writing an essay based on a case study

How to Write a Case Study - All You Wanted to Know

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

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Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

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What Is A Case Study?

How to cite a case study in apa, how to write a case study.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

• Writing well

How to write a case study response

• Starting well
• How to write an annotated bibliography
• How to write a critique
• How to write an empirical article
• How to write an essay
• How to write a literature review
• How to write a reflective task
• How to write a report
• Finishing well

Before you start writing, you need to carefully read the case study and make a note of the main issues and problems involved as well as the main stakeholders (persons or groups of persons who have an interest in the case).

Case study elements

A case study response would include the following elements:

Introduction

Introduce the main purpose of the case study and briefly outline the overall problem to be solved.

Description

Write a brief description of the case under discussion giving an outline of the main issues involved. Always assume that your reader knows nothing of the assignment task and provide enough information to give a context for your discussion of the issues.

Discuss the issues raised one by one, using information gained from your research of the academic literature.

Your discussion may include:

• an outline of the issue and its implications for or relationship to different stakeholders
• how that issue links to theories or research in the academic literature
• suggested solutions or ideas
• evaluation of the solutions or ideas for this particular case.

Conclusion / Recommendations

Finally, sum up the conclusions that you have come to and give recommendations to resolve the case. Give reasons for your recommendations.

• Carefully read the case and noted the main issues and stakeholders in the case?
• Written a brief description of the case to give your readers a context for the main issues?
• Discussed each issue with reference to the academic literature?
• Evaluated the solutions or ideas for each issue to find the ones most suitable?
• Made final recommendations of how to resolve the case?
• Used a well structured introduction, body and conclusion?
• Cited and referenced all of the work by other people?
• Used correct grammar, spelling and punctuation, clear presentation and appropriate reference style?

Further information

• Monash University: Writing a case study
• University of New South Wales: Writing a Case Study Report in Engineering

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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BA1002: Our Space: Networks, Narrative and the Making of Place Guide: Writing for the Case Study Essay

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Research and writing resources

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• Essay Writing Basics Video Series 1: Planning for essay writing 2: Finding evidence 3: How to read research 4: Constructing a thesis and essay plan 5: Paragraph structure basics

Essay writing checklist

• Check your assignment task requirements
• Unpack the question. What exactly do you have to do? What do you need to know?
• Brainstorm what you know. Brainstorm for ideas
• Make a time plan, allowing plenty of time for research
• Research high-quality information sources
• Draw up a writing plan, then do a very rough first draft
• Aim for an introduction and conclusion that make sense together
• Structure your writing so that its flow is clear, logical and coherent
• Carefully proofread and edit your essay
• Ensure all your sources are clearly referenced in your text.
• Writing Library Guide This guide will take you through the complete essay writing process

Coherence Test

Try this coherence test. How did you go? 

In a copy of your essay, delete everything except the introduction, headings, subheadings, paragraph topic sentences, and conclusion. Does the document still make sense as a whole, and indicate how your essay developes your thesis? If it does, then you know that you have coherence within your essay - congratulations!

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How to Write a Case Study

A case study is an in-depth analysis of a specific situation, person, event, phenomenon, time,  place, or company. They look at various elements of the situation including history, trends,  specific outcomes, cause and effect, etc. 

A case study can either be part of a larger research assignment as one of the methodologies used or be a standalone assignment. You can include several case studies in the same paper or focus on just one case. Multiple case studies are useful when comparing different elements of a research question and trying to find similarities or analyzing the reasons where outcomes are different. 

Since the goal of a case study is to get an in-depth understanding of a specific situation, it is perfect for unique cases which may not have a lot of experimental or theoretical data. But this also makes it a very subjective method of analysis, one that cannot be generalized to fit larger groups of data. Case studies are often used in the initial stages of studying a new situation and can help come up with research questions and hypotheses for future studies. 

Don't worry if that all sounds complicated,  by the end of this article you will know not only how to write a case study assignment in college, but how to write a good case study for a scientific publication!

What is a Case Study?

A case study is one of the best ways of analyzing a unique phenomenon. It's particularly useful when the research question cannot be studied in a lab or through quantitative methods. Case studies are used in the social sciences, business, medicine, social work, and government reports. It is tough to have a case study definition because there are five main types of case studies. 

Explanatory 

An explanatory case study explores the cause of a specific event or tries to explain why something happens. These are most often used to analyze events rather than people or groups. 

Exploratory

An exploratory case study is most often used to develop in-depth research questions. They are often precursors to large-scale research about a new topic. The goal of this kind of case study is to find new pieces of information that will help develop hypotheses to be tested in the future. 

Multiple, Collective, or Cumulative

This kind of case study collects information from pre-existing case studies to develop a general theory. This saves time and money, as well as allows researchers to go over pre-existing data to either make generalizations or find differences in previous outcomes. 

An intrinsic case study is a case study where the subject of the study is of particular interest and is the subject of analysis rather than a general theory. This kind of study is useful when looking at a very specific case. 

Instrumental

Instrumental case studies are used to uncover the relationship between two things, or when the focus is not on the subjects, but on the underlying phenomena. 

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Steps for Writing a Case Study

If you're tasked with writing a case study paper, it's important to begin by developing a strong research question and topic. This can be a daunting task, but there are resources available to help. Consider reaching out to custom writing services or admission essay writer for assistance in developing your research question and selecting a topic.

Once you have your topic and research question, it's time to begin the process of writing your case study paper. This can be a time-consuming and challenging process, but you don't have to go it alone. If you're feeling overwhelmed, consider hiring a coursework writing service or a " write my paper for me " service to help you complete your assignment.

When writing your case study paper, it's important to follow the proper format and structure. Your paper should include an introduction, background information, a description of the case, analysis of the case, and a conclusion. If you're unsure about how to structure your paper, don't hesitate to reach out for help from a do my essay for me service or a professional writer.

By working with custom writing services or professional writers, you can ensure that your case study paper is well-written, properly formatted, and meets all of your professor's requirements. Don't let the stress of writing a case study paper get in the way of your academic success - get the help you need today and watch your grades soar!

Step 1. Choosing a specific case

Once you have your research questions you are ready to think about what specific case answers those questions best. First, think about the different types of case studies and figure out which one is most applicable in your situation. Next, think about the kinds of questions that you want to find answers to, or the kinds of questions you want to uncover. Ask yourself

• Is the case you are interested in unique with the potential to uncover new kinds of information?
• Does the case you are interested in allow exploring a pre-existing idea or theory more in-depth?
• Does the case you are interested in have a conclusion or insight that is opposite or different from pre-existing ideas about the subject?
• Does the case you are interested in have the potential to solve a problem?
• Is the point of your case to come up with new hypotheses for future research?

As long as you think about these questions, you should be able to come up with a case that will both answer your research questions as well as provide relevant information.

Step 2. The literature review

Before jumping into collecting your data and running your experiments or interviews you should familiarize yourself with the pre-existing theoretical framework. Not only will this help you devise your data accumulation methodology, but it will also give you information to help describe and analyze your case. Some case studies may not have an extensive amount of pre-existing theories to go over, but doing a literature review is always going to be beneficial. 

Go over your lecture notes and textbook to see which theories are relevant to your case. Ask your friends, professors, and experts in the field for advice on what to research. Once you have a general idea of what topics to look into, use library resources and the internet to familiarize yourself with theories that may apply to your case and previous case study examples that are similar to yours. Looking into a similar example of a case study will make sure that you don't repeat research that has already happened, help you understand how to do a case study, give you guidance about how you should collect your data, and give you a case study template. 

Step 3. Collecting data

Data collection methodologies for a case study are usually qualitative rather than quantitative.  You can employ methods such as interviews and focus groups to collect specific or new types of data, or you can look at primary and secondary sources like journals, newspapers, online publications, etc. to collect information. 

Data collection for case studies can seem difficult because there is no specific goal that you are trying to reach. The goal is to collect as much relevant information as possible and develop your conclusions based on the data. Try to organize your data either thematically, chronologically, or in whatever way that makes the most sense to you. This will help when analyzing and describing while writing a case study in the next step.

Step 4. Writing the paper 

It's finally time to learn how to write a case study essay! Writing a case study is a complicated process because it does not follow the standard five-paragraph model of essay writing. The next section dives deep into actually writing a case study.

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How to Format a Case Study

A case study can be structured in a few different ways depending on the type of case study and the subject being analyzed. You can go over some examples of case studies, but in general, there are five sections in a case study outline; introduction, literature review, method, discussion, and conclusion. Let's go over each section in a case study format in depth. 

Introduction 

The first few sentences of the case study should present the question you are answering or the case you are exploring interestingly so that you grab the reader's interest. Give some background information about the topic you are looking into and some details about the case you are going to present highlighting how the two are related. Make sure you mention why the research question is important and why the case you have chosen enhances information about that topic. Write a brief summary of your literature review, highlighting important theories or previous case studies that you plan to build upon. Finally, end your introduction with the potential ways that your case study can be used in the future. 

Literature Review

Your first body paragraph should go over the literature review. The goal of this section is to present information to the reader that allows them to understand the current state of research in a given topic as well as help them understand why your case study is important. 

If there is a lot of research about your topic, summarize the main findings of that research and explain why the case you’re exploring expands information about the topic. Present case studies examples that answer similar research questions using a different research methodology and explain why your methodology is beneficial. Talk about the main theories that are related to your topic giving brief descriptions of each one as well as talking about why these theories are important to your case study. 

By the end of your literature review section, the reader should have theoretical knowledge of your topic and be familiar with what kind of research has already happened. Most importantly, they should know how your case study fills a knowledge gap, enhances knowledge by analyzing a problem differently, or shows new directions for further research. 

This is the section where you present your case. Start by explaining why you chose your particular case and how it relates to the larger research question. Then explain why you chose the specific research method you did.  

Give all the important background details of your case. If your case is about a specific person, spend some time going over the person’s history and the specific incident or situation you are looking into. If your case is about an event or situation, give background information about the company, time, pre-existing theoretical frameworks, or literature. 

If you have run a focus group or conducted interviews, give the details of how you chose your participants, why you chose specific questions, and then the answers and data that you gathered.

Essentially the goal of this section is to present the new information that you have discovered. 

The discussion section combines your findings with the case study analysis. This is where you draw conclusions based on your research and connect them to your research question. Start this paragraph by restating your research questions and thesis. Briefly go over why you chose your case and how it relates to the topic, then present your findings. 

State your main finding and explain why it is important. If it is surprising, connect it to existing literature and explain why it is surprising. If it enhances the understanding of a specific topic, explain how it differs from the results of previous case studies. Do this for any other important results from your case study. Remember to explain why each one is important and how the results can be generalized beyond just your specific case study. 

Compare your case study to previous case studies done on similar topics. If the findings of your case study are different from the findings of previous similar case studies, explain why this is so. For example, this could be because of different research methodologies, different target audiences, generational changes, or you could have uncovered a new way of thinking about a problem. By comparing your case study to pre-existing case studies you can show either how you have answered a question raised previously, or how your case study findings can prompt future research. 

Towards the end of your discussion section, you should consider alternative explanations for your case study findings. Because case studies often look into not well-understood areas of research or are about very specific cases, the findings can be interpreted subjectively. Go over other possible interpretations of your findings to show that you have deeply considered your results. 

In most academic papers, the limitations of your study and avenues for possible research are included in the conclusion, but for a case study, they are important sections of the main discussion. While acknowledging the limitations of your study, you get a chance to explain why those limitations may not apply to your case. Use this as an opportunity to explain why certain questions could not be answered by your case study. This is also why suggesting avenues for further research make sense here. Make suggestions for research based on the limitations of your study or surprising results in your findings. 

The main goal of your conclusion is to explain why your case study and its findings are important. Repeat your research question and thesis and state your main findings clearly. Give a brief overview of the most important pre-existing case studies or theories related to your case and explain how your findings have expanded on that information. Finally, explain how your case studies and findings can contribute to further research. 

Whether it’s how to write a student case study, how to write a business case study, how to write a case study analysis, you now know how to make a case study! Writing a good case study can be challenging because it requires both a literature review as well as original research. Case studies are often used in the business world for marketing, in the social sciences for psychology, sociology, and anthropology, as well as in medicine. So, learning to write a case study is important! If you need help with writing a case study, the experts at Studyfy are always eager to lend a hand. 

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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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See an example

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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How to Write a Case Study: Guide for Freshmen

If you study in college, it’s unlikely that you’ve never heard about a case study. Researchers widely use case study format for their research no matter what their field of study is: marketing, medicine, business, media, law, communications, economy, or sociology. Sooner or later, every student must face the problem of providing a case study. We are eager to help our hard-working and inquisitive readers to learn more on how to write a case study.

Although the written part of such an assignment is called a case study report, students generally use the term “case study,” implying the report. In our article, we’ll talk mostly about the case study itself. However, we’ll also provide you with information on how to write a case study report in a separate section.

First of all, let’s define a case study in order to avoid any confusion in the future.

What is a case study?

A case study is a well-researched relevant example that serves as an illustration for a particular problem, issue, argument, or concern. It can also be defined as a method for a deeper understanding of a problem, organization, activity, or event. You shouldn’t mistake it for the case method that is used as a teaching strategy.

In short, the case is the subject of your research. As a rule, you study a particular contemporary phenomenon: person, group of people, organization, place, activity, process, or problem. Depending on the chosen case, your study can be categorized as:

• A single instrumental case study: firstly, you choose a certain problem/concern, and then you focus on one case that illustrates this issue.
• A multiple case study: you also choose a certain issue, but focus on more than one bounded case.
• An intrinsic case study: you don’t concentrate on any problem, as you choose one unique case and analyze it without connecting to a particular concern.

Although case study format may vary, all works of this type have a range of common peculiarities. So, what are the main characteristics of the great case study sample?

What makes a great case study?

1. Full picture

Every case study should be based on multiple sources of data in order to provide an exhaustive presentation of the subject.

2. Systematic investigation

All data on the subject should be well-structured in order to create reliable materials for further studies.

3. Natural setting

Case studies are NOT EXPERIMENTS! You don’t examine a phenomenon under laboratory conditions. The contextual aspect allows the studying of events and processes in real circumstances, taking into account a range of various external factors.

4. Narrow research question

When you provide a case study, you are looking for a particular solution or to collect certain data. You don’t have to answer general questions or produce theories. You get in-depth insight into the phenomenon that is tightly connected with your research question.

5. Qualitative and quantitative approaches

Case studies use both quantitative and qualitative approaches, though they are mostly focused on the latter. Consequently, the most frequently used methods of data collection are: research interviews, surveys and questionnaires, document analysis, historical research, etc.

6. Bounded system

A phenomenon should be bounded to be a case. Before beginning your study, you should firstly define the case boundaries – place or time period.

Common types of case studies due to aim

All case studies have common characteristics like continuity, a deep and thorough analysis, qualitative and quantitative research methods, etc. At the same time, every case study has different goals, and that defines its types.

Usually, a case study can:

• define the questions for a further study;
• provide a contextual description of the event, person, company, etc.;
• analyze a cause-and-effect relationship.

The main goal determines the character of your case study. All case studies can be typified as:

• Exploratory – defines the questions for a further study/for future research.

This type is the most common, as the frequent goal of a case study is to explore a new area or phenomenon and collect data for further studies. The exploratory approach is an open technique that is focused on observation and collecting various information. This technique is often appropriate for a case study, as it allows students to learn more about absolutely unknown subjects without any preparations or background information.

• Descriptive – provides a contextual description of the event, person, company, etc.

The second way to provide a case study is to compose an in-depth, detailed, and nuanced description of the situation. You should specify the contextual details to define the case study boundaries.

• Explanatory – analyzes a cause-and-effect relationship (outcomes generated from certain circumstances).

The last type may seem difficult as it requires deep analysis, objective evaluation, discovering connections, and, sometimes, making a forecast. You have to find out what causes entail which consequences.

6 important steps in writing a case study

Case study writing can be a challenge for students. However, everything becomes easier when you have a good step-by-step plan. Below, you’ll find a detailed instruction that will help you to fight a case study problem. Follow our lead and produce an excellent case study sample!

1. Choose a case or an issue.

Depending on the type of your case study (single instrumental, multiple, or intrinsic), you should pick a case, a few cases, or a problem that you’ll research. If you have specified instructions, make sure that your case study is appropriate for your research question.

Example of a case for a single instrumental case study:

Netflix in India: Governmental Policy and Its Implications for Multinational Corporations.

Example of cases for a multiple case study:

Netflix in India and Google in China: Governmental Policy and Its Implications for Multinational Corporations.

Example of an issue for an intrinsic case study:

The Development Issues of Multinational Corporations on Foreign Markets.

2. Determine the type of the case study.

Exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory case studies require different strategies and methods. Before beginning your work, determine what type of case study you want to produce.

3. Design a study.

Develop a framework or a case study template to make sure that your work is well-considered. Take your time to think over all details to avoid confusions in the future.

4. Collect and analyze data.

The process of gathering data is the same for any type of case study. You observe, ask questions, interview employees and specialist, read numerous documents, etc. On the other hand, a data analysis can be provided in different ways.

For a single instrumental case study, you categorize data into particular themes; this method is called “analysis of themes.”

For a multiple case study, data analysis includes two steps: firstly, you look for common themes in each case and examine them separately (within-case analysis), and then you look for connections between common themes in different cases (cross-case analysis).

5. Conclude your work.

Think about lessons you’ve learned, the meaning of the data you’ve gathered and analyzed, and the possibility of further studies. Remember that your case study can become a basis for someone else’s work, so be responsible and accurate!

6. Provide a case study report.

The written part of your case study is utterly important, as it represents the results of your work and can be shared with other researchers. Your case study report should be written in concise academic language according to the formatting style specified by your instructor. Below, you’ll find a more detailed plan on how to write a case study report.

We hope that you’ll quickly and easily make all these steps to write a case study, and get an impressive result. Now, let’s take a closer look at a case study report.

How to write a case study report

When you’ve collected and classified all necessary data on your subject, it’s the right time to start writing your case study report. This is the final stage of your case study, and demonstrates the results of your work. You should be very accurate while composing your report because it may serve as a basis for further studies of other researches.

Every report consists of seven major elements:

1. Cover page

A cover page or title page includes general information on the author and work: student’s name, case study title, and date of submission.

A summary is a brief review of your case study where you mention the subject, methods, and important findings. As a rule, the summary is written last.

3. Introduction

The introduction of the case study provides readers with background information on your case and describes the current situation.

4. Main body

The main body is the heart of your case study. Issues, goals, problems, findings, data analysis, recommendations, and predictions – you include all these parts in the main body.

5. Conclusion

A concise conclusion should emphasize the meaning of your findings and restate the key points of your case study. At the same time, it should not be simply a summary of your main body.

6. Works cited page

Every research should be based on reliable sources, and every source should be properly cited. While working on your case study, don’t forget to record all of your sources. Otherwise, you can be accused of plagiarism.

7. Appendices

This part includes all additional materials that are connected with your case study sample: charts, images, tables, statistics, etc. You should refer to them in the text of your writing.

Don’t forget that your case study report is the only material representation of your work! Stick to the formatting style, follow instructions, and proofread your writing properly!

Case study examples at EssayShark.com

The quickest way to process new information is to find a proper example. The same applies to case study writing. This type of assignment can be rather challenging especially for freshmen, so don’t neglect the opportunity to read some examples before writing your own.

We don’t guarantee that it will be easy to find the best case study templates on the internet. Anyway, we offer you to check out some of our samples placed on the blog. At the first place, let’s take a closer look at three case study templates that can be categorized by their aim:

• The exploratory case study sample observes employee motivation and retention strategies at Microsoft.
• The descriptive case study sample provides a detailed and nuanced report on Zara’s current market situation.
• The explanatory case study sample analyzes whether Intel should penetrate the smart phone market and tablet market or not.
• Students who are looking for a short business case study report should check out our case study sample about Barilla S.p.A. , which is one of the largest manufacturers of Italian spaghetti in the world.
• An advertising case study sample will be a great example of the single-instrumental case study.

Case study research is an academic assignment of the high difficulty. We are sure that our guide on how to write a case study has helped you to figure out all significant details about this research method. Don’t forget to check out our well-written case study samples placed on the blog!

As you can see, a case study is no joke. This work requires profound research, deep analysis, and proficient writing skills! Luckily to you, our writers at EssayShark.com are experienced enough to deal with any kind of academic assignment.

You can write a case study from scratch and spend a few sleepless nights to do your homework. Still, there is no guarantee that your instructor will appreciate your efforts.

We offer you a simple solution: get a case study in a few steps at our writing service! You don’t have to solve your academic problems alone: EssayShark.com is available 24/7! Our service is a perfect place to enlist the support of well-educated writers at an affordable price. Place your order, and we’ll start working in the blink of an eye!

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How to Write a Case Study | Examples & Methods

What is a case study?

A case study is a research approach that provides an in-depth examination of a particular phenomenon, event, organization, or individual. It involves analyzing and interpreting data to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject under investigation. 

Case studies can be used in various disciplines, including business, social sciences, medicine ( clinical case report ), engineering, and education. The aim of a case study is to provide an in-depth exploration of a specific subject, often with the goal of generating new insights into the phenomena being studied.

When to write a case study

Case studies are often written to present the findings of an empirical investigation or to illustrate a particular point or theory. They are useful when researchers want to gain an in-depth understanding of a specific phenomenon or when they are interested in exploring new areas of inquiry. 

Case studies are also useful when the subject of the research is rare or when the research question is complex and requires an in-depth examination. A case study can be a good fit for a thesis or dissertation as well.

Case study examples

Below are some examples of case studies with their research questions:

These examples demonstrate the diversity of research questions and case studies that can be explored. From studying small businesses in Ghana to the ethical issues in supply chains, case studies can be used to explore a wide range of phenomena.

Outlying cases vs. representative cases

An outlying case stud y refers to a case that is unusual or deviates significantly from the norm. An example of an outlying case study could be a small, family-run bed and breakfast that was able to survive and even thrive during the COVID-19 pandemic, while other larger hotels struggled to stay afloat.

On the other hand, a representative case study refers to a case that is typical of the phenomenon being studied. An example of a representative case study could be a hotel chain that operates in multiple locations that faced significant challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic, such as reduced demand for hotel rooms, increased safety and health protocols, and supply chain disruptions. The hotel chain case could be representative of the broader hospitality industry during the pandemic, and thus provides an insight into the typical challenges that businesses in the industry faced.

Steps for Writing a Case Study

As with any academic paper, writing a case study requires careful preparation and research before a single word of the document is ever written. Follow these basic steps to ensure that you don’t miss any crucial details when composing your case study.

Step 1: Select a case to analyze

After you have developed your statement of the problem and research question , the first step in writing a case study is to select a case that is representative of the phenomenon being investigated or that provides an outlier. For example, if a researcher wants to explore the impact of COVID-19 on the hospitality industry, they could select a representative case, such as a hotel chain that operates in multiple locations, or an outlying case, such as a small bed and breakfast that was able to pivot their business model to survive during the pandemic. Selecting the appropriate case is critical in ensuring the research question is adequately explored.

Step 2: Create a theoretical framework

Theoretical frameworks are used to guide the analysis and interpretation of data in a case study. The framework should provide a clear explanation of the key concepts, variables, and relationships that are relevant to the research question. The theoretical framework can be drawn from existing literature, or the researcher can develop their own framework based on the data collected. The theoretical framework should be developed early in the research process to guide the data collection and analysis.

To give your case analysis a strong theoretical grounding, be sure to include a literature review of references and sources relating to your topic and develop a clear theoretical framework. Your case study does not simply stand on its own but interacts with other studies related to your topic. Your case study can do one of the following: 

• Demonstrate a theory by showing how it explains the case being investigated
• Broaden a theory by identifying additional concepts and ideas that can be incorporated to strengthen it
• Confront a theory via an outlier case that does not conform to established conclusions or assumptions

Step 3: Collect data for your case study

Data collection can involve a variety of research methods , including interviews, surveys, observations, and document analyses, and it can include both primary and secondary sources . It is essential to ensure that the data collected is relevant to the research question and that it is collected in a systematic and ethical manner. Data collection methods should be chosen based on the research question and the availability of data. It is essential to plan data collection carefully to ensure that the data collected is of high quality

Step 4: Describe the case and analyze the details

The final step is to describe the case in detail and analyze the data collected. This involves identifying patterns and themes that emerge from the data and drawing conclusions that are relevant to the research question. It is essential to ensure that the analysis is supported by the data and that any limitations or alternative explanations are acknowledged.

The manner in which you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard academic paper, with separate sections or chapters for the methods section , results section , and discussion section , while others are structured more like a standalone literature review.

Regardless of the topic you choose to pursue, writing a case study requires a systematic and rigorous approach to data collection and analysis. By following the steps outlined above and using examples from existing literature, researchers can create a comprehensive and insightful case study that contributes to the understanding of a particular phenomenon.

Preparing Your Case Study for Publication

After completing the draft of your case study, be sure to revise and edit your work for any mistakes, including grammatical errors , punctuation errors , spelling mistakes, and awkward sentence structure . Ensure that your case study is well-structured and that your arguments are well-supported with language that follows the conventions of academic writing .  To ensure your work is polished for style and free of errors, get English editing services from Wordvice, including our paper editing services and manuscript editing services . Let our academic subject experts enhance the style and flow of your academic work so you can submit your case study with confidence.

Other assessments: Case studies

• Scientific writing style
• Case studies
• Journal critique
• Research proposals
• Dissertations
• Literature reviews
• Assessed discussion
• Video assignments

On this page:

“For knowledge you will use in the real world - in business, for example, or in engineering or medicine - the "what" [to think] isn't sufficient. You must know how to apply the knowledge to the real world.” William Ellet, The Case Study Handbook

Case study assignments are common in some disciplines. Their main purpose is to show that you can relate theory to real-life situations. You also need to be able to recommend practical solutions to real-life problems.

This page is dedicated to writing case studies for undergraduate assignments, it does not tackle case studies as a research method/approach.

What is a case study?

A case study is an assignment where you analyse a specific case (organisation, group, person, event, issue) and explain how the elements and complexities of that case relate to theory . You will sometimes have to come up with solutions to problems or recommendations for future action.

You may be asked to write a case study as an essay, as part of a longer assignment or as a report.

Examples of cases

An organisation.  For example a company, a business, a school, a sports club, a health body.

A group. For example a class of pupils, an individual team within an organisation, a project group, a sports club.

An individual.  For example a patient, a client, a specific student/pupil, a manager/leader.

An event.  For example a sporting occasion, a cultural event, a news story, an historical event.

An issue.  For example a dilemma, problem, critical event, change of practice.

Analysing a case

What are you being asked to do.

It is important be sure about the purpose of analysing the case before you begin. Refer back to your assignment brief and make sure you are clear about this. It could be:

• To answer a specific question using examples from the case to support your argument
• To explore what happened and why (no recommendations needed)
• To make recommendations or identify solutions
• To write a plan that takes the issues into consideration

Examining the case

In order to be thoroughly familiar with the case you are going to need to read through* the case several times during the analysis process. Start by simply reading it without asking too many questions in your mind. Get a feel for it as a whole. After that, you will need to read through it several times to identify the following:

• What are the facts? List information you are sure about.
• What happened/is happening? List definite actions that occurred/are occurring.
• Who was/is involved? List people by job role and what their involvement was/is.

You will now need to read additional material to help you analyse. In business, for example, you will perhaps want to read the financial statements for the company you are investigating; in nursing, the background of the treatment for the disorder from which “your” patient is suffering.

* Sometimes cases are presented to you as videos to watch. In which case you are going to have to watch it many times!

Theoretical approaches

You may have to ask yourself which theoretical approaches that you have covered in your course are relevant to the particular case you have before you. In some instances this may be obvious but in others it may be less so. A theoretical approach is useful as it can give you  specific questions to answer ; specific things to look for. For example, in business, this may take the form of a SWOT analysis - Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) or you may look at the Porter's Five Forces model. There are similar models in other disciplines which you may have been introduced to already - or the brief may tell you which to use.

No obvious theoretical approach?

If you have not been provided with a theoretical approach don't worry. You can still ask questions. For example: 

What is this case study about in general? What is the big picture - the main issue that this case study is an example of?

What specific issues are associated with it? What makes this case interesting?

What do I already know about these issues?

How do they link with the theories we have studied? (See below.)

What alternative approaches to dealing with the issues would be appropriate?

If an alternative approach were used, what impact might it have?

Linking to theory

The most crucial element about a case study is your ability to link the real world example to theory. This gives you more insight into both because

• The real life example will mean you can see how theory works in practice .
• Theory can help you see why things happened as they did and help you come up with alternative approaches and find solutions/make recommendations.

Real life is complex and messy. Do not expect it to nicely fit into theories which are by their very nature best guesses (albeit well researched) and generalisations. However, you will have been given the case specifically because it does relate to some theories you have learned or need to be aware of.

So you need to:

• Look back through your lecture notes and reading lists to see if anything seems to fit with the case.
• Search for research that relates to the issues you identified during your analysis. Note these will not necessarily be labelled as 'theories'. Claims made in research papers can all be described as theories. 

Now consider some or all of the questions below:

• Do the facts and issues raised in the case support any theories?
• Do the fact and issues raised in the case invalidate or undermine any theories?
• Can any of the theories explain why issues arose?
• Can any of the theories back up the actions taken?
• Can any of the theories suggest alternative courses of action?
• Do you think any of these alternatives would work best in your case? Why?

Armed with the answers to many of these questions, you are ready to start writing up your case study.

Writing up your case study

The most common ways to write up a case study are as essays or reports . The main differences between the two will be how you structure your work.

Structuring a case study essay

Case study essays usually have to answer a specific question using examples from your case study. They are written in continuous prose (a series of paragraphs with no subheadings). They should be structured much like any other essay with an introduction, main body and conclusion. 

Introduction

This needs to have three things:

• An introduction to your case (you don't need to rewrite it, just summarise it giving the important parts for your essay).
• A position statement (your answer to the overall question).
• An indication of how the rest of the essay is structured.

These do not have to be in that particular order but they do all need to be included.

Generally you will organise this thematically . Each paragraph needs to make a point and then use information from your case to illustrate and back up that point . You will also bring in theory (other reading) to strengthen your argument. It is acceptable to start with the example from your case and then show how this links to theory and the conclusion this leads you to; however, it is best if you first let your reader know the point you are making, as then they are not having to second guess this until the end of the paragraph. 

Each point in your main body should be leading back to the position statement you made in the introduction.

What are the main lessons you learned from the case study? How well did the theory fit with the real world example? Have you been asked to provide solutions or recommendations? If so, give them here.

Reference list

Include all the sources you have cited in your essay.

Structuring a case study report

These can vary between disciplines so check your assignment guidance. A typical case study would include:

Table of contents

See our MS Word pages  or our MS Office Software SkillsGuide for instructions on how to create these automatically.

Executive summary - optional, check if required

Give an overview of your whole report including main approaches, findings and recommendations. This is a bit like the abstract of a journal article.

• Context (Background)
• Purpose - what is the case study trying to achieve? 
• Approach - are you using any particular theoretical tools or research approaches?

Discussion/Analysis

• Identification of issues and problems
• Links to theories that help you explain the case
• Explanation of causes or implications of the issues identified
• Possible solutions (if required, check your instructions)

These depends on what you were asked to do but could include:

• Main lessons learned
• Best solutions and reasons why
• Recommendations (may have their own section)
• Action plan (may have its own section)
• Include all the sources you have cited in the report.

Appendices if required

Recommended books and ebooks from our collection, related books and ebooks from our collection.

Recommended external resources

• Writing a case study From Monash University
• Writing a case study analysis From The University of Arizona
• Case studies From the University of South Australia - includes useful sample case studies
• Writing a case study PDF to download from the University of Bedfordshire
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WRITE A CASE STUDY

Students often report problems with their case studies. This type of assignment is different from a high school or college essay. It requires a specific answer to the question along with the effective solution instead of informative writing alone. A case study is like a complicated math problem that requires a full answer and detailed interpretation. That is why it is wrong to say that a student writes a case study. They rather prepare a solution to it.

Your case study is a research method used to study an individual, team of people, event, or object. Here is the list of subjects that may include writing a case study as part of the class:

• Anthropology and history
• Computer science
• Math and related subjects
• Business disciplines

That is not a full list. Learning how to solve case studies is valuable. By knowing it, one will use them as an effective corporate tool to sell product or service being part of the sales team, for instance. Every assignment of this type requires an original approach to solving the problem, and it is better to find the answer working in a team. It should be your own paper in the end, but you can mention other contributors.

A student has to choose the way to present their project. Here are the possible options:

• Oral case presentation
• Research problem and solution (PPT presentation)
• Business school publishing
• Video case study
• Public speech
• Written answer (an essay or research paper)

Those are the basic things to know about the definition. The following sections will explain how to do this assignment.

4 Types of Case Studies

Decide which paper you need based on the classification of case studies. There are four of them.

• Descriptive.

If you have no idea where to start and what the problem is about, this option is for you. Describe every tiny detail about the subject. If your project is on obesity as a form of the disorder, specify the causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment methods, etc. A conclusion may be the most effective way to deal with obesity.

• Critical analysis.

Writers from the literary fields prefer this one. A student obtains a written piece or another type of content to evaluate and criticize. The main steps are to interpret the offered data, assess the information, and come up with the conclusion in the shape of an efficient solution to the existing problem.

• Exploratory.

A student should focus on quantitative data. With the help of relevant, trustworthy sources (your interview, surveys, polls, questionnaires), a writer should explore the issue.

• Cumulative.

The goal is to blindly gather all possible facts, statistics, and other quantitative data. It is the opposite of qualitative info. The primary object of a student who selects this type of writing is to gather details about the research problem and evaluate the information to obtain inferences/solutions.

How to Conduct Research

A writer should start with prior research. Depending on the selected topic, it is essential to go online or to the college library to study the available sources and pick the best ideas to cite. That is how a student can choose the topic or find good evidence. Modern tutors insist on using conventional sources which means you should avoid books, newspapers, articles, and other content older than 5-10 years. A lot may have changed during that period.

The pre-writing steps include:

• Surfing the web trying to gather credible study materials
• Making a list of reliable sources
• Seeking out significant facts and statistics
• Preparing a list of keywords
• Highlighting the primary research question or problem
• Thinking about several solutions or another answer (alternative)

Experts recommend applying triangulation to get your A+. Depending on your subject of matter, get ready with an outline.

An Outline for a Case Study

A case study starts with an introduction. The rest of the sections are different by their content and purposes: aims, a method of analysis, results and discussion, and recommendations.

An introduction may be combined with the aims. A writer should introduce the situation/problem, explain why it is critical to solve the issue, and end up with a thesis statement (that would be the Aims section). The method must contain the full list of equipment and tools. Results should present the figures obtained by the researcher so that others would be able to repeat the same; the discussion section must offer interpretations of the results. Recommendations stand for particular solutions to implement. In the report, the author has to summarize the central points. A literature review with the full references to the analyzed sources (when the study was published and other details) with their short descriptions may be requested by your teacher (it is an analogy of bibliography).

Every time you insert a citation needed to support a piece of info, you should format it. Formatting of your work will depend on the subject or institution. Harvard Business School students should use Harvard citation format, those who study medicine will have to reference sources in AMA, IT students prefer IEEE, etc. Specify the format if you are not sure.

Prompts and Ideas for Your Case Study

In rare situations, tutors allow picking the topic. Mind that you should think about a full prompt made of several sentences and questions instead of a single-sentence topic. It is not an essay! These sample questions might help you to get inspired:

• Discuss the psychology behind the behavior of kids that suffer from social anxiety. Offer effective methods of preventing and treating mental disorders.
• Consumer behavior analysis and its role in business. Pick an existing business or come up with an imaginary one, analyze the consumer behavior, reasons why customers do/do not trust the company and offer solutions on how to improve the B2C relations.
• Large shops surviving the harsh competition in the US market. Define the causes of success and come up with recommendations and solutions for the start-ups that fail during the initial year of the launch.
• The correlation between the higher education and economic development of the country. Pick a specific country which suffers from various economic issues, define the level of higher education and overall literacy rates, and propose some solutions to improve the situation.
• The main causes of college drop-out cases. Analyze the factors that make students leave colleges during the first year and propose preventive measures.

Only a sample of work can provide you with an idea of how your case study should look. Oh, wait, it seems like we know another way!

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How to Write a Case Study Essay

Rick radcliff.

Case studies are essays that seek an answer to a problem or puzzle. Case studies take extensive amounts of research and analysis into a subject, person or group to identify and answer a case problem. In most forms of writing, you’ll often be advised to only research as much you need to write the essay. A case study essay differs from this way of thinking because it is primarily based around researching. The essay serves as a means to convey the research, not the other way around.

Explore this article

• Identify the subject of your study
• Choose the type
• Research your case study
• Analyze your research
• Outline your essay
• Write your first draft
• Edit your draft
• Write a final draft

1 Identify the subject of your study

Identify the subject of your study. It's best not to decide on a case problem at this point. If you decide on a case problem too soon, you risk writing a biased essay because you'll only be using the research to answer your problem. Naturally, there will be times when you can develop the case problem first, but in general, it's a smart practice to wait until you've researched your topic to remain as objective as possible.

2 Choose the type

Choose the type of case study you want to write. You can write an illustrative case study, exploratory case study, cumulative case study or critical instance case study. Illustrative case studies don’t require as much research, and they cover a topic in a general way. According to writing.colostate.edu, illustrative case studies “primarily serve to make the unfamiliar familiar.” Exploratory case studies are similar to a preliminary case study that helps you identify questions and find the focus of your main case study. A cumulative case study incorporates the use of case studies already written to avoid doing redundant studies. A critical instance study concerns itself with specifics and can be useful to answer cause and effect problems.

3 Research your case study

Research your case study. The type of study you plan to do should dictate what and how much you research. The Internet can be an excellent research tool, keeping in mind to only use the most credible sources, such as education and government sites. Access to a University library can prove invaluable, especially when seeking academic journals and other case studies. You should only use credible resources when researching outside of the Internet as well, and the most credible sources are often printed by a university press. The research phase is also the time to conduct any interviews you need.

4 Analyze your research

Analyze your research. It’s beneficial to work in a group and distribute research throughout the group. This is also the time to think about identifying a case problem, which is easier to develop through group discussion.

5 Outline your essay

Outline your essay. Many people may want to skip this, but outlining is a smart practice. Think of it as a first draft without actually writing the first draft. Use your outline to put your main ideas in a logical order. There are no specific rules for outlining a case study essay. You should include an introduction, body and conclusion just like any other essay. While there may not be any exact rules for outlining a case study, keep this advice from ggtp.org in mind, "[A case study] is information arranged in such a way that the reader is put in the same position as the case writer was at the beginning when he or she was faced with a new situation and asked to figure out what was going on."

6 Write your first draft

Write your first draft. If you’ve outlined, writing the first draft should be significantly easier because you’ll have a plan to follow. Remember that an outline is just a plan, and you’ll probably have to change things along the way as necessary.

7 Edit your draft

Edit your draft. Correct obvious grammatical errors. Make sure all the paragraphs are in the order you want them. Consider that some information may work better if presented in a different order.

8 Write a final draft

Write a final draft. A benefit of putting together a strong outline is that you won’t need major rewrites, but some paragraphs and sentences can usually be rewritten more clearly and efficiently.

• 1 writing.colostate.edu: Writing Guide: Case Studies
• 2 writing.colostate.edu: Types of Case Studies

About the Author

Rick Radcliff became a full-time freelance writer in 2010. He has also ghostwritten for private clients, specializing in health and technology. Radcliff is pursuing a Bachelor of Arts in English from Pennsylvania State University.

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Case Study Essay

Case study essay generator.

Nurses, social workers, and psychologists know that when it comes to their case studies. The most common and important thing that they have in common is a case note or a case study essay that they write. Some of us may never understand the purpose or the use of these case study essays, but it does not mean that we cannot try. Social workers use these to record their findings and observations about the casework that they do. Nurses use it to record or update the status of their patients. Psychologists do the same, except they record the progress of their patients . With that being said, let’s take a deep dive into getting to know what a case study essay really is about.

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What Is a Case Study Essay?

A case study essay is a document that nurses , social workers, and psychologists use to summarize and record their assignment, case, or task. The case study essay consists of not only a summary but also the specific details that are necessary to complete the essay as well as to help analyze what the case study is about. In most cases, the name of the person, the environment, and the nature of the case are placed in the essay. However, this may also depend on who may be writing the essay and for what purpose it will serve them. The case study essay is often used as a means of understanding the case they are writing through research and observation.

How to Make a Case Study Essay

How do you start writing a case study essay? We know for a fact that this is just a type of essay or a note that nurses and social workers write on either a daily basis or during their cases. Just like any kind of essay writing that has its own format and its own outline for making it, making a case study essay has its own format and its own outline to make it. To make your case study essay, you may be given a strict format for it. With that being said, here are some steps you can simply follow in order to make your case study essay a success.

1. Start with a General Introduction

The general introduction is the first thing you are going to be making for your case study essay. The introduction is used as a way or as a means to guide your audience as to what they are going to be getting when they read your essay. Introductions tend to be more general than specific, but it is up to you how you are going to introduce the topic of your case study.

2. Talk About Your Case

Expound on what your essay is all about. Apart from the introduction being given that guides the reader about your essay, the body of the essay will be more about your case, the steps that you did in order to understand and talk about it, the people involved, the environment, and any procedures that you have done in order to provide what is being asked for your case study.

3. Make Your Conclusion

Write the conclusion or the recommendations for your case study. After the introduction of the case, the body wherein you talk about it, which often includes the severity of the case you are handling, the next thing that will come is the recommendation and the solutions for your case study. What can be done and what methods can you recommend? Place it in this section.

4. Proofread the Entire Case Study Essay

The need to proofread your entire case study essay is something a lot of people may often take for granted. However, proofreading helps you figure out if the format and how you have outlined your case study in the essay is what is expected. In order to know, proofreading and reviewing your work is essential.

What is a case study essay?

A case study  essay  is a document that  nurses , social workers, and psychologists use just to name a few in order to summarize and record their assignment, case, or task. The case study essay consists of not only a summary but also the specific details that are necessary to complete the essay as well as to help  analyze  what the case study is about.

Why is there a need to make a case study essay?

The main reason for making a case study essay is that you are told to write it or to record what you may have observed during your case study. The case study essay is often used as a means of understanding the case they are writing through research and observation.

What should not be added in the case study essay?

Personal opinions that do not match or matter should not be included in the essay. Based on the observations and findings, your essay should be based more on professional opinion rather than personal.

Writing essays does not necessarily mean it is only for students; as a matter of fact, it can also be used for nurses, psychologists, and social workers who are tasked to write their case studies in the form of essays.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

Write a case study essay on a successful local business and its strategy for success.

Analyze in a case study essay how a small school improved its dropout rates.

How to Write a Case Study

A lot of social and financial studies involve completing a case study. Though this academic work might seem pretty easy at first sight, there are a lot of specifics that one should consider before starting. For example, one should be acquainted with the design of a case study and its general formatting rules in order to create a high-quality piece.

Definition and Types

A case study is a written assignment that is centered around a problem, its analysis, and the suggestion of solutions. Commonly such cases are based on real subjects and events but can vary in circumstances and terms depending on the needs of the discipline or topic. In order to create an excellent case study, one should pay attention to detail and suggest the best options on how to solve the problem based on related works and studies on the topic.

So, you can see that a person who starts writing a case study must analyze the problem and conduct in-depth research to find the necessary supportive base for their suggestions.

There are a few different types of such a project that students may face.

Illustrative

Such studies are aimed to describe the case and make it understandable for a reader who might not be familiar with the topic of the research.

Pilot (Exploratory)

This type of study is more like a preparation step for in-depth research or investigation. Such studies come in handy when one needs to identify what questions to explore, what subjects to focus on, and what data collection methods to pick.

Critical Instance

Such cases are great for cause and effect studies as they are exploring a few situations or phenomena with the purpose of criticizing generalized assumptions.

Unlike the previous type, a cumulative study collects information from various sources in order to generalize the situation or phenomena.

Steps of Writing

The writing process of such a study is similar to any other type of assignment as it consists of steps like preparation, research, writing, and editing. However, it also has specifics that might cause difficulties, especially if you are writing such a piece for the first time. Let’s find out what one should pay attention to and what the best tips on writing a case study are.

Step 1. Preparation and Research

There are a lot of things that you should do before you start writing your paper. Here are a few steps to take before diving into the writing process:

• Choose a case (a situation, problem, phenomena) to study if you are not assigned one by your teacher or professor.
• Choose the methods and instruments of data collection and analysis.
• Find existing works on the topic of your research. Search for related case studies, articles, and reports. There might be a lot of material to work with or there might be not enough. Choose wisely and make sure you have enough information to explore different points of view and avoid being biased.

An expert tip: Case studies can be set around people, organizations, programs, practices, services, and even whole systems or regimes. Make sure to choose the case that is able to provide essential insights and perspectives as well as enough material to build a counterpoint.

In order to create a great piece, you will need to collect and analyze information on the topic as well as to conduct qualitative research. The best sources of information for your case study are:

• Documents: archives, articles, records, reports.
• First-hand evidence: interviews, tests, observations.
• Additional theoretical data: other case studies, books, journals, etc.

When researching theoretical or supporting information for your work, pay attention not only to the source of it but also its relevance (be sure to use the latest data to avoid using outdated information).

Step 2. Drafting

Once all the data that you need for your work is collected and organized, it’s time to start writing the first draft of your case study. As any other academic paper, this type of work consists of an introduction, the main body, and the conclusion. A case study has the main body divided into a few blocks; thus, the structure of it looks something like the following:

The abstract is a brief summary of the work, research, and the results as well as its importance and purpose. It’s essential to put the most important points into your abstract such as what question was posed, what methods and instruments were used, and what results you have achieved.

Make your abstract short and informative, keep it less than a page, and make sure to check what type of abstract is required by your learning institution – narrative or structured one – as they have their specifics. A structured abstract is not composed as a narrative one (which is basically a summary of your work) but answers particular questions instead. For example, you might be asked to explain what the significance of your study is or what your goal was.

Introduction

This is the part that most students know how to write as they face it in every assignment. The introduction’s purpose is to provide background information on the field of study and introduce it to the reader.

This is where you can put some theoretical material that you have collected through your research – similar cases, historical background, or other related material.

Tip: Be sure to check the recommendations of your learning institution as some require including a separate chapter named Background to present necessary background information.

Presentation

Describe the case and provide primary data that you have collected in the Presentation chapter. Here you can put your raw data and describe the study in detail.

Outcomes (Solution and Recommendation)

This part is dedicated to the results of your case study as well as suggestions on how to solve the problem or recommendations for further research.

The summary of the work and final words on the topic.

Put all the works and sources that you are using through your work. Use only credible sources. Remember that Wikipedia is not a credible source, but it has a lot of references that you might check out and find useful.

Step 3. Editing

The final step of your writing is, of course, proofreading and editing. There are probably a lot of blank spaces that you need to fill in. So, make sure you leave enough time before your deadline. If you are searching for a professional service that can proofread and edit for you, you should definitely turn to our team as we can make your case study sound very professional and polished.

When proofreading, pay attention to the evidence that you use and if there is enough information to make a proper conclusion and suggestions. Use as many real-life examples and first-hand data as possible. If you can, perform interviews and surveys in order to get unbiased results.

Be sure to polish the grammar (check for the typos if there are any) and punctuation as well as the style and formatting of your work. They should match the requirements of your learning institution, especially the word count and the structure of the paragraph.

Topic Examples for a Case Study

Here are a few topic examples for you.

• How the appearance of the teacher influences the education process.
• The correlation between the development of social media and mental disorders.
• Managing religion education and evolution studies in schools.
• Schools meals and students’ health.
• The role of office eating culture in obesity problem.
• The influence of video games on violence prevention.
• The influence of online chats on buyer’s behavior.

Make sure to choose the topic that resonates with you as they are the best and the most interesting to work with.

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• Knowledge Base
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• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved 5 August 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/case-studies/

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Writing the Case Study

How should i approach it.

Investigating and writing up a report will require the completion of specific stages. You will need to timetable sufficient time to complete each stage, but also be aware that some stages are revisited while you are analysing the case and writing the report. Thinking and writing becomes a cyclical process.

Stages essential for analysing and writing a case study report may include:

1. Define the task

Your first step is to read the case and all the instructions for the assignment.

Use the checklist as a guide. You can print out this checklist to record your definition of the task. You may find it helpful to compare and discuss your understanding of the task with other students or colleagues. Try to visualise all the elements of the problem by using mind-maps to chart the main issues on a large piece of paper.

Checklist for defining the task

2. Consider which theories and analysis tools may apply to the situation

Your course notes, text books and readings should indicate the appropriate methodology for your case study analysis

Identify the problems

In your initial analysis you should identify the problems (issues/risks etc.) inherent in the case. Read to uncover the organisation's history of success and failure in relation to the case, the communication processes that are occurring, and relevant current strengths and weaknesses of the organisation or its activities that relate to the case.

A useful technique here is to create a mind-map of the situation, the processes and problems or issues. Use the mind-map to separate the problem elements and to note the most important and their relationships.

In your notes, document the causes and consequences of the problems highlighted in the case and also your preliminary ideas for solutions. Be prepared to discover more problems and solutions as you continue your analysis of the case!

Apply analysis tools

There are many tools available for analysis in the management and engineering fields but you need to evaluate which tools would best apply to your assessment of the issues/problems / risks etc. If you are unsure about which tool to use, read the rationale and purpose of each tool and discuss the options with your colleagues and course facilitator.

Document your results and ideas

It is important to create a complete set of notes that will be useful to refer to when writing up the case study report. For this reason record your findings and your own thoughts on the case. Also clearly document any testing, calculations or specifications that relate to your investigation of solutions as well.

3. Make recommendations and form conclusions

Make recommendations.

Recommendations are a clear statement (in text and/or table format) of what action should be taken to minimise, solve or remove the problems being investigated. Recommendations usually require a detailed action plan for implementation of a solution or a range of solutions depending on future events/scenarios.

According to Jarvis (2002), "for each part of your solution ask: 

• Will it work - why - what could possibly go wrong?
• Who will do it, are they capable, who else might be, who might be block?
• When- timing-sequence?
• How and how much –cost it out- where are the pay offs/savings?"

Form conclusions

Conclusions are drawn from your analysis and assessment of the situation. You usually consider must and desirable objectives. Also consider the limitations of your recommendations based on your testing of solutions and original assumptions that had to be made in the case.

4. Write the report

This section provides some advice on the process of writing up your report.

Plan the report 

Before you begin to write the report, it is essential to have a plan of its structure. You can begin to plan the report while you are investigating the case.

Fist, prepare an outline (in list or mind-map format) of the main headings and subheadings you will have in the report. Then add notes and ideas to the outline which remind you of what you want to achieve in each section and subsection. Use the outline to help you consider what information to include, where it should go and in what sequence. Be prepared to change your outline as your ideas develop. Finally, the outline headings and subheadings can be converted into the contents page of your report. 

Schedule your writing time

Prepare a schedule for writing and editing the sections of the report. Allow some extra time just in case you find some sections difficult to write. Begin by writing the sections you feel most confident about. Preliminary sections (executive summary, introduction) and supplementary sections (conclusions, reference list and appendices) are usually prepared last. Some writers like to begin with their conclusions (where the writer's thoughts are at that moment) or the methodology (it's easier to write about your own work). 

Analyse your audience 

In writing a case study report in your course, the report is often intended for an imaginary person so you need to make sure that your language and style suites that person. For example, a report for senior management will be different in content and style and language to a technical report. A report to a community group would also be different again in content, style and language. Audience definition helps you decide what to include in the report based on what readers need to know to perform their jobs better or what the readers need to know to increase their knowledge about your subject. These notes on audience analysis are adapted from Huckin and Olsen (p1991)

*After: Huckin & Olsen ,1991.1.

• Who will read the report? Think about all the uses of the report and where and when it would be read. Reports written within an organisation may be read by different people and different departments; for example, technical and design specialists, supervisors, senior managers, lawyers, marketing and finance specialists.
• What are the readers' needs and goals? Each department or unit in an organisation has its own needs and goals. Understanding the different perspectives can help you decide how to communicate persuasively to these groups. For example while design engineers may prefer to develop new or alternative design to show progress in their field, the marketing specialist may prefer that the organisation imitate a known successful design to save time.
• How do I make communication clear for managers? Communication must be accessible and useful to busy managers as they will primarily seek important generalisations. This has implications for the report's structure, the amount of orientation or background information provided and the level of technical language used. An executive summary, introductions to new sections and concluding summaries for major sections should be included in the report.
• What might be the readers' preferences or objections to the report? You may need to address the significance and benefits/limitations of your recommendations from a number of readers' perspectives in the report. You may also need to consider compromises as a way to acknowledge potential conflicts or criticisms of your recommendations or solutions.

Prepare a draft report 

Writers rarely produce a perfect piece of text in their first attempt so a number of drafts are usually produced. Careful planning and editing will ensure a consistent professional standard in the report. You will need to do the following:

• Revise the task often 

Do this by keeping both the reader's needs and the report's objectives in mind as you gather information, take notes and write sections of the report.

• Be selective 

Do this by taking clear notes, which include the information gathered and your thoughts about the usefulness and the implications of this information. Review your notes to decide what is essential information to include in the report.

• Create a logical structure 

Use your contents page outline to decide where information will go. Within each section, plan the subheadings and then decide on the sequence of information within these.

Check that your writing flows and that your ideas are supported and plausible. If you are not sure what to look for, here are links to advice and activities on report organisation, cohesion and evidence.

Ensure that all your figures and tables communicate a clear message. Show a colleague your visuals to check how they will be interpreted or 'read'.

• Edit, edit, edit

For first drafts, a word processor's spell checker and grammar checker can be useful however, do not rely solely on these tools in your final edit as they are not perfect. Errors will be overlooked or even created by these programs! The best ways to edit are to read a printed copy and where possible get a colleague to read and give feedback.

Here is a report checklist that you can print out: CHECKLIST

5. Prepare the reference list

The reference list is a list of all the sources you refer to in the report. If you do not reference sources of information, your assignment could be failed. As you read and take notes remember to collect the following information so that you can easily and quickly assemble your reference list.

 Further advice on the conventions for formatting reference lists and 'in text' references can be found in the Academic Skills toolkit .

6. Prepare cover/title page

Check your course requirements on the content and layout of the title page. As a general rule include the following:

• Institution the authors are affiliated with: eg UNSW School of Safety Science
• Title of the report

Eg "BHP Billiton Risk Assessment: Strategic Political Risks to BHP's Operations In Angola". 

• Author/s names (+ student numbers)
• Course name and code
• Date document was submitted

7. Final edit

At this stage it is best if you can leave the report for a day or so before conducting a final proof-read. This assists you to approach your report as a 'reader' rather than as the 'writer' so you will more easily see errors. You should expect to spend a couple of hours on this task.

• Reread the assignment guidelines so the task is fresh in your mind. Read the whole report to check that there is a logical structure to the whole report.
• Check each section of the report (including your executive summary, introduction and conclusion) for content and structure. Note changes to make in the sequence of sections.
• Note (highlight) changes you wish to make within sections (delete, simplify, expand, reorganise). In particular look closely at transition sections, figures and tables, sentences, referencing conventions and document formatting.
• Read through the report and make changes as required.

Here are some editing activities for you to try!

How is a case study organised?

Engineering & science

• Report writing
• Technical writing
• Writing lab reports
• Honours thesis writing
• Editing Activities
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• How a case study is organised
• What is the marker looking for?
• How can I improve my writing?
• ^ More support

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Case Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography

The term case study refers to both a method of analysis and a specific research design for examining a problem, both of which are used in most circumstances to generalize across populations. This tab focuses on the latter--how to design and organize a research paper in the social sciences that analyzes a specific case.

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or among more than two subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in this writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a single case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• Does the case represent an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• Does the case provide important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• Does the case challenge and offer a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in practice. A case may offer you an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to the study a case in order to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• Does the case provide an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings in order to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• Does the case offer a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for exploratory research that points to a need for further examination of the research problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of Uganda. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a particular village can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community throughout rural regions of east Africa. The case could also point to the need for scholars to apply feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation.

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work. In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What was I studying? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why was this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the research problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would include summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to study the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in the context of explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular subject of analysis to study and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that frames your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; c) what were the consequences of the event.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experience he or she has had that provides an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of his/her experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using him or her as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, cultural, economic, political, etc.], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, why study Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research reveals Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks from overseas reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should be linked to the findings from the literature review. Be sure to cite any prior studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for investigating the research problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is more common to combine a description of the findings with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps to support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings It is important to remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations for the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and needs for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1)  restate the main argument supported by the findings from the analysis of your case; 2) clearly state the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in and your professor's preferences, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented applied to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were on social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood differently than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical (context-dependent) knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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• Published: 01 August 2024

The use of interactional metadiscourse markers by Saudi EFL male and female college students: the case of a gender-sensitive topic

• Ghuzayyil Mohammed Al-Otaibi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9369-2602 1 &
• Abeer Abdulhadi Hussain 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  988 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Language and linguistics

A few studies have explored the use of interactional metadiscourse markers in argumentative writing by male and female college students. More importantly, none explored the topic of metadiscourse resources with respect to gender-sensitive topics. Thus, the present study aims at examining the exploitation of interactional metadiscourse markers by Saudi male and female English as a Foreign Language (EFL) college students in their writing about ‘Who are Better Drivers, Men or Women?’. The study is corpus-based on students’ essays. The corpus consists of four sub-corpora: (a) men favouring men, (b) men arguing for women, (c) women arguing for men and (d) women writing in favour of women. We followed a qualitative and quantitative approach to data analysis. Using AntConc and Hyland’s (2005) metadiscourse model of interactional markers, the results reveal that female writers employed attitudinal lexis, hedges, self-mentions and boosters more than male writers. As for the variables of gender and stance choice, females arguing for men’s driving significantly utilised hedges more than the other three groups. Additionally, female writers writing in support of female drivers significantly used self-mentions more than male writers arguing for men’s driving. This study shows that sensitive topics may cause a difference in the distribution of metadiscourse markers used by people of both genders, and it provides some pedagogical implications for EFL instructors and curriculum developers.

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Introduction.

Writing is a complicated skill that requires more than full understanding of the grammar rules in the target language. Efficient writing necessitates knowledge of writing as a social and communicative activity. It involves cognitive, psychomotor and linguistic abilities (Bazerman, 2009 ; Byrnes and Manchón, 2014 ). The communicative function of writing becomes even more evident in argumentative writing where the author has to carefully utilise appropriate rhetorical structures that reflect conventional practices in a community for the purpose of persuading someone. It requires logical reasoning, sequencing thoughts and linguistic features to build some relationship with readers (Hyland, 2005 ; Jones, 2011 ).

As noted above, writing becomes more challenging if the task involves argumentation. Though argumentative writing, defined as a piece of writing that ‘attempts to support a controversial point or defend a position on which there is a difference of opinion’ (Richards and Schmidt, 2002 , p. 337), is one of the most common genres (Hyland, 1999 ), it is the most difficult for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners and English as a Second Language (ESL) learners (Lee and Deakin, 2016 ; Yoon, 2021 ). It requires taking a position in an argument over a controversial topic for the purpose of persuading a group of people of the validity of one’s claim. More importantly, it involves agreeing or disagreeing with previous, current and prevailing opinions (Swales, 1990 ). Thus, EFL and ESL learners have to employ argumentative writing resources used by professional writers, such as evidentiality (Chafe and Nichols, 1986 ), metadiscourse markers (Crismore, 1989 ; Hyland, 2005 ), stance (Biber, 2006a ; Biber and Zhang, 2018 ) and voice (Thompson, 1996 ). Speaking of metadiscourse markers and their benefits, Hyland and Tse ( 2008 ) argued that metadiscourse is a useful linguistic resource that enables authors to communicate their attitude towards a specific proposition to their readers.

Metadiscourse has been labelled stance (Biber and Finegan, 1989 ; Hyland, 1999 ), evaluation (Hunston and Thompson, 2000 ), attitude (Halliday, 1994 ), appraisal (Martin, 2000 ), epistemic modality (Hyland, 1998 ) and metadiscourse markers (Crismore, 1989 ; Hyland, 2005 ; Hyland and Tse, 2008 ). The term metadiscourse has been proposed by Harris ( 1959 ) to describe how texts’ recipients perceive a piece of writing as intended by writers or speakers. As noted by Hyland ( 2005 ), metadiscourse refers to ‘self-reflective expressions used to negotiate interactional meanings in a text, assisting the writer (or speaker) to express a viewpoint and engage with readers as members of a particular community’ (p. 37). It is the umbrella term that includes linguistic elements used to establish a rapport between the writer and reader and signal the writer’s stance. Stance involves the writer’s position or attitude towards the content being discussed. Stance can be studied from the perspectives of evaluation, attitude, appraisal theory and epistemic modality (Xie et al., 2024 ). Evaluation performs three functions: (a) it expresses a language user’s opinion and reflects the value system of people and their community; (b) it constructs and maintains relations between producer and receiver of the language; and (c) it organises discourse. Appraisal and attitude are related concepts in that both refer to linguistic features language users utilise to express their subjective attitude towards an entity. The words horrible and fantastic are typical examples. Epistemic modality refers to speakers or authors’ confidence or lack of confidence about their message, which can be expressed through hedges and boosters (Pearson and Abdollahzadeh, 2023 ).

There is a dearth of studies that have examined metadiscourse markers in the argumentative writing of EFL and ESL students (El-Dakhs, 2020 ; Papangkorn and Phoocharoensil, 2021 ; Yoon, 2021 ). Though some research (cf. Zare-ee and Kuar, 2012 ) showed that there are differences in writing between male and female EFL writers, only few (Aziz et al., 2016 ) have explored the distribution of metadiscourse markers in argumentative essays written by male and female writers. This necessitates further exploration of this area, especially if some researchers such as El-Dakhs ( 2020 ) and Yoon ( 2021 ) suggest that topic choice may affect students’ utilisation of metadiscourse markers. Further, Hyland and Tse ( 2008 ) explain that the use of metadiscourse resources may differ across gender and discipline and that the relationship between gender and language is never predictable. Hence, we chose to analyse essays written by Saudi male and female EFL students on a gender-sensitive topic like the superiority of either gender in driving cars. Middle Eastern women are expected to be less assertive when they argue for themselves (cf. Zare-ee and Kuar, 2012 ). Alanazi et al., ( 2023 ) reported that though Saudi women are allowed to play more powerful roles than before, they ‘still perceive themselves as lacking in assertiveness and leadership skills compared to men’ (p. 3).

There are a number of social factors that forced Saudi women to develop a less assertive personality. Before the new reforms, for example, Saudi women were not allowed to travel without the permission of a male guardian (Alanazi et al., 2023 ). As for women’s right to drive cars, Saudi women were not permitted to drive for decades. Although Saudi women were given the chance to hold high-status occupations such as doctors, managers and academics, they had to rely on a male chaperone or driver to get them around (Saleh and Malibari, 2021 ). The ban on car driving by women was lifted in 2018 following King Salman’s 2017 statement (BBC, 2017 ). In addition, as part of the Saudi 2030 Vision, the Saudi government encouraged women to drive, issued a number of legislative reforms and launched a few programmes to ensure women’s empowerment and equality with men (Saudi Vision 2030, 2023 ). When the researchers were collecting the data for the present study, more than 3 years passed and as most of the community allowed their female relatives to drive, there were a few Saudi citizens who were reluctant and doubtful of the whole experience. Thus, the topic of who is better at driving cars is a bit sensitive and debatable nowadays. Based on the argument above, gender, topic and stance choice may have an effect on the type, frequency and distribution of interactional metadiscourse resources. Thus, the present study addresses the following questions:

How do Saudi EFL students of male and female writers use interactional metadiscourse markers in their argumentative writing about car driving?

How do Saudi EFL students use interactional metadiscourse markers when writing about a gender-sensitive topic?

How do male writers use metadiscourse markers to argue in favour of their own driving or in favour of women driving?

How do female writers use metadiscourse markers to argue in favour of their own driving or in favour of men driving?

Review of literature

Recent research on the use of interactional metadiscourse markers by EFL writers has focused more on research articles (Al-Zubeiry and Assaggaf, 2023 ), including abstracts (Alghazo et al., 2021 ; Assassi, 2023 ; Assassi and Merghmi, 2023 ) and discussion sections (Asadi et al., 2023 ; Merghmi and Hoadjli, 2024 ), dissertations and theses (Fendri, 2020 ; Jabeen et al., 2023 ), virtual lectures (Rabab’ah et al., 2024 ), etc. However, a small number of studies have explored interactional metadiscourse markers in argumentative writing by undergraduates. In addition, studies examining the distribution of interactional metadiscourse markers in writings by both genders considered reviews, opinion columns, dissertation acknowledgements, consultations and disciplines. This section elaborates on the findings of some key studies.

Studies on the use of metadiscourse markers in argumentative writing

Studies on metadiscourse use in argumentative writing have been conducted by Mahmood et al. ( 2017 ), Papangkorn and Phoocharoensil ( 2021 ) and El-Dakhs ( 2020 ). Researchers examined the frequency and distribution of metadiscourse markers in relation to some variables such as those of proficiency (El-Dakhs, 2020 ; Handayani et al., 2020 ; Yoon, 2021 ), nativeness (El-Dakhs, 2020 ; Lee and Deakin, 2016 ; Papangkorn and Phoocharoensil, 2021 ), learning context (El-Dakhs, 2020 ), topic variation (Yoon, 2021 ) and first language (L1) differences (Yoon, 2021 ). Some researchers such as El-Dakhs ( 2020 ) recommend exploring other factors such as culture, prompts and essay types.

Considering topic selection as a variable, Yoon ( 2021 ) examined metadiscourse features in writing samples by EFL students with different L1 backgrounds (i.e. Chinese, Korean and Japanese). Besides L1 differences and topic choice, the last variable that has been examined was the effect of L2 proficiency (A2, B1.1 and B1.2) on students’ use of interactional markers. Students were asked to write about two topics: the importance for college students to have a part-time job and banning smoking at restaurants. The researcher’s analysis of the data showed no significant two-way interaction effect between L1 background and L2 proficiency nor between L2 proficiency and topic. However, Yoon ( 2021 ) demonstrates a significant interaction between different topics and L1 differences. Since El-Dakhs ( 2020 ) and Yoon ( 2021 ) drew attention to the effect of topic choice as a variable, there is a need to explore the effect of a gender-sensitive topic on undergraduates’ argumentative essays with a focus on stance selection. Additionally, the importance of the present study stems from the fact that there are few studies that have addressed the use of metadiscourse markers with respect to topic and stance variation.

Gender-based differences in the use of interactional metadiscourse markers

Previous studies (Morris, 1998 ; Zare-ee and Kuar, 2012 ) focusing on differences in writing between male and female ESL students show that female writers in general perform better than male writers and more specifically in terms of their adherence to writing guidelines. However, Zare-ee and Kuar ( 2012 ) and Yeganeh and Ghoreyshi ( 2015 ) argue that male EFL Iranian writers are more assertive and argumentative in their writing compared to female students. Zare-ee and Kuar ( 2012 ) explain that the difficulty in expressing a more assertive attitude is mainly because of cultural reasons, where Iranian women are expected to be less talkative and a bit submissive.

Research addressing the role of gender in the use of metadiscourse markers has been conducted with undergraduates (Mokhtar et al., 2021 ; Pasaribu, 2017 ), professional writers (Latif and Rasheed, 2020 ; Zadeh et al., 2015 ), EFL males and females writing argumentative (Aziz et al., 2016 ) and personal essays (Puspita and Suhandano, 2023 ). More importantly, Hyland and Tse ( 2008 ) have investigated metadiscourse resources in reviews written by natives of both genders. In other words, they have analysed reviews of philosophy and biology books written by male and female reviewers. The books themselves are written by professional writers of both genders. Nevertheless, despite the many studies on gender and metadiscourse markers, such studies have revealed conflicting results.

As some (Latif and Rasheed, 2020 ; Mokhtar et al., 2021 ; Zadeh et al., 2015 ) found that male writers use boosters more than female writers, others (Pasaribu, 2017 ; Latif and Rasheed, 2020 ) reported that females hedge more than males. Nonetheless, Hyland and Tse ( 2008 ) and Puspita and Suhandano ( 2023 ) note that male writers hedge more when they write a review or a personal essay. In addition, Pasaribu ( 2017 ) argues that males foreground themselves in academic writing. Further, Zadeh et al. ( 2015 ) reported that female writers used a more engaging style compared to male writers. Moreover, Azlia ( 2022 ) notes that female speakers employed hedges, boosters and attitudinal resources more than male speakers in TED Talks (i.e. talk videos by influential people). In terms of disciplines, Azher et al. ( 2023 ) argued that professional female writers hedged more in social sciences, whereas males used more boosters in humanities. In addition, Farahanynia and Nourzadeh ( 2023 ) found that engagement and attitude markers were commonly used by female researchers in applied linguistics. On the other hand, boosters and self-mentions were significantly found in male writers’ research articles in the same discipline. Nevertheless, Hyland and Tse ( 2008 ) and Zadeh et al. ( 2015 ) claim that male writers use engagement markers more than female writers when they write about biology and translation. Moreover, Hyland and Tse ( 2008 ) state that male reviewers produce more evaluative critiques when they review writings by male writers. This illustrates that topic choice, discipline and stance towards or against one gender play a role in the frequency and distribution of metadiscourse markers in writings by both gender members.

Studies on the use of interactional metadiscourse markers by Arabs

Studies on the use of interactional metadiscourse markers by Arabs have focused on professional writers (Alghazo et al., 2021 ; Alsubhi, 2016 ) and postgraduates (Ahmed and Maros, 2017 ; Alotaibi, 2018 ; Fendri, 2020 ; Merghmi and Hoadjli, 2024 ). They considered the genres of column writing, academic consultations, research article abstracts, dissertation acknowledgements, dissertation discussion sections, full dissertations and internship reports. Speaking of gender as a variable in acknowledgements, Alotaibi ( 2018 ) reported that there are no differences between the two genders in terms of boosters and attitudinal resources. However, Saudi female writers used boosters more in recognition of moral support, whereas men utilised boosting devices more frequently when they acknowledged academic assistance. The opposite is true in case of both genders’ use of attitude markers. Saudi females used attitude markers more in thanking for academic assistance. Moreover, Alsubhi ( 2016 ) notes that Saudi male writers hedge more when they write a column. Yet, Alsubhi ( 2016 ) found that female columnists used self-mentions and engagement markers more than male columnists. In addition, Ahmed and Maros ( 2017 ) state that females used hedging devices more than males in verbal consultations. Further, focusing on the discussion sections in applied linguistics master’s theses, Merghmi and Hoadjli, ( 2024 ) reported that boosters are mainly associated with Algerian male postgraduates, whereas hedges are linked with their female counterparts. Focusing on genre as a variable, Fendri ( 2020 ) found that Tunisian EFL academic writers used hedges more in dissertations but employed more of self-mentions, engagement resources and attitudinal lexis in internship reports. As for language as a variable, English abstracts include more of hedges and engaging resources compared to those written in Arabic (Alghazo et al., 2021 ). As shown above, no study has explored the use of interactional metadiscourse markers by EFL Arab college students.

Based on the review above, only one study (i.e. Yoon, 2021 ) explored the use of interactional metadiscourse markers in relation to two different neutral topics. However, there is only one (Aziz’s et al., 2016 ) that focused on gender differences in using such markers in argumentative essays by EFL students. Further, there is only one important study by Hyland and Tse ( 2008 ) that explored the use of metadiscourse resources across gender and disciplines. Hence, because of this methodological gap, there is a need to examine differences between male and female writers in using metadiscourse markers in relation to a gender-sensitive topic, especially if the topic is about one gender’s ability in driving cars. Hence, this study aims at exploring the use of metadiscourse markers across genders and stances on a gender-sensitive topic.

The methodology used in this study was both quantitative and qualitative, a mixed-methods approach. In the quantitative analysis, we looked at the frequency of metadiscourse markers, while in the qualitative stage, we explored the context in which each metadiscourse marker occurred to code each marker with respect to interactional metadiscourse categories. In the qualitative phase, we also interpreted the occurrence of the most frequent metadiscourse markers. In other words, the explanatory sequential mixed methods model was selected because the phase of interpretation of significant occurrences followed that of counting frequencies (Toyon, 2021 ).

Participants

A total of 144 (59 males and 85 females) undergraduate students majoring in English translation participated in the study. During their intermediate and high school years, they all studied English as a foreign language as a compulsory subject. In other words, participants received an average of around 6 years of English instruction.

Data collection tool

To investigate how the participants employed metadiscourse markers, a writing task on a gender-sensitive topic was given. The writing task took the form of an argumentative essay, consisting of four paragraphs in which students had to argue whether Saudi men drive better than Saudi women or whether Saudi women drive better than Saudi men. The students were required to write an argumentative essay (i.e. an introduction, two body paragraphs, a conclusion) of no less than 400 words on that trendy topic and choose a stance and present arguments that would convince the reader (their instructor) as to why Saudi men are superior drivers to women and vice versa. The corpus was collected during the Autumn Semester of 2021 when students took this task as part of their final exam for the course of Academic Writing (TRAJ 221), offered as a compulsory course to Level-Four students.

Data collection procedure

Prior to the final exam, students received instruction in different types of writings including the argumentative essay, mainly on how they develop and organise ideas, but they did not receive any explicit instruction in using metadiscourse markers. Further, before starting the procedure of data collection, students of all groups were given a writing exam of a different argumentative topic to make sure that there were no significant differences between the groups in terms of their writing ability. Essays were corrected by experienced writing instructors. Students’ scores were analysed using Independent Samples t Test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results of the statistical tests are given in the Results Section.

After the essays had been collected, they were typed by the researchers and sorted according to the stance taken by the writers, i.e. into four sub-corpora. The following table shows the details of these corpora.

As illustrated in Table 1 , the corpus compiled was composed of 144 essays and 46,453 tokens (i.e. the total number of words in the corpus). The essays were written by 59 males and 85 females. The total number of words in the corpus by male writers is 14,888 words, and the total number of that of female writers is 31,565 words. Table 1 also shows the number of word tokens and types (i.e. unique word forms in a corpus) in each sub-corpus.

Apparently, the number of participants contributing to the corpus of male writers (i.e. 59 students) is smaller than that of female writers (i.e. 85 students). Hence, the number of words in the corpus of male writers is also proportionally smaller than the corpus of female writers. This is mainly because the number of male students registering for the course is smaller than that of female students. To account for such differences, the researchers normalised frequencies by dividing the raw frequencies of tokens by the number of words in a corpus; and then, multiplying the total by 1000 words.

Analytical framework

Hyland’s ( 2005 ) analytical framework was used to examine metadiscourse use. In spite of the subjective nature of metadiscourse identification, Hyland’s ( 2005 ) model has proved its objectivity and comprehensiveness. Researchers (cf. Alghazo et al., 2023 ; Alqahtani and Abdelhalim, 2020 ; Peng and Zheng, 2021 ; inter alia) relied heavily on this framework for their metadiscourse research. Hyland’s ( 2005 ) model of interaction is made up of two dimensions: interactive and interactional. The interactive dimension is concerned with guiding the reader through the text using transitions (i.e. expressing relations between clauses using in addition , but , etc.), frame markers (e.g. markers referring to discourse acts such as to sum up , finally , etc.), endophoric markers (e.g. markers referring to different information mentioned in different parts of a text such as see the table below , as noted above , etc.), evidentials (i.e. markers referring to information sources, e.g. according to , X stated , etc.) and code glosses (i.e. markers clarifying meaning, e.g. such as , in other words , etc.). However, the interactional dimension involves the reader in the argument through the use of hedges (i.e. markers that withhold one’s commitment towards a proposition, e.g. may , perhaps , etc.), boosters (i.e. markers that emphasise certainty in a proposition, e.g. certainly , definitely , etc.), attitude markers (i.e. resources used to express one’s attitude towards a proposition, e.g. I agree , surprisingly , etc.), self-mentions (i.e. resources that give explicit reference to the text’s author(s), e.g. we , I , etc.) and engagement markers (i.e. resources meant to establish a relationship with the reader, e.g. note, consider, etc.). Since the latter dimension is concerned with reader-writer interaction, it has been the focus of many studies (see Hyland, 2000 , 2005 ; Park and Oh, 2018 ). By the same token, the focus of this study is only on interactional discourse resources.

Analytical software

The data were analysed with the concordance software, AntConc, developed by Laurence Anthony, which permitted counting frequencies of hits and examining context as it proved to be necessary to do so because not all hits had metadiscourse value. For instance, the word ‘pretty,’ which could have been counted as an attitude marker, was in fact a booster in the sentence: It is easier for them to master it pretty quickly. Another example is the word ‘way’ which was found to be a booster in the sentence: Men are way better at driving. The researchers used mainly the Word List Feature, which provides information on word frequency and the Keyword-in-Context Feature, which helps in showing concordances or contexts of words in question (Anthony, 2022 ). The Programme was used by several researchers (cf. Ardhianti et al., 2023 ; Khattak et al., 2023 ) in their metadiscourse analysis.

Reliability

The two researchers initially coded 25% of the data (i.e. the corpus of essays written by male Saudis). For this sub-corpus, the categorisation of words and their frequency results have been verified and checked against reliable resources on Hyland’s ( 2005 ) Model of Metadiscourse Markers. However, 20% (i.e. part of the written corpus by female Saudis) of the data was used to measure inter-rater reliability. Inter-rater reliability is defined as the extent to which two coders (i.e. the researchers) agree on assigning the same code to the same data item (Krippendorff, 2004 ). Cohen’s kappa was used to achieve inter-rater reliability. It is calculated by counting instances of agreement and disagreement given by both coders. In other words, it helps in computing the average number of agreements for a certain amount of data. Cohen’s kappa was selected because it reduces the possibility of assigning the same category to the same item by mere chance.

The results showed that the researchers agreed to include 1215 of the tokens and excluded 107 of them. Nevertheless, the first researcher included 64 of the occurrences, whereas the second chose to include only 34. Results of Cohen’s kappa (0.647) showed substantial agreement. Disagreement between researchers was on coding some words which have been coded differently by previous researchers such as cannot as a booster (Yoon and Römer, 2020 ) or as a hedge (Hyland, 2005 ), specifically as a code gloss (Hyland, 2005 ) or as a booster (Yoon and Römer, 2020 ), should as a hedge (Hyland, 2005 ) or as a booster (Macintyre, 2013 ; Yoon and Römer’s, 2020 ), find as an engagement marker (Hyland, 2005 ) or as a booster (Yoon and Römer’s, 2020 ), still as a transition marker (Hyland, 2005 ) or as a booster (Macintyre, 2013 ), see as think and see as find . However, as mentioned above, we followed Hyland’s Model and checked context in case of any doubts.

Data analysis

The basic features of the data in the study, such as minimum, maximum, skewness, kurtosis, mean and standard deviation (M ± SD), were described using descriptive statistics. Secondly, inferential statistics was used to measure the difference between the writing groups in the study. First, prior to conducting any statistical analysis, the assumptions of parametric statistics were inspected using the Shapiro-Wilk test, which was used to check the statistical significance of the normal distribution of continuous variables. Depending on the outcomes of the test, parametric or non-parametric statistics were used.

More importantly, in the present study, Independent Samples t Test, an inferential statistical test (Ruxton, 2006 ), was used to compare the means of both groups of participants (i.e. male and female writers). Independent Samples t Test is essential to make sure that there were no significant differences between male and female students in terms of their writing ability based on a test given to them before starting the process of data collection. Independent T Test was also performed to determine whether or not there was a statistically significant difference in the number of words (i.e. boosters, attitude markers, hedges, engagement markers and self-mentions) used by the two groups of male and female writers in support of their point of view. Additionally, we used one-way ANOVA, another inferential statistical test (Alexander et al., 2019 ), to compare the four independent samples (i.e. the four groups of writers) in terms of their writing ability. If a significant difference between the four groups is found, the LSD (least significant difference) test will be used. It will help pinpoint exactly which groups are different from each other. It does this by figuring out the smallest difference between any two groups’ averages that will be considered statistically significant (Ruxton, 2010 ). ANOVA test was also used to determine whether or not there was a statistically significant difference in the number of words (i.e. boosters, attitude markers, hedges, engagement markers and self-mentions) used by the four groups of writers in support of their point of view. P values that are less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

With large enough sample sizes per group (>30 or 40), the violation of the normality assumption should not cause major problems (Pallant, 2020 ); this implies that we can use parametric procedures even when the data are not normally distributed (Elliott and Woodward, 2007 ). In other words, if we have samples consisting of hundreds of observations, we can ignore the distribution of the data (Altman and Bland, 1995 ). In addition, according to the central limit theorem, the sampling distribution tends to be normal in large samples (>30 or 40) regardless of the shape of the data (Field, 2009 ). In contrast, a distribution is considered normal if it has skewness indices of less than 2 and kurtosis values of less than 7 (West et al., 1995 ). We used kurtosis and skewness to examine if the data were normally distributed for all the variables in the study to compare between males ( n  = 59) and females ( n  = 85). The results showed that all skewness values were less than 2, and all kurtosis values were less than 7 for all the variables, so the parametric T test was used (see Table 2 below).

To make sure that the two groups of male and female writers were equivalent, Independent Samples t Test was performed and the results illustrate that male writers have a mean score of (16.85 ± 6.232) compared to that of (18.29 ± 3.386) by female writers with a small difference of 1.44 out of 25 degrees. This indicates that there was no significant difference between male and female writers in terms of their writing ability before starting the procedure of data collection. Table 3 below is illustrative.

As for comparing the four groups in terms of their writing ability, assumptions of parametric statistics were considered for the four groups: (a) males writing in favour of males: n  = 39, (b) males writing for females: n  = 20, (c) females arguing for males: n  = 19 and (d) females in support of female drivers: n  = 66. The results showed that all skewness values were less than 2, and all kurtosis values were less than 7 for all the variables, so the data were approximately normally distributed among the four groups (see Table 4 below). Hence, the researchers used the parametric test of ANOVA to compare the four groups in terms of their writing ability.

Table 5 below shows that the test result of ANOVA is (F-ANOVA = 1.685, p  = 0.047 < 0.05). It indicates that there was a significant difference between the four groups of writers with regard to their writing ability. After finding a significant difference between some groups using ANOVA, the LSD test was used to figure out the difference between which two groups’ averages would be considered statistically significant (Ruxton, 2010 ). Further, pairwise tests showed that the group of male writers arguing for female writers had the lowest mean score (15.70 ± 5.849) with a significant difference between it and that of females favouring women’s driving (18.38 ± 3.048). However, this would not have any effect on students’ use of metadiscourse markers, as previous researchers (El-Dakhs, 2020 ; Yoon, 2021 ) note that there is no significant relationship between language proficiency and students’ use of metadiscourse markers.

Gender differences in writers’ use of interactional metadiscourse markers

Independent Samples t Tests were performed again to determine whether or not there was a statistically significant difference in the number of words (i.e. boosters, attitude markers, hedges, engagement markers and self-mentions) utilised by male and female writers to support their point of view. Table 6 below shows that there was a statistically significant difference ( p  < 0.05) in using boosters, attitude markers, hedges and self-mentions by male and female writers in favour of female writers. Male writers scored 12.59 ± 6.349 in using boosters compared to female writers whose score is 22.34 ± 7.893 and achieved a score of 15.24 ± 5.937 in employing attitude markers in comparison to female writers whose mean score is 24.01 ± 8.430. The same applies to the use of hedges and self-mentions. Female writers employed hedges (females: 10.33 ± 4.917; males: 8.51 ± 4.337) and self-mentions (females: 5.39 ± 3.704; males: 3.59 ± 3.696) more than male writers. However, there was no significant difference between the two groups in their use of engagement markers. It is important to note that measures of association (Eta Square, η 2 ) were performed to find the effect size. Cohen ( 1988 ) defined effects as small at ( η 2 = 0.01), medium at ( η 2  = 0.06) and large at ( η 2  = 0.14). Quantitative results are supplemented with qualitative and contextual analysis given in this section.

As advanced above, attitude markers were more commonly used by writers of each gender. Using normalised frequencies, there are 54,33 occurrences per 1000 words in males’ essays and 64,66 instances in females’ writings. Boosters came second (i.e. males: 44,26; females: 60,16), whereas the category of hedges (i.e. males: 29,95; females: 27,81) was ranked third. Self-mentions (i.e. males: 11,95; females: 14,50) came fourth and engagement markers (i.e. males: 11,08; females: 8,07) occupied the last place (see Table 8 in the Appendix ). As shown above, normalised frequencies confirmed T test results that there were differences between male and female writers in favour of the latter group in terms of their use of self-mentions, boosters and attitude markers.

To show a certain attitude towards the suggested topic, ‘good,’ ‘better,’ and ‘even’ are very common in essays by writers of both genders. Nevertheless, ‘easily,’ ‘important,’ ‘long,’ and ‘hard’ were preferred by male writers, whereas ‘bad,’ ‘important,’ and ‘careful’ were more utilised by female writers. As male writers wanted to prove that driving is hard and cannot be done easily by women (Examples 1 and 2), female writers’ attitude is best reflected by attitudinal lexis that manifests importance and which gender has proven to be careful in driving (Examples 3 and 4).

Firstly men are better at focusing and do not get distracted easily in my opinion. Plus, cars are made for men mostly, so women will be having a hard time driving on the streets because I think most of them are short, they cannot see the mirrors of the car.

(Male for males)

In my point of view the men drive better than women and men can control his car in any hard scenario and he can take care of his car.

In conclusion, I see that women have better skills in what is related to driving a car. Women responsibility while driving a car will perform less accidents. Moreover, that awareness that women have about never thought of drifting is strongly important .

(Female for females)

Another important thing is women have more discipline which means they can control themselves more than men who are known to have problems when it comes to controlling their feeling.

Concerning boosters, if writers wanted to boost their claims, females employed ‘think,’ ‘believe,’ ‘many,’ ‘a lot,’ and ‘all.’ On the other hand, males selected ‘more,’ ‘a lot,’ ‘know,’ ‘say,’ ‘think,’ and ‘all.’

I think men can drive better than women for two reasons.

A lot of people think that women cannot control a car without giving them a chance to try.

We did not see many women had car accidents.

In addition, both genders tended to use ‘all’ as a boosting device, but it has been used differently by both groups. For example, female writers generalised using ‘all’ to describe that females took all driving lessons, know all driving aspects and that all females cause fewer accidents, and all reports have proven that (Example 8). On the other hand, males used ‘all’ to emphasise that all men, with no exception, know how to drive better than women (Example 10) and learn it faster (Example 9).

All reports proved their ability to drive a car better than men.

All of men 1 week is the time for learning them.

We all know that we drive much more better than women do, but women refuse admitting it.

As for hedging by both writer groups, males and females preferred to use ‘can,’ ‘some,’ and ‘most.’ It is important to note that ‘most’ has been used by female writers to argue that most males use cell phones while driving, do not know driving rules and thus cause car accidents. On the other hand, for men, most women are slow at driving. Females’ frequent use of ‘can’ as a modal expressing ability illustrates how cautious they are, as manifested in ‘Women can do a lot ’ and ‘Women can do many things at one time.’ Regarding self-foregrounding, the results revealed that male and female writers preferred to use ‘I’ and ‘my’ more than other self-mentions. However, ‘me’ and ‘we’ (Example 11) were ranked third in males’ and females’ essays, respectively.

We need to drive to go to our work and to do our tasks.

To engage their readers, both groups of readers used ‘you’ more commonly than other markers and ‘we’ came second in writings by males, whereas ‘should’ came after ‘you’ in females’ essays. Further, ‘questions’ were mainly used by male writers. On the other hand, ‘your’ was more frequently used by female writers as an engaging word. Though there was no difference between both groups in terms of the use of engaging resources, female writers preferred to use ‘should’ as a deontic modal (Example 12), and males tended to use questions (Example 13) more often as they wanted to include their readers as participants in the argument (Hyland, 2005 ). However, they did not expect their readers to confirm their observations or to answer their questions because they assumed that such rhetorical questions tapped into common knowledge. On the other hand, ‘should’ was employed by females to pull readers into discourse at some important points and to refer to common knowledge.

Of course, that every capable adult should be allowed to practice one of their basic rights, which is driving.

Why people think that men drive better than women ?

The effect of gender, stance, and topic on writers’ use of interactional metadiscourse markers

As for differences in using metadiscourse markers by the four groups of writers with regard to a certain stance, ANOVA test was used again. Table 7 below illustrates the average number of words used and the standard deviation for each of the four groups of writers. ANOVA test results revealed that there were statistically significant differences between the four groups of writers ( P  < 0.05) in the number of boosters, attitude markers, self-mentions, and hedging words used in support of their point of view on the topic of driving cars. Nevertheless, no significant difference was found between the four groups in using engagement resources ( p  > 0.05). This is due to the convergence of the mean values by small differences. Quantitative results are supplemented with qualitative and contextual analysis given in this section.

As illustrated above, Post-Hoc comparison tests showed significant differences between all pairwise groups in their use of attitude markers. In other words, the group of females arguing for male drivers scored the highest mean (i.e. 29.79 ± 10.649), whereas the group of male writers supporting men’s driving scored the lowest (i.e. 13.77 ± 3.943). Results of normalised frequencies also showed that the former group used attitude markers more than others. More specifically, they used attitudinal resources 75,86 times for every 1000 words. As for groups’ utilisation of boosting devices, Post-Hoc comparison tests and ANOVA showed significant differences between all pairwise groups except for the group of females who favoured women’s driving and the other group of female writers arguing for male drivers, as reflected by their mean scores. Results revealed that female writers arguing for female drivers scored higher (i.e. 22.82 ± 7.870) in comparison to the other two groups of male writers. Likewise, significant differences were found between the female group who wrote in support of male drivers (i.e. 20.68 ± 7.959) and the other groups of male writers. On the other hand, the group of males arguing for male drivers scored the lowest mean (i.e. 11.26 ± 4.284) in comparison to the other three groups. Further, there were significant differences between that group and the other group of males arguing for female drivers (15.20 ± 8.691). Results of normalisation confirmed that the group of females writing in favour of females used boosting devices more than others. That is, they used 62,47 boosters in every 1000 words (see Table 8 in the Appendix ).

Additionally, Post-Hoc comparison results on the use of hedges by the four groups showed significant differences between all the pairwise groups except for the two groups writing in support of women’s driving because their means are closer to one another. As shown in Table 8 in the Appendix , normalisation results showed that the two groups arguing for men’s driving had nearly similar normalised frequencies estimated to be 34 hedges in every 1000 words. However, in terms of statistically significant differences, the female group arguing for male drivers scored the highest average score (i.e. 13.47 ± 5.348) compared to that of males writing in favour of male drivers who scored the lowest mean (i.e. 7.56 ± 3.676). In other words, there was a significant statistical difference between the two groups (see Table 7 ).

As for utilising self-mentions by the four groups, normalisation results showed that the two groups who argued for their gender had almost similar normalised frequencies (i.e. 15 self-mentions in every 1000 words). However, Post-Hoc comparison tests showed significant differences between the group of female writers arguing for females and that of male writers writing for males in favour of the former group who obtained a higher average score (i.e. 5.65 ± 3.466). Finally, no Post- Hoc comparison tests were needed for engagement markers because there were no significant differences between the four groups of writers. However, after normalising frequencies, data revealed that the group of males arguing for men’s driving used engagement markers more than others. More specifically, they employed 13,40 markers in every 1000 words.

In general, attitude markers were more common than other metadicourse markers followed by boosters, hedges, self-mentions and finally engaging words in three writing groups (i.e. males writing in support of male drivers, males arguing for female drivers and females writing in favour of males). In other words, in terms of attitudinal lexis, there were 62,61 occurrences per 1000 words in males’ essays arguing for male drivers, 43,09 instances in males’ essays supporting women’s driving, 75,86 examples in females’ essays in favour of male drivers and 61,19 instances per 1,000 words in females’ writing in support of females (see Table 8 in the Appendix ). Frequent attitude markers employed by females supporting male drivers are ‘good,’ ‘better,’ ‘even,’ and ‘fast.’ In general, females’ assertive attitude and positive comments are emphasised through their use of positive adjectives such as ‘careful,’ ‘important,’ and ‘fast’ (Example 14).

I believe that women are excellent because they are very strict to the rules.

(Female for males)

As for boosting words, there were 51,18 boosters in males’ essays arguing for male drivers, 34,85 examples in males’ writing for females, 52,67 boosting instances in essays by females arguing for males, and 62,47 boosters per 1000 words in essays by females supporting females. However, females arguing for female drivers used boosters more than attitudinal words. The female group of writers writing in favour of Saudi female drivers preferred to use ‘many,’ ‘a lot,’ and ’think’ to show commitment to their viewpoint. On the other hand, the other group of female writers used ‘many,’ ‘all,’ ‘know,’ ‘more,’ and ‘think’ more commonly than other boosters. In general, boosting resources such as ‘many,’ ‘a lot,’ ‘all,’ ‘more,’ etc. are associated with positive comments (Examples 15 and 16). In addition, boosters such as ‘think,’ ‘believe,’ ‘noticed,’ and ‘know’ were used with self-mentions (Example 14).

Men drive better than women for many reasons such as confidence, experience and the ability to control the car at difficult situations.

They follow rules more than men.

Regarding hedging words, there were 34,39 words in essays by males supporting men’s driving, 23,92 instances in essays by males in support of females, 34,31 hedging devices per 1000 words in females’ essays favouring males, and 25,80 instances in essays by females preferring women’s driving. Hedging words such as ‘can,’ ‘some,’ and ‘most’ were more frequently used by the groups writing in support of male drivers (Examples 17 & 18).

Men can handle different things better when it comes to driving.

Men can be more used to traffic jams and tough situations over women.

As for self-mentions, there were 15,97 examples in essays by males for male drivers and 15,47 instances in essays by females for women’s driving. Though normalised frequencies showed no big difference between the two groups, statistical tests revealed that the latter group outperformed the former. Female writers arguing for females employed ‘I,’ ‘my,’ and ‘we’ (Example 19) more frequently, whereas male writers writing for males utilised ‘I,’ ‘my,’ and ‘me’ (Example 20) more than other self-mentions.

In the end and because all what is above I think men are better driver.

The research questions aim at exploring gender differences between EFL male and female writers in using interactional metadiscourse markers. Further, the focus of the present study is on investigating such differences with respect to different viewpoints on a gender-sensitive topic. Generally speaking, since EFL writers argue for a stance and support it with examples and evidence, attitude markers, boosters and hedges are more commonly utilised than other interactional resources. The type of essay, i.e. being an argumentative essay, dictates the type of markers found in students’ essays (El-Dakhs, 2020 ; Hong and Cao, 2014 ). Thus, attitude markers are the most commonly used, whereas engagement markers are the least to be employed in argumentative essays. This finding is consistent with that of Puspita and Suhandano’s ( 2023 ), Azlia’s ( 2022 ), Merghmi and Hoadjli’s ( 2024 ) and Alotaibi’s ( 2018 ) who note that engaging resources are the least to be used in personal essays, TED Talks, discussion sections in theses and acknowledgements. Apparently, EFL students focus more on expressing their stance with ensured objectivity (Merghmi and Hoadjli, 2024 ) than engaging their readers (El-Dakhs, 2020 ).

For the first research question, the results reveal that female writers used rhetorical resources of self-mentions, hedges, boosters and attitude markers more significantly than male writers. Such results are inconsistent with previous research by Latif and Rasheed ( 2020 ) and Azher et al. ( 2023 ), who state that females hedge more than males and males use boosters more than females; Hyland and Tse ( 2008 ), who claim that males use hedges and boosters more than females; Alsubhi ( 2016 ), who found that Saudi male columnists hedge more than female column writers; and Farahanynia and Nourzadeh ( 2023 ), who argue that professional male writers employ self-mentions and boosters more than female writers in applied linguistics. However, such results reflect Pasaribu’s ( 2017 ), who notes that females outperform males in their use of hedges and boosters; Puspita and Suhandano’s ( 2023 ), who reported that females employ attitudinal resources and boosters more than male writers; Merghmi and Hoadjli’s ( 2024 ), who state that female postgraduates employed self-mentions, hedges and attitudinal lexis more than their male counterparts in discussion sections; and Azlia’s ( 2022 ), who argues that females used hedges, boosters and attitude markers more than males in TED Talks. Such unexpected results can be attributed to the changes that affected the role of Saudi women as they have been given more voice and power recently. Apparently, Saudi female writers want to confirm their presence and visibility in the argument through common use of self-foregrounding devices and attitudinal resources (Fendri, 2020 ; Merghmi and Hoadjli, 2024 ).

Heavy use of attitude markers, hedges, boosters and personal markers indicates a more personalised style of writing that is mainly associated with female writers (cf. Holmes, 1988 ). Further, after the Saudi Vision with its emphasis on women empowerment, women became bolder in arguing for their rights. Therefore, they used boosters more significantly than male writers to reinforce their point of view and employed positive attitude markers (e.g. good, better, careful, etc.) to emphasise praise of their own ability in driving (Herbert, 1990 ; Johnson and Roen, 1992 ).

It is important to note that females’ personalised style has been reinforced by their significant use of self-mentions (D’angelo, 2008 ) such as ‘I,’ ‘my,’ and ‘we.’ As opposed to males who employed ‘I,’ ‘my,’ and ‘me’ more commonly than other personal markers, Saudi female writers included themselves and other females to voice their opinion through the use of ‘we’ for the purpose of promoting solidarity (Alotaibi, 2018 ; Aziz et al., 2016 ). This also manifests that female writers want to convey a sense of togetherness, selflessness and cooperation (Aziz et al., 2016 ; Mason, 1994 ) to the reader, while males prefer to express an aura of authority and dominance by distancing themselves from their reader (Mulac et al., 2001 ).

Focusing on boosters, both groups of males and females preferred to employ boosters that strengthen a common belief through using ‘all’ and ‘think’ more than those showing solidarity (i.e. shared knowledge with the reader) such as ‘really,’ ‘actually,’ and ‘certainly,’ which are chiefly used by females. Using belief boosters indicates that both groups are convinced of their arguments. Such results contradict Mokhtar et al.’s ( 2021 ) and Holmes’ ( 1990 ) who note that males show some tendency towards boosters of solidarity. In this study, female writers are more forceful in emphasising their claims and more conscious of their readers. Additionally, as stated above, ‘think’ has been used more frequently by writers of both genders to reinforce one’s point of view. However, ‘think’ has occurred mainly with self-mentions in males’ academic essays as Saudi males establish themselves as credible sources of the driving experience and hence highlight their confidence in a judgement (Hyland and Tse, 2008 ; Mulac et al., 2001 ). On the other hand, ‘think’ is also associated with ‘people,’ ‘many,’ ‘they,’ etc. in females’ writing because female writers are more aware of others’ points of view and critiques and they are ready to refute them. In addition, they present their argument with a higher degree of assurance using belief boosters such as ‘prove’ and ‘show.’ Boosters used by females are generally associated with positive comments as highlighted by Hyland and Tse ( 2008 ). However, females’ heavy use of hedges indicates that the information discussed is presented as opinions and hence they are legible for negotiation and discussion. They respect their readers and they do not want to impose their point of view on them (Ahmed and Maros, 2017 ; Farahanynia and Nourzadeh, 2023 ; Hyland, 2005 ; Merghmi and Hoadjli, 2024 ). In general, females are more cautious (Fendri, 2020 ; Lakoff, 1973 ; Zare-ee and Kuar, 2012 ) and indirect in voicing their opinions.

As for the second question that is concerned with the effect of gender and the chosen stance on the distribution of interactional metadiscourse markers in students’ essays, the results show that a gender-sensitive topic can play a role in determining which rhetorical resources should be used the most for which stance. As reported above, the two groups of females arguing for women’s driving and men’s driving used boosters and attitude markers more significantly than the two male groups. On the other hand, the group of males writing in favour of their driving scored the least in terms of boosters and attitudes. However, the female group writing in favour of males outperformed others in terms of hedges. Further, there is no significant difference between the four groups with regard to engagement markers. More importantly, females preferring women’s driving employed self-mentions more significantly than males arguing for their driving.

Females’ significant use of boosters can be justified in terms of their desire to emphasise praise (Herbert, 1990 ; Johnson and Roen, 1992 ). Thus, boosting resources are associated with positive comments on both genders’ ability in car driving. Further, female writers used boosters more commonly with self-mentions. Apparently, female writers establish themselves as experienced individuals whose views are valued and well-considered. They are being firm in voicing their opinions regardless of which point of view might be pervasive among others. Though they are not the seniors in the field of car driving, Saudi females are more empowered nowadays and they are ready to follow an uncompromising approach no matter how the proponents of the opposite team think of them. Hence, females’ attitude is reflected in their use of positive adjectives such as ‘careful’ and ‘important.’

More importantly, the male group arguing for female drivers used boosters and attitudinal resources more than the other group of male writers to emphasise their stance. They believe that Saudi women are in need of support from males in particular. This indicates that such male drivers are aware of the opposition and the refutation they might encounter from other males. On the other hand, the group of male writers arguing for male drivers used the least of boosters and attitude markers because they believe that in a Middle Eastern society, they do not have to be that assertive in presenting their arguments. In fact, the majority of males and a great proportion of females support men’s driving. Compared to doing housework and taking care of children, driving cars is one of the tasks that traditionally belongs to the masculine domain and where men can demonstrate acts of manliness. Moreover, in Saudi Arabia, driving schools are basically operated by men and they shape its requirements. Thus, writers arguing for females are encouraged to present their arguments in a forceful manner (cf. Hyland and Tse, 2008 ).

Previous research (cf. Hyland and Tse, 2008 ) indicates that there is no direct relationship between gender and language and that topic or discipline dictates the projection of a specific identity. Similarly, in this research, hedges are not commonly used by females, whereas boosters are not frequently employed by males. Hence, females’ significant use of hedges in arguing for the opposite-gender members may suggest some correlation between language and stance. Some Saudi females arguing for men and overusing hedges as a result might be accustomed to being driven by their male family members. Their cautious nature and reluctance have been manifested through the use of hedges (Zare-ee and Kuar, 2012 ). Females’ exploitation of ‘can,’ as a modal of ability, is mainly used to refer to males’ capability in multitasking, controlling cars, concentrating, etc.; things that some female writers doubt women can do. Females arguing for males are tempted to project this gender identity as it is culturally typical and expected of them. They feel insecure and have to voice their opinion indirectly (Albaqami, 2017 ; Merghmi and Hoadjli, 2024 ). Additionally, males arguing in favour of their ability employed hedges more than the other group of male writers. This finding goes somewhat in line with Tse and Hyland’s (2008) who state that male reviewers tend to write more critical reviews and hedge if the author is a male. Further, the sensitivity of the topic and how personal it can be prompt males to use more hedges (Azizah, 2021 ). One may conclude that writers of both genders may tend to be cautious when they argue for or against males, as males are stereotyped to play dominant roles in society including academia and handling some tasks.

More importantly, the significant difference between females arguing for themselves and males writing in favour of their driving in their use of self-mentions is a bit surprising. It seems that females adopt a more personalised style especially when they argue for themselves and their rights. They want to sound firm in voicing their opinions (Hyland and Tse, 2008 ). On the other hand, males want to be objective (Alsubhi, 2016 ), and thus they do not need to use self-mentions in arguing for themselves. This shows their confidence and trust in their audience whose common knowledge will help them validate their arguments. Hence, they used engagement resources more than the other groups.

In general, in Saudi Arabia, driving cars as a task has been mainly associated with Saudi males for years. It is a sensitive topic for both genders. As Saudi females are pressurised to prove their ability in driving cars through the use of boosting devices and attitude markers, males do not feel the same pressure, and thus they do not employ a lot of boosters and attitudinal lexis to prove their point. More importantly, based on this research and previous studies, there is no specific stance marker that typically describes males’ or females’ language. Language users lean towards projecting a specific type of identity with respect to a certain discipline, topic, or stance. In argumentative writing, the use of metadiscourse resources is determined by whom you argue for and against.

The present study aims at bridging the gap and examines the effect of a gender-sensitive topic on Saudi EFL undergraduates’ use of metadiscourse markers in their argumentative writing. The results of the current study show that female writers used attitude markers, followed by boosters and hedges and finally self-mentions more than male writers. As for stance choice as a variable, it has been proven that it can influence one’s use of metadiscourse resources. The female group advocating men’s driving outperformed others in terms of hedges. However, one cannot attribute the use of hedges to females and that of boosters to males. Previous studies on the use of metadiscourse resources by both genders reveal unpredictable results. In fact, the use of one type of interactional markers by one gender is dependent on the type of topic and stance writers adopt.

Limitations and recommendations

Since this study explores the distribution of metadiscourse markers in Saudi students’ essays about a gender-sensitive topic, there are a number of limitations that should be considered in future research. First, the corpora utilised for discourse analysis are relatively small, especially the one written by male students arguing in support of females. This is mainly attributed to the fact that a few males support women’s driving. Further, the number of male students registering for the course is smaller than that of female students. Additionally, some students in some groups did not write 400 words in an essay but less. Second, only one institutional setting was selected for corpus compilation, namely King Saud University. A third limitation is that data collection was limited to one genre (i.e. argumentative writing), one gender-sensitive topic (i.e. the superiority of which gender in driving cars), and one age group. Therefore, future research should assess metadiscourse use in larger corpora containing larger pieces of writing and with different variables. Further, other institutional settings can be considered to account for cultural or regional differences. It is also possible to investigate other genres, including spoken genres, in particular debates on similar topics. In addition, metadiscourse analysis of argumentative writing by senior citizens of both genders would reveal different results. Considering that essays were collected from students under exam conditions, more relaxed settings would perhaps produce different essays than those written under time constraints and for grading purposes.

Suggestions for future research

Previous studies state that there are no certain rhetorical resources expected of one gender. Based on this study and previous research, a certain type of discourse and a specific group of topics with their respective stances dictate the kinds of rhetorical resources that should be used in writing to project a specific identity. Thus, future research is ought to explore the effect of other gender-sensitive topics on students’ writing, especially if such students live in a community where one does not expect 100% agreement on one stance. Similar topics addressing one gender’s capability in handling a specific task (e.g. occupying a leadership position) are still debatable, especially among Saudis (Alanazi et al., 2023 ). Moreover, as some have investigated the distribution and frequency of metadiscourse markers by writers of reviews of both genders across two disciplines, it would be insightful if further research examines reviews written on books of different topics if the gender of the professional book writer is revealed or hidden from the reviewer. In addition, some emphasise the significance of topic choice on the use of metadiscourse markers; thus, it would be enlightening if researchers examine the effect of choosing a gender-sensitive topic and one that is not addressing gender on writers’ use of metadiscourse resources. Further, it is recommended to explore how metadiscourse markers are employed by opinion columnists of both genders writing about women driving before and after ban lifting in 2017, as previous research shows that the type of genre determines which metadiscourse resources should be used the most by writers in support of their viewpoint. Moreover, the use of interactional metadiscourse markers in essays on a gender-sensitive topic can be explored across languages in translated or untranslated essays, as some (Alotaibi, 2018 ; Gholami et al., 2014 ) point out the Arabs do not use many interactional resources in Arabic as they do when they write in English. Thus, the role of L1 interference and cultural restrictions should be explored because Arab females are expected to hedge when they voice their opinions. However, culturally speaking, Arabs are advised to be direct when they argue for or refuse something (Alghazo et al., 2021 ; El-Dakhs et al., 2021 ). In general, since the present study proves that statistical tests can reveal significant differences in students’ use of metadiscourse rhetorical resources, it would be intriguing if future research utilises statistical measures besides normalised frequencies to draw defensible conclusions.

Pedagogical implications of the study

The findings of this study have significant implications for EFL instructors, syllabus designers and curriculum developers. They brought to our attention the significance of metadiscourse resources and the pressing need to support EFL students in gaining rhetorical knowledge in order to improve the quality of their argumentative academic writing. Saudi female writers are given more voice and power than before. However, their overuse of hedges when they argue for men’s driving denotes a less assertive nature. In light of this, the pragmatic functions of metadiscourse markers should be explicitly taught in EFL courses. Saudi EFL students should be taught how to argue effectively using boosters and attitude markers. Additionally, syllabus designers and learning material creators should think about adding metadiscourse markers to learning materials or presenting authentic English texts to students to assist them in projecting their views efficiently.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].

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Acknowledgements

The authors give equal credit to the male instructors, Dr. Hamad Al-Shalawi, Mr. Abdulaziz Almuaibid and Mr. Shady Ibrahim, who participated in collecting exams of argumentative essays written by male writers. They also thank King Saud University for funding this research.

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Ghuzayyil Mohammed Al-Otaibi & Abeer Abdulhadi Hussain

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The authors contributed equally to this paper. GM is the first and the corresponding author of the article. She designed the research, collected, analysed and interpreted the data, as well as drafted and revised the Introduction, the Review of Literature, the Data analysis Section, the Results and the Abstract. AH is the second author of the article. She participated in collecting, analysing and interpreting the data besides drafting and revising the Methodology, the Results, the Discussion, the Conclusion and the references.

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Correspondence to Ghuzayyil Mohammed Al-Otaibi .

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The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

The methodology for this study was approved by the Committee of Research Ethics in Humanities and Social Sciences of King Saud University (Ethics approval number: KSU-HE-22-590).

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Before starting the procedure of data collection, the purpose of the study was explained to the participants. They were ensured that their argumentative essays can be withdrawn from the corpus upon their request and that their writing is only used for research purposes. Full written consent was obtained from students. To guarantee anonymity and confidentiality, argumentative essays have been coded with numbers to be analysed by researchers.

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Table 8 normalised frequencies of interactional metadiscourse markers in students' essays., rights and permissions.

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Al-Otaibi, G.M., Hussain, A.A. The use of interactional metadiscourse markers by Saudi EFL male and female college students: the case of a gender-sensitive topic. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 988 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03506-3

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Received : 01 January 2024

Accepted : 19 July 2024

Published : 01 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03506-3

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