phd salary netherlands 2022

PhD, Postdoc, and Professor Salaries in the Netherlands

Salaries at Dutch universities are set at the national level and listed in the Collective Labour Agreement of Dutch Universities (CAO-NU). An academic’s place on the salary scale   is determined by their position, qualifications, and experience. The salaries listed in this article are pre-tax. Dutch salaries are supplemented by an 8% holiday allowance (paid in May or June) and an 8.3% end-of-year allowance (paid in December). Income tax is high—either 36.5% or 52%—however foreign academics are often eligible for the 30% scheme which allows them to receive the first 30% of their salary tax-free.

Promovendus

A PhD student in the Netherlands is called a promovendus . A Dutch PhD usually takes four years to complete. As PhD candidates are seen as employees rather than students and usually hold the position of Assistant-in-Opleiding (AiO) or Onderzoeker-in-Opleiding (OiO).

A PhD student earns €2,448 to €3,128 per month.

After earning their PhD, many researchers go on to a postdoc often at another university or in another country. A postdoc is a continuation of the researcher’s training that allows them to further specialize in a particular field and learn new skills and techniques. A Dutch postdoc lasts two years.

The salary range for a postdoc is €3,821 to €5,230 per month ( scale 11 ).

Universitair docent

This position is equivalent to the rank of assistant professor and is the first permanent academic position. The initial contract is often for four years at which point the academic is evaluated and their position may become permanent. If the position becomes permanent, it is not uncommon to stay in this position until retirement.

Tenure-track universitair docent positions were initially introduced due to many Dutch academic jobs being temporary and job security being perceived very low. A more experienced candidate with the potential to become a universitair hoofddocent can become a tenure-track universitair docent . After four to six years their performance is evaluated and those who have published and received major grants are promoted to universitair hoofddocent .

The salary scales for a universitair docent ranges from €3,821 to €5,943 per month ( scale 11 and 12 ) depending on qualifications and experience level.

Universitair hoofddocent

A universitair hoofddocent is equivalent in rank to an associate professor. Traditionally to become a universitair hoofddocen t, a universitair docent had to apply for a vacant position. However it is now possible to be promoted to this position based on performance. This is a permanent position and it is not uncommon to remain a universitair hoofddocent until retirement.

The salary scales for a universitair hoofddocent ranges from €5,294 to €7,097 per month ( scale 13 and 14 ) depending on qualifications and experience level.

A hoogleraar is equivalent to a full professor and is at the top of the Dutch professorial hierarchy. They have substantial research accomplishments that have established them as an international or national leader in their field. The position is similar to that of a department chair in that a hoogleraar supervises all the other professors in their department or group. They are also the only ones who can supervise PhD dissertations. Unlike the American tenure system, there is no automatic promotion to hoogleraar . To become one, a universitair hoofddocent has to apply for a vacant position.

The salary scales for a hoogleraar ranges from €5,864 to €10,309 per month ( scale H2 and H1 ) depending on qualifications and experience level.  

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What's the salary of a PhD student in the Netherlands?

I looked up the numbers for PhD salaries in the Netherlands and wrote some quick code in R to visualise the development of the salary over the 4 years.

- Numbers updated in 2022 -

Worth to note that the actual amount of money a PhD gets per year is even higher, because you get nearly two months worth of salary in the form of two bonuses, every year! No wonder many PhD students opt to buy a house rather than renting.

Maximilian JLJ Fürst

Assistant professor of computational protein design.

I research computational protein design and high-throughput protein engineering.

• Applications for PhD positions now live on university website

• Announcements
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Salary scale and periodic increase

The Leiden University salaries are determined at national level and listed in the Collective Labour Agreement of Dutch Universities (CAO). You are assigned to a salary scale on the basis of your job profile and level. If you perform well, your salary will be increased to the next amount in the salary scale, until it reaches the salary scale maximum. Your employment contract specifies in which month the periodic increase takes place.

You may fail to receive a periodic increase if your performance is unsatisfactory ( Find it in the CAO ).

Salary scales

Here you will find the salary scales.

Are you younger than 22 years old? Check your salary scales (Dutch only) .

Salary scale PhD students

PhD students have their own salary scale: P. This scale consists of 4 salary grades: 0 to 3. At the start of your contract, you will be assigned to grade P0. After 12 months, you will automatically move to P1. This initial salary increase is exceptional in that it is not linked to a performance assessment. In the following years, your periodic salary increase will be based on performance. This is scale P per 01-07-2022:

Preliminary salary scales

You will be assigned to a preliminary salary scale if at the start of your new position you are not yet able to fully exercise your duties. The preliminary scale is the scale immediately below your position’s scale. Scale 10 forms an exception to this rule, as it has scale 8 as its preliminary scale. You can be assigned to a preliminary salary scale for a period of a maximum of two years. As soon as it becomes apparent from your assessment that you are able to fully exercise your position, you will be assigned to the right scale for your position. If after eighteen months you are still unable to fully exercise your position, we will invite you for an interview to discuss you career perspectives, within the University or elsewhere.

Salary scale for employees with occupational limitations

Employees with occupational limitations who are employed by the University in the context of the Participation Act ( Participatiewet ) have their own salary scale. If your labour productivity has increased substantially after one year, your salary will be increased to the next amount in the salary scale.

For employees of 21 years and older, the table below (100-120% Wet Minimumloon) applies:

For employees of 21 years and younger, the minimum youth wage applies  (Dutch only).

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PhD Salary Netherlands: After-Tax Income Guide

• PhD Salary Netherlands: After-Tax Income…

The Intriguing World of PhD Salaries in the Netherlands After Tax

Have you ever wondered what the salary of a PhD holder in the Netherlands looks like after tax deductions? If you`re as curious as I am, then you`ll find this article to be an enlightening exploration of the financial landscape for doctoral researchers in the Netherlands.

Understanding PhD Salaries in the Netherlands

Before we delve into the after-tax figures, let`s first take a look at the average gross salary for PhD researchers in the Netherlands. According recent report Dutch Network Women Professors (LNVH), average gross salary full-time PhD researcher Netherlands is €2,261 per month. This, of course, can vary depending on factors such as the university, field of study, and years of experience.

Calculating After-Tax Income

Now, let`s crunch some numbers to determine the net income after tax deductions. The Netherlands has a progressive tax system, which means that higher incomes are taxed at a higher rate. As of 2021, the income tax rates for individuals in the Netherlands are as follows:

Using these tax rates, we can calculate the after-tax income for a PhD researcher in the Netherlands. Let`s take average gross salary €2,261 per month as example:

So after tax deductions, net monthly income PhD researcher Netherlands would be approximately €1,582.90. This is an important consideration for those planning to pursue a PhD in the Netherlands, as it provides a realistic picture of the take-home pay.

Comparing PhD Salaries Across Europe

It`s also worthwhile to compare the after-tax income of PhD researchers in the Netherlands with their counterparts in other European countries. According study Eurodoc, average net income PhD researchers Netherlands is higher than countries Germany and France, where average net income ranges from €1,200 to €1,400 per month.

Reflections on PhD Salaries in the Netherlands

As someone who is deeply passionate about academia and research, I find the topic of PhD salaries in the Netherlands to be both fascinating and important. It`s clear that the after-tax income of PhD researchers can vary significantly depending on the country, and this information can be invaluable for individuals considering a doctoral program abroad.

The after-tax salary for PhD researchers in the Netherlands offers a relatively competitive compensation package compared to other European countries. However, it`s crucial for prospective PhD candidates to consider the cost of living and other financial factors when making decisions about their academic and professional pursuits.

PhD Salary Netherlands After Tax: 10 Popular Legal Questions & Answers

PhD Salary in the Netherlands: Legal Contract

This contract is entered into on this [date] day of [month, year], between [Employer name], having its principal place of business at [address], hereinafter referred to as « Employer », and [Employee name], residing at [address], hereinafter referred to as « Employee. »

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Salary and remuneration

About your salary and related matters

Your salary is determined based on the UFO system (see below). In addition, on this page you will find information and links about all payments.

* This information is meant for UT employees

In 2024 your salary will be paid on:

Generally, the salary will be credited to your bank account one day after the above dates.

The UT uses the salary scales which were previously nationally adopted in the Collective Labour Agreement of Dutch Universities (CAO-NU) . There are eighteen general salary scales. In addition, salary scales for youths and separate scales for specific jobs have been developed. Each scale has a minimum and a maximum, with a number of gradually increasing salaries (steps or increments) in between.

• Salary scales from 1 August 2023
• Salary scales from 1 July 2022
• Salary scales from 1 January 2022
• Salary scales youth and MVU from 1 January 2022
• Salary scales youth and MVU from 1 July 2021
• Salary scales youth and MVU from 1 February 2019

Holiday bonus: You are entitled to a holiday bonus of 8% of your salary. Some of the allowances you may receive will be taken into account when calculating your holiday bonus. If your employment is terminated, the bonus will be settled with your last salary payment or in the month following the termination. Every year, the holiday bonus is granted in May.

End-of-year bonus: You are entitled to an end-of-year bonus of 8.3% of your salary. Staff with full-time employment always receive a bonus amounting minimally to €2,250 on an annual basis. If your employment is terminated, the bonus will be settled with your last salary payment or in the month following the termination.

Every month, you receive a digital salary specification. At the end of each calendar year, you also receive an income statement stating your total wages and the contributions and tax paid for that year. These documents can be found at  myhr.utwente.nl  under 'my files' > 'my payslips'.

• Opting in expense form for freelancers

Home working allowances

The Collective Labour Agreement of Dutch Universities (cao-NU) offers two allowances for university staff working from home: an internet allowance and a homeworking allowance.

Internet allowance

All employees receive an internet allowance of €25 net per month, regardless of the scope of their employment contract.

Flex workers (both students and non-students), student assistants, freelancers, opt-in employees and PhD students without an employment contract (for instance scholarship PhD students) are not entitled to this allowance.

Homeworking allowance

In addition to the internet allowance, all employees receive a fixed homeworking allowance for each day they work from home. Flex workers (both students and non-students), student assistants, freelancers, opt-in employees and PhD students without an employment contract (for instance scholarship PhD students) are not entitled to this allowance.

To receive the correct homeworking allowance, employees must register their homeworking schedule in MyHR under “commuting expenses/working from home”. The homeworking allowance is calculated based on the number of homeworking days. The commuting allowance is applied to all working days that are not registered as homeworking days.

The homeworking allowance is a fixed allowance of €2 per homeworking day, with a maximum of 214 days per year. This maximum includes a correction for unplanned office days, holidays, public holidays and illness. This means that you do not need to adjust your homeworking schedule in the event of occasional changes. If there is a structural change to your home working schedule, please make the necessary adjustments in MyHR. If you fall ill or go on holiday, there is no need to adjust your homeworking schedule. If you are ill for more than six weeks, the allowance will stop automatically.

The example below shows how the homeworking allowance is calculated:

Working days: 5 days a week

·         2 homeworking days

·         3 days at the UT

2/5 times 214 days = 86 days (86 days x €2)/12 = €14.33 p/m net

Allowances for commuting, temporary accommodation and relocation expenses

The information on allowances for commuting, temporary accommodation and relocation expenses can be found in the service portal under terms of employment.

Grant allowance and bonus

An allowance is a supplementary financial reward which is normally granted  once a month . The UT applies the following allowances:

You may be eligible for a performance bonus if your faculty or unit is of the opinion that your performance in your position is 'very good' or 'excellent'. You do, however, need to have reached the maximum of your salary scale. A very good or excellent performance means that across the board your performance extends far beyond the set requirements, and that you achieve demonstrably excellent results.

The performance bonus amounts to a maximum of 15% of your salary.

In principle, the performance bonus can be granted for a maximum of one year, but may be extended if the faculty or unit is of the opinion that you still fulfil your position in a 'excellent' or 'very good' manner. By contrast, the faculty or unit may also decide to terminate the performance bonus on the interim if your performance is no longer 'excellent' or 'very good'.

If you are granted a higher salary scale during the time that you receive a performance bonus, the performance bonus expires automatically effective from the date on which that higher salary scale becomes applicable.

Article 4 Bonus and Allowance Scheme University of Twente

The UT has an emergency assistance organization (BHV). Every building has its own BHV team. In case of emergency (fire, accidents, the release of dangerous substances, explosions), these teams try to limit the negative consequences for those in the building as much as possible. Helping out in life-saving, yet not threatening, situations is also one of the responsibilities of BHV staff. The BHV teams act as a first response unit: they act from the moment the emergency arises up to the moment the professional emergency assistance arrives to take over. Being a member of a BHV team is not without obligation. Staff who are a BHV member have to follow courses, attend refresher classes, complete the corresponding assignments and have to maintain good physical condition. They also need to take on duties once or twice a year during UT-wide evening or weekend activities. These obligations are rewarded with an allowance.

Article 8 Bonus and Allowance Scheme University of Twente

If applicable to your position due to mobility requirements, labour market scarcity or bottlenecks, or indispensable expertise, your faculty or unit may decide that you are eligible for a labour market-related bonus.

This monthly bonus granted for reasons of mobility, recruitment and/or retention is temporary and amounts to a gross maximum of 15% of your salary. It is granted for a maximum of three years, but may be extended for a maximum duration of two years (five years in total), if the reasons of mobility, recruitment or retention are still in effect.

After five years, this bonus will expire automatically.

The allowance is not granted to doctoral candidates.

Article 5 Bonus and Allowance Scheme University of Twente

You are entitled to an on-call allowance when your job duties fairly regularly require you to be accessible and available on an on-call basis, as agreed upon in writing. It is up to the faculty or unit to decide whether or not you are eligible. You are not allowed an on-call duty allowance if your job is classified under a job profile which is part of the Education and Research job family or if you are granted salary scale 11 or higher.

The on-call allowance amounts to 10% of the maximum salary of salary scale 3 per full hour.

In the event that urgent work needs to be carried out (to be determined by the faculty or unit concerned) an overtime allowance may be granted instead of the on-call duty allowance.

• On call allowance
• Article 12 Bonus and Allowance Scheme University of Twente

You are entitled to an allowance for work performed outside of standard working hours (allowance for work at unsociable hours) if you are ordered to do work during the times listed below and this does not count as overtime. It is up to the faculty or unit to decide whether or not you are eligible.  You are not allowed allowance for work at unsociable hours if your job is classified under a job profile which is part of the Education and Research job family or if you are granted salary scale 11 or higher.

The extra allowance per hour worked equals a percentage of your hourly wage. The percentage depends on the day and the exact time worked:

• Monday through Friday between 00:00 hrs and 07:00 hrs and between 20:00 hrs and 00:00 hrs = 40%
• Saturday = 40%
• Sunday and public holidays = 75%

If you entered into employment with the UT after 1 April 1997, a decision may be made to renounce the allowance, but only if the working hours are fixed and fall within company hours.

Article 10 - 11 Bonus and Allowance Scheme University of Twente

A one-off bonus is a supplementary financial reward which is normally only granted once. The UT applies the following one-off bonuses:

ANNIVERSARY YEARS IN SERVICE

When awarding a jubilee bonus, your length of your term of service is taken into account. A distinction is made between UT term of service (for your UT jubilee) and ABP term of service (for your jubilee for employment with employers in the government and education sector).

UT term of service

UT term of service is calculated on the basis of the total duration of your employment contract(s) with the University of Twente. This excludes employment contract(s) as student assistant and/or student on-call worker and periods of leave lasting longer than one year. Special leave for the common good of more than one year is included in the calculation of the term of service. In the calculations continuous service is not a requirement. The terms of employment will be added up.

ABP term of service

For the calculation of ABP service time, the time as stated on the "service time overview" of the ABP applies. For this jubilee, you may be asked to request this overview from ABP (via MyABP/MijnABP) and submit it to UT.

Gratifications:

• For UT service of 12.5 years, you will receive a bonus of €230.
• For an ABP term of service of 25 years, you will receive a bonus of 70% of your monthly salary in the month of the jubilee, including holiday allowance.
• For an ABP term of service jubilee of 40 years, you will receive a bonus of 100% of your monthly salary in the month of the jubilee, including holiday allowance.

The bonus is paid out net in the calendar month in which the jubilee takes place.

More about the different jubilee bonuses and the possibilities for a reception or special leave for certain jubilees are described in the University of Twente Jubilee Regulations (see download below) and can be found in the staff manual .

• Jubilee regulations University of Twente

GENERAL ONE-OFF BONUS

You may be granted a one-off bonus on the grounds of extraordinary commitment, extraordinary service, special achievements or any other state of excellence. The faculty or unit concerned is free to decide on the sum of money to be awarded.

You may be eligible for an overtime allowance if you are a member of the administrative and support staff and if your job is classified under salary scale 10 or lower. Your manager may occasionally authorize you to work overtime in connection with specific assignments. Overtime is considered any pre-authorized work performed during a given work period that exceeds your contractually agreed working hours with the UT. A working period is generally understood to mean one week. For staff of the Security Service and Catering departments, a working period equals four weeks. No overtime allowance is granted if you work overtime for less than half an hour directly after your daily shift.

The overtime allowance consists of extra leave equal to the duration of the overtime worked, with a surcharge of:

• 25% for overtime hours worked on Mondays to Fridays between 07:00 and 18:00;
• 50% for overtime hours worked on Mondays to Fridays before 07:00 or after 18:00 and for the hours worked on Saturdays between 00:00 and 16:00;
• 100% for overtime hours worked on Saturdays after 16:00 and overtime hours worked on Sundays or public holidays.

If you need to register your overtime work, please do so in AFAS/myHR .

University job ranking & salary grading

The UT has determined the salary scale for your job using the  University Job Classification system (UFO) . After taking into consideration, among other things, your education and experience, we have arrived at an appropriate salary within this scale. Should you not yet be able to fully perform all of your duties, a salary in a preliminary salary scale can be agreed on for a maximum period of two years.

FUNCTION CLASSIFICATION

Your  job level  is determined by means of the University Job Classification system (UFO). In this system, your job is classified on the basis of the structural duties you need to perform and is linked with the job level of a UFO profile and the corresponding salary scale.

Your  individual salary scaling  – the salary scale you have been grouped in – normally corresponds with the salary scale for the job you are doing. However, there may be situations where your individual salary scale is different to the one normally deemed appropriate for the job, for example, when you have just started the job and cannot yet perform all the duties asked of you. Furthermore, the salary step within the salary scale depends on your experience and background, which will both be compared with your current and future colleagues' experience and background.

For more information see the page about the  UFO system  (linked below)

• University Job Classification (UFO) View information about your own profile (myUFO application) or browse the national UFO tool

Featured pages

• Scope of employment, working hours and days. Are you looking for information about length of a work week (38 vs 40 hours), workdays, etc? There is a separate page about this.
• Optional Model for Employment Conditions There is also a separate page with information about the Optional Model for Employment Conditions and 30% Arrangement.
• Anonymous External Helpdesk Financial Questions There is a Helpdesk available for you that you can call anonymously with questions. UT has a partnership with DiFfit. DiFfit is a by us selected partner that focuses on financial fit employees.

Please contact  HR Services  for any further questions. Tel 053 489 8011.

For ideas, comments or changes to this page, please email  [email protected]

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PhD in the Netherlands: Can I negotiate the starting step in my salary scale?

I am going to join a PhD position in one of the TUs in the Netherlands. This question pertains to the salary I can expect. I have worked 2 years after my bachelors and 3 years after my masters. For the doctoral candidates, according to Collective Labour Agreement by Dutch universities, the initial salary step is P0 and it climbs to P3 in the final year of a 4 year PhD program.

I think I am entitled to start at P1 (or P2 if I can stretch it), based on my experience, which is one of the reasons I got selected. Can I push the HR and ask to start at higher level (P1 or P2 instead of P0)? Any insights will be welcome.

• netherlands

• 4 Your final (net) salary will largely depend on whether you're eligible to 30% ruling , a significant tax benefit for incoming employees. Specifically, your residence address in more than 16 of the 24 months before the start of the work contract needs to have been further than 150 km from the Dutch border. –  lighthouse keeper Commented Sep 16, 2020 at 8:14
• 1 I will not be eligible for the 30% ruling as I have been working within 150 km of the Dutch border. –  Zero Commented Sep 16, 2020 at 12:40

2 Answers 2

Short answer, no.

Every PhD student starts at the same level, I have never heard of anyone negotiating a higher salary (I did my PhD in the Netherlands). The only two exceptions I am aware of are a) medical doctors doing a PhD - they start at a higher salary - and b) people funded by an outside source like a foreign government or company, where the outside source stipulates and pays the salary.

But a higher salary based on work experience: no. I don't suppose there's any harm in asking if you have already accepted the PhD position, but don't get your hopes up. I actually know one PhD student who has tried it, but she got shut down fast by HR.

• Quite possible but I was of the opinion, from a good source might I say, that they will give you more if you have relevant experience and would benefit the project. I am going to give it a try. –  Zero Commented Sep 16, 2020 at 12:42
• Also speaking from (one of my PhDs') experience no. All phds start on the same scale, even when it means making less than you did on your previous job within the same university. –  GrotesqueSI Commented Apr 14, 2022 at 4:42

Actually, I know of one PhD student who tried and succeeded to negotiate a higher starting step at a Dutch TU. It is very difficult. Universities have a vested interest in broadcasting the message that this doesn't happen. However, in exceptional circumstances, it is possible.

• What tipped the scales in his favour? Work experience? Our something else? –  Zero Commented Sep 16, 2020 at 12:43
• Vast amounts of research experience, both in their prior academic career and in industry. –  user116675 Commented Sep 16, 2020 at 12:48
• Well I wouldn't call me experience vast, but all 5 years of my work has been in a research firm... The last 3 years have been in the same application domain as the PhD...So there's that... Lets see what they have to say –  Zero Commented Sep 16, 2020 at 12:57
• If you have already accepted the position then unfortunately you have little leverage. –  D Greenwood Commented Sep 18, 2020 at 15:53
• I have verbally accepted excluding the discussion on the contract. There has been no written/formal acceptance to the terms persented from my side yet. –  Zero Commented Sep 21, 2020 at 9:34

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• Comparison of Salary of PhD Students in Europe

This post concerns the Comparison of the Salary of PhD Students in Europe. The purpose of this post is to compare the salaries of PhD students in Europe. The table includes ten countries in Western Europe. In this post, the salaries of PhD students in different European countries including Denmark , Germany , Switzerland , Sweden , Finland , Austria , Norway , Ireland , France , Netherlands and the UK . are compared.

A comparison of the salaries of PhD students in Europe

In the chart below you will find the minimum and maximum gross (before tax) salaries for PhDs in various European countries. The list will grow as more countries are added. PhD students in Europe earn varying salaries depending on the country, the institution they are affiliated with, and their field of study. We, therefore, present a table showing the minimum and maximum before-tax salaries of PhD students in Europe.

Comparison of PhD students’ minimum salaries (before tax) in Europe

The average minimum salary for a PhD student in Europe is €2,600 per month. It is important to note that this figure includes all the different fields and not just science or engineering. The values listed here include the minimum salaries of PhD scholarships and funded positions.

The average salary for a PhD student in Europe varies depending on the country as well as the university. The highest average salary was found in Denmark with €49,802 per year and the lowest was found in Ireland with €16,000 per year.

Chart of Comparison of PhD students’ Minimum Yearly Salaries (before tax) in Europe

Comparison of PhD students’ maximum salaries (before tax) in Europe

The average maximum salary for a PhD student in Europe is around €3,500 per month. The figure in this table includes all different fields, not just science or engineering. It also includes the maximum salaries of PhD scholarships and funded positions.

Chart of Comparison of PhD students’ Maximum Yearly Salaries (before tax) in Europe

This chart compares the minimum and maximum PhD salaries (before taxes) in different European countries.

It is very interesting that even though Denmark has the highest minimum PhD salaries, Switzerland has the highest maximum PhD salaries. It shows that the salary of a PhD student in Switzerland could differ significantly among Swiss universities.

Remarks about the salary of PhD students in Germany and the UK

Regarding the table above, there are a few remarks. Germany does not have a minimum salary for PhD students, so they could do their PhD without a salary. Furthermore, if PhD students receive a stipend or scholarship, the numbers might be very different (generally lower than the salaries listed above). Throughout the UK, the values in the table represent the annual stipend of PhD students. Since this is a stipend, the student does not pay any taxes on it, so we can also call it after-tax income. The last thing to note is that the maximum value is more reserved for exceptional cases (especially in Switzerland). We recommend you read the salary pages of each country if you want to know the exact salary allocation and the details.

Interested in discovering the salary figures for PhD and postdoctoral positions in Europe?:

• PhD Salary in Denmark
• Postdoc Salary in Denmark
• Salary of a PhD student and Postdoc in Norway
• PhD Salary in Switzerland
• Salary ladder for PhD students in Sweden
• Salary of PhD student and Postdoc in Germany
• Salary of PhD and Postdoc in Ireland
• Salary of Postdocs in France
• Salary of PhD student and Postdoc in the UK
• Professors’ salary in the UK
• Salary of PhD student and Postdoc in the Netherlands
• Salary of PhD student and Postdoc in Finland
• Salary of PhD student and Postdoc in Austria
• Salary of Marie-curie postdoctoral fellowship
• Salary of PhD student in Marie-Curie ITN
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Fully Funded PhD Positions with Salary

• Germany – Fully Funded PhD
• Switzerland – Fully Funded PhD
• Denmark – Fully Funded PhD
• UK – Fully Funded PhD
• Sweden – Fully Funded PhD
• Finland – Fully Funded PhD
• Netherlands – Fully Funded PhD
• Norway – Fully Funded PhD
• Belgium – Fully Funded PhD
• Austria – Fully Funded PhD
• Australia – Fully Funded PhD
• France – Fully Funded PhD
• New Zealand – Fully Funded PhD
• Canada – Fully Funded PhD
• USA – Fully Funded PhD
• Luxembourg – Fully Funded PhD
• Spain – Fully Funded PhD
• Italy – Fully Funded PhD
• Iceland -Fully Funded PhD

All academic positions (the latest ones) will be updated by the Fastepo Team. Also, please follow our Facebook page to not miss any new vacancies. Alternatively, if you don’t enjoy reading text, check out our YouTube channel for videos about PhDs and Postdocs.

Related Post

Increasing phd stipend 2023-2024 in uk, professors salary in the uk, phd salary in sweden.

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• PhD Study in Sweden – A Guide for 2024

Written by Mark Bennett

A PhD in Sweden is an opportunity to study in a country that combines a historic higher education system with a culture of ingenuity and invention. The country’s universities date back to the fifteenth century, whilst Swedish brands and technologies such as Spotify, IKEA and Bluetooth continue to shape the modern world.

This covers what you need to know about PhD study in Sweden , including information on applications, funding opportunities and doctoral fees (spoiler: there aren’t any).

PhD opportunities in Sweden – what’s on offer for 2024?

If the goal for your doctorate is to produce original and potentially innovative work (it should be) then a PhD in Sweden may well be the ideal choice.

Like its Scandinavian neighbours, Sweden is also a highly tolerant country, with progressive and inclusive laws that support LGBT rights and welcome international students and visitors.

Here's some reasons to consider a PhD in Sweden for international students:

• Creativity and originality – You may not discover the next big music streaming solution (and even a PhD may not help you understand *that step* in those IKEA instructions) but your doctoral research will be right at home in a country that celebrates free-thinking and supports new ideas
• Prize-winning research - Sweden's status as the home of the Nobel Prize (with 34 winners) reflects its proud history of recognising and rewarding research, excellence and innovation
• No PhD fees – Swedish PhD programmes normally charge no tuition fees to their students (regardless of nationality)
• Historic (and respected) universities – Higher education in Sweden dates back to the 1400s and the country’s universities are well placed in modern rankings, with particular specialisms in Medicine, Life Sciences and related subjects

We’ve studiously avoided making any ABBA references in this section, but if you want a university to take a chance on your research proposal and eventually give you, give you, give you a PhD without charging much money, money, money for fees*. . . well, there are worse destinations to choose than Sweden.

*We're sorry.

Swedish universities

There are 39 state-funded universities and equivalent institutions in Sweden, alongside a smaller number of privately funded higher education providers.

Degrees are organised using a three-cycle system , in common with the wider European Higher Education Area . Your PhD in Sweden will be a third-cycle qualification , usually taking place after Bachelors (first cycle) and Masters (second cycle) study.

Universities and university colleges

Higher education providers in Sweden are divided into two types:

• Universities ( universitet ) are large institutions awarding degrees in a broad range of subjects. They carry out original research alongside academic teaching and therefore have the capacity to support and train PhD students.
• University colleges ( högskola ) focus on technical and professional training, often in applied sciences and related subjects. They are less likely to award PhDs but may do so in certain subject areas.

The distinction between these two categories isn’t always obvious or clear from an institution’s name (university colleges may simply refer to themselves as universities). The good news is that you don’t need to worry too much about it. As a PhD student you’re likely to end up studying at a university, but the smaller number of doctoral programmes offered by university colleges are equally rigorous and respected.

Swedish university rankings

Sweden is home to one of Europe’s top-performing higher education systems, at least so far as university rankings are concerned. Of the 38 universities in Sweden, 10 rank within the current Times Higher Education world top 400.

Do rankings matter for PhD study?

University rankings can help you choose a PhD project or programme, provided you know what to look at. Our guide explains how to use rankings as a prospective postgraduate.

PhD structure

A PhD in Sweden represents the highest level of academic achievement for students. As in other countries, the emphasis is on your independent research towards an original thesis that makes a new contribution to knowledge in your field.

Swedish doctoral degrees

Doctoral level study in Sweden takes one of two forms:

A standard PhD in Sweden requires a minimum of four years full-time work (equivalent to 240 ECTS credits ) and awards a full doctorate (along with the all-important title of ‘doctor’).

Alternatively, you may choose to study for a shorter licentiate degree. This generally only requires two years of full-time work towards a shorter and less ambitious thesis (equivalent to 120 ECTS credits ). The Swedish licentiate is similar to the Master of Philosophy (MPhil) offered in the UK or other countries and some students initially enrol for this qualification before upgrading to become full PhD candidates.

The academic year in Sweden runs from August to June with two teaching terms (August to January and January to June) separated by summer and winter holidays. As a PhD student you’ll normally work more flexibly throughout the year, but some additional courses and other activities may be linked to specific teaching periods.

Supervision

You’ll complete your PhD (or licentiate) with the support of two or more expert supervisors whose job it will be to guide your work. Their roles will vary slightly depending on your field:

• Supervisors for Arts , Humanities and some Social Science projects will serve primarily as mentors. They won’t be directly involved in your research, but they will be able to advise on the direction your project is taking.
• Supervisors for Science , Technology , Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) projects may also be carrying out similar research as the lead or principal investigator for the laboratory or research group your PhD is part of. This means they may also work alongside you or even collaborate on some experiments. However, your PhD thesis will still be an independent piece of work, based on your personal findings and analysis.

You’ll always have at least two PhD supervisors, one of whom will be the principal supervisor for your PhD. Some universities also appoint additional assistant supervisors with responsibility for specific tasks (such as training or pastoral care and support).

Your supervisors’ roles and expectations will be set by your university. As a minimum they’ll usually include arranging regular progress meetings, reviewing results and drafts and supporting you as you prepare to submit your thesis. Some additional responsibilities might include identifying and fulfilling training needs or assisting with other aspects of your professional and academic development.

PhD supervision

Our guides explain how to choose (and contact ) a PhD supervisor and introduce the working relationship you'll have with yours as a doctoral student.

Programme structure

Your main focus during a PhD in Sweden will be the original research required for your thesis. You’ll normally begin by assessing the scholarship in your subject (a literature review) before moving on to collecting sources or experimental data and eventually writing up your conclusions and results.

Some universities also offer more structured training alongside your research. This may involve attending short courses and / or attending short courses on research methods and other useful skills for your project.

It’s also common for PhD students at Swedish universities to serve as junior academic staff within their departments or faculties as part of their funding arrangements. If so, you’ll also have additional duties such as teaching or demonstrating.

Assessment and examinations

The assessment of a Swedish PhD is based on the quality of the doctoral thesis you submit at the end of your research. This needs to demonstrate that your work has been original, that it has made a significant contribution to your subject and that you have personally been responsible for designing and carrying out the research involved.

All of these qualities will be formally assessed during a final public defence of your thesis.

This is similar to the viva voce used in the UK and other countries but follows a slightly different procedure. Instead of being examined in private, you will present your thesis to an examining committee in front of an audience that may include other academics, fellow PhD students and your family and friends.

One of the committee will be an external expert (from outside your university) appointed to serve as your ‘opponent’. They will ask questions about your thesis and challenge you to explain your findings and conclusions. Other members of the committee (and audience) may also ask questions.

At the end of the examination your committee will decide whether or not you have successfully defended your thesis and can be awarded your PhD. This ‘live’ examination process may seem daunting, but you should think of it as an appropriate climax for your research, allowing you to assert your expertise and prove your qualification. It’s also quite rare for students to fail at this stage.

Masters study in Sweden

Looking to study a Masters in Sweden? We have all the information you need on our sister site, FindAMasters .

Fees and funding

There are no fees for PhD study in Sweden at state-funded universities (note that this doesn’t apply to Masters or Bachelors degrees). Doctoral programmes are free for EU, EEA and international (non EU) students.

The same applies to application fees – you don’t need to pay these for a PhD in Sweden.

You will need to cover your accommodation and living costs, but support may be available from your university to help with this.

Study grants

It’s common for PhD students in Sweden to also be recognised as staff, subject to an employment contract with their university. If applicable, this pays you to a salary known as a study grant ( utbildningsbidrag ) worth approximately €1,500 per month (but subject to tax).

Your employment status may vary during your PhD. For the first two years you will receive your study grant, but not be entitled to benefits and social security. For the final two years you will normally hold a full employment contract ( anställning ) and be entitled to support during illness, parental leave or other circumstances. More information will be available from your university.

In return for your study grant you will normally be required to carry out some responsibilities within your department, such as teaching undergraduates or assisting with administrative work.

PhD funding

Other scholarships and bursaries for PhD study in Sweden may also be available to help top up (or substitute for) a study grant.

The main source of PhD funding for international students in Sweden is the Swedish Institute (SI). They offer scholarships for students from specific regions including Turkey, the Balkans and the Baltic. More information is available on the official Study in Sweden website.

Other funding may be available from universities in Sweden, or from specific academic organisations and research charities relevant to your subject area. Our guides provide information on a range of PhD scholarships and other funding options .

Applying for a PhD in Sweden

You should apply directly to universities for PhD study in Sweden. How you do so will depend on the kind of project you are interested in:

• PhDs in Science , Technology , Engineering and Mathematics will often be advertised as specific projects. You should view current opportunities and apply according to the guidelines set by specific adverts. This will often mean submitting a personal statement along with your academic CV and references .
• Students in Arts , Humanities and Social Sciences are more likely to put forward their own project ideas. You’ll need to submit a strong research proposal , perhaps after contacting a potential supervisor for guidance and advice.

However you apply, make sure you check the specific requirements and procedure with your university.

Admissions requirements

Swedish universities are free to set their own entry requirements for PhD study . The minimum qualification will usually be a Bachelors degree in an appropriate subject, but a Masters is also desirable – particularly if you’re applying for funding.

Just as important as your previous qualifications will be your ability to demonstrate previous research experience . This could simply be the dissertation project for one or both of your previous degrees, but it’s important that you can show some preparation for the independent research you’ll be doing on your PhD.

The general eligibility criteria for PhD applications in Sweden is similar to most other countries in the EU.

Language requirements

A large proportion of teaching at Swedish universities takes place in English. This means you won’t necessarily need to know Swedish to study abroad in Sweden, but it’s worth checking with the specific university or department you plan to study within. Even if English isn’t required, picking up some language skills will help you settle in and enjoy your degree.

If English isn’t your first language you may need to submit a recognised test score . Exceptions might be made if you’ve completed a previous university degree taught in English.

Your university may invite you for an interview as part of the admissions process (in person, or online). This is a good sign! It means your application is suitably interesting and impressive and the university wants to hear more from you.

Student visas

Visa information for uk students in sweden.

UK students will no longer be EU citizens from the 2021-22 academic year onwards. This means you may be considered as an international student when studying in Sweden. You may be subject to different visa requirements and fee rates, unless otherwise stated.

You won’t need a visa to study in Sweden as a PhD student (student visas are required for visits of less than three months, but your PhD is guaranteed to take longer than this!).

EU, EEA and Nordic students

If you’re a citizen of an EU, EEA or Nordic country (a group that includes Finland, Denmark, Iceland and Norway as well as Sweden) you won’t need a residence permit to live in Sweden during your PhD. However, you will need to register with a local branch of the Swedish Tax Agency ( Skatteverket ).

You’ll need to bring your passport plus any marriage or birth certificates (if you are married and / or have children). You’ll also need to bring proof of admission to a Swedish university and a signed declaration that you have sufficient funds to live on during your PhD (the minimum requirement is €826 per month ).

Other international students

Students from countries outside the EU, EEA and Nordic group must formally apply for a residence permit in order to study in Sweden for longer than three months.

You can do this online. You’ll need to provide copies of your passport, along with proof that you have been admitted to a Swedish university, have paid the first instalment of your tuition fees and can support yourself financially during your PhD the minimum requirement is €826 per month ).

Health insurance

All students in Sweden will need full health insurance. If you already hold a European Health Insurance Card (EHIC) you will normally be automatically covered. Alternatively, your university may provide cover as part of your study grant, or offer an affordable policy for you to purchase.

Sweden is a multicultural and inclusive country with plenty of opportunities for talented PhD graduates to apply their skills and expertise. Who knows – your work could be part of the next great Swedish innovation.

Can I work in Sweden after my PhD?

EU, EEA and Nordic students can live and work in Sweden without restriction. Other international students will need to apply for a post-study residence permit , allowing you to stay in Sweden for another six months as you look for work. To obtain this you’ll need to have completed your degree, still be in Sweden and hold a valid passport.

If you are successful in finding a job within six months, you can go on toapply for a work permit. Further information is available from the Swedish Migration Office .

Find a PhD in Sweden

Ready to start browsing some current PhD opportunities in Sweden ? Alternatively, you can look at our other guides to PhD study abroad .

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• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

a Other reasons included not a public patient (n = 35), pharmacy issues (n = 3), infection control risk (n = 2), website issues (n = 1), inclusion criteria not confirmed (n = 1), and unknown (n = 3).

APACHE indicates Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation Score.

a Absolute differences (95% CIs) were derived from the logistic regression by applying an inverse link transformation.

b Odds ratios (95% CIs) were obtained from logistic regression with treatment group and the subgroup variable and its interaction with the treatment group as a fixed effect and site as a random effect.

ICU indicates intensive care unit.

Trial Protocol

Statistical Analysis Plan

eTable 1. Enrolment by Country and Site

eTable 2. APACHE III Diagnoses

eTable 3. Infective Organisms Identified from the Primary Site of Infection

eTable 4. Secondary and Tertiary Sites of Infection

eTable 5. Infective Organisms Identified from Second Site of Infection

eTable 6. Infective Organisms Identified from Third Site of Infection

eTable 7. β-Lactam Antibiotic Administration Details

eTable 8. Reasons for Cessation of β-Lactam Antibiotic

eTable 9. Other Antibiotics Administered

eTable 10. Place and Cause of Death

eTable 11. Summary of Adverse Events

eTable 12. Summary of Protocol Deviations

eFigure 1. Longitudinal Mean Plot of the Daily Dose of Piperacillin-Tazobactam

eFigure 2. Longitudinal Mean Plot of the Daily Dose of Meropenem

eFigure 3. Cumulative Incidence Function of Time to Death

eFigure 4. Cumulative Incidence Function of Time to Alive Discharge from Index ICU Admission

eFigure 5. Cumulative Incidence Function of Time to Alive Discharge from Index Hospital Admission

eReferences

Nonauthor Collaborators. BLING III Study Investigators

Data Sharing Statement

• Antibiotics for Sepsis JAMA Viewpoint October 9, 2018 This Viewpoint makes the case that the importance of early detection of sepsis and the need for rapid antibiotics in patients with definite infection and possible septic shock has likely led to overuse of antibiotics in patients who might not need them, and argues for testing to confirm infection in non-shock patients in place of rapid empirical antimicrobial treatment. Michael Klompas, MD, MPH; Thierry Calandra, MD, PhD; Mervyn Singer, MD, FRCP
• Selective Decontamination of the Digestive Tract and Hospital Mortality in Critically Ill Patients JAMA Original Investigation November 15, 2022 This randomized clinical trial assesses the effect of selective decontamination of the digestive tract compared with standard care on in-hospital mortality among critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation. The SuDDICU Investigators for the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group; Catherine Boschert; Emma Broadfield; Timothy Chimunda; Jason Fletcher; Cameron Knott; Sanjay Porwal; Julie Smith; Deepak Bhonagiri; Monique Leijten; Sandhya Narayan; David  Sanchez; Peta Saunders; Carli Sherriff; Jonathan Barrett; Gabrielle Hanlon; Sarah Jelly-Butterworth; Julie O'Donnell; Judith Watson; Shailesh Bihari; Julia Brown; Sharon Comerford; Russell Laver; JoAnne McIntyre; Tapaswi Shrestha; Jin Xia; Samantha Bates; Gerard Fennessy; Craig French; Sathyajith Kootayi; Fiona Marshall; Rebecca McEldrew; Forbes McGain; Rebecca Morgan; John Mulder; Anna Tippett; Miriam Towns; Ellie Barker; Shelley Donovan; Katrina Ellis; Atul  Gaur; Hannah Gibbons; Rebecca Gregory; Eloise Hair; Mary Keehan; Jess  Naumoff; Elisha Turner; Gail Brinkerhoff; Dustin Bush; Federica Cazzola; Ken Havill; Paul Healey; Amber Poulter; Krishna Sunkara; Anders Aneman; Rachel Choit; Kelsey Dobell-Brown; Kairui Guo; Jillian Lee; Lien Lombardo; Zachariah Manalil; Jennene Miller; Jordan Rogers; Antony Stewart; Jana Yanga; Rebecca Gresham; Julie Lowrey; Kristy Masters; Christina Whitehead; Beverly Zaratan; Matthew Grigg; Meg Harward; Cassie Jones; Josephine Mackay; Jason Meyer; Emma Saylor; Ellen Venz; James Walsham; Krista Wetzig; Nerissa Brown; Marianne Chapman; Kathleen Glasby; Samuel Gluck; Tejaswini Murthy; Stephanie O'Connor; Eamon Raith; Justine Rivett; Joannies Yap; Angela Ashelford; Frances Bass; Emily Fitzgerald; Oliver Flower; Bernard Hudson; Pierre Janin; Elizabeth Limbrey; Sharon Mar; Anne O'Connor; Melissa Owen; Naomi Pallas; Julia Pilowsky; Veronica Roach; Elizabeth Ruse; Wade Stedman; Miyuki Tokumitsu; Elizabeth Yarad; Deborah Inskip; Theresa Jacques; Adeline Kintono; Catherine Milner; Rebecca Sidoli; Catherine Kurenda; Sandra Peake; Patricia Williams; Jeremy Cohen; Amanda Davie; Amy Owens; Roslyn Purcell; Balasubramanian Venkatesh; Cartan Costello; Alan Davey-Quinn; Michael Davies; Ahmed  Elgendy; Wenli Geng; Veerendra Jagarlamudi; Matthew  Mac Partlin; Mahadev Patil; Adam Purdon; Martin Sterba; Andrea  Marshall; Anthony  Delaney; Marwa Abdel-All; Hayley Clark; Natalie Espinosa; Benjamin Finfer; Miranda Hardie; Dijlah Moungatonga; Conrad Nangla; Fiona Osbourne; Tina Schneider; Prakriti Shrestha; Elizabeth Wilson; Isabella Schoeler; Manuela Armenis; Dominic Byrne; Amrutha Nagarajaiah; Prakesh Velappan; Parisa Glass; Kate Myburgh; Philippa Smith; Martina  Bachmaier; Daryll  Knowles; Michael Tattersall; John A. Myburgh, MD, PhD; Ian M. Seppelt, MD; Fiona Goodman, BN; Laurent Billot, MSc; Maryam Correa, PhD; Joshua S. Davis, MD, PhD; Anthony C. Gordon, MD; Naomi E. Hammond, PhD; Jon Iredell, MD, PhD; Qiang Li, MBiostat; Sharon Micallef, BN; Jennene Miller, BN; Jayanthi Mysore, MS; Colman Taylor, PhD; Paul J. Young, MD, PhD; Brian H. Cuthbertson, MD; Simon R. Finfer, MD
• Prolonged vs Intermittent Infusions of β-Lactam Antibiotics in Adults With Sepsis or Septic Shock JAMA Original Investigation June 12, 2024 This systematic review and bayesian meta-analysis investigated whether administration of β-lactam antibiotics by prolonged infusion reduces 90-day mortality compared with intermittent infusion in adult patients with sepsis or septic shock. Mohd H. Abdul-Aziz, BPharm, PhD; Naomi E. Hammond, RN, PhD; Stephen J. Brett, MD; Menino O. Cotta, BPharm, PhD; Jan J. De Waele, MD, PhD; Anthony Devaux, PhD; Gian Luca Di Tanna, PhD; Joel M. Dulhunty, MD, PhD; Hatem Elkady, MD; Lars Eriksson, BA; M. Shahnaz Hasan, MD; Ayesha Bibi Khan, MD; Jeffrey Lipman, MD, DMed; Xiaoqiu Liu, PhD; Giacomo Monti, MD; John Myburgh, MD, PhD; Emmanuel Novy, MD; Shahed Omar, MD; Dorrilyn Rajbhandari, RN; Claire Roger, MD, PhD; Fredrik Sjövall, MD, PhD; Irene Zaghi, MD; Alberto Zangrillo, MD; Anthony Delaney, MD, PhD; Jason A. Roberts, BPharm, PhD
• Resolving the Dilemma on Continuous vs Intermittent β-Lactam Antibiotics in Sepsis JAMA Editorial June 12, 2024 W. Joost Wiersinga, MD, PhD, MBA; Michiel A. van Agtmael, MD, PhD

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Dulhunty JM , Brett SJ , De Waele JJ, et al. Continuous vs Intermittent β-Lactam Antibiotic Infusions in Critically Ill Patients With Sepsis : The BLING III Randomized Clinical Trial . JAMA. Published online June 12, 2024. doi:10.1001/jama.2024.9779

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Continuous vs Intermittent β-Lactam Antibiotic Infusions in Critically Ill Patients With Sepsis : The BLING III Randomized Clinical Trial

• 1 Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
• 2 Redcliffe Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
• 3 The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
• 4 Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, United Kingdom
• 5 Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
• 6 Department of Critical Care Medicine, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
• 7 The George Institute for Global Health, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
• 8 Infection Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
• 9 Department of Infectious Diseases, John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
• 10 School of Public Health, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
• 11 Malcolm Fisher Department of Intensive Care, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
• 12 Auckland City Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand
• 13 Medical Research Institute of New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand
• 14 Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health and Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
• 15 The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
• 16 School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
• 17 School of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
• 18 St George’s University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
• 19 St George’s University of London, London, United Kingdom
• 20 Herston Infectious Diseases Institute, Metro North Health, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
• 21 Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care, Pain, and Emergency Medicine, University Hospital of Nîmes, Nîmes, France
• 22 University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
• 23 Blacktown Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
• 24 Metro North Health, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
• 25 St George Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
• Editorial Resolving the Dilemma on Continuous vs Intermittent β-Lactam Antibiotics in Sepsis W. Joost Wiersinga, MD, PhD, MBA; Michiel A. van Agtmael, MD, PhD JAMA
• Viewpoint Antibiotics for Sepsis Michael Klompas, MD, MPH; Thierry Calandra, MD, PhD; Mervyn Singer, MD, FRCP JAMA
• Original Investigation Selective Decontamination of the Digestive Tract and Hospital Mortality in Critically Ill Patients The SuDDICU Investigators for the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group; Catherine Boschert; Emma Broadfield; Timothy Chimunda; Jason Fletcher; Cameron Knott; Sanjay Porwal; Julie Smith; Deepak Bhonagiri; Monique Leijten; Sandhya Narayan; David  Sanchez; Peta Saunders; Carli Sherriff; Jonathan Barrett; Gabrielle Hanlon; Sarah Jelly-Butterworth; Julie O'Donnell; Judith Watson; Shailesh Bihari; Julia Brown; Sharon Comerford; Russell Laver; JoAnne McIntyre; Tapaswi Shrestha; Jin Xia; Samantha Bates; Gerard Fennessy; Craig French; Sathyajith Kootayi; Fiona Marshall; Rebecca McEldrew; Forbes McGain; Rebecca Morgan; John Mulder; Anna Tippett; Miriam Towns; Ellie Barker; Shelley Donovan; Katrina Ellis; Atul  Gaur; Hannah Gibbons; Rebecca Gregory; Eloise Hair; Mary Keehan; Jess  Naumoff; Elisha Turner; Gail Brinkerhoff; Dustin Bush; Federica Cazzola; Ken Havill; Paul Healey; Amber Poulter; Krishna Sunkara; Anders Aneman; Rachel Choit; Kelsey Dobell-Brown; Kairui Guo; Jillian Lee; Lien Lombardo; Zachariah Manalil; Jennene Miller; Jordan Rogers; Antony Stewart; Jana Yanga; Rebecca Gresham; Julie Lowrey; Kristy Masters; Christina Whitehead; Beverly Zaratan; Matthew Grigg; Meg Harward; Cassie Jones; Josephine Mackay; Jason Meyer; Emma Saylor; Ellen Venz; James Walsham; Krista Wetzig; Nerissa Brown; Marianne Chapman; Kathleen Glasby; Samuel Gluck; Tejaswini Murthy; Stephanie O'Connor; Eamon Raith; Justine Rivett; Joannies Yap; Angela Ashelford; Frances Bass; Emily Fitzgerald; Oliver Flower; Bernard Hudson; Pierre Janin; Elizabeth Limbrey; Sharon Mar; Anne O'Connor; Melissa Owen; Naomi Pallas; Julia Pilowsky; Veronica Roach; Elizabeth Ruse; Wade Stedman; Miyuki Tokumitsu; Elizabeth Yarad; Deborah Inskip; Theresa Jacques; Adeline Kintono; Catherine Milner; Rebecca Sidoli; Catherine Kurenda; Sandra Peake; Patricia Williams; Jeremy Cohen; Amanda Davie; Amy Owens; Roslyn Purcell; Balasubramanian Venkatesh; Cartan Costello; Alan Davey-Quinn; Michael Davies; Ahmed  Elgendy; Wenli Geng; Veerendra Jagarlamudi; Matthew  Mac Partlin; Mahadev Patil; Adam Purdon; Martin Sterba; Andrea  Marshall; Anthony  Delaney; Marwa Abdel-All; Hayley Clark; Natalie Espinosa; Benjamin Finfer; Miranda Hardie; Dijlah Moungatonga; Conrad Nangla; Fiona Osbourne; Tina Schneider; Prakriti Shrestha; Elizabeth Wilson; Isabella Schoeler; Manuela Armenis; Dominic Byrne; Amrutha Nagarajaiah; Prakesh Velappan; Parisa Glass; Kate Myburgh; Philippa Smith; Martina  Bachmaier; Daryll  Knowles; Michael Tattersall; John A. Myburgh, MD, PhD; Ian M. Seppelt, MD; Fiona Goodman, BN; Laurent Billot, MSc; Maryam Correa, PhD; Joshua S. Davis, MD, PhD; Anthony C. Gordon, MD; Naomi E. Hammond, PhD; Jon Iredell, MD, PhD; Qiang Li, MBiostat; Sharon Micallef, BN; Jennene Miller, BN; Jayanthi Mysore, MS; Colman Taylor, PhD; Paul J. Young, MD, PhD; Brian H. Cuthbertson, MD; Simon R. Finfer, MD JAMA
• Original Investigation Prolonged vs Intermittent Infusions of β-Lactam Antibiotics in Adults With Sepsis or Septic Shock Mohd H. Abdul-Aziz, BPharm, PhD; Naomi E. Hammond, RN, PhD; Stephen J. Brett, MD; Menino O. Cotta, BPharm, PhD; Jan J. De Waele, MD, PhD; Anthony Devaux, PhD; Gian Luca Di Tanna, PhD; Joel M. Dulhunty, MD, PhD; Hatem Elkady, MD; Lars Eriksson, BA; M. Shahnaz Hasan, MD; Ayesha Bibi Khan, MD; Jeffrey Lipman, MD, DMed; Xiaoqiu Liu, PhD; Giacomo Monti, MD; John Myburgh, MD, PhD; Emmanuel Novy, MD; Shahed Omar, MD; Dorrilyn Rajbhandari, RN; Claire Roger, MD, PhD; Fredrik Sjövall, MD, PhD; Irene Zaghi, MD; Alberto Zangrillo, MD; Anthony Delaney, MD, PhD; Jason A. Roberts, BPharm, PhD JAMA

Question   Is there a difference in mortality between continuous and intermittent infusions of β-lactam antibiotics in critically ill patients with sepsis?

Findings   In this randomized clinical trial that included 7031 adult patients with sepsis, there was not a statistically significant difference in the proportion of patients who died within 90 days who received continuous (24.9%) compared with intermittent (26.8%) β-lactam antibiotic infusions (odds ratio, 0.91).

Meaning   In critically ill patients with sepsis, continuous vs intermittent β-lactam antibiotic infusions did not significantly reduce 90-day mortality in the primary analysis.

Importance   Whether β-lactam antibiotics administered by continuous compared with intermittent infusion reduces the risk of death in patients with sepsis is uncertain.

Objective   To evaluate whether continuous vs intermittent infusion of a β-lactam antibiotic (piperacillin-tazobactam or meropenem) results in decreased all-cause mortality at 90 days in critically ill patients with sepsis.

Design, Setting, and Participants   An international, open-label, randomized clinical trial conducted in 104 intensive care units (ICUs) in Australia, Belgium, France, Malaysia, New Zealand, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Recruitment occurred from March 26, 2018, to January 11, 2023, with follow-up completed on April 12, 2023. Participants were critically ill adults (≥18 years) treated with piperacillin-tazobactam or meropenem for sepsis.

Intervention   Eligible patients were randomized to receive an equivalent 24-hour dose of a β-lactam antibiotic by either continuous (n = 3498) or intermittent (n = 3533) infusion for a clinician-determined duration of treatment or until ICU discharge, whichever occurred first.

Main Outcomes and Measures   The primary outcome was all-cause mortality within 90 days after randomization. Secondary outcomes were clinical cure up to 14 days after randomization; new acquisition, colonization, or infection with a multiresistant organism or Clostridioides difficile infection up to 14 days after randomization; ICU mortality; and in-hospital mortality.

Results   Among 7202 randomized participants, 7031 (mean [SD] age, 59 [16] years; 2423 women [35%]) met consent requirements for inclusion in the primary analysis (97.6%). Within 90 days, 864 of 3474 patients (24.9%) assigned to receive continuous infusion had died compared with 939 of 3507 (26.8%) assigned intermittent infusion (absolute difference, −1.9% [95% CI, −4.9% to 1.1%]; odds ratio, 0.91 [95% CI, 0.81 to 1.01]; P  = .08). Clinical cure was higher in the continuous vs intermittent infusion group (1930/3467 [55.7%] and 1744/3491 [50.0%], respectively; absolute difference, 5.7% [95% CI, 2.4% to 9.1%]). Other secondary outcomes were not statistically different.

Conclusions and Relevance   The observed difference in 90-day mortality between continuous vs intermittent infusions of β-lactam antibiotics did not meet statistical significance in the primary analysis. However, the confidence interval around the effect estimate includes the possibility of both no important effect and a clinically important benefit in the use of continuous infusions in this group of patients.

Trial Registration   ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03213990

Defined as life-threatening organ dysfunction due to a dysregulated response to infection, 1 sepsis is a major cause of mortality worldwide. Early antibiotic therapy directed at the likely infective microorganism is a cornerstone of treatment, 2 - 4 of which β-lactam antibiotics are an important class of antibiotics. 4 For patients treated in the intensive care unit (ICU), meropenem and piperacillin-tazobactam are commonly used drugs in this antibiotic class. 5 , 6 β-Lactam antibiotics have been primarily administered as multiple, short (eg, 30-minute) intermittent infusions. Due to time-dependent kill characteristics, there is a biological rationale that continuous infusion may be more effective than intermittent administration. 7 - 9

Recent clinical trials have reported that the administration of β-lactam antibiotics by continuous infusion resulted in concentrations above the minimum inhibitory concentration of typical pathogens. 10 , 11 However, clinical trials and meta-analyses have not provided conclusive evidence of microbiological cure and improved patient-centered outcomes. 12 - 16 To address uncertainty about the optimal method of β-lactam antibiotic administration in the ICU setting, 17 , 18 a randomized clinical trial was conducted to determine whether continuous infusion of piperacillin-tazobactam or meropenem resulted in decreased all-cause mortality at 90 days in critically ill patients with sepsis compared with intermittent infusion.

The Beta-Lactam Infusion Group (BLING) III trial was an international, open-label, phase 3, randomized clinical trial comparing continuous vs intermittent infusions of β-lactam antibiotics on all-cause 90-day mortality in critically ill patients with sepsis. The study protocol ( Supplement 1 ) and statistical analysis plan ( Supplement 2 ) have been published previously. 19 , 20 The trial was approved by the relevant human research ethics committee or equivalent in each region; institutional approval was obtained as per site requirements. In some jurisdictions, approval was obtained for enrollment prior to consent in certain circumstances (eMethods in Supplement 3 ); in all countries, written informed consent was obtained from patients or their legal surrogate with documented verbal consent obtained in some regions during the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic as per ethics committee approval (eMethods in Supplement 3 ).

The trial management committee was responsible for the design of the study. The George Institute for Global Health generated the allocation sequence and conducted the statistical analysis. An independent data and safety monitoring committee conducted a prespecified midpoint safety analysis ( Supplement 2 ). Study reporting adhered to the CONSORT 2010 Statement for randomized clinical trials.

The trial was conducted in 104 adult ICUs in Australia, Belgium, France, Malaysia, New Zealand, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Participants were enrolled between March 26, 2018, and January 11, 2023; 90-day follow-up was completed on April 12, 2023.

Eligible participants ( Table 1 ) 21 , 22 were adult (≥18 years) ICU patients with (1) a documented site or strong suspicion of infection, (2) treatment with piperacillin-tazobactam or meropenem commenced within the previous 24 hours, and (3) 1 or more organ dysfunction criteria met in the previous 24 hours as defined in the study inclusion criteria (eMethods in Supplement 3 ). Eligible participants were expected to remain in the ICU for at least the next calendar day and in whom the administration of either piperacillin-tazobactam or meropenem by intermittent or continuous infusion was considered equally appropriate for the patient by the attending clinicians. Full details of inclusion and exclusion criteria are provided in the eMethods in Supplement 3 .

Participants were randomized in a 1:1 ratio to receive the prescribed antibiotic by either continuous (intervention group) or intermittent (control group) infusion. 19 Randomization was generated using a minimization algorithm via a password-protected, encrypted, web-based interface with stratification by study site.

In both groups, the total 24-hour β-lactam antibiotic dose was determined by the attending clinicians. A defined daily dose of 14 g for piperacillin-tazobactam and 3 g for meropenem was used as a reference measure. 23 All participants received at least 1 β-lactam antibiotic infusion dose prior to open-label randomized treatment. Randomized drug administration by continuous infusion (over 24 hours) or intermittent infusion (over 30 minutes) was continued for the duration of the treatment course or until ICU discharge, whichever occurred first. A switch between piperacillin-tazobactam and meropenem (or vice versa) was permitted in the same treatment group after receipt of a loading dose by intermittent infusion for participants in the continuous infusion group. Additional details on study drug administration appear in the eMethods in Supplement 3 .

The primary outcome was all-cause mortality at 90 days from the date of randomization. Secondary outcomes were clinical cure, defined as the completion of the β-lactam antibiotic treatment course by day 14 without recommencement of antibiotic therapy within 48 hours of cessation for the same infectious episode (eMethods in Supplement 3 ); new acquisition, colonization, or infection with a multiresistant organism or Clostridioides difficile infection up to 14 days after randomization (eMethods in Supplement 3 ); all-cause ICU mortality; and all-cause hospital mortality. Tertiary outcomes were the number of days free of ICU, hospital, mechanical ventilation, and kidney replacement therapy up to 90 days after randomization. 19 Study days are defined in the eMethods in Supplement 3 . Drug reactions thought to have a causal relationship (ie, possible, probable, or definitely related) to the study-assigned administration method were reported as adverse events. Protocol deviations related to administration of the β-lactam antibiotic included predefined events (eMethods in Supplement 3 ).

A sample size of 7000 patients provided 90% power to detect an absolute difference of 3.5% in all-cause mortality at 90 days from an estimated baseline mortality of 27.5%, at an α of .05. 20 This calculation allowed for a rate of withdrawal and loss to follow-up of up to 5% of participants. Recruitment proceeded for 6 months at 13 sites after 7000 participants to facilitate recruitment in a prespecified pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic substudy.

The effectiveness of the intervention was evaluated by a modified intention-to-treat analysis of all participants randomized to the trial where consent or approval to use their data was obtained, regardless of protocol adherence. This primary analysis consisted of logistic regression with treatment allocation as a fixed effect and trial site as a random effect. Results are presented as odds ratios (ORs) and 95% CIs and converted to absolute differences (ADs) in proportions.

The primary outcome was also examined in a prespecified adjusted analysis with the following covariates added to the main logistic regression model: sex, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation Score (APACHE) II score (a severity of illness score ranging from 0 to 71, with higher scores indicating an increased risk of death) at randomization, 21 source of admission (admitted following emergency or elective surgery vs other), and type of β-lactam antibiotic used before randomization (piperacillin-tazobactam or meropenem). Five prespecified subgroup analyses were also carried out according to the following prerandomization variables: presence vs absence of presumed pulmonary infection at baseline, type of β-lactam antibiotic first administered (piperacillin-tazobactam or meropenem), age (<65 years vs ≥65 years), sex (male vs female), and low vs high severity of illness (defined by an APACHE II score at randomization <25 or ≥25). 15 , 19 , 24

Secondary binary outcomes were analyzed using a similar logistic regression to the primary analysis. Tertiary duration outcomes were analyzed using linear regression. Time to discharge or cessation were summarized using a cumulative incidence function treating death as a competing risk, censored at 90 days. Intervention effects were estimated as hazard ratios and 95% CIs obtained from a cause-specific Cox model with a fixed effect of treatment and a random site effect. Proportions of patients with adverse events were compared using a Fisher exact test among patients who received 1 or more doses of the β-lactam antibiotic in the assigned treatment group.

There was no imputation of missing data across all analyses. All tests were 2-sided with a nominal significance level at 5%. Analyses of the primary outcome are unadjusted for multiplicity; however, the family-wise error rate was controlled across secondary outcomes (1 family) and tertiary outcomes (1 family) using a Holm-Bonferroni correction. 25 Analyses were performed using SAS Enterprise Guide 8.3, SAS version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc).

A total of 7202 participants were randomized, of whom 7031 with consent or approval to use data were included in the primary analysis ( Figure 1 ). Of these, 6950 received at least 1 dose of the β-lactam antibiotic by allocation group and were included in the safety analysis. Enrollment by country and site is shown in eTable 1 in Supplement 3 . The intervention and control groups had similar baseline characteristics ( Table 1 and eTable 2 in Supplement 3 ).

Of 7026 participants, the most common primary sites of infection were pulmonary in 4181 participants (59.5%), intra-abdominal in 916 (13.0%), blood in 562 (8.0%), and urinary in 380 (5.4%) ( Table 1 ). Infective organisms for the primary site of infection are listed in eTable 3 in Supplement 3 . Secondary and tertiary sites of infection and associated infective organisms are shown in eTables 4 through 6 in Supplement 3 . The median duration of randomized treatment was 5.8 days (IQR, 3.1-10.2) and 5.7 days (IQR, 3.1-10.3) in the continuous and intermittent infusion groups, respectively (eTable 7 in Supplement 3 ). The median defined daily dose was 1.0 in both groups on the first whole day (day 2) post randomization with an IQR of 0.8 to 1.2 defined daily doses (eTable 7 in Supplement 3 ). The daily dose of study drugs was similar in both groups over the postrandomization treatment period up to day 16 (eFigures 1 and 2 in Supplement 3 ). The reasons for cessation of a β-lactam antibiotic are listed in eTable 8 in Supplement 3 . Prior to randomization, 2658 of 3415 patients (77.8%) in the continuous infusion group and 2809 of 3445 (81.5%) in the intermittent group were prescribed the study drug by intermittent infusion (eTable 7 in Supplement 3 ). Other antibiotics administered in the 24 hours before randomization up to day 16 are listed in eTable 9 in Supplement 3 ; 16.2% (568/3498) and 14.0% (496/3533) in the continuous and intermittent infusion groups, respectively, did not receive any other antibiotics during this period.

At 90 days after randomization, 864 of 3474 patients (24.9%) randomized to the continuous infusion group and 939 of 3507 (26.8%) randomized to the intermittent infusion group had died (AD, −1.9% [95% CI, −4.9% to 1.1%]; OR, 0.91 [95% CI, 0.81 to 1.01]; P  = .08); day 90 status was missing for 0.7% of participants (50/7031) ( Table 2 ). After adjusting for prespecified covariates, the AD was −2.2% (95% CI, −5.5% to 1.1%; OR, 0.89 [95% CI, 0.79 to 0.99]; P  = .04). The cumulative incidence function of time to death is shown in eFigure 3 in Supplement 3 . There was no significant heterogeneity in the effect of the intervention assignment on mortality at 90 days in any of the 5 predefined subgroup pairs ( Figure 2 ). The place and cause of death are listed in eTable 10 in Supplement 3 .

There was a statistically significant difference in the rates of clinical cure at 14 days post randomization in favor of the continuous infusion group (AD, 5.7% [95% CI, 2.4% to 9.1%]; OR, 1.26 [95% CI, 1.15 to 1.38]). There were no statistically significant differences between groups in the rates of new acquisition, colonization, or infection with a multiresistant organism or C difficile infection (AD, −0.3% [95% CI, −1.9% to 1.4%]; OR, 0.96 [95% CI, 0.80 to 1.15]); ICU mortality (AD, −1.3% [95% CI, −4.0% to 1.4%]); and hospital mortality (AD, −1.8% [95% CI, −4.8% to 1.2%]).

There were no statistical differences in days alive and free of ICU stay, hospital stay, mechanical ventilation, and kidney replacement therapy ( Table 2 ). Daily participant disposition is shown in Figure 3 and cumulative incidence functions of time to alive discharge from the index ICU and hospital admission are shown in eFigures 4 and 5 in Supplement 3 .

There were 10 adverse events in the continuous infusion group (0.3%) and 6 adverse events in the intermittent infusion group (0.2%), including 1 serious adverse event in the continuous infusion group (eTable 11 in Supplement 3 ). The serious adverse event was severe encephalopathy resulting in aspiration pneumonia, cardiac arrest, and death in the setting of septic shock. The event was assessed by site clinicians as possibly related to meropenem treatment. Administration by continuous infusion was hypothesized as potentially contributing to a higher minimum meropenem blood concentration leading to a higher cerebrospinal fluid concentration.

There were no statistical differences in the proportions of protocol deviations in both groups (eTable 12 in Supplement 3 ).

In this randomized clinical trial, the use of continuous compared with intermittent infusions of β-lactam antibiotics in critically ill patients with sepsis did not meet statistical significance in reducing mortality at 90 days. However, the confidence interval around the effect estimate includes a clinically important benefit. The observed absolute reduction in mortality of around 2 percentage points with the use of continuous infusion represents a number needed to treat of 50 patients to prevent 1 death. The clinical significance of this finding is further supported by increased rates of clinical cure in the continuous infusion group and consistent directional changes in point estimates across other secondary and tertiary outcomes.

This pragmatic trial has several strengths. An extensive body of work informed the design of the trial that included feasibility and phase 2 trials previously conducted by the BLING investigators. 10 , 18 This work facilitated the establishment of an international collaboration to conduct the trial in multiple ICUs in 7 countries under routine clinical conditions over a relatively short trial inception period. The effect of continuous infusion of β-lactam antibiotics was assessed using a robust, patient-centered primary outcome that was not susceptible to adjudication bias. The definition of clinical cure used in this trial was also not susceptible to adjudication bias. The size of this trial greatly exceeded all previous trials. The recent Continuous Infusion vs Intermittent Administration of Meropenem in Critically Ill Patients (MERCY) trial (N = 607) comparing continuous and intermittent infusions of meropenem with double-dummy administration reported a difference of 2.5 percentage points in mortality at 28 days in favor of continuous infusions that is consistent with the current trial despite differences in mortality, rates of drug resistance, and trial end points. 26

Effective delivery of β-lactam antibiotics by continuous infusion present some practical considerations for patients treated in the ICU. 27 , 28 Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations mandate that the same daily doses are used for both continuous and intermittent infusions. 27 While overall drug costs may remain consistent, the time taken to prepare and administer drugs with continuous infusions may be shorter than intermittent infusions, 8 , 16 , 29 although this may be negated by a higher incidence of interruptions of continuous infusions for clinical reasons. Continuous infusions of carbapenems that require multiple infusions in a 24-hour period for drug stability reasons and use of dedicated infusion pumps and intravenous portals pose additional pragmatic considerations, particularly in resource-limited environments. 8 , 28 - 30 Consistent with previous trials, there were no observed differences in adverse events between continuous and intermittent infusions of β-lactam antibiotics. 16 , 18 , 26 , 27

This study had some limitations. First, blinding was not feasible in a pragmatic trial of this size. This was mitigated by using a robust primary outcome and blinded outcome adjudication. Second, some participants may have been randomized despite having a noninfectious cause of organ dysfunction. Third, while this international study has high indices of external validity and generalizability, extrapolation of these results to regions with high levels of antibiotic resistance requires caution. Fourth, there was no adjustment for susceptibility to the β-lactam antibiotic or the impact of additional antibiotics and dosing strategies, although the groups were observed to have a high degree of baseline balance. Fifth, the difference in outcomes may have been reduced by the use of intermittent dosing prior to randomization in the continuous group and after ICU discharge. Sixth, these results relate to the use of continuous infusions primarily in a high-income ICU setting and extrapolation to low- and middle-income settings in and outside the ICU cannot be inferred.

The observed difference in 90-day mortality between continuous vs intermittent infusions of β-lactam antibiotics did not meet statistical significance in the primary analysis. However, the confidence interval around the effect estimate includes the possibility of both no important effect and a clinically important benefit in the use of continuous infusions in this group of patients.

Accepted for Publication: May 7, 2024.

Published Online: June 12, 2024. doi:10.1001/jama.2024.9779

Corresponding Author: Joel M. Dulhunty, MD, PhD, Butterfield Street, Intensive Care Services, Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Herston, QLD 4029, Australia ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Dr Dulhunty and Mr Billot had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Dulhunty, Brett, De Waele, Rajbhandari, Cotta, Davis, Finfer, Knowles, McGuinness, Paterson, Peake, Rhodes, Roberts, Shirwadkar, Starr, Taylor, Myburgh, Lipman.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Dulhunty, Rajbhandari, Myburgh.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Billot, Liu, Mysore.

Obtained funding: Dulhunty, Brett, De Waele, Finfer, McGuinness, Paterson, Peake, Rhodes, Roberts, Roger, Myburgh, Lipman.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Dulhunty, Brett, Rajbhandari, Cotta, Hammond, Knowles, Rhodes, Roberts, Roger, Taylor, Myburgh, Lipman.

Supervision: Brett, De Waele, Billot, Myburgh, Lipman.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Brett reported receiving consultancy fees from GSK to the university account for a project on real-world effectiveness of sotrovimab outside the submitted work. Dr De Waele reported receiving grants from Flanders Research Foundation Senior Clinical Investigator Fellowship during the conduct of the study and speaker activities and honoraria paid to the institution from Pfizer, MSD, Menarini, and Viatris outside the submitted work. Dr Davis reported receiving a National Health and Medical Research Council Career Development Award (salary funding) during the conduct of the study. Dr Finfer reported receiving consulting fees from RevImmune Inc paid to his institution during the conduct of the study, stock options from Sepsis Scout outside the submitted work, and support from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia with a Leadership Fellowship. Dr Hammond reported receiving consulting fees from RevImmune Inc paid to her institution outside the submitted work and support from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia with an Emerging Leader grant. Dr Paterson reported receiving grants from Shionogi, Pfizer, Merck, BioVersys, bioMerieux, and Gilead and personal fees from Shionogi, Merck, GSK, bioMerieux, Cepheid, Aurobac, Arrepath, CARB-X, and AMR Action Fund outside the submitted work. Dr Rhodes reported receiving nonfinancial support from St George’s University NHS Foundation Trust during the conduct of the study and serving as past chair of the sepsis guidelines committee and executive member of the Surviving Sepsis Campaign. Dr Roberts reported receiving personal fees from Qpex, Gilead, Advanz Pharma, Pfizer, Sandoz, MSD, Cipla, and bioMerieux and grants from Qpex, Pfizer, bioMerieux (provided e-Tests for bacterial susceptibility testing within the BLING III pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic substudy), and the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy outside the submitted work; Dr Roberts was supported by a Leadership Fellowship from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia and an Advancing Queensland Clinical Fellowship. He is also in receipt of a Centre of Research Excellence from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia. Dr Roger reported receiving personal fees from Shionogi, bioMerieux, AOP Orphan, MSD, Viatris, Pfizer, Fresenius, and Advanz Pharma outside the submitted work. Dr Taylor reported being part owner of Health Technology Analysts Pty Ltd, which provides consulting services to pharmaceutical companies, medical device companies, and the Australian government. Dr Myburgh reported receiving support from a Leadership Fellowship from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: The George Institute for Global Health sponsored the study, generated the allocation sequence, and conducted the statistical analysis. The trial was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia; APP1121481), the Belgian Health Care Knowledge Centre (KCE), the Health Research Council of New Zealand, the National Institute for Health and Care Research (United Kingdom), the University of Queensland (Malaysian sites), University Hospital of Nîmes (French sites), Skåne University Hospital (Swedish sites), and the US Food and Drug Administration (pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic substudy). The trial was endorsed by the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group, the Australasian Society for Infectious Diseases Clinical Research Network, and the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases and reviewed and supported by the Infection Section of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. In the United Kingdom, infrastructure support for this trial was provided to Dr Brett by the National Institute for Health and Care Research Imperial Biomedical Research Centre.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Group Information: The collaborating investigators for the BLING III trial are listed in Supplement 4 .

Meeting Presentation: The study was presented at the Critical Care Reviews Meeting 2024; June 12, 2024; Belfast, United Kingdom.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 5 .

Additional Contributions: We thank the trial participants and their families, the trial teams, and the independent data and safety monitoring committee: J. Duncan Young (chair), MD, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom, John Marshall, MD, St Michael’s Hospital and University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, and Tom van der Poll, MD, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; the project support, data monitoring, data management, and legal teams at the George Institute for Global Health ( Supplement 3 ); the University of Queensland project support team ( Supplement 3 ); Farah Al-Beidh, BSc, PhD, and Janis Best-Lane, BSc, MRes (United Kingdom), Daisy Vermeiren, RN (Belgium and Europe), Sally Hurford, RN (New Zealand), Loubna Elotmani, MSc (France), Mohd Hafiz Abdul-Aziz, BPharm(Hons), PhD (Malaysia), and Frederik Sjövall, MD, PhD (Sweden), for regional coordination; and Greg Barton, BSc, MPhil (United Kingdom), for technical (drug stability) and project management support. Dr Al-Beidh, Ms Best-Lane, Ms Vermeiren, Ms Hurford, Ms Elotmani, and Dr Abdul-Aziz received salary support for their role in the trial; other named individuals did not receive compensation.

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What Is a Business Analyst? 2024 Career Guide

Business analysts help maximize a business's effectiveness through data-driven decisions. Learn about what business analysts do and what it takes to become one.

Leer en español. (Read in Spanish.)

Business analysts use data to form business insights and recommend changes in businesses and other organizations. Business analysts can identify issues in virtually any part of an organization, including IT processes, organizational structures, or staff development.

As businesses seek to increase efficiency and reduce costs, business analytics has become an important component of their operations. Let’s take a closer look at what business analysts do and what it takes to get a job in business analytics. 

What does a business analyst do?

Business analysts identify areas where an organization can increase its efficiency and strengthen business processes. They often work closely with others throughout the business hierarchy to communicate their findings and help implement changes.

Tasks and duties can include:

Identifying and prioritizing the organization's functional and technical needs and requirements

Using SQL and Excel to analyze large data sets

Compiling charts, tables, and other elements of data visualization 

Creating financial models to support business decisions

Understanding business strategies, goals, and requirements

Planning enterprise architecture (the structure of a business)

Forecasting, budgeting, and performing both variance analysis and financial analysis

What's the difference between a business analyst and a data analyst?

Both data analysts and business analysts support data-driven decisions in their companies. Business analysts tend to focus more on recommending solutions for business needs, while data analysts work more closely with the data itself.

Read more: Data Analyst vs. Business Analyst: What’s the Difference?

Why pursue a career in business analysis?

Business analysts are in demand across industries, including finance, healthcare, education, IT, consulting, e-commerce , government, and manufacturing. As a business analyst, you'll have the opportunity to support your organization's success through data-driven insights. In business analytics, every day brings new challenges and new ways to put your skills into practice. If you enjoy collaborating, asking questions, solving problems, doing impactful work, bridging business and technology, a career as a business analyst could be a good fit.

If you're just starting out in business analysis, you might consider boosting your resume with credentials from an industry leader. You can gain hands-on experience with popular data tools like Power BI and Microsoft Excel in just 1 month while earning an employer-recognized certificate from Microsoft with the following flexible online program:

Business analyst salary

The average salary for business analysts in March 2024 in the United States is $83,137, according to Glassdoor [ 1 ]. Your earning potential will vary depending on the company, location, and amount of experience you have.

Job outlook

The demand for business analysts has increased in recent years and is projected to continue. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projects faster-than-average job growth between 2022 and 2032 for similar roles. Computer systems analyst jobs are expected to grow 10 percent, while operations research analyst jobs are expected to grow 23 percent [ 2 , 3 ]. Other related job titles include management analyst and operations analyst—both of which perform duties similar to business analysts.

Not ready to take classes or jump into a project yet? Consider subscribing to our weekly newsletter, Career Chat . It's a low-commitment way to stay current with industry trends and skills you can use to guide your career path.

How to become a business analyst

Becoming a business analyst may require gaining skills and credentials applicable to the work and the industry you're interested in. Coursework, certifications, or degrees can each aid your path to a job as a business analyst.

1. Sharpen your business analyst skills.

Here are some skills you’ll typically want to have as a business analyst. 

Business acumen: A solid understanding of finance, accounting, and business principles will help you surface what operational issues exist, and how best to address them.

Communication: A business analyst is often expected to communicate with several different players within an organization, including upper management and other teams. Being able to present your ideas clearly and convincingly—both verbally and in writing—will be a large asset as a business analyst.

Data analysis : Gathering, tracking, and analyzing performance metrics will be central to a business analysis role. Having a good grasp of data analysis and visualization tools like Tableau, Excel, and BI Tools can be useful. Some knowledge of a programming language like SQL may also come in handy.

Business analysis methodologies: Depending on your industry, it could help to be familiar with specific methodologies, like Agile Business Analysis, Six Sigma , or Rational Unified Process.

Industry expertise: Different industries have different business needs and challenges. Developing business solutions for an IT company might look different than it does for a health care company. Industry experience, even in another role, can give you a competitive edge when applying for jobs.

2. Take a course.

Refreshing your familiarity with the skills expected of a business analyst can show employers your knowledge is up to date. Coursework, either in person or online, can offer you a structured way to build skills employers value most.

Gain a holistic understanding of the job with courses in data analytics or business analytics . Or familiarize yourself with the tools used in business analytics through coursework in Tableau or Excel and MySQL .

3. Earn a business analyst certification.

Earning a certification can expand your skill set, potentially increasing your earnings or making you more competitive for jobs. Here are some business analysis certifications to consider:

IIBA Entry Certificate in Business Analysis (ECBA)

IIBA Certified Business Analysis Professional (CBAP)

IIBA Certification of Capability in Business Analysis (CCBA)

PMI Professional in Business Analytics (PMI-PBA)

If you’re just starting out as a business analyst, the ECBA can show hiring managers you’ve received several hours of training and know the basics of business analysis. If you have some experience with business analytics, the CBAP, CCBA, and PMI-PBA can show employers your competency and experience.

4. Consider a degree.

Many employers like to see at least a bachelor’s degree on your resume, though some may prefer candidates with a master’s degree .

Bachelor’s degrees: Bachelor’s degrees are common for entry-level positions in analytical fields, according to the BLS. Getting your bachelor's degree in a quantitative field like economics, finance, computer science, data science, statistics, information management, or a similar field can prepare you for business analysis jobs.

Master’s degrees and MBAs: Some employers might prefer candidates with a master’s degree in a relevant subject. You may also consider getting a Master of Business Administration (MBA) ; several programs offer specializations in business analytics. Getting your master's degree in business analytics or business administration could help advance your skills and knowledge, and give you a competitive advantage in the job search arena.

5. Start with an entry-level role.

Internships and entry-level positions in accounting, finance, or business settings can build your experience before you advance to a higher-level position. In your job search, look for titles like junior business analyst or entry-level business analyst. If you’re still in school, making an appointment with a career counselor can help you understand what opportunities are out there.

Sharpen your business analytics skills with Coursera

If a career in business analysis sounds interesting, start by exploring what this field is all about and building some foundational skills. Coursera offers a variety of courses to meet your needs.

For an introduction to business analytics, consider the University of Pennsylvania's Business Analytics Specialization or the University of Minnesota's Analysis for Business Systems course.

To practice using Excel, join John Hopkins University's Business Analytics with Excel course.

To delve deeper and earn a credential, consider the Google Business Intelligence Professional Certificate program.

Frequently asked questions (FAQ)

What is a business intelligence analyst ‎.

A business intelligence analyst , or BI analyst, is a hybrid role somewhere between data analyst and business analyst. BI analysts analyze, model, and visualize data on industry trends and the competitive landscape to help businesses drive profits. ‎

Is business analyst an IT job? ‎

Not all business analysts work for a company's IT department. If you're interested in both data analysis and IT, consider a role as an IT business analyst. In this job, you'd analyze the needs and pain points of the IT department, as well as recommend technology and business solutions. ‎

Should I become a data analyst or a business analyst? ‎

Business analytics might be a better fit if you're more business minded. If you enjoy working with numbers and excel in mathematics and statistics, then consider data analysis as a career path. Many of the skills overlap, so it's possible to start as a business analyst and move into a role as a data analyst (or vice versa). ‎

Article sources

Glassdoor. " Business Analyst Overview , https://www.glassdoor.com/Career/business-analyst-career_KO0,16.htm." Accessed March 20, 2024.

US Bureau of Labor Statistics. " Computer Systems Analysts , https://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/computer-systems-analysts.htm." Accessed March 20, 2024.

US Bureau of Labor Statistics. " Operations Research Analysts , https://www.bls.gov/ooh/math/operations-research-analysts.htm." Accessed March 20, 2024.

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