how can homework cause poor eating habits

• Second Opinion
• Research & Innovation
• Patients & Families
• Health Professionals
• Recently Visited
• Segunda opinión
• Refer a patient
• MyChart Login

Healthier, Happy Lives Blog

Sort articles by..., sort by category.

• Celebrating Volunteers
• Community Outreach
• Construction Updates
• Family-Centered Care
• Healthy Eating
• Heart Center
• Interesting Things
• Mental Health
• Patient Stories
• Research and Innovation
• Safety Tips
• Sustainability
• World-Class Care

About Our Blog

• Back-to-School
• Pediatric Technology

Latest Posts

• Pediatrician Insights on Childhood Sleep Problems
• Stanford Children’s Eases Needle Jabs With the Buddy Guard Device
• Young Adult Turns Short Bowel Into Motivator for Full Life
• Menstruation, Birth Control, Mental Health Top Team USA Female Athletes’ Research Agenda
• Two Sisters Return to the Bay Area to Work Together in the Johnson Center for Pregnancy and Newborn Services

Health Hazards of Homework

March 18, 2014 | Julie Greicius Pediatrics .

A new study by the Stanford Graduate School of Education and colleagues found that students in high-performing schools who did excessive hours of homework “experienced greater behavioral engagement in school but also more academic stress, physical health problems, and lack of balance in their lives.”

Those health problems ranged from stress, headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems, to psycho-social effects like dropping activities, not seeing friends or family, and not pursuing hobbies they enjoy.

In the Stanford Report story about the research, Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of the  study published in the  Journal of Experimental Education , says, “Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good.”

The study was based on survey data from a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in California communities in which median household income exceeded $90,000. Of the students surveyed, homework volume averaged about 3.1 hours each night.

“It is time to re-evaluate how the school environment is preparing our high school student for today’s workplace,” says Neville Golden, MD , chief of adolescent medicine at Stanford Medicine Children’s Health and a professor at the School of Medicine. “This landmark study shows that excessive homework is counterproductive, leading to sleep deprivation, school stress and other health problems. Parents can best support their children in these demanding academic environments by advocating for them through direct communication with teachers and school administrators about homework load.”

Related Posts

Top-ranked group group in Los Gatos, Calif., is now a part of one of the…

The Stanford Medicine Children’s Health network continues to grow with our newest addition, Town and…

• Julie Greicius
• more by this author...

Connect with us:

Download our App:

ABOUT STANFORD MEDICINE CHILDREN'S HEALTH

• Leadership Team
• Vision, Mission & Values
• The Stanford Advantage
• Government and Community Relations

LUCILE PACKARD FOUNDATION FOR CHILDREN'S HEALTH

• Get Involved
• Volunteering Services
• Auxiliaries & Affiliates
• Our Hospital
• Send a Greeting Card
• New Hospital
• Refer a Patient
• Pay Your Bill

Also Find Us on:

• Notice of Nondiscrimination
• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Code of Conduct
• Price Transparency
• Stanford School of Medicine
• Stanford Health Care
• Stanford University

Along with Stanford news and stories, show me:

• Student information
• Faculty/Staff information

We want to provide announcements, events, leadership messages and resources that are relevant to you. Your selection is stored in a browser cookie which you can remove at any time using “Clear all personalization” below.

Education scholar Denise Pope has found that too much homework has negative effects on student well-being and behavioral engagement. (Image credit: L.A. Cicero)

A Stanford researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.

“Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good,” wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .

The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students’ views on homework.

Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.

Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.

“The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students’ advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being,” Pope wrote.

Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.

Their study found that too much homework is associated with:

* Greater stress: 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.

* Reductions in health: In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.

* Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits: Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were “not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills,” according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.

A balancing act

The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.

Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as “pointless” or “mindless” in order to keep their grades up.

“This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points,” Pope said.

She said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.

“Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development,” wrote Pope.

High-performing paradox

In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. “Young people are spending more time alone,” they wrote, “which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities.”

Student perspectives

The researchers say that while their open-ended or “self-reporting” methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for “typical adolescent complaining” – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.

The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Media Contacts

Denise Pope, Stanford Graduate School of Education: (650) 725-7412, [email protected] Clifton B. Parker, Stanford News Service: (650) 725-0224, [email protected]

12 Reasons College Students Have A Hard Time With Healthy Eating

College is a unique time in life. For many, college years come with newfound freedom, new friendships, the start of a career, and the exploration of one's self. While there are lots of positives to enjoy during these years, there are also plenty of challenges faced by college students.

People often joke about the freshman 15; first-year college students are notorious for putting on extra pounds. Gaining weight certainly isn't inherently unhealthy, but the freshman 15 are often associated with unhealthy habits like binge eating or drinking. Freshman or not, changes in college students' eating habits are nothing to joke about.

A healthy diet looks different for everyone, but generally, it involves eating adequately-portioned meals throughout the day that include nutrient-dense foods with the necessary vitamins and minerals to help our bodies stay strong and energized. Unhealthy diets might lead to unhealthy behaviors and could even end up negatively impacting mental health and academic performance.

For these reasons, it's important that college students are able to maintain healthy eating habits. If you're a college student who finds it difficult to eat healthy, be gentle with yourself! You're not alone, and there's always time to introduce healthier habits into your life. We've put together a list of common reasons why college students have a hard time eating healthily which will hopefully help you identify issues and make small changes.

1. They're too busy

While college can be a time filled with freedom and fun, it's also filled with time-consuming responsibilities. College students have a lot to cram into their schedules between long classes, schoolwork, jobs, clubs, and social activities.

Some are so busy that they can't even find the time to eat. Several Miami University students reported to the college newspaper,  The Miami Student , that they don't have enough time in their day to eat or purchase food, noting that extra-long lines at dining halls caused by recent labor shortages contributed to the time spent purchasing food before classes.

In a 2018 article written for  The Temple News , a Temple University student asserted that they'd sacrifice meal time for study time in order to "be successful." However, a dietician pointed out to The Miami Student that a habit of skipping meals can negatively affect students' well-being and lead to other unhealthy habits in the long run. She noted that healthy choices — like eating well and regularly — are key to being able to "perform well academically, fuel workouts, [and] participate in student life activities." Simply put, eating healthy is more likely to contribute to success than skipping meals.

Eating fortified meals throughout the day is important for students' health, whether they need to head to the dining hall earlier or carve out time to cook.  Her Campus  contributor Makena Gera claims they take just two hours a week to plan, grocery shop, and cook all her meals.

2. They can't afford it

College is expensive. Even with deferred student loans, college students may have to pay out of pocket for things like housing, transportation, books, and food — none of which are cheap. In fact, a 2020 study from the Hope Center reported that over 25% of students at two- and four-year colleges were affected by food insecurity.

As per Tasting Table,  food insecurity  is related to the accessibility of food, while the Hope Center adds that those with food insecurity struggle with uncertainty regarding their ability to access sufficiently healthy food in a "socially acceptable manner."

A number of factors may contribute to students' struggles to access or afford food, including pandemic-related financial challenges. Eating an insufficient amount of food is unhealthy on its own, but what's worse is that options like fast food and processed foods containing unhealthy ingredients are often all that students can afford to eat (via  Health Affairs ). Healthier, nutrient-dense food options, like fresh fruits and vegetables, may now be harder to access due to  recent inflation .

Health Affairs notes that though universities are using various methods to help combat this issue for their students, accessibility is still an issue. Students might also avoid seeking help for fear of stigmatization. The health policy-focused journal suggests that unhealthy eating habits may ultimately affect a student's ability to complete their degree, making for a detrimental cycle that will hopefully be assuaged by federal action in the future.

3. There aren't enough options

College students on campus typically get most of their meals from college dining halls and on-campus eateries. Off-campus grocery stores and restaurants may be hard for students who don't have cars or struggle to access public transportation. While everybody is different, and no two people need the same nutrients or calories to remain healthy, there are some base-level guidelines to follow to maintain a healthy lifestyle. According to the  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , healthy eating focuses on fruits and vegetables, whole grains, various proteins, and lower intakes of added sugars, unhealthy fats, and salt.

While skipping one meal or indulging in junk food is completely fine in moderation, a steady intake of nutrient-dense meals is important for overall health. A 2019 study conducted at the University of California Merced found that while some students were satisfied with the amount of nutritious options available, more felt that there were an inadequate number of healthier foods on campus (via  PubMed Central ). Likewise, participants of the study suggested that the healthier options often cost more than the unhealthier ones.

It's also worth mentioning that some people (college students or not) are pickier when it comes to their meals. For those with a more sensitive palate or restricted preferences, it could be hard to find food options on campus that are simultaneously healthy, affordable, and enjoyable to them.

4. They're adjusting to a new lifestyle

There's a reason people say that college is one of the most transformative periods of a person's life. For many students, going off to college can mean adjusting to a completely different lifestyle as they navigate their newfound independence and responsibilities. This adjustment period can affect students' eating habits in a number of ways.

As students learn to share space with roommates, live away from their friends and family, make financial decisions for themselves, and take charge of their schedules, they may become overwhelmed and stressed, which can have negative impacts on their health. A study published in 2020 reported that many first-year college students in Australia who struggled with the transition from high school to college suffered from stress, which often led to unhealthy food choices and overeating or under-eating (via Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute ).

Moreover, for students who were used to eating meals prepared by parents or family, adjusting to being in control of their own diet may be difficult. Some may not know how to cook for themselves, while others may be unsure what to eat or when to eat without someone guiding them. Luckily, these students can find healthy eating tips and advice online or from resources offered by their college.

5. They aren't educated about health

Maintaining healthy eating habits is difficult without a solid understanding of what a healthy diet entails. Even with the right intentions, many college students struggle to eat healthily simply because they aren't adequately educated about healthy foods.

According to the  World Health Organization , perceptions of health vary across individuals and cultures. Still, an average adult's healthy diet should include at least five portions of fruit and vegetables per day, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and a balanced intake of fats, sugars, and salt. The World Health Organization states that a healthy diet is beneficial in that it helps prevent certain diseases and allows us to obtain adequate nutrients.

Nutrition literacy relates to individuals' ability to understand and make informed decisions about nutrition, according to a study published by the  Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute . This study, conducted in 2021, found a relationship between college students' level of nutrition literacy and their healthy eating habits — greater nutrition literacy generally correlated with healthier eating. While factors like socioeconomic background and financial status also affect the foods college students eat, it could be beneficial for colleges to provide more accessible education regarding healthy foods and diets to help students eat more nutritious foods.

6. They can't cook

College dorms aren't exactly luxurious — most include a bed or two, a desk or two, and room for a mini fridge and a microwave. While savvy students have learned to create complete meals using just their microwaves, those who lack the time or motivation to learn to do the same are usually left eating from dining halls or restaurants.

Likewise, though many colleges offer community-style kitchens outside dorm rooms for students to use, students don't always take advantage of them. In response to the question "why don't college students cook for themselves," Quora user Myia Dickens cited that, without a dorm kitchen, it was still too "inconvenient" to use the college's community kitchen to cook, adding that it was also often in use by others or not clean.

This is important because, as reported by a South Dakota State University student in their master's thesis , cooking is related to healthier diet and eating habits. In their research, the student cited a lack of time, motivation, and general cooking skills as reasons why many college students don't cook. While eating at restaurants occasionally is enjoyable, they can be expensive and sometimes unhealthy. On the contrary, cooking at home allows for fresh, clean ingredients and meals and can help people eat more mindfully. On-campus cooking classes or college dorm cooking tips can help students feel more comfortable in the kitchen.

7. They're struggling with body image

Eating habits and body image, unfortunately, often go hand-in-hand. Insecurities about weight and appearance can lead to eating disorders or unhealthy diet or exercise habits. Why do college students struggle with body image? There are numerous factors that can contribute to negative self-perceptions and insecurities.

Recently, FOX43 reported on findings from a national survey that 88% of college students consider social media usage to negatively impact their body image. The news outlet touched upon photo editing, filters, and the generally unrealistic images that are often shared on social media, and how comparing ourselves to these unrealistic photos can lead to negative thoughts and perceptions of our bodies. Likewise, when the New York Times asked teens about these issues, many used the word "detrimental" to describe social media's effect on their body image.

Social media aside, the Child Mind Institute notes that the drastic change from high school to college creates the "perfect storm" for eating disorders to form, be it restrictive eating, binge eating, or other damaging habits. Between stress, the absence of family and friends, and general societal pressure to look attractive, college students can become fixated on their body image and develop unhealthy eating habits as a result, as per the Child Mind Institute. Luckily, there are many resources at colleges to help students struggling with eating disorders or mental health. The National Eating Disorders Association also offers an accessible helpline for support.

8. Their mental health is affecting their diet

The pressure to decide on a career path and do well in school, the desire to enjoy social activities, and potential struggles with finances are stressors that so many college students face daily — not to mention the presumed effect that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on all of them. Between the need to adapt to overwhelming change, the work loaded into their schedules, societal expectations, and financial worries, it's no wonder that college students struggle with their mental health. In fact, it seems that college students struggle with mental health more than the rest of the population.

Fortune conducted a survey earlier this year, reporting that 60% of college students are living with a diagnosed mental health condition, including anxiety, depression, eating disorders, personality disorders, and more. These findings are significant because, in the Millennium Journal of Education, Technologies, and Health , a published study confirmed that "students with a high level of stress, anxiety and more depressive symptoms tend to have unhealthy eating habits."

These unhealthy habits could be skipping meals, overeating, or overindulging in unhealthy foods to feel better (via WebMD ). According to WebMD, these negative habits can further worsen mental health, affecting energy levels and mood and creating a higher risk for illness. While it may be difficult and take practice, introducing nutritious foods and more balanced eating habits can slowly improve mental health. Likewise, seeking professional help is always a step in a positive direction.

9. Alcohol consumption affects their diets

It's no secret that college years are often associated with alcohol consumption. College campuses are often the first place where students experience freedom and autonomy over their daily lives and decisions, and for many, it's hard not to abuse that freedom.

In their most current survey of undergraduate college students, the American College Health Association's  National College Health Assessment  found that 67.4% consumed alcohol, with 13.7% reporting that they'd consumed seven or more drinks the last time they consumed alcohol in a social setting. According to the  University of Nevada, Reno , consuming four to five drinks or more within two hours can be considered binge drinking, the negative effects of which can include chronic diseases, learning problems, alcohol poisoning, and more.

Students may illegally consume or abuse alcohol due to peer pressure or mental health struggles, but either way, they may develop unhealthy eating habits. Research published in the  American Society for Nutrition  found that when it comes to alcohol, many students intentionally skip meals or eat less to compensate for calories and get drunk more easily, while others even forcibly purge after drinking to get rid of extra calories. All of these behaviors are unhealthy and potentially very dangerous.

10. Drug abuse affects their diets

While college students are known to consume alcohol, many also abuse illegal substances or prescription drugs. The  American Addiction Centers  list marijuana, psychedelic drugs, prescription stimulants, cocaine, and painkillers among the most-used drugs by college students.

Non-medical marijuana use in college students has steadily risen over the years, and research has shown that college students using marijuana are typically more likely to consume junk foods (via  Forbes ). While some research has shown that medical marijuana use can potentially help those with eating disorders such as anorexia or bulimia nervosa, abusing the drug can potentially lead to overeating or binge eating, as per  Healthline .

As for prescription stimulants such as Adderall, there are significant impacts on eating habits. Eating disorder rehabilitation center  The Meadows Ranch  shares that college students may use this drug to suppress appetites and lose weight, which can lead to addiction and the development or worsening of eating disorders.

TimelyMD  notes that college students have a slew of reasons to abuse drugs and substances, including stress, peer pressure, Greek life, or to cope with mental health struggles. Students should know that addiction and drug abuse can be fatal and that there are resources that can help them, including college counseling services and addiction centers.

11. Their dietary restrictions make it difficult

Eating healthy at college might be difficult due to finances, scheduling, stress, and limited dining options. Still, students with dietary restrictions might find it even harder to maintain a balanced, satisfyingly healthy diet.

Dietary restrictions amongst college students are vast, including gluten intolerance, vegan and vegetarian diets, and allergies to nuts, eggs, or other common ingredients. In 2019, the Tufts University student newspaper published an article featuring disappointing reports from students whose dining options were limited. Students with celiac disease lamented that the gluten-free food options at the university were minimal. One gluten-intolerant student even purchased an expired snack from the dining hall, stating they were forced to spend extra money on food not included in their meal plans.

Moreover, students with compounding dietary restrictions face even more dining constraints. A Tufts University student with a gluten-free and dairy-free diet reported that since gluten-free products contained dairy and dairy-free products contained gluten, they were obligated to eat the same very plain dish for most meals. Similarly, a Molloy College student reported in a blog post on  Study Breaks  that vegan students were mostly stuck eating only plain fruits and vegetables, which despite being nutritious, lack ample protein and leave students unsatisfied.

Lacking a sufficient variety of dining options for all of their students isn't a good move for colleges. Not only do students need ample food to support their health, but they also need a wide variety of nutrient-dense foods.

12. College meal plans don't work in their favor

In addition to tuition and housing fees, many colleges require students to purchase a meal plan. According to the  Education Data Initiative , the average monthly cost of a college meal plan was $563 in 2021, with some colleges offering plans as high as $640 a month — that's over $5,000 per school year.

Every college's meal plan is different, but the average cost of $563 per month derives from colleges whose meal plans allow for an average of 12 to 15 meals per week, as per the Education Data Initiative. Three meals per day, which is considered to be a healthy amount of food, means 21 meals per week, not 12. As such, many students struggle to eat healthy because their college meal plans are too expensive and, as is usual, junk food tends to be cheaper.

A Tulane University student touched upon how meal plans that provide an insufficient amount of food can lead to disordered eating and skipping meals.  The Tulane Hullabaloo  student newspaper wrote that the university's "meal plan options rely on the student eating fewer than three meals a day on campus" if they don't pay for the unlimited meal plan. On the flip side, meal plans offering an unlimited amount of food can make way for overeating or binge eating, as many students might feel they need to get the biggest bang for their buck (via  NBC News ).

Hall Record

Is homework too much.

Liv Bonee , Sami Farber , Emma Friedman , and Jenna Surowiec | April 17, 2020

 Do you like homework? Yeah, neither do we. Though we understand the importance of practicing material, homework can sometimes take up too much of students’ time. After a long day of school, coming home to hours of homework can be really stressful. With everything else students have going on such as sports, clubs, jobs, and other responsibilities, homework can become impossible to manage. When homework becomes too much, there are also negative health effects on students developing bodies and brains. 

In the article, “Infographic: How Does Homework Actually Affect Students,” the author includes an important statistic, “ According to a study by Stanford University, 56 percent of students considered homework a primary source of stress.” This alarming number obviously means there is too much homework given. It can become difficult for students to balance homework because many are also involved in activities after school, or have responsibilities; sports, jobs, caring for siblings, and school clubs, all possibly affecting one’s homework schedule. Additionally, after these commitments are all done, homework must be completed leaving little to no time for oneself. 

The result of this stress on students’ growing and developing bodies can be harmful. The article continues to point out, “Too much homework can result in lack of sleep, headaches, exhaustion and weight loss. Excessive homework can also result in poor eating habits, with families choosing fast food as a faster alternative.” When students begin to feel these symptoms as a result of their busy schedules, it becomes even harder to complete their day to day activities, resulting in a constant pattern of struggle. Where is it appropriate to draw the line on how much homework is healthy to complete?

Homework can impact one’s social life by taking time away from being with friends and family. Students need interaction outside of school in order to have a healthy lifestyle. Managing time with sports and other extracurricular activities on top of hours of homework can lead many students to feel all types of pressures and anxiety.

In the article “Infographic, How Does Homework Actually Affect Students?” published by Oxford Learning, the authors elaborate on the many factors that contribute to the problems associated with homework overload. They mention how “students who have large amounts of homework have less time to spend with their families and friends. This can leave them feeling isolated and without a support system.” Students who do not spend time with their friends and family often can lose those bonds, leading them to feel lonely.  

Doing too much work and not having any social interaction can actually cause students to become increasingly unmotivated. The article explains, “Homework can affect students’ health, social life, and grades. The hours logged in class, and the hours logged on schoolwork can lead to students feeling overwhelmed and unmotivated.” Those hours taken to do homework are hours that take away from students being active and playing sports, which affects their physical health as well. Homework can be helpful to a certain extent, but having busy work piled on by teachers does not actually help students. It is hard to tell where the line needs to be drawn and leads us to ask ourselves if it will ever be found.

We interviewed three students at Hall High School with diverse qualities. Marisa Ciafone is a female who is 18 years old and a senior. We also talked to another female named Abby Magendantz, who is a 14-year-old freshman student-athlete. Throughout the school year, she participates in three sports including soccer, basketball, and track. Kevin Tiernan also is a student-athlete at Hall. He plays football and lacrosse as a 17-year-old junior. 

The two female students we interviewed both expressed how they feel that homework can sometimes occur as useful, but usually exists as mostly just busywork. Although, Kevin Tiernan felt he benefits from homework, and stated how “It helps give students examples of the content they’re learning in school to help them obtain the knowledge for quizzes and tests.”

All of the students stated that they feel the workload can be too much and on multiple occasions, they have lost sleep because of the amount they received. Many times Marisa has had to stay awake until 2 am because of the work. She stated, “that means I got a total of 4 hours of sleep those nights, and that isn’t healthy.”

Most teachers would say homework has beneficial learning value, however, the evidence shows that it should be limited in some way to compensate for extra-curricular activities. In an article written by Lauren Farrar, she explains that “. . . the National Education Association recommends the ten-minute rule,” which essentially outlines a system in which students receive ten minutes of additional homework according to their grade level. For example, a freshman (ninth grade) would receive ninety minutes of work, a sophomore (tenth grade) would receive one hundred minutes of work, and so on. This format seems mostly fair, however, some may argue that one hundred twenty minutes for seniors is still excessive. Overall, although the available solutions may not be perfect, it is comforting to know that some thought is being put into how we can lower stress on students. Hopefully, future students will have more manageable schedules that allow them to enjoy their time outside of school.

Car Accidents In West Hartford—

Traffic Chaos at Hall Highschool

Small student servings.

Here at Hall Highschool students have a long day when it comes to school to when they get back home. Students need food in their body to get throu...

Learning How to Accept an Opposing Opinion

Hall seniors and work overload.

Students at Hall High School are being given too much work. It is a busy time for seniors with college applications and future plans. Seniors have...

Comments (0)

Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Unhealthy eating can have immediate effects on workplace performance

• Download PDF Copy

A recent study finds that unhealthy eating behaviors at night can make people less helpful and more withdrawn the next day at work.

For the first time, we have shown that healthy eating immediately affects our workplace behaviors and performance. It is relatively well established that other health-related behaviors, such as sleep and exercise, affect our work. But nobody had looked at the short-term effects of unhealthy eating." Seonghee "Sophia" Cho, Study's Corresponding Author, Assistant Professor of Psychology, North Carolina State University

Fundamentally, the researchers had two questions: Does unhealthy eating behavior affect you at work the next day? And, if so, why?

For the study, researchers had 97 full-time employees in the United States answer a series of questions three times a day for 10 consecutive workdays. Before work on each day, study participants answered questions related to their physical and emotional well-being. At the end of each workday, participants answered questions about what they did at work. In the evening, before bed, participants answered questions about their eating and drinking behaviors after work.

In the context of the study, researchers defined "unhealthy eating" as instances when study participants felt they'd eaten too much junk food; when participants felt they'd had too much to eat or drink; or when participants reporting having too many late-night snacks.

The researchers found that, when people engaged in unhealthy eating behaviors, they were more likely to report having physical problems the next morning. Problems included headaches, stomachaches and diarrhea. In addition, when people reported unhealthy eating behaviors, they were also more likely to report emotional strains the next morning - such as feeling guilty or ashamed about their diet choices. Those physical and emotional strains associated with unhealthy eating were, in turn, related to changes in how people behaved at work throughout the day.

Essentially, when people reported physical or emotional strains associated with unhealthy eating, they were also more likely to report declines in "helping behavior" and increases in "withdrawal behavior." Helping behavior at work refers to helping colleagues and going the extra mile when you don't have to, such as assisting a co-worker with a task that is not your responsibility. Withdrawal behavior refers to avoiding work-related situations, even though you're at your workplace.

Related Stories

• Recent studies underscore the importance of diet for the prevention of cancer
• The role of HPV in male fertility: New data on sperm quality and oxidative stress
• Improved IVF success with the Mediterranean diet, study shows

The researchers also found that people who were emotionally stable - meaning people who are better able to cope with stress because they're less emotionally volatile - suffered fewer adverse effects from unhealthy eating. Not only were emotionally stable people less likely to have physical or emotional strains after unhealthy eating, their workplace behaviors were also less likely to change even when they reported physical or emotional strains.

"The big takeaway here is that we now know unhealthy eating can have almost immediate effects on workplace performance," Cho says. "However, we can also say that there is no single 'healthy' diet, and healthy eating isn't just about nutritional content. It may be influenced by an individual's dietary needs, or even by when and how they're eating, instead of what they're eating.

"Companies can help to address healthy eating by paying more attention to the dietary needs and preferences of their employees and helping to address those needs, such as through on-site dining options. This can affect both the physical and mental health of their employees - and, by extension, their on-the-job performance."

The researchers also pointed to a variety of research questions that could be addressed moving forward.

"One confounding variable is that the way our questions were phrased, we may be capturing both unhealthy eating behaviors and unhealthy drinking behaviors related to alcohol," Cho says.

"That's something we will want to tease out moving forward. And while we focused on evening diet, it would be interesting to look at what people are eating at other times of day. Are there specific elements of diet that affect behavioral outcomes - such as sugar or caffeine content? Can there be positive effects of unhealthy eating, such as when people eat comfort foods to help cope with stress? This promises to be a rich field of study."

North Carolina State University

Cho, S., et al. (2021) Does a healthy lifestyle matter? A daily diary study of unhealthy eating at home and behavioral outcomes at work. Journal of Applied Psychology. doi.org/10.1037/apl0000890 .

Posted in: Medical Research News | Healthcare News

Tags: Alcohol , Caffeine , Diarrhea , Diet , Exercise , Food , Healthy Lifestyle , Junk Food , Mental Health , Psychology , Research , Sleep , Stress

Suggested Reading

Cancel reply to comment

• Trending Stories
• Latest Interviews
• Top Health Articles

Global and Local Efforts to Take Action Against Hepatitis

Lindsey Hiebert and James Amugsi

In this interview, we explore global and local efforts to combat viral hepatitis with Lindsey Hiebert, Deputy Director of the Coalition for Global Hepatitis Elimination (CGHE), and James Amugsi, a Mandela Washington Fellow and Physician Assistant at Sandema Hospital in Ghana. Together, they provide valuable insights into the challenges, successes, and the importance of partnerships in the fight against hepatitis.

Addressing Important Cardiac Biology Questions with Shotgun Top-Down Proteomics

In this interview conducted at Pittcon 2024, we spoke to Professor John Yates about capturing cardiomyocyte cell-to-cell heterogeneity via shotgun top-down proteomics.

A Discussion with Hologic’s Tim Simpson on the Future of Cervical Cancer Screening

Tim Simpson

Hologic’s Tim Simpson Discusses the Future of Cervical Cancer Screening.

Latest News

Newsletters you may be interested in

Your AI Powered Scientific Assistant

Hi, I'm Azthena, you can trust me to find commercial scientific answers from News-Medical.net.

A few things you need to know before we start. Please read and accept to continue.

• Use of “Azthena” is subject to the terms and conditions of use as set out by OpenAI .
• Content provided on any AZoNetwork sites are subject to the site Terms & Conditions and Privacy Policy .
• Large Language Models can make mistakes. Consider checking important information.

Great. Ask your question.

Azthena may occasionally provide inaccurate responses. Read the full terms .

While we only use edited and approved content for Azthena answers, it may on occasions provide incorrect responses. Please confirm any data provided with the related suppliers or authors. We do not provide medical advice, if you search for medical information you must always consult a medical professional before acting on any information provided.

Your questions, but not your email details will be shared with OpenAI and retained for 30 days in accordance with their privacy principles.

Please do not ask questions that use sensitive or confidential information.

Read the full Terms & Conditions .

Provide Feedback

How Your Sleep Habits Affect Your Eating Habits

Recent research underscores how relevant sleep is to your eating habits..

Posted June 6, 2022 | Reviewed by Devon Frye

• Why Is Sleep Important?
• Take our Sleep Habits Test
• Find a sleep therapist near me
• Research suggests that people eat more when they are tired.
• People crave less nutritionally-dense foods when they are tired.
• We tend to exercise less when we are tired.
• Improved sleep habits may result in improved health habits in general.

Like many young adults who haven’t mastered time management , I can remember staying up into the early morning hours cramming for finals in college. The next day, I’d be exhausted—and I’d also be starving.

I’ve continued to notice that how much I sleep seems to affect how much and even what I eat (grilled cheese sandwiches were a favorite when I was sleep-deprived caring for infants), but I was never sure if this was just something I experienced or a more universal phenomenon. As I work on my next book, The Body Image Book for Life (which includes a discussion of both sleeping and eating habits), I decided to confer with Lisa L. Lewis, author of The Sleep Deprived Teen .

Studies that have identified predictors of health across time consistently point to the importance of our eating, physical activity, and sleep habits. However, altering any of these health behaviors has been found to be incredibly difficult , requiring several committed attempts before any sort of behavior change sticks.

What is not discussed often enough, however, is the extent to which these health habits are linked to each other. Making positive changes in one health behavior may make it easier to make positive changes in others. For example, it’s possible that getting in the habit of sleeping just one or two hours more per night may have a positive effect on your ability to maintain other salutary habits.

When You're Tired, You Eat More

Eating is an important health behavior that we engage in several times across the day and there are multiple reasons why exhaustion may lead us to eat more.

For some people, depleted reserves of self-control around tempting or indulgent foods may be a result of sleep deprivation; that pizza may be irresistible without the energy or will to make a salad. One study even found that people are more likely to snack more often when they’re tired. This may be because more energy (i.e., food) is needed to sustain wakefulness.

Lisa Lewis describes a more physiological explanation in The Sleep Deprived Teen . Relevant research examines two hormones important for appetite regulation: leptin and ghrelin. Adequate sleep is needed for leptin and ghrelin to function properly—and although it remains something of an open question exactly how much sleep deprivation disrupts their functioning and leads to direct effects on appetite and food choice, it seems clear that appetite regulation can go awry following even one night of poor (or no) sleep.

When You're Tired, You Crave Less Nutritionally Dense Food

When you aren’t well-rested, you may not only eat more, but you may crave sugary, fatty foods such as ice cream. In a state of exhaustion, your body wants easily accessible sources of energy, but not necessarily nutrient-dense foods.

Recent research has even found that people who sleep lighter and wake more often are more likely to have lower fiber and higher fat and sugar diets. Lewis notes that in one study of teens in the U.S. who were sleep-deprived five nights in a row, sleeping just six and a half hours each night, their sweets and dessert consumption increased by 50 percent.

Of course, there is nothing wrong with enjoying some ice cream, French fries, or burgers. But it stands to reason that if your food preferences are possibly being driven partly by exhaustion, it may be a good idea to aim to get in bed earlier.

When You're Tired, You Reach for Caffeine

The average American adult consumes two to three caffeinated beverages per day. Morning coffee consumption accounts for a large portion of adults’ caffeine intake, but about 80 percent of teenagers consume caffeine, too.

Caffeine has a half-life of five to seven hours, meaning that it can affect our bodies for most of the day. And caffeine intake—especially later in the day —has the potential to perpetuate a cycle of going to bed too late, not getting enough sleep, not feeling well-rested in the morning, and consuming more caffeine. This cycle may also contribute to eating more and less nutritious food habitually.

And It's Hard to Be Active When You're Tired

If you are tired, the last thing you’re likely to want to do is engage in any sort of strenuous activity. Physical activity is often viewed as one of the most integral contributors to health across the lifespan, but it must be fueled not just by our dietary habits but by the restoration we experience when we sleep. In Lewis’ book, she describes how professional athletes have come to view sleep as a competitive advantage.

How You Eat Affects Your Sleep

A large Thanksgiving dinner may provide some of the most obvious evidence of how our eating behaviors affect our sleep. Many of us want nothing more after our Thanksgiving meal than a nap. The tryptophan found in turkey is often blamed for this sleepiness, but tryptophan (an essential amino acid) and melatonin (a hormone implicated in sleep regulation) are actually plentiful in a variety of foods including poultry, fruits, vegetables, eggs, dairy, and legumes. Consumption of these foods has been implicated in healthy sleep habits. In other words, what we eat day-to-day affects how well and how much we sleep.

Our fast-paced culture often devalues sleep while elevating the importance of productivity in the search for health, wealth, and wisdom . However, without adequate sleep, we’re unlikely to experience health, as is becoming increasingly evident in research that examines links between our sleep and eating habits.

So the next time you find yourself tempted to keep binging on your favorite show at night, remember that getting to bed instead will not only leave you better rested but potentially healthier in other ways as well.

Charlotte Markey, Ph.D., is a professor of psychology and director of the health sciences program at Rutgers University.

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Online Therapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Self Tests NEW
• Therapy Center
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

Sticking up for yourself is no easy task. But there are concrete skills you can use to hone your assertiveness and advocate for yourself.

• Emotional Intelligence
• Gaslighting
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• HHS Author Manuscripts

Work Hours and Perceived Time Barriers to Healthful Eating Among Young Adults

Kamisha hamilton escoto.

Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, 1300 S 2nd Street, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, (612) 624-1899

Melissa Nelson Laska

Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, 1300 S 2nd Street, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, (612) 624-8832

Nicole Larson

Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, 1300 S 2nd Street, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, (612) 625-5881

Dianne Neumark-Sztainer

Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, 1300 S 2nd Street, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, (612) 624-0880

Peter J. Hannan

Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, 1300 S 2nd Street, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, (612) 624-6542

To describe time-related beliefs and behaviors regarding healthful eating, indicators of dietary intake, and their associations with the number of weekly hours of paid work among young adults.

Population-based study in a diverse cohort (N=2287).

Working > 40 hours per week was associated with time-related barriers to healthful eating most persistently among young adult men. Associations were found among females working both part-time and > 40 hours per week with both time-related barriers and dietary intake.

Conclusions

Findings indicate that intervention strategies, ideally those addressing time burden, are needed to promote healthful eating among young, working adults.

INTRODUCTION

Despite the benefits of healthful eating, many adults do not regularly engage in such behaviors, particularly young adults (ie, aged 20 to 31). 1 For example, national data show that young adults consume far below the recommended daily servings of fruits and vegetables and have high levels of fast food intake compared to other age-groups. 2 , 3 Cost barriers, stress, limited knowledge of how to prepare healthy foods, and taste preferences have been identified as barriers to healthful eating among young adults, including both college students 4 and nonstudents. 5 However, the most frequently reported barrier to healthful eating is lack of time, 5 – 8 with young adults citing challenges in balancing work, school, and leisure schedules. 6 Such time constraints may have consequences for weight gain and obesity. Perceived lack of time for healthful eating is named as a common reason for eating fast food 9 and convenience foods (takeaway or prepackaged) 6 , 9 and has been found to be associated with lower fruit and vegetable and greater fast food consumption. 10 Further, “eating on the run” is associated with poor dietary intake, including higher intake of fast foods and soft drinks 11 and lower intake of vegetables. 12 Inconsistent meal patterns, particularly skipping breakfast, are associated with poorer diet quality and higher body weight and may also prevent weight maintenance. 13 , 14

Although a perceived lack of time has been identified as a common barrier to healthful eating, little research has explored the factors contributing to the feeling of such time pressure. In a study of young adult women, long hours of work or study 10 were the most commonly reported cause of time pressure. Similarly, in a mixed-gender sample, irregular work hours were the most frequently reported cause of time pressure, but was mentioned more often by men than women. 8 The actual number of hours that young adults worked for pay was not assessed in either study. Those of younger age (ie, up to age 34) and higher educational status (ie, college degree) are also more likely to perceive lack of time as being a barrier to healthful eating. 15

Hours spent at work may indeed be detrimental to engagement in healthful dietary practices. Working long hours constrains time available, potentially influencing the amount of time that can be spent in alternative ways (eg, cooking, shopping for food). 16 , 17 Working long hours also consumes mental resources; hours of overtime work have been associated with difficulty to psychologically disengage and ability to relax after work. 18 Further, reported energy level after work has been found to decrease with increasing hours of work, 19 which could have an important impact on evening food preparation. Food-related behaviors, such as planning meals and cooking meals in advance, are associated with healthier dietary intake, 12 yet planning and preparing healthful meals require investment of time and resources that may be easily disrupted by work-related factors. Accordingly, associations have been found between long hours of work and higher consumption of energy, sugar, and fat 20 , 21 and increased use of convenience foods and eating out. 22

Little research has investigated the impact of work hours on perceived lack of time to eat healthfully and related beliefs and behaviors among young adults. Although individual definitions of healthful food choices vary, 23 research suggests that healthful eating is perceived to include intake of fruits and vegetables and limited fat and/or sugar intake. 23 – 25 Understanding the contribution of work hours to perception of time available for healthful eating is important so that dietary recommendations, educational messaging, and weight management programs (eg, worksite programs) can address the influence of this potential work stressor (ie, long work hours). The aims of the current study in a population-based cohort of young adults were to (1) describe the prevalence of various time-related beliefs and behaviors regarding healthful eating and (2) examine associations between these beliefs and behaviors with hours of paid work per week. Associations were also examined between work hours and both fruit and vegetable intake and fast food consumption, in order to understand the impact of work hours on indicators of healthful and unhealthful eating behaviors among young adults.

Study Design and Participants

Data for this cross-sectional analysis were drawn from Project EAT-III (Eating and Activity in Teens and Young Adults), the third wave of a population-based study designed to examine dietary intake, physical activity, weight control behaviors, weight status, and factors associated with these outcomes among young adults. At baseline (1998–1999), a total of 4746 junior and senior high school students at 31 public schools in the Minneapolis/St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota completed surveys and anthropometric measures. 26 , 27 Ten years later (2008–2009), original participants were mailed letters inviting them to complete online or paper versions of the Project EAT-III survey and a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). A total of 1030 men and 1257 women completed the Project EAT-III survey, representing 66.4% of participants who could be contacted (48.2% of the original school-based sample). One third of participants (31%) were aged 20 to 25 years, and 2 thirds (69%) were aged 26–31 years. All study protocols were approved by the University of Minnesota Institutional Review Board. Additional details of the study design have been reported elsewhere. 28

The current study used items from the Project EAT-III survey and the FFQ. The Project EAT-III survey was developed with guidance from 3 formative focus groups conducted with an ethnically/racially diverse sample of males and females aged 25 to 30 years. The discussions focused on physical activity; eating and weight control behaviors; and related influences from the home, neighborhood, and workplace environments. Items for the EAT-III survey were pilot tested with a separate group of 27 young adults to gather feedback regarding survey topic areas, item wording, and survey administration procedures. A full description of the survey development process for Project EAT-III survey can be found elsewhere. 28

Time-related beliefs and behaviors regarding healthful eating

Beliefs and behaviors were assessed with 8 items on the EAT-III survey. Participants reported extent of agreement with the following statements: “I am too busy to eat healthy foods”, “I am too rushed in the morning to eat a healthy breakfast”; “I don’t have time to think about eating healthy”; “Eating healthy meals just takes too much time”; “It is hard to find time to sit down and eat a meal”; “I tend to “eat on the run”“; “Regular meals are important to me”; and “I eat meals at about the same time every day.” Response options, ranging from 1 to 4, were strongly disagree [1], somewhat disagree, somewhat agree, and strongly agree [4]. For analysis purposes, responses were dichotomized into strongly/somewhat disagree vs strongly/somewhat agree.

Fast food intake

Fast food intake was assessed with one item on the EAT-III survey: “In the past week, how often did you eat something from a fast-food restaurant (eg, McDonald’s, Burger King, Hardee’s)?” 29 The item had 6 response categories ranging from never to more than 7 times. For analysis purposes, responses were dichotomized into “less than once per week” and “one or more times per week.”

Fruit and vegetable intake

A semiquantitative FFQ was administered at the same time as the Project EAT-III survey to assess usual past-year intake of fruit and vegetables. 30 A daily serving was defined as the equivalent of ½ cup of fruits or vegetables (excluding potatoes). For analysis purposes, total number of reported fruits and vegetables was summed and dichotomized into “≥ 5 servings per day” or “< 5 servings per day.” This serving amount was selected to be in accordance with dietary recommendations (though this may generally vary by level of physical activity and caloric needs). 31

The number of weekly hours young adults worked for pay was self-reported on the EAT-III survey. Response options were 0, 1 – 9, 10 – 19, 20 – 29, 30 – 39, 40, and more than 40 hours per week. For analysis purposes, response categories were collapsed into 0, 1 – 19, 20 – 39, 40, and more than 40 hours per week. These categories were chosen due to the distribution of the work hour variable and to represent the range of part-time hours common among young adults. 32

Socio-demographics

Student status, educational achievement, age, and living arrangement (living with spouse/partner, living with child) were self-reported on the EAT-III survey whereas ethnicity/race was based on self-report at baseline. Student status was categorized as not a student, part-time student (community/technical college or 4-year college), full-time student (community/technical college or 4-year college) and graduate student (full- or part-time). Educational achievement was based upon the highest level of education participants reported completing, categorized as up to high school graduate/GED, vocational/associate degree, or bachelor’s degree or higher. Two variables, Living with partner/spouse and Living with children , were created from participant report of whom they lived with the majority of the time over the past year (live alone, parents, roommates/friends, husband/wife, partner of same sex, partner of opposite sex, children, brothers/sisters, other). Participants were categorized as living with their partner/spouse if they selected husband/wife, partner of the opposite sex, or partner of the same sex. Participants were categorized as living with their children if they selected this response category. Ethnicity/race was categorized as white, black/African American, Asian or Other (Hispanic, Native American, mixed race).

Data Analysis

Cross-tabulations were conducted to describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the full sample by hours worked per week. Responses to the beliefs, behaviors, and dietary intake (fast food, fruit and vegetables) items were compared between males and females with χ 2 tests. As such dietary behaviors have been found to vary by gender, 11 , 33 gender-stratified multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine associations between work hours and the beliefs, behaviors, and dietary intake outcomes, using 40 hours per week as the reference category. The models were adjusted for education, age, ethnicity/race, student status, living with spouse/partner, and living with children. A significance level of P < .05 was used to interpret statistical significance of regression coefficients. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) package version 16 (SPSS for Windows, Rel. 16.0.1. 2007. Chicago: SPSS, Inc).

Because attrition from the baseline sample did not occur at random, in all analyses, the data were weighted using the response propensity method. 34 Response propensities (ie, the probability of responding to the Project EAT-III survey) were estimated using a logistic regression of response at Time 3 on a large number of predictor variables from the Project EAT-I survey. The weights were inversely proportional to the predicted probability of response. Additionally, weights were calibrated so that the weighted total sample sizes used in analyses accurately reflect the actual observed sample sizes for men and women. The weighting method resulted in estimates representative of the demographic makeup of the original school-based sample, thereby allowing results to be more fully generalizable to the population of young people in the Minneapolis/St. Paul metropolitan area. Specifically, the weighted sample was 48.4% white, 18.6% African American, 19.6% Asian, 5.9% Hispanic, 3.3% Native American, and 4.2% mixed or other race/ethnicity.

Hours of Work by Participant Demographics

The majority (79%) of the sample worked 20 or more hours per week: 25% worked 20 – 39 hours, 33% worked 40 hours, and 21% reported working more than 40 hours per week. Variations were observed across work hours for all socio-demographic variables ( Table 1 ). Nearly one quarter of males worked more than 40 hours per week, whereas close to a third of females worked 40 hours per week. Over half of the white participants reported working 40 or more hours per week, whereas participants in the other racial/ethnic groups primarily reported working 20 to 40 hours per week. Participants with college degrees or higher were concentrated in the 40 and more-than-40 hours per week categories, whereas those with up to high school education tended to work fewer hours. Full-time students primarily worked fewer than 40 hours per week, whereas roughly one quarter of both graduate students and nonstudents worked more than 40 hours per week. Of those living with children, approximately 15% worked 0 hours per week and 28% worked 20 – 39 hours per week.

Hours Worked Per Week by Demographic and Other Characteristics of Participants in Project EAT-III (N=2287)

Percentages are weighted to reflect the probability of responding to the Project EAT-III survey.

Sample sizes of individual analyses vary slightly due to a small degree of missing data.

Time-related Beliefs and Behaviors Regarding Healthful Eating and Dietary Intake Among Young Adults

Table 2 presents comparisons by gender (unadjusted) of beliefs, behaviors, and dietary intake. Over half of both young adult men and women reported eating on the run. Similarly, half of the respondents reported being too rushed in the morning to eat a healthful breakfast. Moreover, more than one third of young adults reported they were too busy to eat healthful foods, eating healthfully took too much time, and it was hard to find time to sit down and eat a meal. However, a large majority (nearly 80%) of both males and females reported that regular meals were important to them, and well over half (60%) reported eating meals at about the same time each day. Close to 80% of males and 70% of females reported eating something from a fast food restaurant one or more times during the past week, whereas only one third reported eating 5 or more daily servings of fruit and vegetables. Gender differences existed in time-related beliefs and behaviors regarding healthful eating. Compared to males, significantly more females believed that eating healthful meals took too much time and that it was difficult to find time to sit down and eat a meal, yet more females valued the importance of regular meals than males. Finally, a greater percentage of females consumed at least 5 daily servings of fruit and vegetables, whereas significantly more males reported consuming fast food one or more times during the past week.

Percentage (Unadjusted) of Male and Female Participants Reporting Time-related Beliefs and Behaviors Regarding Healthful Eating and Dietary Intake

Beliefs and Behaviors and Dietary Intake by Hours Worked Per Week

Work hours were associated with beliefs and behaviors differently between genders. After adjustment for covariates (ie, age, education, ethnicity/race, student status, living with partner/spouse, living with children), working more than 40 hours per week was significantly associated with all but 2 of the beliefs and behaviors among males ( Table 3 ). For example, compared to those working 40 hours per week, males working over 40 hours per week were more likely to report that eating healthfully takes too much time and that they were too rushed in the morning to eat a healthy breakfast. Number of hours worked per week was not associated with the perception of having time to think about eating healthfully, eating on the run in young adult men, fast food intake, or fruit and vegetable consumption.

Male Participants: Time-related Beliefs and Behaviors Regarding Healthful Eating and Dietary Intake by Weekly Hours of Paid Work

In contrast, among young adult women, beliefs and behaviors were significantly associated with working both 20 – 39 hours per week and greater than 40 hours per week (after adjustment for socio-demographic variables; Table 4 ). For example, females working more than 40 hours per week were more likely to report not having time to think about eating healthfully and eating on the run; those working 20 – 39 hours per week were more likely to report being too busy to eat healthfully. Similar to young adult males, for females, work hours were not associated with fast food intake; however, females working 20–39 hours per week were more likely to report consuming 5 or more daily servings of fruit and vegetables.

Female Participants: Time-related Beliefs and Behaviors Regarding Healthful Eating and Dietary Intake by Weekly Hours of Paid Work

The purpose of this study was to describe time-related beliefs and behaviors related to healthful eating and their associations with the number of weekly hours worked for pay among young adults; additionally, associations between work hours and measures of dietary intake were examined. High numbers of young adult men and women reported time-related beliefs and behaviors, such as being too rushed for breakfast, eating on the run, and perceiving that they did not have time to eat healthfully. Further, a large majority reported eating at fast food restaurants weekly and low consumption of daily servings of fruits and vegetables. Working more than 40 hours per week was consistently associated with less healthful eating beliefs and behaviors among young adult men, whereas associations among women were less consistent. Young adult women working both long hours (> 40 hours) or longer part-time hours (20 – 39 hours) experienced time barriers to healthful eating, though part-time work hours had a positive impact on fruit and vegetable consumption. These results add to the sparse literature of the potential impact of working hours on time burden and healthful beliefs and behaviors among young adults.

Long work hours (> 40 hours per week) were associated with a greater number of time-related beliefs and behaviors regarding healthful eating in young adult men, including being too busy to eat healthfully, being too rushed in the morning to eat a healthful breakfast, finding it hard to find the time to sit down and eat a meal, and perceiving eating healthfully took too much time. Associations were not found in these items among young adult women working more than 40 hours per week. These findings are generally consistent with previous research; long work hours have been associated with paying little attention to nutritional balance, irregular meals, 35 and late dinners 36 among adult male workers. Further, associations between long work hours and obesity have been previously found among men and not women, 37 and irregular work hours were reported more frequently in men than women as a barrier to healthful eating. 8 It may be aspects of the job other than simply long working hours that may lead young women to feel less time is available to eat healthfully 38 ; inflexible hours at work/study and unpredictable hours at work/study have also been commonly reported as contributing to time barriers to eat healthfully in other studies. 10 In addition, other factors in the lives of young adult women may be more detrimental to attitudes with regard to healthful eating. Other frequently mentioned contributors to time barriers to eating healthfully among women include commitments to children, 5 , 9 , 10 , 39 other family, and friends/relatives. 10 In our sample, over 20% of females reported living with children compared to just 10% of young adult males.

Interestingly, among young women in our study, working over 40 hours per week was not consistently associated with time-related eating beliefs and behaviors, whereas working longer, part-time hours showed unique associations. Specifically, females working 20–39 hours per week were more likely to feel too busy to eat healthfully and more likely to report eating on the run than were those working 40 hours per week. These associations may be due to the structure of part-time work 40 ; that is, these young women may be working more than one job, working at a job with a nontraditional schedule, or have limited schedule flexibility, making it difficult to eat regularly. Such working conditions may negatively impact one’s ability to make healthful food choices and eat regular meals. 38 , 41 Further, women are more likely than men to hold more than one job 42 and to be employed in occupations requiring nonstandard hours, 43 possibly contributing to the lack of association in males who worked 20–39 hours per week. The addition of child care to part-time work may have been relevant in our sample as over 25% of young women working 20 – 39 hours per week reported living with children, compared with just 7% of young men. Finally young women continue to assume greater responsibility than young men for doing housework and managing the home despite the number of hours worked per week, 44 which may impact their attitudes and behaviors related to healthful eating.

In contrast to the beliefs and behaviors items, work hours largely were not associated with actual food intake. Weekly fast food consumption remained relatively high for both males and females regardless of the number of hours worked per week. Further, among males, fruit and vegetable consumption remained consistently low across all work-hour categories. Young adult women working 20 – 39 hours per week, however, were most likely to report consuming 5 or more daily servings of fruits and vegetables. This is surprising given that this work hour category was also associated with increased likelihood of eating on the run and being too busy to eat healthfully, which are associated with lower fruit and vegetable intake. 10 , 11 It may be that these young women are more intentional about actually eating healthfully given their busy schedules and/or constraints on their time. Though they may feel too busy, in reality their reduced number of working hours may leave time to invest in ensuring a more healthful dietary pattern compared to those working 40 or more hours per week. Future research should continue to explore dietary attitudes, behaviors, and intake among women who work part-time hours, with a focus on the structure of work (eg, number of jobs, weekday vs weekend work).

Strengths of this study include a large, diverse population-based sample of young adults and the assessment of multiple beliefs and behaviors regarding healthful eating that have been relatively unexamined in relation to the number of hours worked per week. Our study is limited by reliance on self-reports of hours worked per week, which may have been over- or underreported by participants. Additionally our cross-sectional study design limits the ability to suggest the observed associations are causal; young adults who place less value on eating healthful meals may be more willing to work long hours. Finally, although our study considered whether young adults were living with children, this brief measure may not fully capture variation in the time commitments associated with child care. Future research should collect information on other occupational variables (eg, occupation type, location of work, job stress, shiftwork, multiple jobs) that may impact health behaviors. 45 , 46 In addition, it may be fruitful to account for age or number of children with regard to living situation, as older children may be able to help with child care or meal preparation.

Our findings indicate that the number of hours worked per week was associated with time-related beliefs and behaviors regarding healthful eating and to a lesser extent, dietary intake, among both young adult men and women. Working more than 40 hours per week may have adverse implications for healthful eating behaviors among young adults, and although young adult women working part-time experienced time pressure barriers, they also exhibited the most healthful dietary intake (ie, fruit and vegetable consumption). The years of young adulthood are typically characterized as a time of unstable employment. 47 – 49 Young adults in these early stages of career development are likely to experience changes in their employment status (eg, moving between jobs, experiencing bouts of unemployment), starting and switching career fields, as well as settling into careers and moving up the career ladder. 47 Our results indicate that one measure of work life, hours worked per week, may influence attitudes toward healthful eating and ability to have a stable meal structure. Nutrition educators working with young adults should seek to understand their definition of healthful eating and related time barriers they experience. This kind of information may assist in developing messages and services that fit their unique lifestyles. Further, they should encourage regular meals and breakfast consumption and provide strategies for preparing quick meals for those managing busy work schedules. Young adult females who work part-time may be a particularly important group to reach with these messages, to help them juggle work schedules and other competing demands.

The current study, along with other research, 46 , 50 may also be useful in informing various types of interventions, such as workplace interventions and occupational policies. There has been increased recognition of the importance of worksites as a venue for promoting healthful lifestyles for employees. 51 Research should continue to evaluate workplace policies that may be time constraining (eg, restrictions on the frequency and length of overtime) as this may have impact on lifestyle behaviors. Additionally, research exploring expanded flextime and flexibility in using days off (vacation, sick time) 46 may inform how to assist individuals who have long work hours or less predictable, part-time schedules in balancing their commitments while allowing time for healthful dietary behavior. In addition, future research should also develop and evaluate interventions that facilitate access to quick and convenient healthful foods. Programs such as free fresh fruit and vegetable distribution at worksites have shown positive effects on subsequent consumption 52 and merit further study. Such strategies may be particularly important given the high prevalence of frequent fast food consumption and low prevalence of fruit and vegetable consumption among working young adults. Finally, future research needs to understand the multiple influences on young adults’ busy lives so that intervention strategies can be designed that can fit with these realities.

Contributor Information

Kamisha Hamilton Escoto, Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, 1300 S 2nd Street, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, (612) 624-1899.

Melissa Nelson Laska, Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, 1300 S 2nd Street, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, (612) 624-8832.

Nicole Larson, Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, 1300 S 2nd Street, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, (612) 625-5881.

Dianne Neumark-Sztainer, Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, 1300 S 2nd Street, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, (612) 624-0880.

Peter J. Hannan, Division of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, 1300 S 2nd Street, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, (612) 624-6542.