scholars and students.

In consideration of that the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) invites entries for the National Argumentative Essay Writing Competition for Young Scholars on “Simultaneous Elections in India: One Nation, One Election” in three categories:

1. Undergraduate Student

2. Postgraduate Student

3. PhD Scholar

The competition serves as a capacity-building measure for the development of the process of doing research among young scholars and future researchers. It institutionalizes research skills and strengthens their aptitude in undertaking high- quality research. It also seeks to promote social science research and its utilization in the country.

Important Dates

Opening date:  24 September 2024

Closing date:  8 October 2024

Evaluation by the 3rd/4th Week of October 2024 Result by the 4th Week of October 2024

Entries must be submitted via the online entry form only.

No entries will be considered if submitted after this date.

Prizes for Each Category

First prize - Rs 15, 000

Second prize - Rs 10, 000

Third prize - Rs 7, 500

The top 50 entries from each of the categories will be compiled in a book format and published by the ICSSR.

Eligibility and Entry Rules

Please read the eligibility and entry rules before making the submission.

1. The participant must be a full-time bona fide student at the affiliating university/ institution on the day of submission. 2. The affiliating institution in which the participant is enrolled must be an Institute of National Importance as defined by the Ministry of Education (MoE) or a UGC Recognized Indian University/Deemed University/Institution/College under (2) F / 12(B). 3. Entries for argumentative essays will be accepted in Hindi or English  with a 1,500- word limit. 4. Submissions will undergo three stages of blind evaluation. 5. Participants must not mention their names on the write-up or in the file. Any revelation of participants’ identity will warrant disqualification. 6. Entries must be submitted in PDF formats. Please use MLA 9 formatting, standard margins, 12-point font, and double spacing. 7. The entry must be an original work of the author and should not have been published in part or full anywhere. In case, any use of AI, ChatGPT, or plagiarised material is found, the entry will be summarily disqualified. 8. Only one entry per participant may be submitted for the National Essay Writing Competition. Co-authored entries will not be allowed. 9. The deadline for submission is 8 October 2024. 10. No queries regarding the prizes will be entertained by the ICSSR secretariat until the final declaration of results, which will be placed on the ICSSR website. 11. The final authority for the interpretation of the guidelines or any such issue is vested with the ICSSR.

Submission of Entry

Online form is available at https://aap.icssr.org/   [Form given under Grant category]