neutralization reaction lab experiment

Study of Neutralisation Reaction

To study the reactions of hydrochloric acid sodium hydroxide.

The aim of this experiment is to study the acid-base reaction between HCl and NaOH.This reaction is also called neutralization reaction.

A reaction in which two substances, such as acid and base, combine to form salt and water. 

                             HCl + NaOH ? NaCl + H 2 O

The reaction is called so because the acid and base react to neutralize each other’s effect. The salt formed in the reaction is neither acidic nor basic in nature and remains neutral to the litmus paper. The neutralization reaction is exothermic because heat evolves during this process.

To perform this experiment, apparatus and materials are required: Dilute hydrochloric acid, 10% sodium hydroxide solution, red litmus paper, blue litmus paper, and beakers.

The following procedure is required to perform this experiment.

• Test the nature of HCl and sodium hydroxide by using red and blue litmus paper. Record your observations. 
• Take about 5 mL of 10% HCl in a beaker and label it as A. 
• Similarly, take 5 mL of 10% sodium hydroxide solution in another beaker and label it as B.
• Add dilute HCl from beaker A drop-wise to dilute the NaOH contained in beaker B. 
• Keep on adding the dilute HCl from beaker A to 10% NaOH in beaker B dropwise until the reaction mixture in beaker B becomes neutral to the litmus paper. Test the nature of this mixture by successively dipping red and blue litmus papers.
• Touch the beaker and feel the temperature of the beaker. 

In this experiment, we study acids and bases that react to neutralize each other’s effects. The reaction between an acid and a base leads to the formation of salt and water. This reaction is known as neutralisation. Dilute HCl reacts with dilute NaOH to form NaCl and H2O. Heat evolves during the reaction. Hence, the neutralisation reactions are exothermic.

FAQs on Neutralisation Reaction

Q.1: what is the neutralization reaction.

Answer: A neutralization reaction is when an acid and a base react to form water and salt. This reaction involves the combination of H+ ions and OH- ions to generate water.

Q.2: Give balanced chemical reactions that involve neutralization reactions.

Answer: HNO 3 (aq) + Ba(OH) 2 (aq) ? H 2 O(l) + Ba(NO 3 ) 2 (aq) Explanation: Here, HNO3 acts as an acid, and Ba(OH) 2 is a base.

Q3: HNO 3 (aq) + KOH(aq) ? H 2 O(l) + KNO 3 (aq)

The above reaction is an example of a………… 1. Decomposition reaction 2. Neutralization reaction 3. Precipitation reaction Answer: Neutralization reaction. In the given reaction, HNO 3 acts as an acid and Ba(OH) 2 is a base. They undergo neutralization to give salt and water.

Q.4: What is a balanced chemical equation?

Answer: A balanced equation is an equation for a chemical reaction in which the number of atoms for each element in the reaction and the total charge are the same for both the reactants and the products.

Q.5: What is the correct balanced equation for the following reaction?

BaCl 2 + Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ? AlCl 3 + BaSO 4 Answer: Balanced chemical equation is 3BaCl 2 + Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ? 2AlCl 3 + 3BaSO 4

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Neutralization reactions.

Experiment #6 from Physical Science with Vernier

Introduction

If an acid is added to a base, a chemical reaction called neutralization occurs. An example is the reaction between nitric acid, HNO 3 , and the base potassium hydroxide, KOH.

Neutralization produces a salt and water. KNO 3 is the salt in the above reaction. Heat energy is generally released, and the amount of heat released depends upon the properties of the acid and the base. Temperature measurements, made with a Temperature Probe, can be used to study the heat effects of neutralization.

In this experiment, you will

• Use conductivity to determine the strengths of acids and bases.
• Use litmus paper to distinguish acids and bases.
• Measure temperatures of reactants and products of neutralization reactions.
• Study the relationship between acid and base strength and heat released during neutralization.

Sensors and Equipment

This experiment features the following sensors and equipment. Additional equipment may be required.

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This experiment is #6 of Physical Science with Vernier . The experiment in the book includes student instructions as well as instructor information for set up, helpful hints, and sample graphs and data.

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Neutralization Experiment

Credit: Resa Kelly, Jake Brunmeier, Mina Evans

This video demonstrates the change in pH during a neutralization reaction.

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Neutralization Reaction

Chemistry Practicals Class 10

• Teach science experiments in a gamified way
• Boost conceptual clarity and knowledge retention
• Aligned with National Education Policy 2020
• Helpful in getting NAAC accreditation
• CBSE, ICSE, and state boards aligned curricula
• Engaging simulations with easy-to-teach instructions

About Simulation

• You will have access to a virtual laboratory setting through the simulation for the neutralization reaction between hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
• Through this simulation, you can deepen your understanding of the concept of neutralization reactions involving acids and bases in chemistry.
• By engaging with the simulation, you can observe firsthand and analyze the interaction between acids and bases during the neutralization process, enhancing your comprehension of chemical reactions.
• You can explore the progression of the neutralization reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide within the simulation, providing insights into the balance of ions and the formation of water and salt.

• Through this virtual science experiment, you will gain valuable knowledge about the principles underlying neutralization reactions, which are fundamental in understanding acid-base chemistry and its applications.

Simulation Details

Description

Neutralization Reaction:

The reaction between an acid and a base to give salt and water is known as a neutralization reaction. In general, a neutralization reaction can be written as –

Components Involved:

• Acid: Acids are substances that release hydrogen ions (H + ) in aqueous solutions. Common examples include hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ), and citric acid found in citrus fruits.
• Base: Bases are substances that release hydroxide ions (OH – ) in aqueous solutions. Examples include sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2 ).

Acid-Base Neutralization Reaction:

• In the neutralization reaction between HCl and NaOH, hydrogen ions (H + ) from the acid combine with hydroxide ions (OH – ) from the base.

Watch this video to learn more about chemistry.

Requirements for this Science Experiment

• Hydrochloric acid
• Sodium hydroxide solution
• Test tube stand
• Phenolphthalein indicator

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• Chemical Reactions and Equations

Neutralization Reaction

What is a neutralization reaction.

A neutralization reaction can be defined as a chemical reaction in which an acid and base quantitatively react together to form a salt and water as products.

In a neutralization reaction, there is a combination of H + ions and OH – ions which form water. A neutralisation reaction is generally an acid-base neutralization reaction.

Table of Contents

Relation between the strength of reactants and resultant ph.

Neutralization Reaction Equation

• Application
• Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Neutralization Reaction – Acid-Base Reaction to form Salt and Water

Depending upon the strength of the constituent acids and bases the pH of the products varies.

acid + base(alkali) → salt + water

Neutralization Reaction Examples

• Formation of Sodium Chloride (Common Salt): HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H 2 O
• Titration methods using phenolphthalein.

Application of Neutralization Reaction

1. titration methods:.

The method of chemical titration is employed to find unknown concentrations of acids or bases by finding their neutralization point. To find the point where the neutralization happens, we use a pH indicator or pH meter. With the help of simple stoichiometric calculations and knowledge of the volume and molarity of the known quantity, the molarity of the unknown particle can be found out.

2. Wastewater treatment:

Most of the waste that comes in the form of industrial effluents have their fair share of toxicity which will be harmful to our environment. Thus, we need to neutralize their toxicity before they can be thrown out. Based on the application, different chemicals are used. Some common examples are Sodium Bicarbonate , Magnesium Hydroxide, Calcium Oxide, Calcium Carbonate.

3. Nanomaterial synthesis:

To facilitate the chemical reduction of metal precursors, the heat of a neutralization reaction is used.

4. In our digestive systems:

When food is moved between our stomach and intestines, the food needs to be neutralized. But for nutrients to be absorbed through the intestine walls an alkaline environment is required. Antacid bicarbonate is produced to create this favourable condition.

5. Controlling soil pH:

For optimal plant growth in any soil, there are certain conditions which are required. Some examples of materials mixed in the soil to neutralize it from acidity are:

• Calcium Carbonate (Limestone)
• Calcium Hydroxide(Slaked lime)

Recommended Video

Neutralisation reactions.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What is one example of a neutralization reaction.

A neutral ionic compound is a salt. Let’s see how both water and salt are created by a neutralisation reaction, using the reaction between hydrochloric acid solutions and sodium hydroxide as an example.

What is the general end product of a neutralization reaction?

Net neutralization reactions of ionic equations include solid bases, solid salts, water, and solid acids. The reaction between an acid and a base that forms water and salt is neutralisation. Solid acids, solid bases, solid salts, and water can provide net ionic equations for neutralisation reactions.

What is the use of neutralization?

For the neutralisation of acidic soils, farmers use lime (calcium oxide). There is hydrochloric acid in the gut, and so much of this induces indigestion. To neutralise the excess acid, antacid tablets contain bases such as magnesium hydroxide and magnesium carbonate.

In what way you can neutralize an acid?

A weak base is used to neutralise acids. Bases have a flavour that is bitter or astringent and have a pH greater than 7. Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide are widely used.

What is the neutralization reaction used in daily life?

To treat wasp stings that are alkaline in nature, vinegar is used. To treat bee stings and ant bites that are acidic in nature, baking powder is used. Toothpaste contains bases that neutralise the acid that our mouth creates from bacteria. To make the cakes grow, baking powder is typically used.

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Neutralization Reaction – Definition and Products

A neutralization reaction is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base that forms a salt and water as products. In other words, the reaction neutralizes the acid and base. A neutralization reaction is a type of double replacement reaction in which the reactants are an acid and a base.

The acid releases a hydrogen ion in water, while the base releases a hydroxide. The hydrogen and hydroxide combine and form water, while the anion from the acid and cation from the base form an ionic compound that is a salt. Neutralization only occurs if both the acid and the base are at least partially soluble in water. The salt that is a product of the reaction may be soluble or form a precipitate .

If a strong acid and strong base completely react, the result is an aqueous solution with neutral pH (pH ~7.0). However, many neutralization reactions result in solutions with lower or higher pH values.

Acid-Base Neutralization Reaction

In general, a neutralization reaction is a type of double replacement reaction between an acid and a base (alkali). The general form of the reaction is an acid and a base react and form a salt and water:

acid + base → salt and water

For example:

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H 2 O

Alternatively, you can write the reaction as an ionic equation :

H + (aq) + Cl – (aq) + Na + ( aq) + OH – (aq) → Na + (aq) + Cl – (aq) + H 2 O(l)

Cancelling out the spectator ions , the net ionic equation is:

H + (aq) + OH – (aq) → H 2 O(l)

Note the reaction arrow points to the right, indicating the reaction only proceeds in the forward direction.

The general form of the reaction based on the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory is:

AH + B → A + BH

Strong Acid – Strong Base Neutralization

Strong acids and strong bases fully dissociate in water and react, forming a neutral salt in a neutral aqueous solution. The final pH value is approximately 7, although it can be slightly higher or lower, depending on temperature.

Here are the most common strong acids and bases. When they react with each other, expect a final pH value of 7. Reacting most other acids and bases yields a pH other than 7.

Sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) behaves a differently from other strong acids because it has two hydrogen atoms. While sulfuric acid does fully dissociate, it does so in a step-wise manner.

Weak Acid – Weak Base Neutralization

Weak acids and weak bases do not fully dissociate in water. Instead, an equilibrium mixture forms, containing the weak acid and its conjugate base and/or the weak base and its conjugate acid.

AH + B ⇌ A −  + BH +

The two species do not completely neutralize one another. The pH value of a neutralization reaction between a weak acid and weak base depends on the strength of the weak acid and base. The pH is 7 only if Ka = Kb. If the weak base is stronger (Kb > Ka), the final solution is alkaline (pH > 7). The the weak acid is stronger (Ka > Kb), the final solution is acidic (pH < 7).

Weak Acids and Strong Bases

The final pH of a neutralization reaction between a weak acid and a strong base depends on the strength of the weak acid.

AH + H 2 O ⇌ H 3 O +  + A −

Strong Acids and Weak Bases

The final pH of a neutralization reaction between a strong acid and a weak base depends on the acid dissociation constant of the base, pKa.

H 3 O +  + B ⇌ H 2 O + BH +

Predicting pH Values

The pH of a neutralization reaction depends on the characteristics of the reactants:

The reason the pH is low reacting a strong acid with a weak base and high reacting a weak acid with a strong base is not because of the strong acid or strong base. Instead, it is because the resulting salt affects the pH. The conjugate base of a weak acid makes the solution alkaline. The conjugate acid of a weak base makes the solution acidic.

How to Predict the Products of Neutralization

Two common questions students get asked about neutralization reactions are predicting the products of the reaction and whether the final pH is acidic, alkaline, or neutral.

• Identify the reactants. Is the reaction between a strong acid and strong base or is there a weak acid or weak base? A strong acid-strong base reaction forms a salt and water and the pH is 7. If a weak acid or weak base is present, the pH depends on whether the acid or the base is stronger.
• Dissociate the acid and base into their ions. The salt is the cation from the base with the anion from the acid. The other product is water.

For example, identify the products of the reaction between hydrochloric acid (HCl) and aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH) 3 ] and whether the final pH is acidic, neutral, or alkaline.

You know from either a chart or else memorization that hydrochloric acid is a strong acid and aluminum hydroxide is not a strong base (so it must be a weak base). The pH of the reaction between a strong acid and a weak base is less than 7, so the pH is acidic.

Hydrochloric acid dissociates into H + and Cl – , while aluminum hydroxide dissociates into Al 3+ and 3 OH – . The salt combines the cation from the base (Al 3+ ) with the anion from the acid (Cl – ), forming AlCl 3 .

Balance the equation assuming the number of moles of acid (H + ) equals the number of moles of base (OH – ):

3HCl + Al(OH) 3 → AlCl 3 + H 2 O

Examples of Neutralization Reactions in Everyday Life

Neutralizations reactions are common in everyday life.

• Antacid tables contain a weak base (such as sodium bicarbonate) that neutralizes excess gastric acid (HCl) in the stomach.
• The human digestive system also neutralizes stomach acid. The pancreas produces a bicarbonate antacid that allows nutrient absorption in the intestines.
• Weak bases, such as sodium bicarbonate, safely neutralize acid spills and burns.
• Toothpaste contains a weak base that neutralizes acids released by bacteria in the mouth.
• Calcium hydroxide or limestone (calcium carbonate) are soil treatments that raise pH and aid plant growth.
• Fertilizer production involves neutralizing either nitric acid or sulfuric acid with ammonia, forming ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulfate.
• Scrubbers neutralize acids formed from coal combustion.
• A titration is a neutralization reaction that identifies the concentration of an unknown solution.
• Trummal, Aleksander; Lipping, Lauri; Kaljurand, Ivari; Koppel, Ilmar A.; Leito, Ivo (2016). “Acidity of Strong Acids in Water and Dimethyl Sulfoxide”. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A . 120 (20): 3663–3669. doi: 10.1021/acs.jpca.6b02253
• Skoog, D.A; West, D.M.; Holler, J.F.; Crouch, S.R. (2004). Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry (8th ed.). Thomson Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-03-035523-0.
• Snoeyink, V.L.; Jenkins, D. (1980). Aquatic Chemistry: Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters . New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-51185-4.
• Zumdahl, Steven S. (2009). Chemical Principles (6th ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

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Practical videos | 14–16 years

• 1 Access free videos to support your teaching
• 2 Paper chromatography
• 3 Rates of reaction
• 4 Simple distillation
• 5 Enthalpy change of combustion
• 6 Conservation of mass
• 7 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
• 8 Halogen displacement reactions
• 9 Identifying ions
• 10 Preparing a soluble salt
• 11 Reactivity series of metals
• 12 Simple titration
• 13 Temperature change (neutralisation)
• 14 Potable water

Temperature change (neutralisation)

2020-07-07T11:40:00+01:00

• Four out of five

 The temperature profile of this exothermic reaction can be used to identify the end point

In this video from Malmesbury Education  Mr Mitchell shows you how to measure the temperature change of an exothermic reaction.

The video explains that at the end of the reaction you should start to see the temperature level off or decrease. Below are some typical results for this practical from the AQA Required Practical Handbook . Students should be able to calculate the mean maximum temperature to complete the table.

These results can be used to identify the volume of sodium hydroxide that was needed to neutralise the hydrochloric acid. Students should be guided towards drawing two lines of best fit which intersect to give the end point of the reaction and can be used to find the volume of sodium hydroxide.

Sketch graph to show shape of results. For this practical the value on x-axis would be ‘volume of sodium hydroxide added in cm 3 ’

Also check out

• Monitoring reactions  – this article provides an overview of related key concepts in the curriculum, with ideas, questions and links to more resources.
• Acids and bases: creating solutions  – an article addressing common misconceptions and students’ difficulties surrounding this topic.
• A hot dinner from a can  – challenge students to produce a design and create a proto-type of a self-heating can of food.

Additional information

We have collated these videos of key practical experiments to support remote teaching as part of our response to Covid-19. Teachers requested resources to help them deliver practical content without access to laboratories or equipment. We are developing further resources and welcome feedback to help us produce those you most need. Please email us or use the comment section below.

Access free videos to support your teaching

Paper chromatography

Rates of reaction

Simple distillation

Enthalpy change of combustion

Conservation of mass

Electrolysis of aqueous solutions

Halogen displacement reactions

Identifying ions

Preparing a soluble salt

Reactivity series of metals

Simple titration

Potable water

Specification.

• 9. Consider chemical reactions in terms of energy, using the terms exothermic, endothermic and activation energy, and use simple energy profile diagrams to illustrate energy changes.
• Acids, bases and salts. Neutralisation - formation of a salt from an acid and a base.
• Chemical reactions can result in a change in temperature. Exothermic and endothermic reactions (and changes of state).
• Demonstration of an exothermic and endothermic reaction
• Mandatory experiment 5.1 - Determination of the heat of reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide.
• A reaction or process that releases heat energy is described as exothermic.
• 5.4 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND ENERGY
• 2.4 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND ENERGY
• use appropriate apparatus to record a range of measurements (to include mass, time, volume of liquids and gases, temperature)
• use laboratory apparatus for a variety of experimental techniques including: titration, using burette and pipette
• 1.8.11 investigate the temperature change during neutralisation and demonstrate understanding that neutralisation reactions are exothermic (heat is given out);
• Prescribed Practical C2: investigate the reactions of acids, including temperature changes that occur;
• Use of: thermometer or sensor (temperature).
• record detailed observations or numerical data (where appropriate) during chemical reactions, including discrete or continuous variables;
• plot data points accurately and draw the appropriate straight line or curve;
• 1.8.10 investigate the temperature change during neutralisation and demonstrate understanding that neutralisation reactions are exothermic (heat is given out);
• Prescribed Practical C1: investigate the reactions of acids, including temperature changes that occur;
• C3.2a distinguish between endothermic and exothermic reactions on the basis of the temperature change of the surroundings
• Making and recording of appropriate observations during chemical reactions including changes in temperature and the measurement of rates of reaction by a variety of methods such as production of gas and colour change
• 7.9 Recall that changes in heat energy accompany the following changes: salts dissolving in water, neutralisation reactions, displacement reactions, precipitation reactions, and that, when these reactions take place in solution, temperature changes can…
• 7.10 Describe an exothermic change or reaction as one in which heat energy is given out
• 1 Use of appropriate apparatus to make and record a range of measurements accurately, including mass, time, temperature, and volume of liquids and gases
• 5 Making and recording of appropriate observations during chemical reactions including changes in temperature and the measurement of rates of reaction by a variety of methods such as production of gas and colour change
• AT.1 Use of appropriate apparatus to make and record a range of measurements accurately, including mass, time, temperature, and volume of liquids and gases.
• 4 Investigate the variables that affect temperature changes in reacting solutions such as, eg acid plus metals, acid plus carbonates, neutralisations, displacement of metals.
• An exothermic reaction is one that transfers energy to the surroundings so the temperature of the surroundings increases. Exothermic reactions include combustion, many oxidation reactions and neutralisation. Everyday uses of exothermic reactions include…
• AT1 Use of appropriate apparatus to make and record a range of measurements accurately, including mass, time, temperature, and volume of liquids and gases.
• RP18 Investigate the variables that affect the temperature changes of a series of reactions in solutions, eg acid plus metals, acid plus carbonates, neutralisations, displacement of metals.
• Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic reactions on the basis of the temperature change of the surroundings.
• 10 Investigate the variables that affect temperature changes in reacting solutions such as, eg acid plus metals, acid plus carbonates, neutralisations, displacement of metals.
• 8. To determine the enthalpy change of a reaction using Hess’s Law
• RP 2: Measurement of an enthalpy change.
• h) the techniques and procedures used to determine enthalpy changes directly and indirectly.

Related articles

Simple titration – practical videos | 14–16 students.

2020-07-07T11:42:00Z Five out of five

Video resources showing how to carry out a titration experiment and interactive resources to allow students to collect their own results.

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Neutralization Reaction Lab Report

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Atharva Kulkarni

DARREN WONG ZHENG HAO

Mohd Zulhelmy Ahmad

Are Jay Castro

Objectives: At the end of this course, the learner is expected to: 1. define relevant terms in volumetric method of analysis 2. identify ways of expressing solution concentration 3. solve problems on direct acid-base (neutralization) titrations. VOLUMETRIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS Volumetric (Titrimetric) methods of analysis are analytical methods in which the volume of a solution of known concentration consumed during analysis is a measure of the amount of active constituent in a sample being analyzed. The chemical substance being analyzed is referred to as the analyte or the active constituent in the sample. A standard solution (titrant) is one whose concentration is accurately known. The process by which a standard solution is brought into reaction until the desired reaction is accomplished is known as titration. The indicator is usually a chemical which changes color at or very near the endpoint. Endpoint (practical) of a titration is shown by the change of color of the indicator. The theoretical point at which equivalent amounts of each substance have reacted is the equivalence point or stoichiometric point or theoretical endpoint. The theoretical and practical endpoints should coincide, otherwise the indicator used is not suitable to accomplish the endpoint of the titration. The following are the common methods of expressing concentration of standard solution used in

Isabel Fraga , B. Rossini

Primary methods of measurement are essential in the realization of the SI units. In 1995, the CCQM (Comité Consultatif pour la Quantité de Matière) identified titrimetry as a primary method of measurement. Titrimetry is a method that has wide range of applications for amount of substance measurements and can be applied at primary level and at working level depending on the uncertainty values. The aim of this work is to present the results of potentiometric titration of a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl). The potentiometric titration method was carried out with the solution addition controlled gravimetrically. The results were accurate and HCl concentration of (0.010042  0.000112) mol kg 1, k = 2 for approximately 95% confidence level was obtained. The molality determination of HCl solution is a prerequisite for the use of a Harned cell, the primary method for the realization of pH measurement. The HCl solution is used in the pH primary system at Inmetro to obtain accurat...

Kirsten Turner

Titration is scientific technique that can be used to identify pH and concentrations of unknown compounds. In this lab, titrations were used to find the exact shift of the equilibrium in a chemical equation with NaOH. NaOH was slowly added to first a weak acid, then a strong acid to pinpoint the exact equivalence point. The concentration of the strong acid was 0.134 M, while the pKa was 2.3 and its equivalence point at pH 7. The concentration of the weak acid was 0.1 M, while the pKa of the weak acid was 5.5 and its equivalence point at pH 8.6. Despite a copious number of sources of error, the hypothesis was proved effectively.

G'Golfer Natthawut

MIER Journal of Educational Studies Trends and Practices

fatma alkan

Problem-solving is an important skill in analytical chemistry. This study aims to determine how chemistry teacher candidates use volumetric analysis problems and reveal the errors made. The research employs a descriptive survey model. The sample of the study consists of seven chemistry teacher candidates studying in the chemistry teaching programme. Questions requiring comparing the volume spent in NaOH and HNO3, H2SO4, and H3PO4 titrations were asked within the scope of the study. The solution to the problem and explanations were recorded in a video. The results show that there are problems in determining the volume of NaOH. Many students wrote the titration reactions correctly, but there were problems with the effect values. It is noteworthy that those who made mistakes did not understand the first step of the problem. The students can prevent such mistakes with the help of a diagram summarizing the steps to be followed in the titration process.

zahra hashemi

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