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Effective Presentations for Chemists and Other Scientists

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I still remember the first time I presented a paper for publication in the Analytical Chemistry journal of the Florida Section of the American Chemical Society. This was many years ago, when I was a graduate student at the University of South Florida. I initially prepared a technically enriching speech which would have taken me at least a half day to present, but after what seemed like weeks, I was able to reduce pages and pages of research text down to a five minute presentation. At the time, I had such a terrible fear of public speaking that I read my presentation from index cards in a monotone voice. I was very thankful that I didn’t have to be concerned with my shaky knees or gesturing because no one could see me. The room was totally dark to view the slides — not PowerPoint slides but the Kodak slides of years past.

Though visual aids have changed tremendously since the late ‘60s when I gave my first presentation, the presentation style, in my opinion, has not significantly changed — especially for chemists and other scientists. As a chemist and as a business/computer consultant for many years, I have given and have seen many technical presentations at conferences, at work, and elsewhere. The presentations were generally quite informative, technically enriching, and the presenters were very knowledgeable on the subject matter. However, many of them (and I include my own), were rather unexciting and ineffective. I have also seen many exciting, motivational, and inspirational presentations for the general public and also for the technical audience. You don’t need to be a professional speaker to spice up your presentation but by both knowing and understanding some of the same principles professional speakers use, you can enhance your presentations.

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Writing your speech.

If you are doing a presentation, most likely you’ve written a report or submitted an article for publication. Perhaps you have used the text for your speech and created PowerPoint slides to help outline the structure. However, I would suggest you write your speech from scratch with emphasis on simplicity and conciseness.

In my commonsense assessment, speech writing is much different than writing reports or articles for a journal. The brain processes spoken words differently from written words. When we read, we can see whole phrases at a time. As a result, we can instantly understand phrases and sometimes whole sentences (except for those long, drawn-out sentences we sometimes write). We also can go back and reread the text if we must.

However, we process the spoken message instantaneously, one phonetic sound at a time. We mentally accumulate these phonetic sounds in our memory until these sounds make sense. Once we mentally interpret these phonetic sounds into whole sentences, we can move on to the next spoken sentence. For example, if I said, “We mentally accumulate” and stop, you have no idea what I’m attempting to say until I complete the sentence; whereas, in reading this article, you can easily understand the meaning because the whole content is right here on this page. Although the spoken process is immediate, it is a slower process than reading so keep this in mind when writing and delivering your speech.

SIMPLIFYING YOUR MESSAGE

Use short, simple sentences. Your written report will likely contain comprehensive and long, drawn-out sentences describing the details and results of your project which is fine for a report, but rather long and tedious for a speech. It’s important to break down the technical detail into a few short and concise sentences.

For example, in my report, I wrote, “It is useful for our purposes to distinguish between two types of substitution procedures: 1) a true substitution procedure, in which the amount of the metal-DTPA complex added is equal to or greater than the amount of the sought-for metal ion; and 2) a pseudo-substitution procedure, in which only a small amount of the metal-DTPA complex is added to activate the indicator mechanism.” Whew! What a handful of words to say all at once.

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For a presentation, I would re-word the sentence to read: “For our purposes it is useful to distinguish between two types of substitution procedures. [pause] One type is a true substitution procedure. In this procedure, the amount of metal-DTPA added is equal to or greater than the amount of the sought-for metal ion. [pause] The second type is called a pseudo-substitution procedure. Only a small amount of the metal-DTPA complex is added to activate the indicator mechanism in this procedure.” Thus, I broke down one long sentence into five shorter sentences.

REDUCING UNNECESSARY VERBIAGE

In the example above, I simplified the sentence structure, but I didn’t rework it to make it more concise. In my workshops I give examples of speeches that I helped rewrite such as, “Let me tell you about Mary Smith. Mary Smith lives…” I changed it to “Ask Mary Smith. She lives…” Not only did I reduce it from ten to five words, it became more active in tone. In essence, be short, concise, and to the point when writing a speech for a presentation.

REFRAINING FROM USING JARGON

As chemists, we use chemical terms, acronyms, and other jargon everyday. These terms are second nature to us, but may not be to others. As the program chair for our Rotary club, I invited the public relations person from the regional water replenishment district to give a talk. During his presentation, he used words and phrases such as micro filtration, groundwater basins, saturated zones, heterogeneous aquifers, and injected recycled water after recharge. I understood the terms and perhaps one or two others, but I’m certain many other members had difficulty understanding the terms and, thus, his talk.

To be effective in your presentation, refrain from using your industry’s jargon, even if you are presenting in front of colleagues. However, if you do, explain the terms in a simple and understandable way.

FOCUSING ON BENEFITS, NOT DATA

In my experience, most scientists focus on technical data. This is natural because this is what you do for a living. You research, you synthesize, you investigate, and you analyze. You then formulate a conclusion based on the data of an investigation. As a result, the presentations are based on the collected evidence. But what are the benefits of your research? Let’s say you have been researching a cure for cancer for years and recently discovered a specific structure in DNA that would prevent all cancers. Of course, all the data and results leading up to the cure are necessary to submit to the science community, but what is more important to the listeners when presenting, the data or the benefits of the research?

For example, what is more valuable for the audience to hear? Data such as “…by doing this and that, we were able to reduce the growth rate of the cancer cells from 90,000 cells per hour down to only 10 cells per day; thereby virtually eliminating the growth of cancer,” or benefits such as “Based on our research; we can save 250,000 lives within the next three months if this DNA alteration is approved.” In essence, benefits emotionalize features (data); thus benefits grab the audience’s attention more than facts and figures.

Overall, if you speak in short, concise sentences, refrain from industry related terminology, and discuss the benefits of your findings; you will give a more effective presentation.

WRITING YOUR CONCLUSION FIRST

Many presenters write their speeches in a logical order; first, they construct the opening, followed by the body (where they add the details and supporting data), and then finish with the conclusion. However, by the time they start writing the conclusion they tend to adapt the conclusion to the supporting data rather than ensuring that the data fits the conclusion. What is your call to action? What concepts do you want to leave the audience with? What is the specific purpose of your talk?

With these questions in mind, develop your conclusion first. For example, if you’re seeking a grant for your colon cancer research, you might end your presentation with “Are you prepared to invest in saving the lives of 250,000 colon cancer patients over the next five years?” By focusing on your closing message, you can then add and arrange the specific details of your talk to support your conclusion, and then create a powerful opening statement based on your conclusion.

STARTING WITH AN ATTENTION-GETTER

How long do we have to grab the audience’s attention? Some have said as little as seven seconds. Others say ten to 15 seconds. Surely, we have no more than 30 seconds to capture our audience’s attention.

Yet, how many times have we seen someone begin with a statement such as “Thank you, Mr. Chairperson, for allowing me to speak this evening. Ladies and gentlemen, I’m honored to be here tonight to discuss this most pressing issue of….” This would take about ten seconds to say. Ten seconds to get to the point. Ten seconds before the audience begins to know, “Why am I here? By then, you may have lost your audience.

Instead, grab the audience’s attention immediately, then, if there’s a need, compliment or thank the organizers and the audience. For example, you may say, “More than one million people die each year of colon cancer. Our research team has developed a procedure to reduce the number of colon cancer deaths by more than 70% over the next five years. Thank you Mr. Chairperson, fellow colleagues, and welcomed guests. We are on the verge of reducing colon cases by introducing…”

MAKING A POINT AND TELLING A STORY

What’s remembered weeks, months, or even years after your presentation? It isn’t the data or the details you presented. It’s the stories. You may wonder how you can incorporate stories in your technical presentation. It can be done and it is powerful when you do it.

Several years ago, I was in network marketing. The company hired two biochemists. Both developed great products, both were very knowledgeable and both gave good presentations. One of them was, in my opinion, the typical presenter. He was very informative giving us a series of data, but quite dry in his delivery. To this day, I don’t recall any information he discussed. On the other hand, the other biochemist told stories and illustrated his points. Fifteen years later, I still remember the picture he verbally drew as he described how the lungs are affected by smoking.

REDUCING AHS, UMS, AND OTHER FILLER WORDS

Though filler words such as “ah,” “um,” and “you know” can be a distraction to the audience, rarely are we consciously aware of making these utterances. But you can become aware and learn to speak and pause without having them infiltrate.

Let me tell you a story to illustrate this point. I saw the 1986 air crash of the AeroMexico DC-9 flight 498 in Cerritos, CA. A single engine Piper Archer crashed into the tail of the DC-9. The airplane lost total control, turned over, and plunged into the Cerritos neighborhood like a bomb. It crashed within two miles of our home and within yards from friends and relatives. My wife was out of state and didn’t experience the disaster. About a month after the crash, my wife and I took a 30-minute walk around a nearby park. After we returned from the walk, I asked her how many planes she heard. She said none. I was so sensitized to the air crash that I had heard 31 aircraft fly over.

Similarly, you can become sensitized to your filler words. First, make a conscious effort to listen to others on TV or talk radio, at work, at seminars, at home — everywhere. Mentally count the number of filler words. As you become aware of others saying them, you will become conscious of your own filler words. Eventually, you will reduce, minimize, and even eliminate your filler words. In fact, you may become so sensitized to filler words that they will become a major distraction when others speak.

ANSWERING QUESTIONS

Have you been to a presentation where the speaker ended with a powerful conclusion, you were excited and ready to take action, and then the presenter asked something like “Do you have any questions?” After a few questions and answers, your excitement from the powerful conclusion waned and you left without taking any action.

Typically, presenters will conclude their presentations and then ask for questions. However, asking questions at the end will generally reduce the impact of a strong conclusion. Then, when should we accept questions?

Some presenters may encourage questions anytime during their presentation; however, they really need to be on top of their presentation to assure that they don’t lose track and complete their presentation on time. This can be a challenge for many — even for the most experienced presenters.

I generally ask for questions after each main topic. Typically, I will have an opening, a body, and a transitional conclusion for each main topic. At the end of each transitional topic, I will call for questions. For example, I may say, “Before continuing, do you have any questions?” After accepting no more than three to four questions, I’ll proceed to the next topic. To let the audience know that you need to conclude the question and answer section, you can say something like, “I will take one more question” or “I’ll be available after this presentation to answer any individual questions.” If appropriate, I may transition to the next topic by incorporating the last question. At the end of my last topic, but before my final conclusion, I will ask for a final set of questions.

DEVELOPING YOUR SKILLS

There’s so much more to know on how to give effective presentations, including how to use gestures, vocal variety, PowerPoint, and the lectern along with how to layout the room, prepare a checklist, etc. To learn more, attend workshops, read books, and learn by doing. And I believe, the very best place to learn by doing is the laboratory of communications, Toastmasters ( www.toastmasters.org ). Even if you are an accomplished presenter, everyone can practice and improve their skills.

About the Author

Frank s. adamo, related topics.

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Creating a 10-15 Minute Scientific Presentation

In the course of your career as a scientist, you will be asked to give brief presentations -- to colleagues, lab groups, and in other venues. We have put together a series of short videos to help you organize and deliver a crisp 10-15 minute scientific presentation.

First is a two part set of videos that walks you through organizing a presentation.

Part 1 - Creating an Introduction for a 10-15 Minute Scientfic Presentation

Part 2 - Creating the Body of a 10-15 Minute Presentation: Design/Methods; Data Results, Conclusions

Two additional videos should prove useful:

Designing PowerPoint Slides for a Scientific Presentation walks you through the key principles in designing powerful, easy to read slides.

Delivering a Presentation provides tips and approaches to help you put your best foot forward when you stand up in front of a group.

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How to give a scientific presentation

By Manisha Lalloo 2017-09-20T13:27:00+01:00

Five tips to keep an audience engaged without using cat pictures

Whether lecturing, presenting results at a conference or applying for a research proposal, giving presentations are a way of life for any chemist. But what are the best ways to get your point across while keeping your audience interested?

Think about your audience and remember that they want you to succeed

Jacquie Robson, is an associate professor of teaching at Durham University, UK, while Paul Bader is creative director at Screenhouse, an organisation which regularly trains scientists on how to develop better presentation skills. Here are their top tips.

Think about your audience

Whether presenting to colleagues or the general public, remember not everyone in your audience will be specialists. A common mistake scientists make is to assume others know as much as them when – more often than not – they are the expert in the room.

Even if your audience is well versed in the topic – for example, if you are presenting to a funding committee – do not start off with complex details. ‘If one person on the panel is outside the field, then you’ve lost them at the beginning,’ says Bader. Remember to give the big picture: it’s a good way in and a great way to make an impact.

Tell a story

‘Stories are easy to listen to and easy to tell,’ says Bader, who believes one of the most common mistakes is to cram too much information into just one talk. Structuring your talk in this way will help you to be selective.

Robson and Bader advise against learning a script by rote or reading a sheet of prose aloud. Written text is often more formal than convoluted than speech and sounds unnatural. Instead, have a set of key points on cue cards or use your slides as aide-mémoires. With a strong narrative, one point will lead to the next, making your talk more logical to follow and simpler to remember.

Robson also suggests telling your audience what you are going to speak about at the beginning of your talk and finishing off with a summary. That way your audience hears your main points three times – at the beginning, middle and end.

Visual aids are key

While PowerPoint is almost a given in today’s scientific presentations, try not to rely on it too much. ‘Slides should be clear, uncluttered and readable,’ says Robson. ‘Use diagrams rather than text.’

Slides should be used to highlight key points, not replicate your talk in written form. And remember never to turn your back on the audience – otherwise will be giving your presentation to the screen instead.

Don’t forget body language

‘Think about how you present yourself,’ says Robson. Have an open stance, smile, maintain eye contact, speak to the back of the room and at a good volume. ‘If you act confidently, they won’t know you’re feeling nervous.’

One of Robson’s pet peeves is a speaker who distracts the audience, for example by chewing gum or overusing laser pointers. Try to identify any habits you have while speaking that might take your audience’s attention away from your talk.

If you are feeling anxious, Robson advises against holding pieces of paper, which might shake in your hands. Bader suggests taking a moment to breathe. And both say the best technique is to ignore your nerves. The audience doesn’t want you to fail, and often won’t notice slip-ups. If you do make a big mistake, just correct yourself and carry on.

Practice, practice, practice

Perhaps the most important tip is to go through your presentation out loud before delivering it on the day.

‘People spend a lot of time writing their presentation or working on their slides but often the first time in public is the first time [they] do it,’ says Bader. By practising in advance and timing your run-throughs, you can discover if your talk is too long or too complicated.

There are many ways to practice, and it’s important to find the technique that works for you: you could video yourself on a phone and play it back, speak to yourself in front of a mirror or get somebody to listen to a rehearsal. According to Bader, the best way is to deliver your talk to a colleague or friend as you can see which parts they are engaged with (or not). ‘[But] any of the above is better than doing nothing,’ he adds.

And what about the dreaded questions at the end? ‘You can’t prepare for questions, so don’t fret,’ says Robson. ‘It’s not a spot exam, it’s a discussion. Make it into a conversation and don’t be afraid of saying “I don’t know the answer”.’

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Ten Simple Rules for Making Good Oral Presentations

Philip E. Bourne

PLoS Comput Biol 3(4): e77. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.0030077

Rule 1: Talk to the Audience

We do not mean face the audience, although gaining eye contact with as many people as possible when you present is important since it adds a level of intimacy and comfort to the presentation. We mean prepare presentations that address the target audience. Be sure you know who your audience is—what are their backgrounds and knowledge level of the material you are presenting and what they are hoping to get out of the presentation? Off-topic presentations are usually boring and will not endear you to the audience. Deliver what the audience wants to hear.

Rule 2: Less is More

A common mistake of inexperienced presenters is to try to say too much. They feel the need to prove themselves by proving to the audience that they know a lot. As a result, the main message is often lost, and valuable question time is usually curtailed. Your knowledge of the subject is best expressed through a clear and concise presentation that is provocative and leads to a dialog during the question-and-answer session when the audience becomes active participants. At that point, your knowledge of the material will likely become clear. If you do not get any questions, then you have not been following the other rules. Most likely, your presentation was either incomprehensible or trite. A side effect of too much material is that you talk too quickly, another ingredient of a lost message.

Rule 3: Only Talk When You Have Something to Say

Do not be overzealous about what you think you will have available to present when the time comes. Research never goes as fast as you would like. Remember the audience’s time is precious and should not be abused by presentation of uninteresting preliminary material.

Rule 4: Make the Take-Home Message Persistent

A good rule of thumb would seem to be that if you ask a member of the audience a week later about your presentation, they should be able to remember three points. If these are the key points you were trying to get across, you have done a good job. If they can remember any three points, but not the key points, then your emphasis was wrong. It is obvious what it means if they cannot recall three points!

Rule 5: Be Logical

Think of the presentation as a story. There is a logical flow—a clear beginning, middle, and an end. You set the stage (beginning), you tell the story (middle), and you have a big finish (the end) where the take-home message is clearly understood.

Rule 6: Treat the Floor as a Stage

Presentations should be entertaining, but do not overdo it and do know your limits. If you are not humorous by nature, do not try and be humorous. If you are not good at telling anecdotes, do not try and tell anecdotes, and so on. A good entertainer will captivate the audience and increase the likelihood of obeying Rule 4.

Rule 7: Practice and Time Your Presentation

This is particularly important for inexperienced presenters. Even more important, when you give the presentation, stick to what you practice. It is common to deviate, and even worse to start presenting material that you know less about than the audience does. The more you practice, the less likely you will be to go off on tangents. Visual cues help here. The more presentations you give, the better you are going to get. In a scientific environment, take every opportunity to do journal club and become a teaching assistant if it allows you to present. An important talk should not be given for the first time to an audience of peers. You should have delivered it to your research collaborators who will be kinder and gentler but still point out obvious discrepancies. Laboratory group meetings are a fine forum for this.

Rule 8: Use Visuals Sparingly but Effectively

Presenters have different styles of presenting. Some can captivate the audience with no visuals (rare); others require visual cues and in addition, depending on the material, may not be able to present a particular topic well without the appropriate visuals such as graphs and charts. Preparing good visual materials will be the subject of a further Ten Simple Rules. Rule 7 will help you to define the right number of visuals for a particular presentation. A useful rule of thumb for us is if you have more than one visual for each minute you are talking, you have too many and you will run over time. Obviously some visuals are quick, others take time to get the message across; again Rule 7 will help. Avoid reading the visual unless you wish to emphasize the point explicitly, the audience can read, too! The visual should support what you are saying either for emphasis or with data to prove the verbal point. Finally, do not overload the visual. Make the points few and clear.

Rule 9: Review Audio and/or Video of Your Presentations

There is nothing more effective than listening to, or listening to and viewing, a presentation you have made. Violations of the other rules will become obvious. Seeing what is wrong is easy, correcting it the next time around is not. You will likely need to break bad habits that lead to the violation of the other rules. Work hard on breaking bad habits; it is important.

Rule 10: Provide Appropriate Acknowledgments

People love to be acknowledged for their contributions. Having many gratuitous acknowledgements degrades the people who actually contributed. If you defy Rule 7, then you will not be able to acknowledge people and organizations appropriately, as you will run out of time. It is often appropriate to acknowledge people at the beginning or at the point of their contribution so that their contributions are very clear.

As a final word of caution, we have found that even in following the Ten Simple Rules (or perhaps thinking we are following them), the outcome of a presentation is not always guaranteed. Audience–presenter dynamics are hard to predict even though the metric of depth and intensity of questions and off-line followup provide excellent indicators. Sometimes you are sure a presentation will go well, and afterward you feel it did not go well. Other times you dread what the audience will think, and you come away pleased as punch. Such is life. As always, we welcome your comments on these Ten Simple Rules by Reader Response.

Acknowledgments

The idea for this particular Ten Simple Rules was inspired by a conversation with Fiona Addison.

Also see the following guides:

Ten Secrets to Giving a Good Scientific Talk in Science and Society V1003 by Mark Schoeberl and Brian Toon

How to Give a Sensational Scientific Talk by Janet B. W. Williams, D.S.W.

How to Give a Talk by James Allan

Giving a Job Talk in the Sciences By Richard M. Reis

Spectacular Scientific Talks by Rachel A. Petkewich

Tips for Giving Clear Talks   by IvyPanda

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This guide was created to take you along a step by step process to develop a speech. It is mainly focused on helping you brainstorm, identify, and define a topic to research.

This is a general guide, so it may vary from your classroom assignments. As always, refer to your professor and syllabus for your project requirements. 

Narrow Your Topic

Evaluate your topic, cite your sources.

Consider these questions:

• What subjects or ideas interest you?
• What kinds of life experience do you have?
• What kinds of issues have affected you or people you care about?
• Do you have a passion about an idea, a question, a subject? How can you explain or describe it such that others might be passionate about it as well?
• Does your subject have an edge? Does the topic have passionate supporters and opponents as well as being logical and reasonable? Is it debatable? Is it an unsolved problem?

A good practice is to make a list of ideas. As an example, here is an imaginary student’s list of ideas:

With the topics on your list, ask yourself these questions:

• Which topics are most worthy of your time?
• Why is your topic significant?
• Does it work with my assignment? (Is your speech informative, persuasive, etc.)

It is often beneficial (unless the topic is given or encouraged) to avoid heavily discussed topics. This helps to keep the speech interesting rather than giving an audience information they hear regularly.

Overused topics may include abortion, global warming, affirmative action, the death penalty, recycling, and sex and violence in the media. There is always a possibility to find an interesting angle or portion of the topic, but make sure you verify it with a professor first.

Let's take our student's list as an example. Our student might not want to write a speech on recycling, but maybe they have a a great way to reuse/remake something that is normally thrown out. This could work as a topic for a demonstration speech, though they would need to have the topic approved.

What are some other topics ideas from this list?

One way to develop these ideas is to make a concept map. Below is a sample of the student's concept map if they focused on knitting.

• Concept Mapping

Now this particular student enjoys mysteries and crime shows, because they like to figure out who the culprit is. The student needs to write an informative speech, and decides that they could inform others on how to solve mysteries.

Since it is a very large topic, the student decides to focus on helping people solve mysteries by informing them on how to tell if someone is lying .

After narrowing the topic, evaluate your speech to see if it is a good fit for your assignment.

• If it takes a while to explain your topic is either too complicated or too broad. Consider your time requirements and if you can adequately discuss the topic.
• Begin to focus on what you want to say and why. Part of this will already be dictated by the type of speech you are assigned. Making a concept map can help provide you with ideas.
• Who will hear the information? Will they have experience with the topic? What other factors will influence how they will interpret the information?
• You will want to use solid, scholarly information on the topic. General information might be easy to find, but you will need facts and research to back up your claims and information.

In our example the student’s evaluation would look like this:

Write out your research question or thesis statement. Underline words that you believe best represent the main ideas.

How can we determine if someone is lying to us?

Second, create a list of synonyms for each word you underlined and use these terms to search for resources.

Lying OR lie-spotting Face perception Body language. Deception.

You can add additional terms as you survey what is available:

Lying OR Deception AND workplace or business Friendship or workplace or business

As you gather resources be sure to evaluate the resources!

Check out the Searching Strategies for Websites and Databases for more tips. Check out the Evaluating Resources page to avoid choosing bad sources for your projects!

There are lots of reasons to provide references to the sources that you use.

Your audience may want to know how to investigate your topic further. By providing your resources you are helping others who are interested in the same topic.

You also need to credit the people who did the research you are using otherwise you will be claiming it is your own (even if unintentionally doing so). Plagiarism is a serious offense.

Here is a definition of plagiarism:

“Plagiarism is appropriating someone else's words or ideas without acknowledgment. To understand plagiarism we must consider two questions: (1) How is plagiarism like or unlike theft— (2) Why is plagiarism considered wrong; why should we acknowledge the originator of an idea.”

(Encyclopedia of Ethics. London: Routledge, 2001. Credo Reference. 17 April 2009 <http://www.credoreference.com/entry/7915618>.)

Just like in college writing, speeches should provide your audience with verbal cues to the information you have used: the SOURCE where you found your information. (This might be an interview, scholarly article, book, or website, etc.); the AUTHOR, when available, and the DATE when your source was published or accessed (for web sources and interviews).

Here are three ways to incorporate citations for your speech:

• Use quotation marks to attribute words of another person on your note cards. You can express quotations in your speech in several ways.
• Provide credit or citation such that the audience can trace back to the original source.
• Paraphrasing the main ideas WITH correct attribution.  A paraphrase will replace some of the words while keeping the main idea of the original work.

For more information on how to cite sources, see the “Citation” page in this guide.

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Preparing for Your Presentation

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As you prepare for your upcoming presentation to an audience of adults, here’s a checklist of items to plan for. They will help you make a good impression and leave a positive message in the minds of your listeners.

• Prepare a brief bio about your professional qualifications and a summary of your presentation for your host to use in promotional materials and in introducing you.
• Include personal anecdotes that highlight your connection to the community.
• Customize your presentation with specific local information that the organization will find interesting or useful.
• Include an effective closer that sums up your presentation.
• Practice your presentation in front of a mirror or with a group of friends or colleagues.
• Brainstorm possible questions and answers related to your presentation.

On the day of your presentation:

• Arrive early. 
• Set up your audio/visual equipment and any other materials for demonstrations or experiments. Be prepared to troubleshoot! You may want to have an extension cord, masking tape, printed handouts, and files saved to a flash drive, etc.
• Introduce yourself to organizers when you arrive and attendees as soon as they come in.

Localize your presentation:

The best way to ensure success with your audience is to put yourself in their place. What would they like to know about the particular subject of your presentation? How it might affect them personally? Here are some points to consider to localize your presentation:

• Introduce yourself as a member of the community and emphasize your local connections. Provide personal information that the audience can relate to. This greatly increases audience receptivity.
• Provide local examples of community members who are chemists. For example, chemical scientists work at the local hospital, in the crime unit of the police department, at the water sanitation department and as teachers in local schools and colleges.
• Provide local economic impact examples. If there is a well-known chemical company in your community, contact the public information office for data about the products they sell, the number of chemical scientists they employ and the financial contribution they provide to the community. Better yet, if you work for such an organization, use data related to your company. It’s more personal and provides you with an opportunity to talk about what you do.
• Give concrete examples from daily life that illustrate specific personal benefits of chemistry that your audience will understand.
• Don’t be afraid to ask them to identify professional or personal relationships with chemistry. They may provide you with just the launching point you need for an engaging conversation.

During your presentation:

• Leave time for questions and answers.
• Be flexible. Every group has its own quirks and each location has its own set of logistical challenges.
• Keep your presentation moving. If you have a PowerPoint presentation, avoid spending too much time on one slide, reading directly from your slides, or taking too much time between slides.
• Be prepared to say, “I don’t know, but I’ll be happy to get back to you with an answer.” 
• Be courteous, smile, pay attention to time and thank the audience for their attention.

After the presentation:

• Bring and distribute your business cards. If you’ve offered to follow up on any audience questions, be sure to get their contact information too.
• Thank the organizers who helped you schedule and prepare for the presentation.

Handling Difficult Questions

Whenever you put yourself in front of the public, you should be prepared for someone in the crowd to ask you a difficult question. How you respond will leave a strong impression on the audience. You may or may not have the answer to the question you are asked. Either way, you should respond with empathy, sincerity, and a suggestion of action or assistance.

• Express empathy or concern (see below).
• Relate a personal story or cite an analogy that shows you identify with the questioner’s concern.
• Start with the conclusion. Present the facts.
• Keep it short and to the point.
• Provide two facts. Make sure at least one fact is supported by a credible third party.
• Repeat your conclusion.

If you don't know the answer to a question, say “I don’t know.” If possible, offer to find out the answer and respond at a later time. 

A few extra tips:

• Don’t repeat negative allegations against you or your organization. Say “no” and go on to explain why not.
• Speak in simple terms. Do not use jargon or technical terms.
• When possible, relate your answer to your presentation.
• Remember the purpose of your speech. Stick to the messages you want to convey.
• Try to satisfy the questioner and the audience, but retain control.

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What this handout is about

This handout will help you create an effective speech by establishing the purpose of your speech and making it easily understandable. It will also help you to analyze your audience and keep the audience interested.

What’s different about a speech?

Writing for public speaking isn’t so different from other types of writing. You want to engage your audience’s attention, convey your ideas in a logical manner and use reliable evidence to support your point. But the conditions for public speaking favor some writing qualities over others. When you write a speech, your audience is made up of listeners. They have only one chance to comprehend the information as you read it, so your speech must be well-organized and easily understood. In addition, the content of the speech and your delivery must fit the audience.

What’s your purpose?

People have gathered to hear you speak on a specific issue, and they expect to get something out of it immediately. And you, the speaker, hope to have an immediate effect on your audience. The purpose of your speech is to get the response you want. Most speeches invite audiences to react in one of three ways: feeling, thinking, or acting. For example, eulogies encourage emotional response from the audience; college lectures stimulate listeners to think about a topic from a different perspective; protest speeches in the Pit recommend actions the audience can take.

As you establish your purpose, ask yourself these questions:

• What do you want the audience to learn or do?
• If you are making an argument, why do you want them to agree with you?
• If they already agree with you, why are you giving the speech?
• How can your audience benefit from what you have to say?

Audience analysis

If your purpose is to get a certain response from your audience, you must consider who they are (or who you’re pretending they are). If you can identify ways to connect with your listeners, you can make your speech interesting and useful.

As you think of ways to appeal to your audience, ask yourself:

• What do they have in common? Age? Interests? Ethnicity? Gender?
• Do they know as much about your topic as you, or will you be introducing them to new ideas?
• Why are these people listening to you? What are they looking for?
• What level of detail will be effective for them?
• What tone will be most effective in conveying your message?
• What might offend or alienate them?

For more help, see our handout on audience .

Creating an effective introduction

Get their attention, otherwise known as “the hook”.

Think about how you can relate to these listeners and get them to relate to you or your topic. Appealing to your audience on a personal level captures their attention and concern, increasing the chances of a successful speech. Speakers often begin with anecdotes to hook their audience’s attention. Other methods include presenting shocking statistics, asking direct questions of the audience, or enlisting audience participation.

Establish context and/or motive

Explain why your topic is important. Consider your purpose and how you came to speak to this audience. You may also want to connect the material to related or larger issues as well, especially those that may be important to your audience.

Get to the point

Tell your listeners your thesis right away and explain how you will support it. Don’t spend as much time developing your introductory paragraph and leading up to the thesis statement as you would in a research paper for a course. Moving from the intro into the body of the speech quickly will help keep your audience interested. You may be tempted to create suspense by keeping the audience guessing about your thesis until the end, then springing the implications of your discussion on them. But if you do so, they will most likely become bored or confused.

For more help, see our handout on introductions .

Making your speech easy to understand

Repeat crucial points and buzzwords.

Especially in longer speeches, it’s a good idea to keep reminding your audience of the main points you’ve made. For example, you could link an earlier main point or key term as you transition into or wrap up a new point. You could also address the relationship between earlier points and new points through discussion within a body paragraph. Using buzzwords or key terms throughout your paper is also a good idea. If your thesis says you’re going to expose unethical behavior of medical insurance companies, make sure the use of “ethics” recurs instead of switching to “immoral” or simply “wrong.” Repetition of key terms makes it easier for your audience to take in and connect information.

Incorporate previews and summaries into the speech

For example:

“I’m here today to talk to you about three issues that threaten our educational system: First, … Second, … Third,”

“I’ve talked to you today about such and such.”

These kinds of verbal cues permit the people in the audience to put together the pieces of your speech without thinking too hard, so they can spend more time paying attention to its content.

Use especially strong transitions

This will help your listeners see how new information relates to what they’ve heard so far. If you set up a counterargument in one paragraph so you can demolish it in the next, begin the demolition by saying something like,

“But this argument makes no sense when you consider that . . . .”

If you’re providing additional information to support your main point, you could say,

“Another fact that supports my main point is . . . .”

Helping your audience listen

Rely on shorter, simpler sentence structures.

Don’t get too complicated when you’re asking an audience to remember everything you say. Avoid using too many subordinate clauses, and place subjects and verbs close together.

Too complicated:

The product, which was invented in 1908 by Orville Z. McGillicuddy in Des Moines, Iowa, and which was on store shelves approximately one year later, still sells well.

Easier to understand:

Orville Z. McGillicuddy invented the product in 1908 and introduced it into stores shortly afterward. Almost a century later, the product still sells well.

Limit pronoun use

Listeners may have a hard time remembering or figuring out what “it,” “they,” or “this” refers to. Be specific by using a key noun instead of unclear pronouns.

Pronoun problem:

The U.S. government has failed to protect us from the scourge of so-called reality television, which exploits sex, violence, and petty conflict, and calls it human nature. This cannot continue.

Why the last sentence is unclear: “This” what? The government’s failure? Reality TV? Human nature?

More specific:

The U.S. government has failed to protect us from the scourge of so-called reality television, which exploits sex, violence, and petty conflict, and calls it human nature. This failure cannot continue.

Keeping audience interest

Incorporate the rhetorical strategies of ethos, pathos, and logos.

When arguing a point, using ethos, pathos, and logos can help convince your audience to believe you and make your argument stronger. Ethos refers to an appeal to your audience by establishing your authenticity and trustworthiness as a speaker. If you employ pathos, you appeal to your audience’s emotions. Using logos includes the support of hard facts, statistics, and logical argumentation. The most effective speeches usually present a combination these rhetorical strategies.

Use statistics and quotations sparingly

Include only the most striking factual material to support your perspective, things that would likely stick in the listeners’ minds long after you’ve finished speaking. Otherwise, you run the risk of overwhelming your listeners with too much information.

Watch your tone

Be careful not to talk over the heads of your audience. On the other hand, don’t be condescending either. And as for grabbing their attention, yelling, cursing, using inappropriate humor, or brandishing a potentially offensive prop (say, autopsy photos) will only make the audience tune you out.

Creating an effective conclusion

Restate your main points, but don’t repeat them.

“I asked earlier why we should care about the rain forest. Now I hope it’s clear that . . .” “Remember how Mrs. Smith couldn’t afford her prescriptions? Under our plan, . . .”

Call to action

Speeches often close with an appeal to the audience to take action based on their new knowledge or understanding. If you do this, be sure the action you recommend is specific and realistic. For example, although your audience may not be able to affect foreign policy directly, they can vote or work for candidates whose foreign policy views they support. Relating the purpose of your speech to their lives not only creates a connection with your audience, but also reiterates the importance of your topic to them in particular or “the bigger picture.”

Practicing for effective presentation

Once you’ve completed a draft, read your speech to a friend or in front of a mirror. When you’ve finished reading, ask the following questions:

• Which pieces of information are clearest?
• Where did I connect with the audience?
• Where might listeners lose the thread of my argument or description?
• Where might listeners become bored?
• Where did I have trouble speaking clearly and/or emphatically?
• Did I stay within my time limit?

Other resources

• Toastmasters International is a nonprofit group that provides communication and leadership training.
• Allyn & Bacon Publishing’s Essence of Public Speaking Series is an extensive treatment of speech writing and delivery, including books on using humor, motivating your audience, word choice and presentation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Boone, Louis E., David L. Kurtz, and Judy R. Block. 1997. Contemporary Business Communication . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Ehrlich, Henry. 1994. Writing Effective Speeches . New York: Marlowe.

Lamb, Sandra E. 1998. How to Write It: A Complete Guide to Everything You’ll Ever Write . Berkeley: Ten Speed Press.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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• Nov 21, 2022

How to write a winning 3MT script

That’s how many words are in a typical PhD thesis. Years of gruelling research, sleepless nights, and history-making breakthroughs… culminated into one VERY thick book. To present something of this scale would take you approximately 9 hours. 🤯

But what do you do when you only have 3 minutes? ⏰

Well, that’s exactly what thousands of PhD students worldwide do each year in the 3 Minute Thesis (3MT®) competition. Not only do they explain their super complex research in the time it takes to make a coffee, but they do it in a way that can be understood by a non-specialist audience.

But we know what you’re thinking…

So, how do you even win a competition like that? Well first of all, you’re going to need a 3MT script. And we’re about to teach you how to write a WINNING one. 🏅

Not only that, but this blog post marks the beginning of a multi-part series that will cover all the important aspects of preparing a winning 3MT – from writing a captivating speech, to creating an effective slide, and of course, nailing your delivery.

What is the 3MT competition?

The Three Minute Thesis (3MT®) Competition is an annual public speaking competition, where PhD candidates describe the impact and scope of their research in 3 minutes to a non-specialist audience. It was launched by the University of Queensland in 2008 and has since gained traction in over 85 countries around the world! 🌍

Put simply, it’s a fancy elevator pitch. Just imagine that it’s a really slow elevator.

Like any good competition, the 3MT has some rules. Here’s a run-down of some of the big ones:

Rules of the 3MT® competition:

You must use a single static PowerPoint slide with no transitions or animations.

You are limited to 3 minutes maximum. Competitors exceeding 3 minutes are disqualified.

Presentations are to be spoken word (e.g. no poems, raps or songs)… Sorry to all the aspiring rapper-researchers out there.

You can find a comprehensive list of the rules on the official UQ 3MT website.

Well, now that’s out of the way, let’s get into our tips on how to write a winning 3MT script! In this article, I’ll discuss some strategies that I used to craft my own winning 3MT script, but I’ve also watched lots of other award-winning 3MT presentations and identified some common features they share, so that you don’t have to. 😉

#1 : The hook 🪝

Every great 3MT presentation starts off with an attention-grabbing opener, otherwise known as ‘the hook.’ It’s a storytelling essential, and is undoubtedly one of the most important components of the 3MT script.

One clever way to hook the audience in a 3MT presentation is to start off by asking a question , which creates a sense of open dialogue with the listener. For instance, these 3MT finalists began their presentations by asking:

Full videos: Sarah Mokrzycki | Merryn Baker

You can see how the simple act of asking a question makes us reflect on our own personal views and encourages us to engage with the presentation. 💭 Another way to achieve a similar effect is to begin your talk by prompting the audience to act. An effective example of this is presented here:

Full video: Amanda Khamis

Prompting the listener to act is a powerful way to immerse the audience into a particular scenario by making use of their senses. It can be easily achieved by asking the audience to look around the room, visualise a scene using their imagination, or simply taking a deep breath. 😮‍💨

Finally, several fantastic 3MT presentations also begin with a hook that startles the reader by making an unusual, interesting, or thought-provoking statement. This can be done numerous ways, such as through the use of:

Oxymoron: A figure of speech that combines two contradicting words (i.e., ‘deafening silence’ and ‘old news’).

Paradox: A self-contradictory statement that may actually be true (i.e., ‘less is more’).

Irony: Use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning (i.e., telling a rude customer to ‘have a nice day’).

Here are some good 3MT examples where the presenter has opened with a startling hook:

Full videos: Sophie Jano | Kylie Sturgess

The success of this technique arises from its element of surprise, which keeps the listener intrigued and curious. Basically, the more shocking or unexpected the hook, the better. 😲

However, with all this being said, there’s certainly no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ way to begin your 3MT, and that’s the beauty of creativity. But in case you’re stuck for ideas, here are a few sentence starters to give you some inspiration for creating a compelling hook for your 3MT script:

Once you’ve got the crowd hooked, it’s a prime opportunity to reel them in for your story. 📖

#2 : Tell a story

If you watch all the award-winning 3MT presentations, you’ll notice that they have one thing in common: they all tell a story. And they do it well.

But how do we turn our own complex, and often niche, research into a compelling story? Well, thankfully, we don’t have to reinvent the wheel. We can stand on the shoulders of SciComm giants... 👣

No one is more of an expert at the ins and outs of storytelling than Dr Randy Olson ; scientist-turned-filmmaker, and co-author of the book Connection: Hollywood Storytelling meets Critical Thinking ( a.k.a. our SciComm holy bible). Many of the principles discussed in this section come straight from this remarkable work, which made it to our top 5 must-read science communication books . 📚

As we know from pretty much every Hollywood blockbuster, all good stories have a beginning, middle, and end. In Connection , Randy further develops this idea by outlining what he calls the ‘ABT Template’, which stands for ‘And, But, Therefore.’ These represent the three key components that make up every good story. We’ve talked about the ABT template before , and how it can be used to elevate your storytelling. But, in case you missed it, I’ll use my own research as an example as we work through this concept.

Typically, in the beginning of a story, there’s some exposition. These are facts that help set the scene and ensure that the speaker and audience are all on the same page (pun intended). 😉 These facts can be connected using the word AND. For example:

“Cancer is deadly and traditional chemotherapy is one treatment option.”

Any statements we connect with ‘and’ are typically things that everyone would agree with, so you can quality-check your ‘and’ section by making sure you agree with all the facts you are connecting.

Okay, so we’ve set the scene. But this isn’t really a story yet, is it? The actual story doesn’t begin until there’s a source of tension or conflict , and the simplest word to make this happen is the word BUT:

“Cancer is deadly and traditional chemotherapy is one treatment option, but it comes with a lot of side effects.”

You can see that the ‘but’ is what makes things interesting. It’s what keeps the audience wanting more and makes them ask “Well, what happens next?”

It doesn’t have to be the word ‘but’ either – there are a lot of words that essentially do the same thing, such as however, although, except , and unfortunately, to name a few… (The thesaurus could be your best friend here). What these words have in common is that they create this critical sense of tension.

Following this, is the outcome , which is where the THEREFORE comes in.

“Cancer is deadly and chemotherapy is one treatment option, but it comes with a lot of side effects. Therefore , in our research, we load these drugs into tiny carriers called nanoparticles, which can help to reduce their adverse effects.”

‘Therefore’ is the word that brings everything together. It marks the beginning of a journey of discovery, which eventually leads to the resolution.

You can see how, by simply including these three key words: and, but and therefore , we have generated the foundations of a good story. Your 3MT script will obviously need to be longer than two sentences, but the ABT template provides a useful scaffold that you can build from to ensure that your story is compelling. If you’re interested in reading more on the ABT template and how it can be utilised, make sure to give Connection a read. 📖

To help you shape your story using the ABT template, here are some questions you can aim to answer in the beginning, middle, and end of your 3MT script:

Hopefully this outline can help you create a captivating and persuasive story to communicate your research effectively. Because, in the wise words of Dr Randy Olson, “Tell a good story and the whole world will listen.”

So, we’ve got our story. But what other strategies can we use to make it a little more interesting? Let’s unpack our storytelling toolkit to see how we can spice things up. 🌶

#3 : Your storytelling toolkit: analogies, humour & creation of a character

In addition to using the ABT template to write a compelling narrative structure, there are also several other tools that you can use to connect with your audience and make your story as easy to understand as possible.

One powerful way to do this is to relate your research to a more common experience by using an analogy . Analogies allow us to compare similarities between two seemingly different things. For instance, when I did the 3MT, I used an analogy to compare nanoparticles – a topic that’s not very common – to cars, something that almost everyone is familiar with:

Full video: Cintya Dharmayanti

As you can see, this works because the analogy serves to provide a simpler, more easily understood explanation using concepts and examples from everyday life. 🚗

Besides analogies, another useful tool to create a captivating story is the use of humour . Because who doesn’t like a good laugh, right? 😂 Comedic relief can help you create a bond with the listener and provide some emotional reprieve for what may otherwise be a serious presentation.

Humour is used well in this winning 3MT presentation:

Full video: Trevyn Toone

In this example, humour helps to keep us engaged with the presentation and gives us a good impression of the presenter. However, some care does need to be taken with the use of humour, so as to not devalue the presentation. Don’t worry if you’re not a comedian though (or if your research topics are too grim to joke about), there are still other effective ways to make your story shine.

Some of the most immersive 3MTs are those that introduce a character , fictional or not, and follow that character’s story. This is a particularly useful tool if your research involves a topic that strikes a strong emotional response. The following example executed this well, where the speaker refers to a photo of an adorable young infant with a feeding tube:

This is so effective because it encourages us to empathise with the character and persuades us to see the importance of the presenter’s research. Whether it’s analogies, humour, or the creation of a character, there are lots of ways to make your story relatable and more easily understood.

Now that we’ve got some ideas from our storytelling toolkit, let’s move on! 🙌

#4 : Goodbye technical jargon 👋

Imagine being in a different country, where you don’t speak the native language. You’re chatting with a local, but they can’t speak your language very fluently. The conversation is interspersed with foreign words that you can’t quite understand, so the meaning of the exchange ultimately becomes lost.

That’s what it’s like trying to understand complex research when it’s filled with terminology and jargon only an expert in that field would know. 🤓

Remember that the 3MT is for a non-specialist audience, which is very different to a conference presentation that’s mostly filled with experts in the field. As scientists, it’s our job to make sure that we are speaking the same language as our audience, and for the 3MT, that means avoiding the use of language that’s too niche or technical. We can still explain complex concepts using language that’s easy to understand!

But how do you do that, when you’ve spent years in academia doing the opposite? 😅

The best way to avoid the overuse of jargon is to simply seek the help of a non-specialist. Ask someone that’s not in your field of research to listen to your presentation and provide feedback. Perhaps this is a friend, family, or fellow student from a completely different department. Does your story make sense to them? If not, it probably won’t make sense to many people in the 3MT audience.

I remember when I was preparing my 3MT script, I went through this exact process! Reading it aloud to my mum, sister, and pretty much anyone who would listen, to make sure each sentence was easy to follow and understand. It’s actually what helped me come up with the idea of the car- analogy in the first place! So, keep iterating and tweaking your presentation until it makes sense to the mailman, the bus driver, and the neighbour down the road.

Also, make sure to keep your story focused on the big picture, rather than getting bogged down in the details and data. Not only will this make your presentation hard to understand, but it’s also more likely to make it B.O.R.I.N.G. and lead to blank stares !

When you’ve ticked all these boxes – great! You’re ready to move on.

#5 : The finisher: Coming full circle

Good job! You’re almost done. Time to add the finishing touch. We can all agree that a strong finish makes for a more memorable presentation. One trend that’s very common amongst winning 3MT presentations is the way that they finish: by bringing their story full circle. As the name suggests, this essentially means that the presenter refers back to the beginning of the story, especially if a particular character, scenario, or analogy is used.

For instance, in this winning 3MT example, the presentation begins with:

Then, as the presentation comes to a close, the final segment ends by referring back to the opening sentence:

Full video: Matthew Shaw

By bringing the story full circle, the audience gains a sense of satisfaction and closure as the cycle returns to its beginnings and the status quo is restored.

Take-away messages

The thought of distilling years of research down to just 3 minutes can be daunting, especially when it’s a competition. 😰 However, if you:

Create an attention-grabbing hook

Tell a captivating story using the ABT template

Use tools such as analogies, humour, and characters

Get rid of technical jargon, and

Bring your story full circle

You’re well on your way to writing a fantastic 3MT script! So, what are you waiting for? Let’s tell your story. Time is ticking. 😉⏰

And remember – if you want to further master your storytelling and public speaking skills, we’d love to show you how in one of our online or in-person science communication workshops .

Feel free to contact us to find out more!

Cintya Dharmayanti

Dr Juan Miguel Balbin

Dr Tullio Rossi

Illustration

Alvin Yanga

Related Posts

What does it mean to be a science communicator?

5 tips for improving your public speaking skills as a researcher

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Scientific Writing

Scientific writing or science writing usually refers to research articles reporting original research in journals. Science writing also includes other kinds of writing such as review articles (which summarize and synthesize previous research articles on a specific topic), annotated bibliographies (which aid others in performing their research), abstracts or notes (which summarize experiments or studies), and grant proposals (which seek funding for research). The point of science writing is for a scientist to communicate with an audience of peers. Since the purpose is communication and not entertainment, scientific writing should be precise, clear and objective.

Here are some resources to help you write for academic science audiences:

• ACS Style Quick Guide

Managing Citations

• EndNote for Mac
• EndNote for PC

ACS style was created by the American Chemical Society for use in chemistry publications and follows guidelines set forth by the ACS Style Guide.

ACS Style Examples

• Journal Article
• Chemical Abstracts
• Sample Paper

Author, A.A.; Author, B.B.  Title of Article. Journal Abbreviation Year, Volume , xx-xx

Caruso, R. A.; Susha, A.; Caruso, F. Multilayered Titania, Silica, and Laponite Nanoparticle  Coatings  on  Polystyrene  Colloidal  Templates  and  Resulting Inorganic Hollow Spheres. Chem.Mater. 2001 , 13, 400–409.

Author, A.A.; Author, B.B. Journal Abbreviation Year, Volume , xx-xx; Chem. Abstr. Year , Volume , Column Abst Number

Mohamed, A. M.; Hawata, A.; El-Torgoman, M.; El-Kousy, S. M.; Ismail, A. E.; Øgaard Madsen, J.; Søtofte, I.; Senning, A. Eur. J. Org. Chem . 2002 ,  2039–2045; Chem. Abstr. 2003 , 138, 4195

Author, A.A. (if any).  Title of Site. URL (accessed Month Day, Year), other identifying information (if any)

ACS Publications Division Home Page. http://pubs.acs.org (accessed Nov 7, 2004). Chemical Abstracts Service. STN on the Web. http://stnweb.cas.org (accessed Nov 7, 2004)

Author, A.A.; Author, B.B. Chapter Title. Book Title , Edition; Series Information (if avail.); Publisher: Place of Publication, Year; Volume, pp xx-xx

DAT 2017-2018: strategies, practice and review ; Kaplan Publishing: New York, NY, 2016

(Belosludtsev, Juškevičius et al. 2017)

• ACS Sample Paper

APA Style Guide

APA Style was developed by the American Psychological Association for use in the social sciences but is frequently used by researchers from other scientific disciplines as well.

APA Style - 7th edition

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. T itle of Journal, volume number (issue number), page range. DOI's URL             

Baider, L., Uziely, B., & Kaplan De-Nour, A. (1994). Progressive muscle relaxation and guided imagery in cancer patients. General Hospital                          Psychiatry , 16 (5), 340–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-8343(94)90021-3

List up to 20 authors by their last names followed by initials. Use an ampersand (&) before the last author.

Author (person or organization). (Year published or updated) Title of page. Website. https://xxxxx

*Substitute (n. d.). for the year if there is no known date of publication.

U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (2010). Facing down PTSD, vet is now soaring high. http://www.mentalhealth.va.gov/featureArticle_Feb.asp

Walker, A. (2019, November 14). Germany avoids recession but growth remains weak . BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-50419127

Last, A. A., Last, B. B., & Last, C. C. (Year). Book title.  Publisher.

Achterberg, J. (1985). Imagery in healing . Shambhala Publications.

Include the author's last name and publication year:

Teaching techniques and reflecting on the group process are unique components of guided imagery received in a group context (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005).

Or you can introduce the citation like this:

Example: 

For example, Ball et al. (2003) conducted guided imagery in a group psychotherapy format with 11 children  ...

For a direct quotation, include the page number:

Guided imagery and relaxation techniques have even been found to “reduce distress and allow the immune system to function more effectively” (Trakhtenberg, 2008, p. 850).

For more information on in-text citing, consult this page:

• In-Text Citations - 7th Edition Essentials
• Student Title Page Guide
• Abstract and Keywords Guide
• Heading Levels Template: Student Paper
• Student Sample Paper
• Annotated Student Sample Paper
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My Speech Class

Public Speaking Tips & Speech Topics

47 Science Speech Topics [Persuasive, Informative]

Jim Peterson has over 20 years experience on speech writing. He wrote over 300 free speech topic ideas and how-to guides for any kind of public speaking and speech writing assignments at My Speech Class.

In this article:

Persuasive Science Speech Topics

Informative science speech topics.

• Physically challenged students ought not be separated in class.
• Effective erosion control methods are needed to protect barrier islands.
• How you deal with failure determines how you achieve success.
• Space exploration helps improving life on Earth.
• Agnosticism is skepticism regarding theology.
• There is no single ADHD test for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.
• Develop guidelines for scientific embryonic stem cell research consent.
• Not all medical and scientific research improves public health.
• Cancer is the most important disease scientists should research and solve.
• Science makes our way of life change too fast.
• Space exploration benefits our world.
• The reason we don’t grow hair on our toenails.
• The effects of music on the brain.
• How does our brain work?
• Mars was the same as Earth in the past.
• How much of our brain do we actually use?
• How Charles Darwin changed the world.
• The latest discoveries in astronomy.
• Where did dogs come from?
• The history of greyhound dogs.
• The craziest scientists in history.
• How to survive a shark attack.
• How bottled water is purified.
• The incredible power of the mind.
• A cheetah’s hunting skills.
• Innovative science experiments that are benefitting everyone.
• The best butterfly collecting methods.
• The intelligence of dolphins.
• The need to preserve forests.
• The important 18th century Swiss chemists.
• The history of genetically mutated animals.
• The latest astronomical technology.
• How light emitting diode lamps work.
• The endangerment of tigers.
• Why oxygen is so important.
• Are humans still evolving?
• The benefits of wind resistant technology.
• Why bats hang upside down.
• How the Earth was formed.
• How galaxies are formed.
• The best types of houseplants.
• How chocolate is made.
• How the the Great Lakes formed.
• How DNA evidence is used.
• Your body language reveals your deepest secrets.
• How earthquakes can be predicted.
• Why polar bears are going extinct.

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321 Interesting Chemistry Topics & Writing Tips

Chemistry studies matter and what it’s made of. It tells us how substances change and what properties they have. Chemistry seeks to answer questions such as: What is the Universe made of? How do elements react with each other?

Read our article to dive deeper into this intricate subject. What is more, we’ve prepared a list of 300 exciting chemistry-related topics. You can choose between organic, nuclear chemistry, biochemistry, and other branches. Our interesting topics in chemistry will make your studies more enjoyable!

Don’t forget that writing is our element. Is your assignment’s deadline closing in? Our custom writing service will take the pressure off you!

🔝 Top 10 Interesting Chemistry Topics

• ✅ Branches of Chemistry
• ✍️ Writing Tips

⭐ Top 10 Chemistry Essay Topics

• 🔬 General Chemistry Topics
• 🧑🥼 Chemistry Project Topics
• 🤔 Advanced Chemistry
• 🦠 Biochemistry
• 🧬 Organic Chemistry
• ♻️ Green Chemistry
• ⚗️ Inorganic Chemistry
• ⚛️ Nuclear Chemistry
• 🧮 Analytical Chemistry
• 🧪 Physical Chemistry

🔍 References

• Biochemistry in nursing
• Crystalloids vs. colloids
• The purpose of dilutions
• Principles of electrochemistry
• Why is stoichiometry so difficult?
• Are there alternative periodic tables?
• The polarity of bonds classification
• How is nuclear chemistry used?
• The importance of Lewis electron dot structure
• Endothermic reactions vs. exothermic reactions

✅ Main Branches of Chemistry

Chemistry is a broad subject that uses various methods of study. Because of this, scientists divide it into five main branches. These are organic, inorganic, physical, analytical, and biochemistry . Let’s investigate them:

• Organic chemistry examines life. It seeks to understand the molecular structure and behavior of living beings.
• Inorganic chemistry focuses on materials rather than living beings. Chemists of this field aim to advance technology.

• Physical chemists examine the atomic level of matter. This branch uses physics to study the processes in chemical systems.
• Analytical chemists investigate what matter consists of. They look for new analyzing procedures and ways to enhance existing ones.
• Biochemistry studies the fundamental biological systems. It improves our understanding of essential medical issues.

Now that we’ve sorted out chemistry basics, we can examine how to write about it. Whether you’re in high school or already in college, the following guide will help you compose an excellent chemistry paper!

✍️ Tips on How to Write a Chemistry Paper

Each subject has its own rules when it comes to writing papers. In chemistry, the organization is the key. That’s why the first step is to have your lab notes in order. Keep your notebook neat and tidy, and you will see that writing becomes much more manageable.

On top of that, it’s good to have an idea of what an excellent paper should be like. There are three major points you should keep in mind: objectives, style, and structure.

• Objectives. Your goal is to identify and convey valuable information. If you want to share it with others, it should be presented as credible scientific work.
• Introduction. Say what your paper will be about.
• Methods. Present the methods and materials you use.
• Results. Describe what you observed during the experiment.
• Discussion. Analyze the results and summarize the relevance of your study.
• Style. Grammatically correct writing is a must. Your style should be formal, concise, and clear. Use the right tense: write your methods and results in the past. For general truths, you can switch to the present.

Finally, don’t forget that for any type of writing, the right topic is crucial. For inspiration, check out our excellent chemistry paper topics!

• The history of neurochemistry
• Astrochemistry vs. astrophysics
• Is radiochemistry a dying field?
• Pros and cons of being a biochemist
• New concepts of chemical engineering
• What makes quantum chemistry difficult?
• The importance of agricultural chemistry
• The impact of WW2 on computational chemistry
• Ernest Rutherford’s contribution to nuclear chemistry
• Computer chemistry vs. computational chemistry

🔬 General Chemistry Topics to Write About

Chemistry surrounds us in our everyday life. Have you ever seen moldy bread or boiling water? That’s chemistry in action. Have a look at these 30 easy topics for an introduction into chemistry:

• What happens to your body when it lacks vitamins?
• How does acid rain form?
• Understanding pheromones: how do they affect humans?
• Explain what atoms are made of.
• Ionic and covalent compounds: a comparison.
• How do you solve stoichiometry problems?
• Give an overview of the states of matter.
• A delicate balance: how do chemicals in our brains create moods?
• Describe the noble gas configuration.
• Marie Curie and her extraordinary legacy.
• An introduction into acids and bases.
• Write about hydrologic cycles.
• What happens when a substance oxidizes?
• Explain substitution reactions.
• Compare the Bohr model with the plum-pudding and the Saturnian models.
• How does a Geiger counter work?
• Describe the significance of Rutherford’s gold foil experiment.
• How Michael Faraday forever changed the scientific landscape.
• What does Prout’s hypothesis state?
• The history of european alchemy.
• What are the periodic trends?
• Explain how to analyze amino acids using protein hydrolysis.
• What do catalysts do?
• Everything about lab safety.
• The radium craze of the early 20th century.
• How does substance abuse impact your body?
• Why is it essential to study chemistry in high school?
• Reaction rates: how do we define them?
• Before chemistry: ancient philosophy of things changing. 
• Examine how radioactive decay occurs.

🧑🥼 Chemistry Projects Topics for Science Fair

Experiments are, without a doubt, the most fun part of chemistry. It’s exciting to watch colorful substances fizzle and bubble. If you need ideas for your next project, look no further. Just make sure to follow safety rules!

• Discover what determines the color changes when iodine and starch react. 
• Find out how to make photosynthesis visible.
• Try to synthesize Aspirin.
• Develop film and explain how you did it.
• Fiddle a wire through an ice cube without drilling holes.
• Assess the quality of water and find out what contaminates it.

• Extract plant oil and study its properties.
• Observe what happens if you dye wool with different colors.
• Learn how to make a solution change color.
• Determine the amount of caffeine in various sorts of tea.
• How do you produce biogas or liquid from organic waste?
• Analyze the contents of your toothpaste. Can you find any health hazards?
• Make a water filter from scratch.
• Why does lemon juice stop apples from browning?
• Make a safe smoke bomb.
• Document the process of growing crystals.
• Identify the pollutants in the air around you.
• What makes a flame change color?
• Biometric technologies: how do they work? 
• Study invisible ink. What makes it disappear?
• Wine: how do its chemical compounds relate to its taste?
• Emulsions: how to make and break them.
• Compare the effectiveness of different vegetable oils in biodiesel manufacturing.
• Assess the residue of pesticides in vegetables from various markets.
• Measure the density of soft drinks. How does sugar affect it?
• Conductivity: what types of solutions are the best electrical conduits?
• Food and science: how much energy do nuts and chips produce when burned?
• Analyze your hair and check for nutrients.
• Examine what soap needs to foam properly.
• Change a penny’s color to gold.

🤔 Advanced Chemistry Topics for an Essay

Once you’ve mastered chemistry’s fundamental concepts, you’re ready for the advanced part. Here, you will explore topics such as kinetics, equilibrium, and thermodynamics. Consult our list for 30 interesting advanced chemistry topics:

• Polymers: what do we use them for?
• How do spectroscopes work?
• What chemical information can we find in meteorites?
• Spectroscopy and its many applications.
• Schrödinger’s Cat: what did it reveal about radioactive decay?
• Examine the properties of imino-disaccharides.
• The importance of carbohydrate-protein interactions in immunology.
• CRISPR: how does it work?
• Compare the types of noncovalent bonding.
• Investigate how molecular recognition can be produced synthetically.
• Describe the impact of nanotechnology.
• How does nanoscience change our lives?
• What does Le Châtelier’s principle state?
• CBD: what advantages does it have?
• What causes a chemical process to result in equilibrium?
• Compare the types of equilibrium.
• BPA : how toxic is it?
• Behavior of ideal vs. non-ideal gases.
• Magnetism and coordination compounds.
• The principles of molecular orbital theory.
• Why do certain compounds not exist?
• How does water recycling work?
• Cloud seeding: when is it useful?
• What causes the weather to change?
• Why do some plants rely on photosynthesis more than others?
• Describe the properties of hydrogen.
• Explain the connection between collision theory and concentration.
• How do the ab initio methods work?
• Chemistry and the brain: impact of neurotransmitters. 
• Examine the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia.

🦠 Biochemistry Topics to Research

Have you ever wondered what chemical processes happen inside living organisms? Here’s an example: when we breathe, we inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. Biochemistry combines biology and chemistry to find out how life works on a molecular level. It’s a life science that deals with the cells, proteins, and lipids that form the core of every being. Clinical research highly benefits from biochemical knowledge.

• Explain enzyme inhibitors and their mechanisms.
• What are the benefits of epigenetics?
• Enzyme activity: how can you regulate it?

• Understanding the role of lipase in pathophysiological processes.
• The chemical processes behind metabolism.
• Amino acids: industrial applications.
• Consequences of a protein deficiency.
• Dietary supplements: help or hazard?
• How does the Citric Acid Cycle work?
• Glycolysis : how does it convert glucose?
• How do solutes move through biological membranes?
• Explain the sodium-potassium pump.
• Describe networks and alliances of the biotechnology industry.
• How does the body react to chlorine exposure?
• Cells gone rogue: the origins of cancer. 
• Investigate the functions of hormones.
• How can we develop new vaccines?
• Discuss the ethics of stem cell research.
• The legacy of Dolly the sheep.
• SCNT: process and applications.
• What are the chemical compounds of blood? 
• How do you treat hemophilia?
• The development of prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes.
• Discuss the cloning of a DNA fragment and Southern blotting.
• How does oxidative phosphorylation synthesize ATP?
• Compare the three types of crystallography.
• Copying DNA: the principles of PCR.
• How does recombination repair work?
• What causes redoximorphic features in various soils?
• Obtaining protein structures with x-ray crystallography.

🧬 Organic Chemistry Topics for Papers

Organic chemistry serves as the foundation for biochemistry. It is centered on carbon, which is essential to life. Carbon often bonds with other elements as well as itself. That’s what makes it the basis for all organic structures.

• Describe the properties of a chiral molecule.
• Atmospheric chemistry: methods and observations.
• Write about antioxidant potency of polyphenol-rich beverages.
• Enantiomers and the Fischer projection practice.
• Investigate possible relationships between stereoisomers.
• What are the benefits of chemoenzymatic synthesis?
• Explore the history of vitalism.
• The production of chemicals using carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions.
• Hydrocarbon: types and reactions.
• Examine the four essential types of organic compounds.
• How do free-radical reactions work?
• Pathogens: infection cycle and disinfection methods.
• Give examples of esters in everyday life.
• How do you turn alcohols into alkyl halides?
• Mechanisms of aerosol formation.
• Recent discoveries in molecular tuning.
• Chemical warfare: the dark side of organic chemistry.
• What makes a plant poisonous?
• What makes aromatic compounds unreactive?
• Phosgene: what makes it toxic?
• Explain the mechanism of the Diels-Alder Reaction.
• Alpha carbon reactions: when do aldol condensations occur?
• How do you identify organic compounds using infrared spectroscopy?
• Bonds as springs: the mechanical molecular model.
• Antibiotic resistance: causes and effects.
• Identify factors that influence proton chemical shifts.
• What does the electron dot structure show?
• The properties and reactions of functional groups.
• What defines a compound as aromatic?
• How do you name amines?

♻️ Green Chemistry Topics to Write About

If you’re concerned with sustainability, green chemistry is your area of choice. It finds ways to make chemical products less harmful to the environment. Research is done at every stage, from the product’s design to its disposal.

• How do you prevent pollution?
• What do you do with toxic waste?
• Discuss the twelve principles of green chemistry.
• Source reduction: what are the most effective ways?
• Biomimicry: is it the best way to sustainability?
• Eco-friendly packaging and its issues.
• Compare the effectiveness of various materials used in solar cells.
• What are the advantages of molar efficiency?
• Ionic liquids: are they the future of eco-friendly reagents?
• The U.S. acid rain program: pros and cons. 
• How can the toxicity of paint be reduced?
• Innovative ways to avoid pesticides in agriculture.
• What are the types of bio-based renewable feedstocks?
• Are bioplastics beneficial for the environment?
• How do metathesis reactions help reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
• Computer chips: how do we make them more sustainable?
• Alternative energies: making fuel from chicken feathers.
• Is carbon capture effective?
• Will cultivated meat become a green alternative to traditional farming?
• How does the Plantrose process work?
• Discuss the petroleum products problem in the U.S.
• What are efficient ways to extract and use critical elements more
• How efficient is artificial photosynthesis?
• What are the best ways to remove carbon pollution?
• Electrocatalysis as a way to generate and consume fuels.
• Discuss the most pressing issues in green chemistry today.
• How does LCA work?
• What are efficient ways to extract and use critical elements more sustainably?
• Recycling and recovery of plastic. 
• Describe the advantages of Levulinc Acid use.
• How can we make nuclear energy more viable?

⚗️ Inorganic Chemistry Topics for a Paper

Metals and minerals are parts of inorganic chemistry. Scientists in this field want to understand the behavior and properties of inorganic compounds. Practical uses include the manufacturing of fertilizers, adhesives, and coatings.

• What are the types of nucleosynthesis?
• In which ways are chemicals able to bond?
• How does molecular symmetry predict the chemical properties of a molecule?
• Vibrational spectroscopy: what is it used for?
• Discuss the importance of inorganic compounds in biochemistry.
• The history of atomic theory: an overview.
• Hematite: matter and mineral. 
• The peculiarities of hydrogen bonds and polarity.
• What are the uses of point groups in inorganic chemistry?
• Determine the factors that impact Brønsted-Lowry acidity.
• How does HSAB explain reaction mechanisms?
• What is lattice energy, and how can you measure it?
• How do you use coordination compounds as catalysts?
• Red Ferrosols: soil management issues. 
• Examine the drawbacks of the crystal field theory.
• Define the selection rules for vibrational transitions.
• What is the most effective way to grow synthetic diamonds?
• How do you use the angular overlap model?
• Explain ligand effects.
• The magnetic properties of transition metal oxides.
• Gold: how does it serve medicine?
• The use of chemistry in jewelry manufacturing.
• How does the chemical structure of a gemstone determine its color?
• Alexandrite: what makes it so unique?
• How do ligand substitution reactions work?
• Determine the properties of the light types.
• What are the fundamental laws of photochemistry?
• What causes phosphorescence?
• Alloys: what are their benefits?
• The history of brass and its usage.

⚛️ Nuclear Chemistry Topics for an Essay

You’ve probably been x-rayed before. It means you’ve been exposed to radiation. Nuclear chemistry seeks to understand radioactivity-related processes. One of atomic science’s most critical problems is the disposal of radioactive waste.

• How do you calculate an element’s half-life?
• Compare the three different types of radiation.
• What are the common uses of radioactive elements?
• How do we know that a nucleus is stable?
• Fukushima and Chernobyl disasters: a comparison. 
• How do elements transmute in the process of nuclear fission?
• Cold fusion: will it ever be possible?
• Radiation: how does it harm biological systems?
• Describe the types of decay.
• Nuclear waste: reprocessing, disposal, and transportation. 
• How is nuclear chemistry used in medicine?
• Ways to destroy toxic organic compounds using irradiation.
• Interactions between water and radioactive elements.
• How are chemosensors used in radiation chemistry?
• What are the biological applications of radiochemistry?
• The nuclear fuel cycle: managing the disposal of nuclear fuel.
• Discuss reactive hazards in the chemical industry.
• Compare the efficiency of different extraction methods.
• Fission products and surfaces: what happens when 9TcO2 gets in contact with steel?
• Isotopic chemistry: what distinguishes it from nuclear chemistry?
• Explore the history of NMR.
• Henri Becquerel and the discovery of radioactivity.
• The relevance of hydrogen in nuclear fusion.
• What causes radioactivity?
• The adverse effects of ionizing vs. non-ionizing radiation.
• Why are some people skeptical about the term “nuclear?”
• The Big Bang: how did it create the Universe as we know it?
• Discuss the unsuccessful efforts in nuclear arms control. 
• How does radiocarbon dating work?
• Mass spectrometry: ionization techniques.

🧮 Analytical Chemistry Topics for Essays

The matter comes in all forms and shapes. It can be a compound or a single element. If you want to know how matter is structured, analytical chemistry has the answer. Scientists of this branch ensure that our food and other products are safe to consume.

• How does activation analysis work?
• Why is analytical chemistry important for the environment?
• How do you find iron in a mixture of metals?
• What are the ways to measure the amount of a specific substance in a compound?

• Identifying hazardous substances in cheese.
• A simple way to separate chemical compounds: gas chromatography.
• Aspirin vs. Ibuprofen: comparing the chemical mechanisms of pain relievers.
• Genetically modified foods and their impact on human health.
• Food allergies: where do they come from?
• The best techniques for quantitative chemical analysis.
• What are the standard techniques to measure the endpoint of a titration?
• Mass-based analysis: gravimetric analysis.
• How do you neutralize WVO?
• Drug safety approach in administration and nursing. 
• Describe the three types of electroanalytical methods.
• How do you measure temperature using a calorimeter?
• Understanding thermodynamics: the Carnot cycle.
• The process of analyzing salt.
• How do you identify the shelf life of a medicine?
• Ways to find adulterants in drugs.
• Compare the healthiness of bottled water based on its chemical compounds.
• How can you test cholesterol in blood samples?
• Examine how analytical chemistry is used in forensic science.
• What are the advantages of spectrochemical methods?
• How do you detect pesticides using immunoassays?
• Miniaturization: how does it advance analytical chemistry?
• Capillary Liquid Chromatography: an overview.
• Immunochemistry: applications in environmental analysis.
• The development of analytical technology in the past 20 years.
• Explain how to determine PAH sources in soil.

🧪 Physical Chemistry Topics for Papers

Is chemistry not enough for you? Try combining it with physics! For physical chemists, it is crucial to understand how molecules and atoms act. They use various models to study the structure and behavior of these tiny particles.

• Explain how to determine an atom’s electron configuration.
• Describe the structure of an atom.
• Isotopes: why do they exist?
• What is the Time-of-Flight principle?
• How do you calculate the mass of an atom?
• Define successive ionization energies.
• What are the gas laws?
• Equation of state: ideal vs. real gases.
• Explain why the Earth is considered a closed thermodynamic system.
• What is the Avogadro constant?
• The difference between empirical and molecular formulae.
• Calculating percentage yields: balanced equations.
• How do intermolecular forces affect the melting point of a substance?
• What are the four types of crystal structures?
• Define the types of forces that exist between molecules.
• Explain how to relate the melting point and conductivity of a substance to their type of structure.
• What is fire in terms of chemistry and thermodynamics?
• Reasons why molecules with polar bonds might not have a permanent dipole.
• How do internal combustion engines work?
• Endothermic or exothermic? Determining enthalpy change.
• What are the applications of Hess’s law?
• Explain the use of mean bond enthalpy.
• When does a collision not cause a reaction?
• How does temperature affect the reaction rate?
• How do catalysts work?
• Describe what Born-Haber cycles are used for.
• Explore the history of thermochemistry.
• Give examples of quasi-static processes.
• The study of chaos: calculating entropy.
• When is a reaction reversible?

We hope that you found a topic you like. Now good luck with your essay!

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• Organic Chemistry: Khan Academy
• Basics of Green Chemistry: US EPA
• Exploring the Role of Green Chemistry at a Research University: Harvard
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• Advanced Inorganic Chemistry Syllabus: Westfield State University
• Nuclear Chemistry: University of Pennsylvania
• Analytical Chemistry: American Chemical Society
• Physical Chemistry: AQA
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Speechwriting 101: Writing an Effective Speech

Whether you are a communications pro or a human resources executive, the time will come when you will need to write a speech for yourself or someone else.  when that time comes, your career may depend on your success..

J. Lyman MacInnis, a corporate coach,  Toronto Star  columnist, accounting executive and author of  “ The Elements of Great Public Speaking ,”  has seen careers stalled – even damaged – by a failure to communicate messages effectively before groups of people. On the flip side, solid speechwriting skills can help launch and sustain a successful career.  What you need are forethought and methodical preparation.

Know Your Audience

Learn as much as possible about the audience and the event.  This will help you target the insights, experience or knowledge you have that this group wants or needs:

• Why has the audience been brought together?
• What do the members of the audience have in common?
• How big an audience will it be?
• What do they know, and what do they need to know?
• Do they expect discussion about a specific subject and, if so, what?
• What is the audience’s attitude and knowledge about the subject of your talk?
• What is their attitude toward you as the speaker?
• Why are they interested in your topic?

Choose Your Core Message

If the core message is on target, you can do other things wrong. But if the message is wrong, it doesn’t matter what you put around it.  To write the most effective speech, you should have significant knowledge about your topic, sincerely care about it and be eager to talk about it.  Focus on a message that is relevant to the target audience, and remember: an audience wants opinion. If you offer too little substance, your audience will label you a lightweight.  If you offer too many ideas, you make it difficult for them to know what’s important to you.

Research and Organize

Research until you drop.  This is where you pick up the information, connect the ideas and arrive at the insights that make your talk fresh.  You’ll have an easier time if you gather far more information than you need.  Arrange your research and notes into general categories and leave space between them. Then go back and rearrange. Fit related pieces together like a puzzle.

Develop Structure to Deliver Your Message

First, consider whether your goal is to inform, persuade, motivate or entertain.  Then outline your speech and fill in the details:

• Introduction – The early minutes of a talk are important to establish your credibility and likeability.  Personal anecdotes often work well to get things started.  This is also where you’ll outline your main points.
• Body – Get to the issues you’re there to address, limiting them to five points at most.  Then bolster those few points with illustrations, evidence and anecdotes.  Be passionate: your conviction can be as persuasive as the appeal of your ideas.
• Conclusion – Wrap up with feeling as well as fact. End with something upbeat that will inspire your listeners.

You want to leave the audience exhilarated, not drained. In our fast-paced age, 20-25 minutes is about as long as anyone will listen attentively to a speech. As you write and edit your speech, the general rule is to allow about 90 seconds for every double-spaced page of copy.

Spice it Up

Once you have the basic structure of your speech, it’s time to add variety and interest.  Giving an audience exactly what it expects is like passing out sleeping pills. Remember that a speech is more like conversation than formal writing.  Its phrasing is loose – but without the extremes of slang, the incomplete thoughts, the interruptions that flavor everyday speech.

• Give it rhythm. A good speech has pacing.
• Vary the sentence structure. Use short sentences. Use occasional long ones to keep the audience alert. Fragments are fine if used sparingly and for emphasis.
• Use the active voice and avoid passive sentences. Active forms of speech make your sentences more powerful.
• Repeat key words and points. Besides helping your audience remember something, repetition builds greater awareness of central points or the main theme.
• Ask rhetorical questions in a way that attracts your listeners’ attention.
• Personal experiences and anecdotes help bolster your points and help you connect with the audience.
• Use quotes. Good quotes work on several levels, forcing the audience to think. Make sure quotes are clearly attributed and said by someone your audience will probably recognize.

Be sure to use all of these devices sparingly in your speeches. If overused, the speech becomes exaggerated. Used with care, they will work well to move the speech along and help you deliver your message in an interesting, compelling way.

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• Linus Pauling - Banquet speech

Linus Pauling

Banquet speech.

Linus Pauling’s speech at the Nobel Banquet in Stockholm, December 10, 1954

Your Majesties, Your Royal Highnesses, Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen:

It is a great honor to be chosen as the recipient of a Nobel Prize; not only a great honor, but a great pleasure, and, speaking not only for myself but also for my wife and our children, I thank all of you.

I have found that it is always a great pleasure to come to Sweden. I feel at home in Sweden: even though there may be a snow-covered landscape about us, instead of the green (or sometimes brown) hills of southern California, nevertheless I feel, emanating from the Swedish people, the radiations of sympathy, of homologous character, so strongly as almost to cause me to consider myself to be a Swede.

I remember my first close connection with Sweden. During the period 1923 to 1925 I became well acquainted with Dr. Albert Björkeson, who, as a young physicist, spent two years carrying on research in the Norman Bridge Laboratories of the California Institute of Technology. I collaborated with him on a piece of scientific work, and through him I learned something about your wonderful country.

Then in 1947 my wife and I were privileged to visit here, in the beautiful city of Stockholm, and even to participate in a banquet held for the International Congress of Cytology, in this room. And last year, in 1953, we were happy to be able to come again to Sweden – and I had the pleasure and honor of being allowed to speak in the Concert House, on a scientific subject in which I am deeply interested – the stochastic method (that is, how to make good guesses – the word is from the Greek stocastikoV , apt to divine the truth by conjecture) and the structure of proteins. Ever since these earlier visits, my wife and I have hoped that we could see the Concert House and this beautiful Town Hall, a wonderful example of the best in modern architecture, again, and we thank you for the privilege of being here on this occasion.

I hope that it will not be thought that I am any less an American citizen if I say that from now on I shall consider myself to be an honorary Swede.

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How to write a speech introduction

12 of the best attention getters to start a speech

By:  Susan Dugdale  | Last modified: 01-12-2023

The audience settles in their seats. The lights dim. You walk out to the center of the stage. You pause, take a deep breath, open your mouth and begin.

What you say over the next 30 seconds to introduce your speech or presentation is crucial.

That's how much time you have to make a positive impression on your audience. In it they will decide whether or not you have anything relevant or useful to say. Those first impressions count!

So how do you write an effective speech introduction to grab and hold their attention?

Begin by finding out how to choose the right opener.

What's on this page:

• how to choose the right opener for your speech

12 of the very best ways to start a speech

3. What if?

5. Key fact

7. Rhetorical

9. Headlines

10. History

11. Challenge

How to choose the right opener for your speech

The better way to make your choice of opener is after you have carefully considered who you are talking to and why you're talking to them.

One size does not fit all. Different audiences will respond differently. If you are giving the same speech multiple times think about what you may need to change to fit. 

To work well your opening needs to be aligned with:

• the type of speech you're giving
• your main purpose for giving it
• your target audience and,  
• their interests or needs

Both the hook * to catch their attention and your topic must be relevant to them. Unless they're a captive audience, they've come freely to listen to you and they're expecting something of value from you.

How are you going to let them know they're in the right place? Why should they listen? What are they going to get or gain through listening?

Out of all the different ways to open, what attention getter is absolutely the best way?

The only way I know to work out what is best is to go through each of them, and as you do, consider your audience. Make a short list of those you think might work then try them out before making your final choice.

* hook – an opening statement that immediately captures the audience's attention just like a well baited hook on a fishing line catches a fish.

Return to Top

1. Use imagination to create mind pictures

Ask the audience to use their imagination. Get them to build evocative compelling images in their minds. Make them large. Add vibrant color, sound and movement.

For example:

“Let's take a break. Make yourself comfortable. Now close your eyes for a moment. Take a deep breath, and you're there, in the place where you feel the most at ease, the place where all the tensions, all the demands of your normal everyday life disappear. Look around you. See it. Feel it. It's so good, it's perfect."

“Close your eyes. Take a deep breath and a moment to picture in your mind the people dearest to you, the people you feel you could not live without. Now when did you talk to them, or spend real time with them last?"

2. Use an item to build a connection 

Choose an image or an object related to your speech, for instance a pair of shoes, to trigger interest and build a connection.

For example, if I were giving a speech on the lives of upper-middle class 19th century women I could open by holding up a pair of ornately decorated kid leather pumps.

“What's the name of the young woman who wore these? Listen. Can you hear the rustle of her silk skirts? And hear her heart beat bom-biddy-bom as the beau of the ball stepped her way? Would he, or wouldn't he ask her to dance?”

3. Ask a 'What if...?' rhetorical question

'What if...?' invites an audience to consider the possibilities of something becoming real. They can be positive somethings or negative, trivial or something that would have a significant impact if it came to pass.

The power of a 'what if...?' rhetorical question as an opener lies in the potency of the images and feelings it triggers. A well-chosen 'what if...?' will immediately have an audience wanting to hear the rest of your speech.

• "What if we don't find a way to successfully manage climate change?"
• "What if we really did solve the affordable housing crisis?"
• "What if questions of race and color ceased to matter?"
• "What if medicines were freely available to everybody who needed them?"
• "What if the person sitting next to you turned, looked into your eyes and said they loved you? Truly. Madly. Deeply."

4. Try a quotation from someone who's impacted your life in some way

To be effective a quotation doesn't have to be the clever quip or snippet of enduring wisdom: a famous quote from a well known person. It's origin could be personal, something someone important in your life said that's remained with you.

For example, my Mother answered all initial wails of outrage, pain or hurt from any of her five children with a command. "Breathe!" That was repeated, interwoven with encouraging asides, until whoever it was, was able to talk clearly and be understood.  "It's OK.", she'd say. "Breathe. Come on. You can do it. Breathe. That's it. Keep going. Good."

Or I could use this line from one of my high school reports which read, "...with further maturity she should do well." (Thank you Mr Phillips. Your prediction was right on target.) 

Or this from our son aged four as he watched me getting ready for another day of teaching: "When I grow up I'm going to wear pretty dresses and go to school just like you."

5. Use an interesting key fact

Choose an interesting key fact as an attention getting device: one of the most rarely known, or a shocking statistic from the body of your speech to open with.

For example: "Take a guess at what the most powerful and frequently used word is in the English language? 

It's not one of those usually thought of candidates.  Love? No. Money? Nope. Neither is it  any member of your family... Mum, Dad, brother, sister, son, or daughter.

It's a three letter word, so common it's overlooked and taken for granted. 'The'. It's the humble 'the'."

(For more see this BBC article:  Is this the most powerful word in the English language?

Or: "Between 2020/21 and 2021/2022, Americans consumed about 11 million metric tons of sugar, up from about 10 million metric tons in 2009/2010. Can you even begin to imagine the size of that sweet white mountain?"

(For more see: US sugar consumption statistics )

6. Share personal stories

Share a personal story related to your specific topic as the beginning of a speech. Done well, it lets the audience know you understand their situation and helps establish your credibility: your right to talk on the subject.

As an example here's the opening of a speech I gave about the impact of suicide on families and friends:

“One fine Spring day I biked home from school and found a policemen guarding our backdoor. Through it came sounds I'll never forget: my quiet Mother screaming. He said, "You can't go in."

I kicked him in the shins and did. It was the 15th of September, three days before my thirteenth birthday and my father was dead. Killed by his own hand. Suicide.”

(If you want to find out more about the speech and read it, it's here: After they're gone . It's an example persuasive speech using the five steps of Monroe's Motivated Sequence.)

7. Rhetorical questions

These are questions that although they are asked, they're never really intended to be answered by anyone other than the person asking them. * Their principal function is to act as a segue, or lead in, to what the person intends to say next. For instance, the first main point of your introduction.

Examples: "What if I were to say to you that there was no such thing as public speaking fear?"

"What do you think the main benefits of being able to speak up in public are?"

* Although there's bound to be someone in your audience who will. Be ready for them, and move on.

8. An empathetic question, aligning yourself with the audience and eliciting a response

These questions bring speaker and audience together, establishing a common ground, a mutual understanding, which is an effective way to ease into a speech. If your question 'works' you'll see heads nodding in agreement.

• "Have you ever experienced the butterflies in your stomach turning into a herd of rampaging elephants, just before you step up to give your presentation?"
• "Have you ever wanted a good day to never end?"
• "How often have you 'lost' your car in the supermarket car park?"
• "How often have you ever wanted to shout, NO? You want me to prepare a new presentation by tomorrow? NO. You want me to stay late, again? NO."

9. It's in the news

Take headlines from what's trending in media you know the audience will be familiar with and see.

Using those that relate to your speech topic as the opening of your speech is a good way to grab the attention of the audience. It shows how relevant and up-to-the-minute the topic is.

For example: "'Death toll soars to 76 in Florida after Hurricane Ian demolished entire communities.' 'Noru became a super typhoon in 6 hours. Scientists say powerful storms are becoming harder to forecast.' 'Hurricane Orlene strengthens into Category 4 storm as it heads toward western Mexico.'

Three front page headlines from CNN just today. Climate change. Let's do what we can."

10. This day in history

If you're giving a speech to celebrate a special birthday or an anniversary, consider using several carefully selected events that occurred on the same day as a speech opening. They could be either funny or serious, depending on the specific purpose of your speech. They're a great way to place the person in a much wider context and often with exalted company.

For example: "What do the 1863 National Thanksgiving Day proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln, National Boyfriend Day, and Gwen Stefani have in common with Joe? Yes, the 3rd of October! It's a great date made better by being Joe's birthday. And we say Gwen is truly privileged to have the same one as him."

11. Issue a challenge

Let the audience know first thing, at the beginning of the speech, what action you expect they'll be able to take by the time your presentation is complete. Then when you come to the final points, repeat the call to action, or challenge, as part of your closing statement.

For example: "I've a challenge for you. That's to sign up for our public speaking course. Right now you may not see yourself doing that. Public speaking? Me? I'd rather have a root canal done, without painkillers. However, by the end of the presentation...well, let's see. There's a first time for everything!"

Use a startling statement, a fact, or a series of facts, to jolt the audience into paying attention.

"Covid. We've had 1.06 million of us die in the US, so far. Today there are nearly 60,00 new cases. More mothers, fathers, friends, colleagues, children – people. People ill. People who might die. So why have we stopped wearing masks?"

For more: Google: Covid stats US

Other speech writing resources

• how to end a speech effectively : explanations with examples showing how to close a speech with impact
• how to write a speech : a detailed guide with examples covering audience analysis, planning, writing oral language, transitions, how to use an outline... 

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Welcome Speech for a Scientific Conference: Examples & Tips

Published on 15 Feb 2022

Having a well written welcome speech that you’re confident about goes a long way in overcoming public speaking nervousness.

A great welcome speech sets the tone for the conference. It makes everyone feel welcome and creates the appropriate environment for the exchange of knowledge. The speech should broadly outline the contents of the event and, most importantly, make everyone feel excited for what’s to come.

In this article, you will find our best tips to create a successful welcome speech and some examples with analysis for inspiration.

Quick Tips for a successful welcome speech

Formal vs. informal language.

The first thing you should decide is whether you want to use formal or informal language. For larger events that include scientists of various fields where everybody might not know each other, you may want to use formal language. For smaller yearly conferences for researchers in your field where most people know each other, it’s common to use informal language.

I find that, in general, a rather informal or casual speech is more successful. That way you set the tone and bring everyone to the same level, promoting questions, comments, and socialization during the event.

Greet and welcome everyone

Start with a warm welcome. As alluded before, this can range from very formal (“Good morning to all attendees”) to informal (“Hello and welcome, everyone!”). These will be your first words, so you need to grab everyone’s attention—use a clear, strong voice.

A smile goes a long way to make everyone feel welcome and in a good mood. Make eye contact as you start addressing the room.

It can be great to inject a bit of humor, if appropriate. It could be something as simple as, “We are lucky to be in such a beautiful location with so many beaches close by. I hope that is not the main reason you’re here!”.

Talk about the event’s history and purpose

Is it a first-time event, a yearly conference put on by a scientific organization? In any case, you’ll want to mention the motivation behind the conference, what brings you together. If the event is related to a specific organization, you can mention its history and purpose.

Mention any distinguished guests

It is common for scientific conferences to have one or more distinguished guests or speakers. Mention them and thank them for accepting the invitation to participate. Make sure you have their names, credentials and affiliations correct.  

Thank creators and/or organizers

If the event is being held for the first time, thank the creators by name. Give some words of appreciation to the organizing committee. You don’t need to mention every single person involved, but rather the essential ones.

State the main topic(s)

Mention the main topic(s) of the conference, the common interests for all attendees. For annual conferences of scientific organizations, a specific subject within the field is usually chosen for each year. For example, for an annual meeting of an immunology organization, the year's topic could be “Infectious Diseases” or “Immunotherapies.”

Touch on the agenda

Briefly outline the event’s agenda. You can mention whether there will be sessions with specific (sub)topics, poster presentations, spaces for exchange and networking. Don’t get  into too many details. You can direct people to the conference brochure, if there is one, for specifics on the schedule.

Motivate everybody

End your speech on a high note by getting everyone excited about the talks to come. Highlight all the strengths of the conference: any high-impact research that will be shown, the variety of topics that will be covered, the great number of attendees, the different countries represented.

Introduce the first speaker

If the first speaker follows your welcome speech, don’t forget to introduce him or her. Introduce them with their full name and credentials and give a brief description of their career achievements.

Rehearse a few times

Practice with colleagues and friends to get some feedback and familiarize yourself with your speech. You want to be familiar enough that you don’t need to look down at your notes constantly. However, don’t over rehearse. You don’t want to sound robotic, but rather natural and conversational.

Be sure you know how to pronounce all the names in your speech. Make eye contact with the audience and with specific attendees as you mention their names.

Keep it brief

In general, you should keep your speech short, usually around 5 minutes. Consult with the organizing committee so you know how long they expect you to talk.

In-person vs. virtual event

Virtual events are very common right now and likely will be for a while. This creates some challenges when giving a welcome speech. Making eye contact with the attendees is not possible when you’re on a video call. That being said, you can still give a great speech and get people excited virtually. Just make sure that people can clearly see and hear you before you start.    

Welcome speech examples

1. welcome and opening remarks - 2015 coast/ssew symposium.

In the above example of opening remarks for a scientific symposium , the speaker starts by welcoming everyone with a smile and lots of eye contact. It seems the attendees are in the same field of research and among familiar faces. Accordingly, her language is informal. She adds a bit of humor when she talks about collecting money in a bowl.

She follows by explaining the origin of the organization that the symposium is for, along with the main topics that will be covered. In the middle, she asks  the audience some questions to keep them engaged. Finally, she creates positive expectations by presenting a “sneak peek” of brand-new research and mentioning “leaders” in the field of microbiome.    

 2. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering Welcome Speech

Read this welcome speech for an annual international conference.

This seems to be a scientific conference with attendees from various countries and from a broad range of fields. The formal language used is therefore appropriate. The speaker welcomes the attendees and introduces the distinguished keynote speakers.

The origins and goals of the conference are outlined. He broadly describes the topics that will be discussed. Then, he thanks the organizing committee, companies and volunteers involved. Finally, he mentions “internationally notorious speakers,” a great way to spark people’s interest.   

 3. Welcoming Address | Dale Mullennix

In this welcoming address, the speaker starts by warmly welcoming the audience. He uses rather informal language since it seems this is a regularly held event where most people know each other. He throws in some humor, directly addresses the audience, and asks them questions to grab their attention at the beginning.

By conveying the value that the attendees will find in the lectures to come, he creates anticipation. He makes lots of eye contact throughout and doesn’t even have notes! By the end, he tells a personal story and connects it to the theme of the event.

With these tips and examples, we hope that you are inspired to write a great welcome speech.  Remember to keep it brief, conversational, and not overly formal, unless necessary. Eye contact and a smile go a long way.

If you’re looking for more general conference presenting tips, you should read our 15 Best Tips for Presenting at a Conference . 

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How To Write A Lab Report | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on May 20, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment. The main purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method by performing and evaluating a hands-on lab experiment. This type of assignment is usually shorter than a research paper .

Lab reports are commonly used in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. This article focuses on how to structure and write a lab report.

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Table of contents

Structuring a lab report, introduction, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about lab reports.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but they usually contain the purpose, methods, and findings of a lab experiment .

Each section of a lab report has its own purpose.

• Title: expresses the topic of your study
• Abstract : summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• Introduction: establishes the context needed to understand the topic
• Method: describes the materials and procedures used in the experiment
• Results: reports all descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
• Discussion: interprets and evaluates results and identifies limitations
• Conclusion: sums up the main findings of your experiment
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA )
• Appendices : contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

Although most lab reports contain these sections, some sections can be omitted or combined with others. For example, some lab reports contain a brief section on research aims instead of an introduction, and a separate conclusion is not always required.

If you’re not sure, it’s best to check your lab report requirements with your instructor.

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Your title provides the first impression of your lab report – effective titles communicate the topic and/or the findings of your study in specific terms.

Create a title that directly conveys the main focus or purpose of your study. It doesn’t need to be creative or thought-provoking, but it should be informative.

• The effects of varying nitrogen levels on tomato plant height.
• Testing the universality of the McGurk effect.
• Comparing the viscosity of common liquids found in kitchens.

An abstract condenses a lab report into a brief overview of about 150–300 words. It should provide readers with a compact version of the research aims, the methods and materials used, the main results, and the final conclusion.

Think of it as a way of giving readers a preview of your full lab report. Write the abstract last, in the past tense, after you’ve drafted all the other sections of your report, so you’ll be able to succinctly summarize each section.

To write a lab report abstract, use these guiding questions:

• What is the wider context of your study?
• What research question were you trying to answer?
• How did you perform the experiment?
• What did your results show?
• How did you interpret your results?
• What is the importance of your findings?

Nitrogen is a necessary nutrient for high quality plants. Tomatoes, one of the most consumed fruits worldwide, rely on nitrogen for healthy leaves and stems to grow fruit. This experiment tested whether nitrogen levels affected tomato plant height in a controlled setting. It was expected that higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer would yield taller tomato plants.

Levels of nitrogen fertilizer were varied between three groups of tomato plants. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer, while one experimental group received low levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and a second experimental group received high levels of nitrogen fertilizer. All plants were grown from seeds, and heights were measured 50 days into the experiment.

The effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were tested between groups using an ANOVA. The plants with the highest level of nitrogen fertilizer were the tallest, while the plants with low levels of nitrogen exceeded the control group plants in height. In line with expectations and previous findings, the effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were statistically significant. This study strengthens the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants.

Your lab report introduction should set the scene for your experiment. One way to write your introduction is with a funnel (an inverted triangle) structure:

• Start with the broad, general research topic
• Narrow your topic down your specific study focus
• End with a clear research question

Begin by providing background information on your research topic and explaining why it’s important in a broad real-world or theoretical context. Describe relevant previous research on your topic and note how your study may confirm it or expand it, or fill a gap in the research field.

This lab experiment builds on previous research from Haque, Paul, and Sarker (2011), who demonstrated that tomato plant yield increased at higher levels of nitrogen. However, the present research focuses on plant height as a growth indicator and uses a lab-controlled setting instead.

Next, go into detail on the theoretical basis for your study and describe any directly relevant laws or equations that you’ll be using. State your main research aims and expectations by outlining your hypotheses .

Based on the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants, the primary hypothesis was that the plants with the high levels of nitrogen would grow the tallest. The secondary hypothesis was that plants with low levels of nitrogen would grow taller than plants with no nitrogen.

Your introduction doesn’t need to be long, but you may need to organize it into a few paragraphs or with subheadings such as “Research Context” or “Research Aims.”

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A lab report Method section details the steps you took to gather and analyze data. Give enough detail so that others can follow or evaluate your procedures. Write this section in the past tense. If you need to include any long lists of procedural steps or materials, place them in the Appendices section but refer to them in the text here.

You should describe your experimental design, your subjects, materials, and specific procedures used for data collection and analysis.

Experimental design

Briefly note whether your experiment is a within-subjects  or between-subjects design, and describe how your sample units were assigned to conditions if relevant.

A between-subjects design with three groups of tomato plants was used. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer. The first experimental group received a low level of nitrogen fertilizer, while the second experimental group received a high level of nitrogen fertilizer.

Describe human subjects in terms of demographic characteristics, and animal or plant subjects in terms of genetic background. Note the total number of subjects as well as the number of subjects per condition or per group. You should also state how you recruited subjects for your study.

List the equipment or materials you used to gather data and state the model names for any specialized equipment.

List of materials

35 Tomato seeds

15 plant pots (15 cm tall)

Light lamps (50,000 lux)

Nitrogen fertilizer

Measuring tape

Describe your experimental settings and conditions in detail. You can provide labelled diagrams or images of the exact set-up necessary for experimental equipment. State how extraneous variables were controlled through restriction or by fixing them at a certain level (e.g., keeping the lab at room temperature).

Light levels were fixed throughout the experiment, and the plants were exposed to 12 hours of light a day. Temperature was restricted to between 23 and 25℃. The pH and carbon levels of the soil were also held constant throughout the experiment as these variables could influence plant height. The plants were grown in rooms free of insects or other pests, and they were spaced out adequately.

Your experimental procedure should describe the exact steps you took to gather data in chronological order. You’ll need to provide enough information so that someone else can replicate your procedure, but you should also be concise. Place detailed information in the appendices where appropriate.

In a lab experiment, you’ll often closely follow a lab manual to gather data. Some instructors will allow you to simply reference the manual and state whether you changed any steps based on practical considerations. Other instructors may want you to rewrite the lab manual procedures as complete sentences in coherent paragraphs, while noting any changes to the steps that you applied in practice.

If you’re performing extensive data analysis, be sure to state your planned analysis methods as well. This includes the types of tests you’ll perform and any programs or software you’ll use for calculations (if relevant).

First, tomato seeds were sown in wooden flats containing soil about 2 cm below the surface. Each seed was kept 3-5 cm apart. The flats were covered to keep the soil moist until germination. The seedlings were removed and transplanted to pots 8 days later, with a maximum of 2 plants to a pot. Each pot was watered once a day to keep the soil moist.

The nitrogen fertilizer treatment was applied to the plant pots 12 days after transplantation. The control group received no treatment, while the first experimental group received a low concentration, and the second experimental group received a high concentration. There were 5 pots in each group, and each plant pot was labelled to indicate the group the plants belonged to.

50 days after the start of the experiment, plant height was measured for all plants. A measuring tape was used to record the length of the plant from ground level to the top of the tallest leaf.

In your results section, you should report the results of any statistical analysis procedures that you undertook. You should clearly state how the results of statistical tests support or refute your initial hypotheses.

The main results to report include:

• any descriptive statistics
• statistical test results
• the significance of the test results
• estimates of standard error or confidence intervals

The mean heights of the plants in the control group, low nitrogen group, and high nitrogen groups were 20.3, 25.1, and 29.6 cm respectively. A one-way ANOVA was applied to calculate the effect of nitrogen fertilizer level on plant height. The results demonstrated statistically significant ( p = .03) height differences between groups.

Next, post-hoc tests were performed to assess the primary and secondary hypotheses. In support of the primary hypothesis, the high nitrogen group plants were significantly taller than the low nitrogen group and the control group plants. Similarly, the results supported the secondary hypothesis: the low nitrogen plants were taller than the control group plants.

These results can be reported in the text or in tables and figures. Use text for highlighting a few key results, but present large sets of numbers in tables, or show relationships between variables with graphs.

You should also include sample calculations in the Results section for complex experiments. For each sample calculation, provide a brief description of what it does and use clear symbols. Present your raw data in the Appendices section and refer to it to highlight any outliers or trends.

The Discussion section will help demonstrate your understanding of the experimental process and your critical thinking skills.

In this section, you can:

• Interpret your results
• Compare your findings with your expectations
• Identify any sources of experimental error
• Explain any unexpected results
• Suggest possible improvements for further studies

Interpreting your results involves clarifying how your results help you answer your main research question. Report whether your results support your hypotheses.

• Did you measure what you sought out to measure?
• Were your analysis procedures appropriate for this type of data?

Compare your findings with other research and explain any key differences in findings.

• Are your results in line with those from previous studies or your classmates’ results? Why or why not?

An effective Discussion section will also highlight the strengths and limitations of a study.

• Did you have high internal validity or reliability?
• How did you establish these aspects of your study?

When describing limitations, use specific examples. For example, if random error contributed substantially to the measurements in your study, state the particular sources of error (e.g., imprecise apparatus) and explain ways to improve them.

The results support the hypothesis that nitrogen levels affect plant height, with increasing levels producing taller plants. These statistically significant results are taken together with previous research to support the importance of nitrogen as a nutrient for tomato plant growth.

However, unlike previous studies, this study focused on plant height as an indicator of plant growth in the present experiment. Importantly, plant height may not always reflect plant health or fruit yield, so measuring other indicators would have strengthened the study findings.

Another limitation of the study is the plant height measurement technique, as the measuring tape was not suitable for plants with extreme curvature. Future studies may focus on measuring plant height in different ways.

The main strengths of this study were the controls for extraneous variables, such as pH and carbon levels of the soil. All other factors that could affect plant height were tightly controlled to isolate the effects of nitrogen levels, resulting in high internal validity for this study.

Your conclusion should be the final section of your lab report. Here, you’ll summarize the findings of your experiment, with a brief overview of the strengths and limitations, and implications of your study for further research.

Some lab reports may omit a Conclusion section because it overlaps with the Discussion section, but you should check with your instructor before doing so.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment . Lab reports are commonly assigned in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

The purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method with a hands-on lab experiment. Course instructors will often provide you with an experimental design and procedure. Your task is to write up how you actually performed the experiment and evaluate the outcome.

In contrast, a research paper requires you to independently develop an original argument. It involves more in-depth research and interpretation of sources and data.

A lab report is usually shorter than a research paper.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but it usually contains the following:

• Abstract: summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA)
• Appendices: contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

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How to Craft a Memorable Message, According to Science

• Charan Ranganath

Four ways to make your point in a way that sticks.

Numerous researches have shown that we forget much of what we experience in a day. Knowing this, how do you create messages so there is a better chance of people remembering them? The author uses concepts from memory science to help you craft messages — whether it’s a presentation, an email, or a speech — that will be likely to stick. One way to craft a memorable message is to chunk it up. Explicitly tie together the points that you want to convey under the umbrella of a central idea. With this approach, your listener can stitch the pieces together in a meaningful way and build a rich memory for that material. Or, when communicating about a complex topic, you can make your message memorable with a concrete example instead of something vague. Remember to provide callbacks as recalling something that we previously learned can make it stronger and easier to access when we will need it. Lastly, spark their curiosity. The key to memorable communication lies not in conveying the answer, but in establishing a compelling question.

Imagine sitting in a meeting where someone is giving a presentation. You’re somewhat interested in the topic, and the speaker seems to be doing a good job. The meeting ends, and 30 minutes later, you try to recall what was discussed. You can remember that the coffee was weak, the room was too cold, and the speaker was wearing a pink tie … but you can’t remember what he was talking about.

• Dr. Charan Ranganath is a professor at the Center for Neuroscience and Department of Psychology and the director of the Dynamic Memory Lab at the University of California, Davis, and the author of the book Why We Remember: Unlocking Memory’s Power to Hold On to What Matters (Penguin Random House).

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How to give a great speech.

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Giving a speech

It's the season of speeches.

Every four years, Americans are treated to oratory by speakers of both parties who address their national party conventions. The purpose of such oratory is less to persuade than to fire up the attendees who will sally forth from their respective conventions determined to mobilize forces for their candidates up and down the ballot.

Some of the speeches are downright scary, while others are joyous and uplifting. Regardless, the focus on so many speeches in such a condensed period of time emphasizes the power of the spoken word.

As a former speechwriter turned executive coach, I have helped many women and men hone their messages. I want to share a few things I have learned, mainly through trial and error.

Know Your Audience

People want to hear what you say, but you need to do your homework before you can connect. Understand what the audience expects of you and tailor your remarks to resonate with their needs.

InnovationRx: Myocarditis From COVID-19 Is Much More Severe Than From Vaccination

New password hacking warning for gmail, facebook and amazon users, trump vs. harris 2024 polls: harris leads trump in latest post-dnc surveys, acknowledge your limitations.

Many times, what a leader has to say is what they must say. That is, the situation is challenging and presents problems. A leader can only accomplish so much. Failure to acknowledge what you can do and what the organization must do is asking for trouble. People will simply tune out.

Address Objections

Everyone wants to give an uplifting speech that resonates with harmony and joy. Unfortunately, life is not like that. Leaders need to paint a realistic picture, citing the pluses and minuses. What the leader must do may conflict with what the organization wants to do. It is the leader's responsibility to be honest about the decisions and set the course forward.

Tell Stories

Reveal yourself through stories. Cite examples of individuals in organizations who are making positive contributions. No leader succeeds alone. Every leader needs the team's buy-in. So, make that clear.

Issue The Call To Action

Not every speech may need a formal call to action, but every public utterance needs to be understood as a call for unity, a coming together to achieve the mission. However, if there is a call to action, learn from the politicians—ask for their support. Simultaneously, include your commitment to supporting the individuals and teams that make up the organization.

Uplift Your Audience

Knowing, acknowledging, addressing and challenging are just the basics of speechmaking. Each speaker must craft a message that reveals who they are and what they want to accomplish. Give people a reason to believe in you because you believe in them.

One thing I have yet to emphasize in this little essay is delivery. So let me quote the legendary film director, John Ford , who famously said “You can speak well if your tongue can deliver the message of your heart.” In short, relax. If you have a good message, speak directly. Show people how you feel with the words you deliver. Doing so will encourage listeners to have faith in you and your leadership.

So often, it is said that a leader's job is to elevate followers and enable them to do their best. If that is the case, a good speech—well-honed or off-the-cuff remarks—is an excellent way to begin the uplifting process.

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12 misleading or lacking-in-context claims from Harris’ DNC speech

Domenico Montanaro

Vice President Harris, the Democratic presidential nominee, made 12 misleading or lacking-in-context statements during her speech at the Democratic National Convention last week. Robyn Beck/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

There were about a dozen statements that Vice President Kamala Harris made during her roughly 40-minute acceptance speech at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago that were either misleading or lacking in context.

They range from characterizations of former President Trump’s stances on abortion rights and Social Security to her plans to address housing and grocery prices.

It’s the role of the press to try and hold politicians to account for the accuracy of their statements in a good-faith way. The dozen Harris statements lacking in context are far less in comparison to 162 misstatements, exaggerations and outright lies that NPR found from Trump’s hour-long news conference Aug. 8.

Nonetheless, here’s what we found from Harris’ convention speech:

1. “His explicit intent to jail journalists, political opponents, and anyone he sees as the enemy.” 

Trump has promised retribution against his political enemies, has called reporters “the enemy of the people,” and has made vague threats of jail time for reporters.

“They’ll never find out, & it’s important that they do,” Trump wrote in a post on his social media platform after the leak of a draft of the Dobbs decision was published. “So, go to the reporter & ask him/her who it was. If not given the answer, put whoever in jail until the answer is given. You might add the editor and publisher to the list.”

He’s made other such comments, but there’s no explicit and specific policy from Trump on this because, as with many things involving Trump, he has been vague about his specific intentions.

2. “[W]e know and we know what a second Trump term would look like. It's all laid out in Project 2025, written by his closest advisers. And its sum total is to pull our country back to the past.” 

Project 2025 is the work of people with close ties to Trump through the Heritage Foundation. Trump has disavowed parts of Project 2025, and a campaign official called it a “ pain in the ass .” There’s good political reason for that. Many of the detailed proposals are highly controversial and unpopular. The website for Project 2025 lays out some of the connections to the Trump administration in black and white, as well as the group’s belief that a Trump administration will use it as a blueprint:“The 2025 Presidential Transition Project is being organized by the Heritage Foundation and builds off Heritage’s longstanding ‘Mandate for Leadership,’ which has been highly influential for presidential administrations since the Reagan era. Most recently, the Trump administration relied heavily on Heritage’s “Mandate” for policy guidance, embracing nearly two-thirds of Heritage’s proposals within just one year in office.

“ Paul Dans , former chief of staff at the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) during the Trump administration, serves as the director of the 2025 Presidential Transition Project. Spencer Chretien , former special assistant to the president and associate director of Presidential Personnel, serves as associate director of the project.”

In fact, CNN reported that “at least 140 people who worked in the Trump administration had a hand in Project 2025,” including his former chief of staff Mark Meadows and adviser Stephen Miller.

What’s more, CBS News found at least 270 policy proposals that intersect with the about 700 laid out in Project 2025.

3. “We're not going back to when Donald Trump tried to cut Social Security and Medicare.” 

Former President Trump has pledged not to cut Social Security, the popular retirement program. While he was in office, Trump did try, unsuccessfully, to cut benefits for people who receive disability payments from Social Security.

Social Security benefits could be cut within a decade anyway, unless Congress takes steps to shore up the program. With tens of millions of baby boomers retiring and starting to draw benefits, and fewer people in the workforce paying taxes for each retiree, Social Security is expected to run short of cash in 2033. If that happens, almost 60 million retirees and their families would automatically see their benefits cut by 21%.

The problem could be solved by raising taxes, reducing benefits or some combination of the two. – Scott Horsley, NPR chief economics correspondent

4. “We are not going to let him end programs like Head Start that provide preschool and childcare for our children in America.”

This is again tied to Project 2025, but not something Trump has specifically talked about. Trump has talked about shutting down the Department of Education, but Head Start is funded through the Department of Health and Human Services.

5. “[A]s president, I will bring together labor and workers and small-business owners and entrepreneurs and American companies to create jobs to grow our economy and to lower the cost of everyday needs like healthcare and housing and groceries.”

High supermarket prices are a common complaint. Although grocery prices have largely leveled off, rising just 1.1% in the 12 months ending in July, they jumped 3.6% the previous year and a whopping 13.1% the year before that. Vice President Harris has proposed combating high grocery prices with a federal ban on “price gouging,” but her campaign has offered no specifics on how that would work or what would constitute excessive prices. The Biden-Harris administration has previously blamed some highly concentrated parts of the food chain – such as meat-packers – for driving up prices. The administration has tried to promote more competition in the industry by bankrolling new players. – Scott Horsley

6. “And we will end America's housing shortage.”

The U.S. faces a serious shortage of housing, which has led to high costs. The average home sold last month for $422,600. Last week, Harris proposed several steps to encourage construction of additional housing, including tax breaks intended to promote 3 million new units in four years. (For context, the U.S. is currently building about 1.5 million homes per year, including just over a million single family homes.) Harris has also proposed $25,000 in downpayment assistance for first-time homebuyers and a $40 billion fund to help communities develop affordable housing. She has not said where the money for these programs would come from. – Scott Horsley

7. “He doesn't actually fight for the middle class. Instead, he fights for himself and his billionaire friends. And he will give them another round of tax breaks that will add up to $5 trillion to the national debt.”

While the 2017 tax cuts were skewed to the wealthy , it did cut taxes across the board.

Large parts of that tax cut are due to expire next year. Trump has proposed extending all of them, and while also calling for additional, unspecified tax cuts. Harris has proposed extending the tax cuts for everyone making less than $400,000 a year (97% of the population) while raising taxes on corporations and the wealthy.

Under the Biden-Harris administration, the IRS has also beefed up tax enforcement to ensure that wealthier people and businesses pay what they owe. GOP lawmakers have criticized that effort, and it would likely be reversed in a second Trump administration. Both Harris and Trump have proposed exempting tips from taxation. While popular with workers in the swing state of Nevada, where many people work in tip-heavy industries like casinos, the idea has serious problems. Unless the lost tax revenue were replaced somehow, it would create an even bigger budget deficit. It would treat one class of workers (tipped employees) differently from all other workers. And it would invite gamesmanship as other workers tried to have part of their own income reclassified as tax-free tips. Depending on how the exemptions were structured, it could also result in lower retirement benefits for tipped workers. – Scott Horsley

8. “And all the while he intends to enact what, in effect, is a national sales tax? Call it a Trump tax that would raise prices on middle class families by almost $4,000 a year.”

This appears to be a reference to tariffs. Donald Trump raised tariffs sharply while he was in office, and he’s pledged to go further if he returns to the White House. During his first term, Trump imposed tariffs on imported steel and aluminum, washing machines, solar panels and numerous products from China. Many trading partners retaliated, slapping tariffs of their own on U.S. exports. Farmers and manufacturers suffered.

Despite the fallout, the Biden/Harris administration has left most of the Trump tariffs in place, while adding its own, additional levies on targeted goods from China such as electric vehicles. In a second term, Trump has proposed adding a 10% tariff on all imports, with a much higher levy on all Chinese goods. Researchers at the Peterson Institute for International Economics estimate such import taxes would cost the average family $1,700 a year. – Scott Horsley

9. “This is what's happening in our country because of Donald Trump. And understand he is not done as a part of his agenda. He and his allies would limit access to birth control, ban medication abortion, and enact a nationwide abortion ban with or without Congress. And get this, get this – he plans to create a national anti-abortion coordinator and force states to report on women's miscarriages and abortions.”

It is accurate to point out that the lack of abortion access across the country for millions of women particularly in the South is directly because of Trump and his decision to appoint three conservative justices to the Supreme Court who voted to overturn Roe . As president, he sided with employers , who for religious or moral reasons, didn’t want to pay for contraception, as he tried to change the mandate that contraception be paid for under the Affordable Care Act.

But it’s unclear what Trump will do again as president. He has made conflicting comments about access to contraception. Harris’s charges about an “agenda” again seem to be based on the Heritage Foundation’s Project 2025 . It would be accurate to warn that it’s possible, if not likely, Trump would take up the recommendations given that people close to Trump were instrumental in writing it and given that in his first term as president, he adopted many of the Heritage Foundation’s recommendations. But it’s not entirely accurate to say “he plans to create” these things when Trump himself and his campaign have not advocated for this. Trump himself has said that abortion should be left up to the states – and insisted that he doesn’t support a national ban.

10. “With this election, we finally have the opportunity to pass the John Lewis Voting Rights Act and the Freedom to Vote Act.”

This is another one of those traps politicians fall into – overpromising when it’s not something they can control. Harris needs Congress to do this, and her winning the presidency does not guarantee that any of what she wants done legislatively will get done, even if Democrats take control of both chambers.

11. “Last year, Joe and I brought together Democrats and conservative Republicans to write the strongest border bill in decades.”

While Donald Trump stood in the way of this bill passing, and it had been written with conservative Republicans, it’s not accurate to say this was the “strongest border bill in decades” unless you count 11 years as decades. The 2013 comprehensive immigration overhaul that got 68 votes in the Senate and was killed by the GOP House, did far more than this bill did.

12. “He encouraged Putin to invade our allies, said Russia could quote, do whatever the hell they want.”

While an alarming thing for an American president to say about a NATO ally, this is lacking in some context. Trump said he would say Russia could “do whatever the hell it wanted” – and Trump would not defend an ally – if that country didn’t “pay.” Trump continues to get wrong, however, that no countries in the alliance “pay” anything to anyone except themselves. What Trump is talking about is NATO countries’ goals of funding their own defense to 2% of their gross domestic product. But not defending a country from a hostile invasion would violate Article 5 of the 1949 treaty that binds the countries in battle and was created as a way to thwart any potential efforts by the former Soviet Union to expand beyond its borders.

It reads : “[I]f a NATO Ally is the victim of an armed attack, each and every other member of the Alliance will consider this act of violence as an armed attack against all members and will take the actions it deems necessary to assist the Ally attacked.”

It has been invoked once: After the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks on the U.S.

• Vice President Kamala Harris

From thoughts to words: How AI deciphers neural signals to help a man with ALS speak

Postdoctoral Fellow of Neuroscience and Neuroengineering, University of California, Davis

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Nicholas Card does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of California, Davis provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.

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Brain-computer interfaces are a groundbreaking technology that can help paralyzed people regain functions they’ve lost, like moving a hand. These devices record signals from the brain and decipher the user’s intended action, bypassing damaged or degraded nerves that would normally transmit those brain signals to control muscles.

Since 2006 , demonstrations of brain-computer interfaces in humans have primarily focused on restoring arm and hand movements by enabling people to control computer cursors or robotic arms . Recently, researchers have begun developing speech brain-computer interfaces to restore communication for people who cannot speak.

As the user attempts to talk, these brain-computer interfaces record the person’s unique brain signals associated with attempted muscle movements for speaking and then translate them into words. These words can then be displayed as text on a screen or spoken aloud using text-to-speech software.

I’m a reseacher in the Neuroprosthetics Lab at the University of California, Davis, which is part of the BrainGate2 clinical trial. My colleagues and I recently demonstrated a speech brain-computer interface that deciphers the attempted speech of a man with ALS, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease. The interface converts neural signals into text with over 97% accuracy. Key to our system is a set of artificial intelligence language models – artificial neural networks that help interpret natural ones.

Recording brain signals

The first step in our speech brain-computer interface is recording brain signals. There are several sources of brain signals, some of which require surgery to record. Surgically implanted recording devices can capture high-quality brain signals because they are placed closer to neurons, resulting in stronger signals with less interference. These neural recording devices include grids of electrodes placed on the brain’s surface or electrodes implanted directly into brain tissue.

In our study, we used electrode arrays surgically placed in the speech motor cortex, the part of the brain that controls muscles related to speech, of the participant, Casey Harrell. We recorded neural activity from 256 electrodes as Harrell attempted to speak.

Decoding brain signals

The next challenge is relating the complex brain signals to the words the user is trying to say.

One approach is to map neural activity patterns directly to spoken words. This method requires recording brain signals corresponding to each word multiple times to identify the average relationship between neural activity and specific words. While this strategy works well for small vocabularies, as demonstrated in a 2021 study with a 50-word vocabulary , it becomes impractical for larger ones. Imagine asking the brain-computer interface user to try to say every word in the dictionary multiple times – it could take months, and it still wouldn’t work for new words.

Instead, we use an alternative strategy: mapping brain signals to phonemes, the basic units of sound that make up words. In English, there are 39 phonemes, including ch, er, oo, pl and sh, that can be combined to form any word. We can measure the neural activity associated with every phoneme multiple times just by asking the participant to read a few sentences aloud. By accurately mapping neural activity to phonemes, we can assemble them into any English word, even ones the system wasn’t explicitly trained with.

To map brain signals to phonemes, we use advanced machine learning models. These models are particularly well-suited for this task due to their ability to find patterns in large amounts of complex data that would be impossible for humans to discern. Think of these models as super-smart listeners that can pick out important information from noisy brain signals, much like you might focus on a conversation in a crowded room. Using these models, we were able to decipher phoneme sequences during attempted speech with over 90% accuracy.

From phonemes to words

Once we have the deciphered phoneme sequences, we need to convert them into words and sentences. This is challenging, especially if the deciphered phoneme sequence isn’t perfectly accurate. To solve this puzzle, we use two complementary types of machine learning language models.

The first is n-gram language models, which predict which word is most likely to follow a set of n words. We trained a 5-gram, or five-word, language model on millions of sentences to predict the likelihood of a word based on the previous four words, capturing local context and common phrases. For example, after “I am very good,” it might suggest “today” as more likely than “potato”. Using this model, we convert our phoneme sequences into the 100 most likely word sequences, each with an associated probability.

The second is large language models, which power AI chatbots and also predict which words most likely follow others. We use large language models to refine our choices. These models, trained on vast amounts of diverse text, have a broader understanding of language structure and meaning. They help us determine which of our 100 candidate sentences makes the most sense in a wider context.

By carefully balancing probabilities from the n-gram model, the large language model and our initial phoneme predictions, we can make a highly educated guess about what the brain-computer interface user is trying to say. This multistep process allows us to handle the uncertainties in phoneme decoding and produce coherent, contextually appropriate sentences.

Real-world benefits

In practice, this speech decoding strategy has been remarkably successful. We’ve enabled Casey Harrell, a man with ALS, to “speak” with over 97% accuracy using just his thoughts. This breakthrough allows him to easily converse with his family and friends for the first time in years, all in the comfort of his own home.

Speech brain-computer interfaces represent a significant step forward in restoring communication. As we continue to refine these devices, they hold the promise of giving a voice to those who have lost the ability to speak, reconnecting them with their loved ones and the world around them.

However, challenges remain, such as making the technology more accessible, portable and durable over years of use. Despite these hurdles, speech brain-computer interfaces are a powerful example of how science and technology can come together to solve complex problems and dramatically improve people’s lives.

• Artificial intelligence (AI)
• Machine learning
• Brain-computer interface
• Neural signals
• Language models

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