The premierships of Bob Hawke (1983–91), Paul Keating (1991–96), and John Howard (1996–2007)
The premierships of Kevin Rudd (2007–10 and 2013) and Julia Gillard (2010–13)
The premierships of Tony Abbott (2013–15) and Malcolm Turnbull (2015–18)
The premiership of Scott Morrison (2018–22)
The premiership of Anthony Albanese (2022– )
Foreign policy and immigration
National and state emblems of Australia
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.
Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine - Futurism
National Geographic - Australia and Oceania: Physical Geography
Official Site of the Embassy of Australia in Saudi Arabia
The Official Site of Royal Australian Navy
Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - Australia
Official Site of the Government of Australia
Australian War Memorial - First World War 1914–18
Official Site of the Embassy of Australia in Lebanon
Australian War Memorial - Australia and the Boer War, 1899–1902
Australian Human Rights Commission - Face the facts: Cultural Diversity
Returned & Services League of Australia - The First World War
Anzac Centenary - Australia’s Contribution to WWI
Australia - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
Australia - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
Table Of Contents
The distribution of climates, topography , and soils that has produced the zones and ecological variation of Australian vegetation has also been reflected in the distribution of animal life. Australia probably has between 200,000 and 300,000 species, about 100,000 of which have been described. There are some 250 species of native mammals, 550 species of land and aquatic birds, 680 species of reptiles, 190 species of frogs, and more than 2,000 species of marine and freshwater fish. The remainder are invertebrates, including insects.
In the varied environments of the Tropical Zone, species confined to the rainforests of the mountainous northeast include the tree kangaroos (genus Dendrolagus ) and the gorgeous bird-wing butterflies ( Ornithoptera ). Others favour more open habitats such as savannas and grasslands. Among that group are the agile wallaby ( Macropus agilis ) and Amitermes meridionalis , a termite that orients its mounds in a north-south direction by sensing Earth’s magnetic field .
Recent News
The animals of the Eremian Zone are characterized by their ability to survive under extremely arid conditions and irregular rainfall. Examples include the marsupial mole ( Notoryctes typhlops ), a burrower in sand, and the water-holding frog of the genus Cyclorana . After rainy spells Cyclorana burrows deep in the soil, forming a chamber in which it lies in a cocoonlike sac filled with water formed from a special outer layer of its skin. The budgerigar ( Melopsittacus ) is adapted to irregular rainfall by being nomadic.
The fauna of the eucalyptus forests and other habitats of the Temperate Zone contains animals whose life cycles rely on regular winter rainfall. Many are highly adapted to the eucalyptus forests. The koala depends on the foliage of just a few species of forest eucalyptus. Lyrebirds and gray kangaroos are forest dwellers. Gray kangaroos also range into semiarid shrublands and heaths. The only Australian alpine animals occur in the high mountains of the Temperate Zone. They include the mountain pygmy possum (genus Burramys ) and the alpine grasshopper ( Kosciuscola ).
Some species occur in all zones. They include the galah ( Cacatua roseicapilla ; a species of cockatoo) and the Australian magpie ( Gymnorhina tibicen ).
Extinction of native species is a matter of much concern. Some 20 mammal, 20 bird, and 70 flowering plant species are presumed to have become extinct during the period of European settlement. Some 50 terrestrial mammals and more than 1,000 flowering plants are officially listed as both endangered or vulnerable; that description is also applied to about 30 amphibians, 50 reptiles, and 50 birds. Estimates of the numbers of introduced species include 1,500 to 2,000 flowering plants, 30 freshwater and marine fish, and about 70 land animals and birds. There has also been a great reduction of range of most species inhabiting temperate or semiarid lands, except for those that have benefited from the extension of pastures and watering points. The latter species include the large kangaroos and the Australian magpie.
The high degree to which many species depend on a relatively narrow range of vegetation types means that animals of some zones have suffered more from human activity than others. Small and medium-size terrestrial mammals and ground-nesting birds of temperate and semiarid grasslands and shrublands have been most affected by clearing for pastures and cereal crops. In addition, they have suffered most from competition with and habitat destruction by introduced animals such as rabbits, sheep, goats, and cattle and from predation by the foxes and feral cats. Few parts of Australia are free from the effects of introduced animal species. In the tropical north the cane toad ( Bufo marinus ) is believed to be a major predator of small native vertebrates. Even the introduced honeybee, which is widely established in the feral state, is suspected of affecting native nectar-feeding insects, mammals, and birds.
The role of Aboriginal people in causing the extinction of fauna before European settlement has been much debated. It is clear that at the time of European settlement Aboriginal hunting and burning had major effects on animal numbers, but a balance seems to have been maintained, possibly assisted by a system of social prohibitions that protected important species under certain conditions. But the effect of the initial Aboriginal entry on the continent is not yet clear. At that time, at least 60,000 years ago, the fauna contained many species of large animals (the Australian megafauna) and was considerably different from the fauna present at the time of European settlement. Such megafaunal animals as the rhinoceros-sized Diprotodon , giant wombats, the giant short-faced kangaroos ( Sthenurus and Procoptodon ), the so-called marsupial lion Thylacoleo , and giant flightless birds called mihirungs or Genyornis probably became extinct over a period between 27,000 and 12,000 years ago, possibly as late as 6,000 years ago.
It has been argued that Aboriginal overhunting, together with environmental changes caused by associated Aboriginal burning of the country , caused the extinction of those species. Others have suggested that climatic fluctuations at the end of the Pleistocene (some 11,700 years ago) were a more likely cause. Certainly, although there were no extensive ice sheets in Australia, the last glacial maximum (between 22,000 and 18,000 years ago) was a time of highly arid, as well as cold and windy, conditions. Deserts reached their greatest extent at that time, and there is no doubt that under such conditions the fauna (as well as humans) would have been under considerable physiological stress. No clear consensus has emerged, and, in view of the facts that there is no evidence of a sudden mass extinction and that Aboriginal people seem to have occupied most of Australia for at least 20,000 years before the last megafauna disappeared, it is likely that a combination of all those factors played a part. By about 20,000 years ago, few mammals had survived that weighed more than their human predators.
Commercial hunting of only a few species of native fauna is allowed. It is confined to several species of the kangaroo family, muttonbirds ( Puffinus tenuirostris ), and some of the most common cockatoos and parrots; however, federal law does not permit live birds to be exported. Permits can be obtained to destroy pest species (such as kangaroos in certain circumstances). Sport shooting of game birds (ducks, quail, and snipes) and a few mammals is permitted in some states. Before controls were established, the numbers of several attractive varieties of parrots and cockatoos—as well as of crocodiles and such mammals as koalas, brushtail possums, ringtail possums, many wallaby species, and seals—reduced dramatically. Most have recovered, however. Quotas are set for the commercial taking of kangaroos each year for hides and for human and pet food. Numbers of kangaroos are constantly monitored, and there is no evidence of any reduction in the wild populations. Hundreds of thousands of muttonbirds are taken yearly for human consumption .
Fauna authorities and scientists responsible for conserving kangaroos support such commercial exploitation on scientific grounds. Many also believe that it would be in the interest of both conservation and agricultural practice to encourage husbandry of kangaroos. However, many others, both in Australia and elsewhere, are vehemently opposed to killing kangaroos for any reason. The issue has become highly political.
Australia has its share of potentially dangerous, as well as commercially useful, animals. The large saltwater crocodile ( Crocodilus porosus ) is known to eat humans. Of the many poisonous elapid snakes, the most dangerous to humans include taipans ( Oxyuranus ), smooth snakes ( Parademansia ), tiger snakes ( Notechis ), brown snakes ( Pseudonaja ), and death adders ( Acanthophis ); the latter, although smaller than the others, have large fangs, a lightning-fast strike, and highly toxic venom. About one-seventh of Australia’s snake species pose a deadly threat to humans. There are many poisonous spiders, the best-known being the funnel-web spider ( Atrax ) and the red-back ( Latrodectus ). Both of those have caused human deaths, but only a minute proportion of Australia’s spiders are dangerous. Antivenins are available for the venoms of both spiders and snakes.
Ticks and internal parasitic worms are mainly harmful to stock and domestic pets, and some blood-sucking insects are disease carriers. The larvae of the sheep blowfly Lucilia attack sheep and cause losses worth millions of dollars to the wool industry. Locusts, weevils, and insect larvae of various sorts do great damage in agriculture.
The Australian fauna (and that of New Guinea, which is part of the Australian lithospheric plate) is markedly different from that of the other adjacent land areas (Indonesia and other nearby islands). It is now known that the difference stems from Australia’s long isolation and northward drift into its present geographic position. Thus, the Australian fauna has been derived to a large degree from the lands with which Australia was in contact when it was part of Gondwana. That part of the fauna derived from Asia, which includes the only extant native placental mammals (rats, mice, bats, and the dingo—the latter probably introduced by Aboriginal people), entered Australia by island-hopping or accidental drifting. As might be expected, flying animals of Asian origin (e.g., bats and birds) reached Australia before the others, and they may have done so soon after Australia separated from Antarctica . Horseshoe bats (family Hipposideridae), which are related to typical Old World forms, appear in the Australian fossil record about 20 million years before the present.
The Gondwanan component gives the Australian fauna its distinctive character. As is the case in South America , Australia has many species of marsupials, but they radiated more widely in Australia than in South America, coming to occupy virtually all mammalian adaptive niches . Thus, there are marsupial equivalents of moles, anteaters, wolves, flying possums, and antelopes. The only egg-laying mammals in the world—the platypus (genus Ornithorhynchus ) and the echidna ( Tachyglossus ); also the New Guinea long-beaked echidna ( Zaglossus )—are Gondwanan as well, but the oldest related fossil is from the Early Cretaceous of central Australia and predates the separation of India from Australia. Until recently it was assumed that placental mammals had not occurred in Australia until they emigrated southward from Asia. Nor was there evidence of distinctively Australian mammal fossils in South America. In 1991, however, the Australian paleontologists Michael Archer, Henk Godthelp, and Suzanne Hand reported finding bats of early Eocene origin (about 55 million years old) and a condylarth-like placental mammal in southeastern Queensland . In the same year, the Argentinian paleontologist Rosendo Pascual announced evidence of a 63-million-year old monotreme from Patagonia in southern Argentina . Pascual and Archer reported it to be strikingly similar to the Australian platypus (genus Obdurodon ) of the Middle Miocene (about 15 million years ago).
Emus and cassowaries, mound builders (megapodes), and parrots are almost certainly of Gondwanan origin, as are the side-necked turtles (family Chelidae). Other examples of animals of Gondwanan origin may be found among reptiles, amphibians , and invertebrate groups. Some, such as earthworms belonging to the nonpheretimoid Megascolescini, occur in Australia and India but not in the other continents derived from Gondwana, implying that those animals occurred in a sector of Gondwana from which both Australia and India were derived.
The most ancient part of the Australian fauna predates even the formation of Gondwana. For example, the Queensland lungfish ( Neoceratodus ) has its closest relatives among the ancient fossil fauna of Europe , North America , and Asia. Those elements are thought to have evolved between the Cambrian and the Devonian periods. Queensland lungfish are less closely related to the lungfish of Africa and South America (Lepidosirenidae) than to the extinct forms from Asia , Europe, and North America. Some insects , arachnids , onycophorans, land mollusks , and earthworms also are thought to have Pangaean origins. There are rich Australian fossil faunas from those ages, including some of the oldest known vertebrates , Arandaspis , a jawless fish from the Late Ordovician , and superbly preserved armoured fishes and lungfishes from the Devonian .
153 Australian Wildlife Facts: Uniqueness, Native Animals And More
Even though most of the Australian continent is semi-arid, it consists of a diverse range of habitats, from alpine to tropical rainforest.
Australia is one of the very rare places that is considered both a country and continent. It is the seventh-largest continent and the sixth-largest country.
It is habitat to about 2,00,000 - 3,00,000 different species of animals. Australia is the largest area in the continent of Australia/Oceania.
The place consists of a wide range of beauty such as plateau with deserts, rangelands, and more. But what makes its wildlife so unique is its wide range of never-before-seen wildlife spread all over.
As a matter of fact, it is so one-of-a-kind that a lot of people are unaware of some; some are not even discovered yet, and some are on the verge of discovery.
This extraordinary thing about the place is one of the many reasons that induce curiosity and attract tourists from all over the world. It introduced species that had never been seen before.
Facts About Australia's Wildlife
Australia's position in the temperate zone is especially conducive to the existence of the varied fauna.
The Red Kangaroo is the national animal of Australia. Four different species of kangaroos can be found in Australia.
The Red Kangaroo, the Western Grey Kangaroo, the Eastern Grey Kangaroo, and the Antilopine Kangaroo. Out of these, the Red Kangaroo is the largest marsupial and can weigh up to 90 lb (40.82 kg). They are found all over Australia but are mainly seen living in captivity.
The Australian Saltwater Crocodile is referred to as Salties. These Saltwater Crocodiles can grow up to 19.68 ft (6 m) long and weigh up to 1 ton (1000 kg).
While searching for prey, Saltwater Crocodiles are able to lie completely still, underwater, or half submerged. The Saltwater Crocodile can hold its breath for an hour and they have transparent eyelids which allow them to find their prey underwater.
If we talk about native wildlife, the one animal that is a native species in Australia is the Wombat. Wombats can grow up to 79 lb (36 kg).
Wombats are cute mammals who burrow and sleep underground to stay safe from predators. Wombats are nocturnal marsupials who come out only in the safety of the night to feed. Their diet mainly consists of shrubs, grass, and bushes.
The great whale shark that is found in Australia can grow up to 22.9 ft (7 m). They hunt their prey by detecting vibrations in the water and can sense a drop of blood even from 15.75 ft (4.8 m) away. These whale sharks are found in Western Australia.
Platypus, an egg-laying mammal, is found in eastern Australia. There are different species of Platypus and Echidnas found in Australia that also fall under the egg-laying mammals category.
The emu is one of the bird species in Australia that is recorded as the largest flightless bird and the Australian Bustard is the largest flying bird.
The Tasmanian devil is an endangered animal that can only be found in Tasmania. Some more threatened species other than Tasmanian Devils that are also found in Australia are Quoll, Wombats, Bettong, Woylie, and more.
Baby Koalas are small animals that are also found in Australia which are also known as joeys. They are very cute and people are often drawn to these cuddly babies. They are as small as the size of a jellybean who climb trees, usually with their mother.
The Tasmanian tiger or Thylacine is one of the extinct animals that were native to mainland Australia.
Australian animal Numbat is also one of the distinctive-looking animals that are found there.
Australia also introduced animals such as feral cats that threaten the survival of many animals, over 100 species all over Australia.
As a matter of fact, they have led to the extinction of several species throughout the place. Some of the mentioned animals such as Koala, Dingo, and common brushtail possum , sepia apama, southern right whale , flying foxes are found living in South Australia.
Native Animals To Australia
Australia has a one-of-a-kind range of animals spread all over the place. But there also are also species that are only native to the land and are only found in Australia.
Such species that have been already mentioned before in this blog include Quoll, Koala, Platypus, Emu, Kangaroo, Wombat, Tasmanian devil, Echidna, the saltwater crocodile. Other than them more Native Australian animals only found there are Dingo, Quokka, Cassowary, Sugar Glider, Numbat, Bilbies, Cane Toad, and more.
Kangaroos are the first that come to mind when we think of Australian animals. One of the reasons for this is probably because it is the national animal of Australia.
It is also the official symbol of Australia. It has a cultural and spiritual significance for many indigenous people of Australia and is hence known as the symbol and national animal of Australia. This native Australian animal falls in the category of macropods, meaning bigfoot are tall strong-built animals and are said to be the largest mammal in Australia.
Wallabies are like the exact replica of Kangaroos and are quite hard to differentiate at first glance. They are a little smaller in size than an average kangaroo. Their hind legs help in differentiating the two.
Tasmanian Devils might look like cute little creatures but are distinguishable due to their terrifying growls, obnoxiously high-pitched screeches, and otherworldly screams. Due to its appearances such as wide jaws, red ears, and sharp teeth, they achieved the name "devil" from the early European settlers.
Wombats that are also native to the Australian lands look like small fluffy bears that grow up to 3 ft (91.44 cm) long and weigh up to 44-77 lb (19.95-34.93 kg). These animals like Kangaroo, Wombat, Koala, Wallabies, Tasmanian Devil , and more all have their own pouches attached to their body known as "marsupium" for their little ones.
Dingo is an Australian animal that looks like a small dog is a controversial species as its origin is quite debated. It is Australia's wild dog that is said to be evolved from an ancient breed of domestic dog that was introduced to Australia. Its origins have been traced back to breeds of domestic dogs in South East Asia.
Similarly, Lumholtz’s tree-kangaroos, Ocellaris clownfish , thorny devil , leafy sea dragon are some which have evolved to adapt to the geographical conditions gradually over years in Australia.
The Platypus, as mentioned before, are mammals that lay eggs and are found in the Eastern part of Australia. One fun fact about Platypuses is that it is the only representative of their family and genus, which is Ornithorhynchidae. They are usually found on the banks of Australian coastlines and riverbanks.
Quokkas are another cute-looking animals that have bear-like ears and doe-like tiny eyes that are stated to be the happiest animal found in the Rottnest Island in Western Australia. The size of a Quokka is as big as a house cat. They also possess a pouch in which their little ones grow for six months.
The Emu, the largest bird in Australia, has a very unique diet varying from grasses and leaves to fruits and insects. Sugar gliders that are small arboreal omnivores, nocturnal marsupials that stay in trees are found all over Australia.
Thorny devil dragon is another only species of devil lizard found in Australia. They are a small thorny species of lizard that are famous for their defenses against predators.
Largest Animals In Australia
Some of the known largest animals in Australia, as some have been mentioned before, are Kangaroo, Emu, Saltwater Crocodile.
Some other animals that also need to be mentioned are Diprotodon , Megalania, Procoptodon, Meiolania, among others.
There are about 55 different species of kangaroos, all varying in size. There are some species that are small while some are large and weigh as much as 198 lb (89.8 kg).
Emu is the largest flightless bird that is as large as 13 ft (3.96 m). Due to its height, it is also one of the fastest creatures on the planet.
Saltwater crocodiles in Australia are the largest living reptile that grows up to the length of 17 ft (5.18 m).
Diprotodon is also stated to be the largest marsupial to ever exist, growing up to 10 ft (3 m) and especially found in New South Wales.
The Megalania is another lizard that has been extinct and was the largest in its family and a giant goanna.
The Procoptodon is a species of kangaroo and is one of the largest known species to have ever lived on the surface of the earth, which grew up to 7-10 ft (2-3 m).
Meiolania is a species of tortoise that grows up to the length of 8.2 ft (2.5 m) and is also another large species in Australia that went extinct quite a long time back as well.
Other than these animals, there are a lot of big-sized insects. These include Earth Worms, Spiders, Ants, Bats, and Cockroaches. The average size of these arthropods is different and larger in size in Australia than in any other part of the world.
Earthworms in Australia are as big as 3-9 ft (0.9-2.7 m) long, spiders have a leg span of 1 ft (0.3 m) across, and ants are as long as 0.5-2.0 in (1.27-5.08 cm). Bats are so big that they can hover around your heads and are known as flying foxes.
Cockroaches in Australia are as big as 3 in (7.62 cm).
Australia would be a challenging place for all the Entomophobes out there.
Unique Australian Animals
Australia is known for its unique wildlife because they are found in no other place other than in Australia itself.
The reason for this uniqueness is because of its isolation from the rest of the world. The land of Australia is far from other landmasses which led to the evolution of the animals in isolation in that particular area.
In other places, plant and animal lives intermix with each other to form a new group or to evolve in some ways. Due to the isolation, Australian fauna didn't get the opportunity to do so. And hence it is very one-of-a-kind.
But sometimes these exotic species could be a threat to the Australian wildlife due to their predator-like nature which results in killing the other Australian animals.
In the Australian mainland, there is a species of little beetle known as the Tiger Beetle, also known as Cicindela Hudson, that is the fastest living animal living there. On the other hand, the fastest bird living in Australia is the Peregrine Falcon, which is a bird of prey whose speeds go up to 186.4 mph (300 kph).
It is also the only land to have a spider season. This time of the year some areas of the continent are covered by massive blankets of spider webs that look like snow.
Other than spiders, there are several types of insects that are found in the land of Australia that is beastly beautiful.
Australia is a place where new species of wildlife are discovered every day even now. Some are discovered although there might be a little less information about those, while some are yet to be found.
It is quite an adventurous place for researchers but also can be a little risky. So it would be great to learn a lot about this place before visiting and this blog might arm you up for a future visit.
We Want Your Photos!
More for you, 101+ hysterical wildlife jokes that will crack you up, the animals that came back from extinction: here's all you need to know, 61 interesting facts about asia you might not have heard before.
Bachelor of Arts and Law specializing in Political Science and Intellectual Property Rights
Anusuya Mukherjee Bachelor of Arts and Law specializing in Political Science and Intellectual Property Rights
With a wealth of international experience spanning Europe, Africa, North America, and the Middle East, Anusuya brings a unique perspective to her work as a Content Assistant and Content Updating Coordinator. She holds a law degree from India and has practiced law in India and Kuwait. Anusuya is a fan of rap music and enjoys a good cup of coffee in her free time. Currently, she is working on her novel, "Mr. Ivory Merchant".
1) Kidadl is independent and to make our service free to you the reader we are supported by advertising. We hope you love our recommendations for products and services! What we suggest is selected independently by the Kidadl team. If you purchase using the Buy Now button we may earn a small commission. This does not influence our choices. Prices are correct and items are available at the time the article was published but we cannot guarantee that on the time of reading. Please note that Kidadl is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon. We also link to other websites, but are not responsible for their content.
2) At Kidadl, we strive to recommend the very best activities and events. We will always aim to give you accurate information at the date of publication - however, information does change, so it’s important you do your own research, double-check and make the decision that is right for your family. We recognise that not all activities and ideas are appropriate for all children and families or in all circumstances. Our recommended activities are based on age but these are a guide. We recommend that these ideas are used as inspiration, that ideas are undertaken with appropriate adult supervision, and that each adult uses their own discretion and knowledge of their children to consider the safety and suitability. Kidadl cannot accept liability for the execution of these ideas, and parental supervision is advised at all times, as safety is paramount. Anyone using the information provided by Kidadl does so at their own risk and we can not accept liability if things go wrong.
3) Because we are an educational resource, we have quotes and facts about a range of historical and modern figures. We do not endorse the actions of or rhetoric of all the people included in these collections, but we think they are important for growing minds to learn about under the guidance of parents or guardians.
google form TBD
Australia Recommends 2024
Come and Say G'day
G'day, the short film
Discover your Australia
Travel videos
Deals and offers
Australian Capital Territory
New South Wales
Northern Territory
South Australia
Western Australia
External Territories
The Whitsundays
Mornington Peninsula
Port Douglas
Ningaloo Reef
Airlie Beach
Kangaroo Island
Rottnest Island
Hamilton Island
Lord Howe Island
Tiwi Islands
Phillip Island
Bruny Island
Margaret River
Barossa Valley
The Grampians
Hunter Valley
McLaren Vale
Glass House Mountains
Alice Springs
Uluru and Kata Tjuta
The Kimberley
Flinders Ranges
Kakadu National Park
Eyre Peninsula
Karijini National Park
Great Barrier Reef
Blue Mountains
Daintree Rainforest
Great Ocean Road
Purnululu National Park
Cradle Mountain-Lake St Clair National Park
Litchfield National Park
Aboriginal experiences
Arts and culture
Festivals and events
Food and drink
Adventure and sports
Walks and hikes
Road trips and drives
Beaches and islands
Nature and national parks
Eco-friendly travel
Health and wellness
Family travel
Family destinations
Family road trips
Backpacking
Work and holiday
Beginner's guide
Accessible travel
Planning tips
Trip planner
Australian budget guide
Itinerary planner
Find a travel agent
Find accommodation
Find transport
Visitor information centres
Deals and travel packages
Visa and entry requirements FAQ
Customs and biosecurity
Working Holiday Maker visas
Facts about Australia
Experiences that will make you feel like an Aussie
From charismatic kangaroos to enigmatic emus, most of Australia’s wildlife is endemic – found nowhere else on the planet – and an animal encounter is a highlight of any visit.
By Allie Metz & Carolyn Beasley
A long period of separation from the rest of the world has blessed Australia with its utterly unique fauna. Cut off from other continents for about 30 million years, our wildlife has evolved to suit the conditions here.
Here's a breakdown of our incredibly unique animals and where you can find them.
What are Australia's iconic animals?
Where can I have a close animal encounter?
Where can I see Australian animals in the wild?
What's the best time of year to see Aussie animals?
How can I experience Australian wildlife responsibly?
With animals so unmistakable, it’s little wonder that some have come to represent the unique country itself. Don’t miss meeting at least some of these during your visit.
Wombat: Australia’s second largest marsupial, these rotund grass-munchers are more agile than they appear with top speeds of up to 40 kilometres (25 miles) per hour!
Koala: These fluffy tree-dwelling marsupials are known for being lazy, sleeping 18-22 hours per day. They spend the rest of their time eating, consuming up to one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of eucalyptus leaves every day. Meeting a koala is one of Australia's most iconic animal experiences.
Kangaroo: There are about 50 different types of kangaroos – including two that live in trees! Despite being the world’s largest marsupial, they are surprisingly great swimmers. With two kangaroos for every person in Australia, you have a good chance of spotting ‘roos on your visit.
Echidna: One of two monotremes (egg-laying mammals) in the world, these spiky animals look something like a hedgehog crossed with an anteater. A baby echidna is adorably known as a puggle.
Platypus: Australia’s other monotreme, the quirky and shy platypus lives in the rivers, lakes and creeks of eastern Australia. Interestingly, their beaver-like tails are not used for swimming, but to store fat in case of a food shortage.
Quokka: Dubbed the “world’s happiest animal”, quokkas are only found on Rottnest Island, near Perth. Their friendly nature and adorable smiles have made them an internet sensation with many people snapping quokka selfies .
Tasmanian devil: Living up to their namesake, these small, feisty carnivores are found in the southern state of Tasmania. Among other fun facts , devils have powerful jaws used to devour their entire prey and are spectacular tree climbers.
Saltwater crocodile: The largest living reptile in the world, saltwater crocodiles (or “salties” to locals) can be found across northern Australia. While they attack from underwater, salties actually have to bring their prey above water to eat.
Whales: Humpback and southern right whales migrate annually along Australia’s coasts between May and November. Australian waters are home to a celebrity humpback named Migaloo – an albino adult male. Keen whale watchers can spot him travelling along the east coast up to the Great Barrier Reef every year.
Australian birds: A birdwatcher's paradise , Australia is home to 56 types of colourful parrots, the laughing kookaburra and even the planet's smallest penguin. You will also find two of the world's largest and heaviest birds here – the emu and the cassowary.
Australia has more than 40 species of kangaroo and wallaby, from the mighty red kangaroo to the teeny musky rat-kangaroo.
If seeing a Tasmanian devil in the snow or getting close to a koala is high on your bucket list, visiting one of our incredible zoos or wildlife sanctuaries is an excellent way to safely get up close and personal with our animal ambassadors.
Zoos: If too many animals are never enough, or perhaps you’re just short on time, a zoo is a great option . In Australia, they can be found in every major city as well as many regional areas.
Sanctuaries: Wildlife parks house many free-ranging native animals, where visitors can interact with wildlife in a semi-natural environment. Wildlife sanctuaries usually have a focus on rehabilitation or aim to protect certain threatened species. Many are also home to wildlife hospitals helping injured animals.
Aquariums: The seas lapping Australia’s vast coastline are brimming with fascinating wildlife, too. Visit an aquarium to learn about our fishy friends and connect with informative guides and interpretive material. Most major cities have an aquarium showcasing vibrant tropical fish, corals, turtles, mammals and even sharks.
There's really nothing more exciting than spotting Australia's iconic animals in the wild. Luckily, it's not difficult - if you know where to look. Here's a breakdown of our major habitats and which animals you can expect to find there.
Forests and grasslands: Many of Australia’s best-loved animals call our forests or grassy plains home and, lucky for us, these habitats are often located just a short distance from our major cities. You'll have a good chance of spotting kangaroos , wallabies, koalas , wombats, echidnas and even platypuses.
Our coral reefs: The Great Barrier Reef is home to 1,625 known fish species and six of the world’s seven types of sea turtle. You can also find whales, harmless reef sharks, rays, dugongs, hard and soft coral, mollusks and more. Equally beautiful is the Ningaloo Reef where whales, dolphins, dugongs, manta rays, huge cod, turtles and whale sharks live in abundance.
The outback: Australia is the driest inhabited continent, but even our deserts have animals. Look out for the red kangaroo, plus emus, dingoes and even wild camels. Keep your eyes peeled for the thorny devil, a harmless and outlandishly spiky lizard, or the perentie (a type of monitor reptile), Australia’s largest lizard. Cape Range National Park is a good place to spot euros (desert kangaroos), and the black-footed rock wallaby.
Beaches: Seals and sea lions can be spotted lazing on the sand of certain beaches, while fairy penguins nest on the beaches of our southern coastline. Dingoes roam the beaches in Fraser Island while kangaroos can be seen sunning themselves on Pebbly Beach south of Sydney, and Lucky Bay near Esperance . Wallabies can also be spotted on the beach at Cape Hillsborough .
The tropics: Swathed in rainforest and savannah grasslands, Australia’s northern tropical zone is home to a menagerie of animals suited to the year-round warmth. Some of these include both saltwater and freshwater crocodiles, water buffalo, the large, flightless southern cassowary, two types of tree kangaroos, the garishly bright blue Ulysses butterfly and countless species of birds including the impressive black-necked stork (jabiru) and the elegant brolga.
Our oceans: With more than 50 types of marine mammals gracing our waters, there is ample opportunity to see some spectacular creatures. With the help of knowledgeable guides, you can view aquatic animals up-close and even get in the water with some species on eco-sensitive tours. Try whale watching in winter or swim with marine animals such as dolphins, whale sharks, sea lions, manta rays and more.
What is the best time of year to see Australian animals?
If a wildlife encounter is high on your must-do list, be sure to explore the unique animal events that come with each season. From swimming with whale sharks in autumn and bird watching in winter, to witnessing baby koalas pop out of their pouch in spring and turtle hatchlings head to sea in summer - there's something spectacular to witness at every time of year.
With stringent animal welfare guidelines in place for all tour operators, it's easy to have a wildlife encounter that is rewarding and positive - for both you and our precious animals. Follow our simple guidelines to experience wildlife responsibly and be sure to read our top tips for spotting wildlife .
For an immersive experience that focuses on conservation activities, the tour operators that make up Australian Wildlife Journeys offer unforgettable wildlife encounters. Small group sizes, expert interpretive guiding and a commitment to protecting Australia's unique fauna mean your experience will be meaningful in a multitude of ways.
Australia's Indigenous communities share a strong bond with the land and its animals. Animals are cultural Totems, food sources, bearers of wisdom and guides to the seasons. Learning about native wildlife through the lens of an Aboriginal guide adds a layer of understanding that is unobtainable in any other way. Discover Aboriginal Experiences offers unique wildlife tours that showcase the cultural connection to nature.
Population decline of a species can be attributed to habitat loss or degradation, invasive species, natural disasters and climate change - just to name a few.
Some of our vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered mammals include the northern hairy-nosed wombat, several species of potoroo and rock wallaby, the western ringtail possum, several species of quoll, the bilby, koala, Australian sea lion, bandicoot and some species of whale.
Bird species under threat include several species of albatross and parrot, Cape Barren Goose, and the grey falcon. Playing a critical role in the ecosystem and no less important than our birds and mammals, Australia is also home to threatened species of insect, fish and reptile.
While this list is far from exhaustive, you can learn more about threatened species in Australia and what some incredible organisations are doing to help change the trajectory of declining species . When booking your trip, consider your ecological footprint and get involved in conservation initiatives and rewarding volunteer programs that will leave the environment better than how you found it.
There are many myths around dangerous animals Down Under, but rest assured Australia is a safe place to experience nature and wildlife. In fact, it's unlikely you will even see a dangerous animal during your visit. However, when interacting with any animal - even the cute and cuddly ones - it's important to exercise caution. Get the facts about dangerous animals in Australia before you travel to ensure you get the most out of your adventure.
More articles like this
We use cookies on this site to enhance your user experience. Find out more . By clicking any link on this page you are giving your consent for us to set cookies.
Acknowledgement of Country
We acknowledge the Traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Owners of the land, sea and waters of the Australian continent, and recognise their custodianship of culture and Country for over 60,000 years.
New Zealand (English)
United States (English)
Canada (English)
United Kingdom (English)
India (English)
Malaysia (English)
Singapore (English)
Indonesia (Bahasa Indonesia)
Deutschland (Deutsch)
France (Français)
Italia (Italiano)
中国大陆 (简体中文)
*Product Disclaimer: Tourism Australia is not the owner, operator, advertiser or promoter of the listed products and services. Information on listed products and services, including Covid-safe accreditations, are provided by the third-party operator on their website or as published on Australian Tourism Data Warehouse where applicable. Rates are indicative based on the minimum and maximum available prices of products and services. Please visit the operator’s website for further information. All prices quoted are in Australian dollars (AUD). Tourism Australia makes no representations whatsoever about any other websites which you may access through its websites such as australia.com. Some websites which are linked to the Tourism Australia website are independent from Tourism Australia and are not under the control of Tourism Australia. Tourism Australia does not endorse or accept any responsibility for the use of websites which are owned or operated by third parties and makes no representation or warranty in relation to the standard, class or fitness for purpose of any services, nor does it endorse or in any respect warrant any products or services by virtue of any information, material or content linked from or to this site.
Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia Essay
To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
As a template for you assignment
Wildlife management and extinction prevention in Australia is a critical topic of discussion as the country faces unprecedented biodiversity losses. This paper investigates the threats to wildlife in Australia and strategies for managing and preventing their extinction. Sources of stress on wildlife are discussed, including habitat loss and fragmentation, climate change, invasive species, overharvesting, and disease. Successful management strategies employed by Australian governments and organizations to protect threatened species from becoming extinct are reviewed. These include captive breeding programs, habitat restoration efforts, legislative protection measures such as protected areas or restricted hunting zones, and adaptive management techniques such as translocation or assisted migration. The role of international treaties in preserving Australian biodiversity is also considered. Understanding the challenges facing wildlife in Australia and implementing effective management strategies can ensure the continued existence of many important species for years to come. This paper provides insight into the threats facing native Australian wildlife and outlines strategies for managing and preventing their extinction. It looks at past successes and current challenges and suggests policy solutions that could be implemented to help ensure a future for some of Australia’s most iconic species. Understanding the threats facing wildlife in Australia and implementing effective management strategies can ensure that native species continue to thrive for many years. This paper provides an important contribution to the existing literature on wildlife conservation efforts in Australia, as well as valuable insights into current threats and potential solutions for extinction prevention. In summary, this paper examines the threats to wildlife in Australia and outlines strategies for managing and preventing their extinction. It discusses sources of stress on wildlife, successful management strategies employed by governments and organizations, and the important role of international treaties in preserving Australia’s unique biodiversity. Hopefully, this research will help inform future policy decisions concerning native Australian wildlife and ultimately ensure a future for some of Australia’s most iconic species.
Introduction
Wildlife management and extinction prevention in Australia is a critical issue that needs to be addressed to protect this unique continent’s biodiversity. The introduction of new species, changes in land use, urbanization, habitat destruction, climate change, and other environmental pressures have all impacted native Australian wildlife populations. In response to these challenges, various strategies are being implemented by governments, conservation agencies, and individuals across Australia to preserve endangered species and promote sustainable wildlife management practices. These include initiatives such as habitat restoration projects; the introduction of strategically placed fencing or barriers; pest control programs; the establishment of national parks; legislation to protect threatened species; and captive breeding programs. By adhering to these strategies, Australians can ensure the sustainability of their unique native species and help prevent further extinctions. While the preservation of flora and fauna has become an important global priority in recent years, this discussion will focus on examining how to manage wildlife to slow down the disappearance of animal species in Australia.
The history of wildlife management in Australia has been long, stretching back to the earliest days of the continent’s settlement. Traditional Aboriginal land management practices were the first attempts at managing the country’s growing wildlife population, and the first government-led initiatives were put in place in the 19th century. Since then, the history of wildlife management in Australia has evolved significantly, with an increasing focus on sustainability, conservation, and humane animal welfare standards. Today, Australia has one of the world’s most advanced wildlife management systems, which helps ensure the protection and preservation of its unique biodiversity for future generations. This includes strategies such as habitat protection programs, captive breeding efforts for endangered species, and legislation that restricts hunting or harvesting native animals. Through these measures, Australia continues to be an example of the successful management of its wildlife and the importance of conservation.
The Challenges of Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia
The challenges of wildlife management and extinction prevention in Australia are complex and far-reaching. As the largest continent on Earth, Australia is home to an incredible variety of flora and fauna, many of which are found nowhere else in the world. Unfortunately, various challenges have had a devastating impact on Australian wildlife. To protect this precious biodiversity, governments and conservation organizations all over the country should be dedicated to developing effective management strategies that protect the environment while also allowing for sustainable economic development. The following are some of the challenges that significantly influence the sustainability of wildlife in Australia:
The Impact of Introduced Species on Australian Ecosystems
A range of introduced species has threatened Australia’s unique ecosystems. Introduced species are non-native, often aggressive, plants and animals that can disrupt native ecosystems. The introduction of such species has had an immense impact on Australia’s natural environment, leading to significant changes in biodiversity and population levels as well as changes in the composition of habitats and food webs (Sattar et al., 2021). Introducing new species is often unintentional, either through transport accidents or accidental introduction from other countries. Some introduced species may also reach Australia deliberately due to human activities such as ornamental gardening, pet keeping, and agricultural production. Introducing non-native species can drastically affect Australia’s natural environment and human population regardless of the introduction method.
Some of the most damaging introduced species in terms of ecological impact include cats, rabbits, foxes, and cane toads. These animals are highly adaptable and reproduce rapidly, which allows them to spread quickly across large areas and outcompete native species for resources such as food or shelter. As a result, they cause significant disruption to local ecosystems, resulting in displacement or even extinction of native species due to competition or predation by these invasive predators (Sattar et al., 2021). In some cases, species introduction has also caused significant changes to the composition of habitats, leading to the introduction of exotic plants, which can further alter local ecosystems. To mitigate these threats, governments and conservation organizations need to work together with local communities to develop effective strategies for managing introduced species.
The Effect of Human Activity on Australian Wildlife
Human activity is having a major impact on Australia’s wildlife. Habitat destruction and fragmentation, invasive species, pollution, disease, and climate change all contribute to the extinction of many native animals. Habitats disappear as forests are cleared for agriculture, urban areas, and infrastructure development (Sattar et al., 2021). This affects the amount of food available to native animals and reduces the suitable habitat they can inhabit. Fragmentation also means that populations become increasingly isolated from each other, reducing their ability to reproduce successfully. This has led to increased fragmentation of habitats, meaning animals are isolated and unable to access resources such as food and water (Sattar et al., 2021). Pollution due to human activities is another major factor affecting Australian wildlife, with many species being exposed to chemicals that they cannot process or absorb safely. Pesticides used in farming can also enter waterways, poisoning aquatic life and destroying their habitat.
The Impact of Climate Change on Australian Wildlife
Australia is home to a large variety of wildlife that is increasingly being threatened by human activities, such as the effects of climate change. Climate change has significantly impacted many different species in Australia’s ecosystems. Climate change has resulted in drastic changes to Australian wildlife populations and habitats. The heat waves associated with global warming have dried up rivers, lakes, wetlands, and other water sources, affecting food availability for animals such as fish or platypuses (Sattar et al., 2021). In addition, rising sea levels lead to the destruction of habitats along the coastline, resulting in further displacement and endangerment of vulnerable species that can’t adapt to new environments. There have been noticeable effects on the distribution of certain species due to climate change. Animals such as koalas and kangaroos have had to move further inland due to rising temperatures or suffer from increased competition for food and water in their new habitats.
Climate change has also caused effects on animal behavior, such as breeding patterns. As climate change increases unpredictability in weather patterns, Australian wildlife may adjust their breeding seasons accordingly; some species may even be driven to extinction if they cannot adapt quickly enough. The effects of human activities are clear regarding the effects of climate change on Australia’s wildlife populations and habitats. By taking steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, managing natural resources responsibly, and creating protected habitats for vulnerable species, citizens can ensure that Australia’s wildlife can thrive in a changing world. In conclusion, the effects of human activities, such as climate change, have significantly impacted Australian wildlife populations and habitats. To protect native species, individuals must take action now to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and provide safe habitats for vulnerable animals. Doing so will help ensure the continued survival of Australia’s unique wildlife in an ever-changing environment.
Illegal Wildlife Trade
Illegal wildlife trade is a major cause of wildlife population decline in Australia and globally. Every year, tens of thousands of native animals are poached from the wild and sold into illegal markets for their fur, meat, or other body parts. This has devastating consequences for local populations, threatening species diversity and ecosystem health. The illegal wildlife trade is fueled by various factors, including poverty, demand for exotic species as pets or in traditional medicine, and the desire to increase profits (Sattar et al., 2021). This has led to the over-exploitation of many species and caused serious threats to their long-term survival. In Australia, koalas, platypus, and quolls have been targeted for illegal poaching and sale on the international market.
The impact of illegal wildlife trade on Australian wildlife is far-reaching and affects individuals and entire populations. It increases stress levels among animals living in the wild; reduces numbers of prey species; affects breeding patterns; disrupts food webs; damages habitats through habitat destruction; contribute to disease transmission between humans and animals; and leads to illegal harvesting of resources, such as timber (Sattar et al., 2021). These impacts can have long-term consequences, including species extinction. In Australia, illegal wildlife trade costs the economy hundreds of millions yearly in lost tourism revenue and conservation costs. It also endangers some of the most iconic species – such as koalas, kangaroos, and dingoes – by driving them to extinction. In conclusion, the illegal wildlife trade is a major threat to Australia’s biodiversity and economy. Individuals must act now to reduce its impacts on vulnerable species before it is too late.
The Role of the Private Sector in Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention
The role of the private sector in conserving Australian wildlife is becoming increasingly important as more organizations recognize its potential to create positive change through corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Private companies can use their resources to fund programs to restore habitats and reintroduce endangered species into areas where they have become locally extinct (Okolo, 2022). Companies can also reduce their environmental impact by using renewable energy sources to run their operations and by only sourcing sustainable materials in their products. In addition to providing much-needed financial resources, businesses can help raise awareness about the importance of wildlife conservation through marketing and education campaigns. For example, companies could partner with local schools to educate students about animal behavior and the threats facing local species. They could also work with communities on conservation projects that benefit people and wildlife, such as reforestation or marine conservation efforts.
The private sector also manages conflict between humans and wildlife—such as when wild animals enter farmland or hunt near human settlements. In these cases, businesses can provide funding for fencing and other protective programs and support research into humane methods of controlling animal populations (Okolo, 2022). The private sector will be crucial in protecting Australia’s wildlife from extinction. By working with public organizations and other stakeholders, businesses can make a real difference by providing financial resources, raising awareness about conservation initiatives, and helping manage conflicts between humans and animals. This kind of collaboration is essential for creating effective strategies that ensure the long-term survival of Australia’s unique biodiversity.
The Role of the Australian Government in Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention
The Australian government has an important role in wildlife management and extinction prevention. This is achieved by implementing effective policies to protect species, habitats, and associated ecosystems. These policies aim to protect the biodiversity of the nation’s environment, promote sustainable development, and ensure that endangered species do not become extinct. The most common policy implemented by the Australian government focuses on conservation initiatives such as habitat protection, reintroduction programs, and recovery plans for threatened species (Lindenmayer, 2019). Other strategies involve research into population dynamics, disease risk assessment, and reducing human impacts through legislation and enforcement. To help prevent future extinctions, Australia has also taken steps to strengthen its legal framework for conservation. The Environment Protection & Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999 is the main law to protect Australia’s biodiversity (Lindenmayer, 2019). The EPBC Act sets out how environment-related decisions are made and provide for penalties if certain protected species are harmed or threatened with extinction.
The Australian government also works closely with state governments, local communities, Indigenous groups, research organizations, and business and industry partners to implement conservation strategies effectively. The government can help protect precious wildlife and prevent extinction by supporting sustainable management practices and promoting environmental education initiatives. In conclusion, the Australian government plays a key role in protecting wildlife by implementing policies that focus on conservation efforts, strengthening legal frameworks, and continuing collaboration with other stakeholders such as research organizations and local communities. Nonetheless, every person can ensure that wildlife remains protected for generations by taking action.
The Future of Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia
Wildlife management and extinction prevention are critical issues in Australia, as the country is home to some of the world’s most unique and endangered species. To protect these species and ensure their survival, the Australian government has introduced several measures that seek to manage wildlife populations across the nation. According to Scheele et al. (2018), currently, conservation programs focus on habitat protection, reintroduction efforts, captive breeding protection schemes, population monitoring, and management plans. These initiatives have enabled many threatened Australian species to survive and remain viable in their natural environment. In addition, traditional approaches such as habitat protection and reintroductions can help prevent animal extinction. There is also an increase in recognition of the value of holistic approaches for long-term conservation success. Future wildlife management strategies must embrace cutting-edge technology, such as remote sensing and satellite tracking. This will enable researchers to understand species’ ecology, behaviour, and habitat usage to create effective conservation management plans.
In addition, artificial intelligence (AI) could play a role in the future of wildlife management and extinction prevention. AI can be used to track animal movements, monitor population health, and identify potential threats before they become unmanageable (Fang et al., 2019). By combining this data with traditional methods, wildlife managers will have unprecedented insights into Australia’s flora and fauna ecosystems. Finally, community engagement is also essential for long-term success in preventing extinction in Australia. Future wildlife management strategies must emphasize engaging communities in conservation efforts, encouraging public participation, and providing education about protecting Australia’s native species. By embracing new technologies and working with local communities, Australia can create a secure future for all its threatened flora and fauna, helping to prevent extinction and ensure that these species remain viable.
Strategies for improving wildlife management and preventing extinctions are essential for maintaining the planet’s biodiversity. To this end, governments, organizations, and individuals can take action to reduce and prevent threats to wildlife populations. For example, incentives such as hunting limitations or fees can be set to limit the over-harvesting of wildlife species. Additionally, creating protected areas is an effective way of preserving critical habitats for threatened and endangered species. Solutions like habitat restoration are also important as they help restore damaged ecosystems and create new habitats suitable for wildlife.
Education is another key factor in conserving wildlife, too, as it helps raise awareness about the importance of protecting nature and how people can do their part by reducing their environmental impact. Developing sustainable practices such as eco-tourism initiatives can also help reduce the negative impacts of human activities on wildlife populations. Finally, global collaboration and cooperation between governments, organizations, and individuals are essential for successful conservation efforts. Working together to create effective strategies for wildlife management can help ensure the future of the earth’s biodiversity. By taking these steps, people can work towards protecting vulnerable species and preserving the earth’s biodiversity for generations to come.
Wildlife management and extinction prevention are important issues that need to be addressed if Australia maintains a healthy, diverse environment. It will take the cooperation of both private sector and government entities to address these challenges effectively. The private sector has the resources and knowledge needed to make meaningful improvements in habitat protection and species preservation, while the Australian government can provide policy support for effective regulation. The future of wildlife management and extinction prevention in Australia relies on an all-encompassing approach that recognizes the importance of conservation efforts across all stakeholders. To improve current practices, it is necessary to implement comprehensive strategies focusing on education, research, monitoring programs, and corrective action plans. With collaborative efforts between various parties involved in conservation efforts, Australia can be a leader in protecting its natural resources and preserving the rich diversity of its wildlife. Thank you for your time and attention. Your participation in improving wildlife management and preventing extinctions is essential to individuals’ collective success.
Fang, F., Tambe, M., Dilkina, B., & Plumptre, A. J. (Eds.). (2019). Artificial intelligence and conservation . Cambridge University Press.
Okolo, N. (2022). The wildlife conservation bond: Exploring new market mechanisms for protecting endangered species. In Extinction Governance, Finance and Accounting (pp. 361-371). Routledge.
Sattar, Q., Maqbool, M. E., Ehsan, R., & Akhtar, S. (2021). Review on climate change and its effect on wildlife and ecosystem . Open Journal of Environmental Biology , 6 (1), 008-014. Web.
Scheele, B. C., Legge, S., Armstrong, D. P., Copley, P., Robinson, N., Southwell, D.,… & Lindenmayer, D. B. (2018). How to improve threatened species management: An Australian perspective . Journal of Environmental Management , 223 , 668-675. Web.
Wintle, B. A., Cadenhead, N. C., Morgain, R. A., Legge, S. M., Bekessy, S. A., Cantele, M.,… & Lindenmayer, D. B. (2019). Spending to save: What will it cost to halt Australia’s extinction crisis? Conservation Letters , 12 (6), e12682. Web.
Urban Wildlife Issues
Conservation Knowledge of the Sumatran Orangutan
The Importance of Saving a Species From Extinction
Literature on Invasive Plants in the United Kingdom
Basic and Applied Biology: Key Differences
The Intricate World of Camouflage: Lessons From Nature and Beyond
"The Egg and the Sperm" by Martin: Article Review
Bacteria Classification and Assessment
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)
IvyPanda. (2023, December 27). Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia. https://ivypanda.com/essays/wildlife-extinction-in-australia/
"Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia." IvyPanda , 27 Dec. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/wildlife-extinction-in-australia/.
IvyPanda . (2023) 'Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia'. 27 December.
IvyPanda . 2023. "Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia." December 27, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/wildlife-extinction-in-australia/.
1. IvyPanda . "Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia." December 27, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/wildlife-extinction-in-australia/.
Bibliography
IvyPanda . "Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia." December 27, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/wildlife-extinction-in-australia/.
Wildlife
Wildlife of Australia
What is so different about australia, evolutionary/biogeographical history of australia.
Invertebrates (insects, molluscs etc.)
back to main wildlife menu
it is the only continent to still have all three of the major groups of mammals: monotremes (egg-layers), marsupials and placentals
half its mammal species are marsupials
its large grazing animals are all marsupials or birds, mostly moving on two legs (kangaroos, emus)
it is the only country in the world to have kangaroos (although it shares wallabies with New Guinea), koalas, wombats numbats, platypus, lyrebirds and many other strange and fascinating creatures
most of the world's cockatoos are native to Australia, and it has more parrots than any continent other than South America
Glow worms (larvae of a tiny gnat, living in caves and overhanging rocks - not the same as the 'glow worm' of the northern hemisphere, which is the larva of the firefly) live only in Australia and New Zealand.
it is probably the birthplace of the world's songbirds, and shares with New Zealand some songbirds with primitive characteristics
lyrebirds, arguably the world's best mimics, occur only here
some of our frogs have bizarre breeding habits - e.g. the gastric brooding frog (now apparently extinct) and the hip pocket frog
we have most of the world's ten most venomous snakes (in terms of toxins applied to mice) but not necessarily the most dangerous (which is a function also of behaviour and habitats of snakes)
Fish (or go to mammals , birds , reptiles , frogs or invertebrates )
The Australian lungfish, a freshwater species capable of breathing in air, is considered a ‘living fossil’ and is found in some of Queensland’s rivers. Only five other species occur worldwide, all in Africa and South American waters. It is strictly protected.
The eels (photo top right) in Australian rivers start their lives near New Caledonia and other part of the south-west Pacific, make a journey to Australia where they live for 12 years or more in the rivers of the east coast, then find their way back to their birthplace to breed. There are usually at least a couple resident on the Araucaria property.
The world’s largest fish, the whale-shark, visits the western coast each year. Carefully-controlled diving near these huge creatures (which feed only on plankton) is a popular tourist activity at Ningaloo.
The strange leafy sea-dragon, related to sea-horses, can sometimes be seen by divers near Kangaroo Island and other parts of the southern coastline.
The mud skipper, seen amongst mangrove roots (and climbing them!) north of Cairns, comes out of the water and stares at you!
Further information on fish:
Freshwater fish, marine fish.
Invertebrates
Australian spiders include the 'true' spiders and the 'primitive' spiders. the 'primitive spiders have jaws which point downwards, meaning that to bite they need to rear up and strike downwards. australia's most dangerous spiders, the funnel webs, are in this group, and also the trapdoors. to keep the danger in perspective though, there have only been 14 recorded deaths by funnel webs in the history of white settlement. most of these have occurred in sydney, where funnels are sometimes built in gardens and inadvertently disturbed., other invertebrates include:, what do the words 'vertebrate' and 'invertebrate' mean.
High School Study Abroad Programs
High School Summer Abroad
High School Summer Abroad Programs
Australian Wildlife Conservation From Land to Sea
Summer '25 Applications Open
Jun 15 - Jul 5, 2025
Application Deadline
Request Information
Jul 6 - 26, 2025
Step into the shoes of a conservationist in one of the most scenic and biodiverse destinations on Earth.
Observe unique Australian wildlife in the marine, coastal, and bushland ecosystems in and around Sydney alongside a local guide and environmentalist. In this beautiful waterfront city, experience greater Sydney’s diverse and unique environments and the impact of human activity on Australia’s ecosystems. Conduct field work and collect data for analyzing and evaluating sustainability strategies implemented in urban coastal cities.
Also explore Australia’s culture, heritage, and way of life. Appreciate Aboriginal customs—participate in a traditional Bushtucker Tour and listen to stories about the First People's intimate and longstanding connection to their land. Enjoy “only in Australia” experiences—pet a kangaroo, witness surreal sunsets over the Opera House, practice Tim Tam slams, go on bushwalks, and return home saying words like lollies and You Beauty!
The Takeaways
Real-world experience.
Collect data on Australian wildlife on land and in water, assess threats to ecosystems, and explore measures to protect biodiversity. Come home ready to apply your sustainability insights to future studies and environmental initiatives.
Credentials for Your Future
Topics for your college essays, experience to inform your future career, a portfolio of work to showcase a Conservation Campaign, and service-learning hours documenting your engagement with the community.
Life Skills and New Friendships
Return with greater self-confidence, independence, and improved communication skills. Enjoy a broader worldview and friends of different backgrounds from across the U.S.
Hours Of Expert Instruction
Hours Of Service-learning In The Community
Life-changing Experience
The Destination
Welcome to Sydney, surrounded by World Heritage wilderness areas and pristine coastlines.
Sydney’s white-sand beaches, unique ecosystems, and sustainable urban landscapes make it the perfect outdoor learning lab. Located in New South Wales, with its iconic Opera House and majestic Harbour Bridge, Sydney is Australia’s largest and most diverse city. Over one-third of its population was born overseas! The vibrant multicultural scene offers an incredible array of international restaurants and shops. Be sure to visit the bustling Paddy’s Market and sample all kinds of treats at Spice Alley!
Sydney is also home to world-class wildlife parks—excellent places to observe native Australian animals—and the Sea Life Aquarium with the largest Great Barrier Reef exhibit in the world. A third of Australia’s bird species live in the ancient rainforest of the Blue Mountains World Heritage area, one of your excursions. Another trip will take you to the region of Northern Beaches, known for its lush, green national parks, iconic beaches, and scenic coastline. Here, experience a menagerie of wildlife, vivid aquamarine waters, and seaside walks with so much natural beauty to discover!
Cultural Awareness
CIEE wants all our students to feel welcomed, supported, and empowered to succeed while studying abroad. Local CIEE staff have provided details about conditions and cultural attitudes that students with specific identities might encounter in Sydney.
Weekly Learning Goals
Settle into Sydney. Survey wildlife along Sydney’s coastline and identify iconic marine species. Develop an understanding of conservation strategies in coastal cities. Collect and analyze data to discover the importance of biodiversity.
Assess the effectiveness of local conservation strategies implemented in Australia. Explore the Blue Mountains and go snorkeling in the Cabbage Tree Aquatic Reserve as you investigate the effects of human activity on ecosystems.
Participate in bush regeneration with the National Parks and Wildlife Service. Develop and present a report on Australia’s wildlife conservation initiatives. Discuss the role of biodiversity conservation in our daily lives, the needs of healthy ecosystems, and the needs of society.
Monday–Friday
Each day offers a balance between interactive instruction and cultural activities with time on your own, too. Morning classes and afternoon activities may swap places.
Breakfast at the dorms
Hands-on classes with expert instructors and conservationists
Lunch in the community or in the field with your fellow Global Navigators
Outdoor activities, community service, or cultural workshops
Dinner at the dorms or out in the community
Weekends
Overnight or day excursions to top destinations
Quality time with friends
Dorms, shared rooms with other Global Navigators
24/7 Support
1 Program Leader for every 12 students and support from local staff
Program Blogs
Featherdale Wildlife and Blue Mountains
For our last weekend in Australia we got to spend a weekend in Katoomba and the Blue Mountains! On the way there we stopped at Featherdale Wildlife where our students... keep reading
Buenos Aires
Amaijah tries Cricket
Edited by Brianna. Hi, everyone! My name is Amaijah Coates, age 16, and I’m a soon to be junior from Philadelphia, PA. Today was an amazing day for the global... keep reading
Take 2: Madison's Day at Featherdale Zoo
Written by Madison Koo (she/her) age 16 from New York. Edited by Brianna Luedke. “Ow, my face!” OMG, a kangaroo just punched me! Oh well. I guess that’s what I... keep reading
Sample Activities
Just imagine all the fun you’ll have!
Get up close and personal with kangaroos, koalas, and other iconic Australian marsupials. Even take a selfie with a smiling quokka.
Bring your appetite to a beachside Aussie barbecue, a lively time for you and other Global Navigators to share food and bond with one another!
Take a ferry to Manly Beach and visit the heritage-listed Quarantine Station at the Sydney Harbour National Park. Take in the stunning views while learning how migration has impacted the Australian environment and society.
Wander through the eucalyptus forests of the Blue Mountains—they'll take your breath away! In this magical setting, listen to the Aboriginal legend of the Three Sisters.
Snorkel in the Cabbage Tree Aquatic Reserve amongst 200 species of fish. Try to catch a glimpse of a dusky whaler, blue groper, eagle ray, and green turtle.
Please note activities are based on past programs and subject to change at CIEE's discretion to adapt to local circumstances and participant feedback. Our goal when arranging activities is always to enhance your experience.
What Students Are Saying
“I loved when we went to a wildlife park and fed kangaroos, as well as surfing at the beach. It was a really fun experience and I learned a lot!”
Analea S., Global Navigator Alum
“I had the time of my life here in Australia I loved it so much I’m actually thinking about coming back here for college! I was able to learn so much about the animals and the ecosystems here but I really like all the friends here I made along the way.”
Izzy C., Global Navigator Alum
“Interacting with the locals and playing a game of Australian football with them was definitely one of the highlights of the trip. It gave me a chance to meet kids my age from a completely different culture and acknowledge both the similarities and differences between us."
Andy Z., Global Navigator Alum
“My most memorable experience for me was doing a walk through a wooded area to explore flora and fauna. We saw kangaroos and lots of native plants in their natural habitat.”
Carly M., Global Navigator Alum
Eligibility
Participants must be 14 years old and above.
Program open to all current high school students: Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors.
For scholarship eligibility requirements, please check our Scholarship page .
This program involves engaging in moderate- to high-intensity physical activities, such as hiking, snorkeling, and extended observational time outdoors. Ability to swim is not required but strongly encouraged to enjoy the program and location at its fullest.
For more information, refer to the detailed Program Essential Eligibility Criteria .
Dates & Fees
Application Fee
Program scholarships and tuition include iNext Travel Insurance, but do not cover the cost of flights. Find additional details about what’s included with your tuition.
More Questions? Find answers , get application support , sign up for virtual presentations or contact us !
Summer Session I 2025
$6,450
Summer Session II 2025
$6,450
What's Included
Interactive classes, 3 meals/day.
(Dietary Needs Accommodated)
All Ground Transportation
(Once In-country)
Optional Flight Chaperone
(Flight Cost Not Included)
Pre-departure Advice and Orientation
Access to local phone and wifi, all cultural activities and excursions, comprehensive medical and travel protection, 24/7 emergency on-site support.
Center Director
Thais has over 18 years of education industry experience which include running an American study abroad program in Sydney and working in the exchange programs at one of Australia’s top universities.
Affiliations Genecology Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia, Animal Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia
Increasing human population size and the concomitant expansion of urbanisation significantly impact natural ecosystems and native fauna globally. Successful conservation management relies on precise information on the factors associated with wildlife population decline, which are challenging to acquire from natural populations. Wildlife Rehabilitation Centres (WRC) provide a rich source of this information. However, few researchers have conducted large-scale longitudinal studies, with most focussing on narrow taxonomic ranges, suggesting that WRC-associated data remains an underutilised resource, and may provide a fuller understanding of the anthropogenic threats facing native fauna. We analysed admissions and outcomes data from a WRC in Queensland, Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital, to determine the major factors driving admissions and morbidity of native animals in a region experiencing rapid and prolonged urban expansion. We studied 31,626 admissions of 83 different species of native birds, reptiles, amphibians, marsupials and eutherian mammals from 2006 to 2017. While marsupial admissions were highest (41.3%), admissions increased over time for all species and exhibited seasonal variation (highest in Spring to Summer), consistent with known breeding seasons. Causes for admission typically associated with human influenced activities were dominant and exhibited the highest mortality rates. Car strikes were the most common reason for admission (34.7%), with dog attacks (9.2%), entanglements (7.2%), and cat attacks (5.3%) also high. Admissions of orphaned young and overt signs of disease were significant at 24.6% and 9.7%, respectively. Mortality rates were highest following dog attacks (72.7%) and car strikes (69.1%) and lowest in orphaned animals (22.1%). Our results show that WRC databases offer rich opportunities for wildlife monitoring and provide quantification of the negative impacts of human activities on ecosystem stability and wildlife health. The imminent need for urgent, proactive conservation management to ameliorate the negative impacts of human activities on wildlife is clearly evident from our results.
Citation: Taylor-Brown A, Booth R, Gillett A, Mealy E, Ogbourne SM, Polkinghorne A, et al. (2019) The impact of human activities on Australian wildlife. PLoS ONE 14(1): e0206958. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958
Editor: Tunira Bhadauria, Feroze Gandhi Degree College, INDIA
Received: October 18, 2018; Accepted: December 16, 2018; Published: January 23, 2019
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.
Funding: This study was funded by the University of the Sunshine Coast and the Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital.
Competing interests: RB and AG are employees of the Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital. ATB, EM, SMO, AP and GCC have no competing interests to declare.
Introduction
There is substantive evidence to suggest that anthropogenic factors are having devastating consequences on native fauna, both in Australia [ 1 – 9 ] and internationally [ 10 – 26 ]. The stability of entire ecosystems is compromised through the process of urban expansion and global population growth, which both continue to increase at unprecedented rates [ 27 ]. The sustained acceleration in human population growth and resulting expansion in anthropogenic activities appear to be the primary causes of an accelerated increase in extinction rates globally [ 28 – 32 ].
Global population growth contributes to the destruction, modification and fragmentation of wildlife habitat, reduced genetic diversity, threats from pathogens, the spread of exotic and invasive species, air, noise and light pollution, alteration in natural hydrologic and fire regimes, and a rapidly changing climate [ 33 – 37 ]. The consequences of these environmental changes for most species include a reduced ability to forage, reduced prey or food availability, altered immune function, and diminished breeding success [ 38 – 45 ]. Changes to any of these life traits can compromise the persistence of native fauna populations in the wild.
Conception and implementation of effective conservation management strategies should be guided by a thorough understanding of the underlying causes of wildlife population decline [ 18 , 19 , 46 – 48 ]. Evaluation of longitudinal data from wildlife rehabilitation centres (WRC), including causes of admission and resultant outcomes, can be used to conduct general wildlife monitoring and investigate threats to local species [ 6 – 8 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 23 , 24 , 26 , 47 , 49 – 53 ], and may provide information about ecosystem health and stability [ 53 , 54 ], quantify and delineate natural and anthropogenic elements that present potential hazards to wildlife survival.
Previous research using WRC admissions data has generally concentrated on either a single species or narrow taxonomic clusters [ 6 – 8 , 15 , 17 , 20 , 23 , 50 , 55 , 56 ], with understandable foci on threatened taxa. Others have focused on particular threats, such as cat attacks, land clearing and emerging diseases [ 16 , 21 , 22 , 25 , 57 ], which have increased as human activities have encroached on wildlife habitat [ 26 , 58 ].
This study takes a broader perspective, by examining a wide suite of species in South-East Queensland (QLD), Australia, including representatives from a variety of taxonomic, life history and trophic groups. The overall objective of this research was to investigate the major causes and patterns of WRC admissions and outcomes, with a sub-aim of identifying opportunities to provide targeted management solutions. The results of this longitudinal retrospective study have wide ramifications, particularly where impacts from anthropogenic processes are implicated.
We collated hospital records from the Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital (AZWH) in Beerwah, Queensland. AZWH has collected data from all wildlife admissions since its opening in 2004. AZWH is located 80 km north of Brisbane, on the Sunshine Coast, which is a rapidly growing residential and tourist area, with mixed land use comprising a combination of rural, urban, peri-urban, bushland and coastal zones. The majority of AZWH admissions come from an area spanning approximately 200 km north (to Maryborough, with occasional admissions from as far north as Proserpine), 150 km west (e.g. Gatton and Kingaroy) and up to 300 km south (Lismore, New South Wales; mostly Koala admissions) ( Fig 1 ), although admissions from central western QLD and the Northern Territory also sporadically occur.
PPT PowerPoint slide
PNG larger image
TIFF original image
Map of Australian states and territories, showing the location of AZWH, with a zoomed-in image of Queensland demonstrating the common admissions area of AZWH (hashed area). Scale bar is representative for the zoomed in image.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.g001
AZWH was established as a wildlife treatment facility (previously The Australian Wildlife Hospital) in March 2004. Due to a rapidly growing wildlife admission rate, a new purpose-built facility was constructed in November 2008 and is one of the largest WRCs in the world. The AZWH facilities include multiple state of the art triage assessment areas, intensive care and rehabilitation wards customised for birds, reptiles, mammals and orphaned young; radiology, laboratory, surgery and pathology facilities; and multiple large outdoor rehabilitation enclosures. It operates 24 hours a day with a team of wildlife veterinarians, vet nurses and volunteers attending to the needs of up to 8,000 wildlife admissions annually.
Data collection
Data for 74,230 admissions between 1 st January 2006 and 31 st December 2017 were obtained from AZWH. Of these, 42,604 admission records were excluded as follows: a) data for which there were unknown, multiple, or ambiguous cause for admission (CFA) were removed from the analysis; b) admissions of animals that were dead on arrival (DOA); c) species for which there were less than 100 admissions over the time period, unless they could be suitably pooled and were a taxonomic group of interest e.g. Amphibians (see below); d) admissions of marine animals, which occupy a specific niche that we believe warrants its own detailed investigation in future studies (with the exception of the Australian pelican ( Pelecanus conspicillatus ) which had significant admission numbers from predominantly freshwater sources); e) admissions for which the outcome was not reported.
Where data on a single species were insufficient (i.e. <100 admissions) for meaningful analysis of admission and outcome trends following the exclusion criteria above, but the species was part of a larger taxonomic or ecological group of interest, we pooled these species to create a ‘multi-species group’ ( S1 File ). Species were grouped based on either taxonomy (e.g. ‘small macropods’ are small-bodied species within the Macropodidae family, compared to Eastern grey kangaroos for example, which are larger macropods) or behaviour (e.g. raptors are a group of birds of prey that include representatives from several families) ( S1 File ). For simplicity, taxa are referred to by their higher taxonomic groupings, termed ‘animal groups’ throughout the manuscript (i.e. avians, reptiles, amphibians, marsupial mammals and eutherian mammals; S1 File ).
The final dataset of 31,626 individual admissions included terrestrial and freshwater wildlife species of differing age classes, taxonomic classes and trophic groups. These data were analysed for admission and outcome trends. Where trends were assessed per season, seasons are referred to as; Summer: December, January, February; Autumn: March, April, May; Winter: June, July, August; Spring: September, October, November. CFA were listed as per their categories in the admission/accession sheets, with some CFA pooled (e.g. Bush fire and fire; S2 File ). Animal outcomes following admission were also grouped into either ‘positive outcome’ (release into wild or into care) or ‘mortality’ (natural death and euthanasia on welfare grounds).
Throughout the period of interest for this study, various alterations were made to the data collection methods at AZWH in response to the expansion of overall admissions and improvements in data capture methodology. Changes included; 1) intermittent updating (addition or deletion of some CFA categories) of animal admission/accession sheets; 2) restructuring of animal admission/accession sheets and redevelopment of the internal database (largely in mid-2013). Subsequently, some CFA categories were subject to change throughout the study period and may not have been clearly represented in data prior to mid-2013. To assess whether these changes might significantly alter the main findings, we performed a small subset analysis on data from 2014–2017 to evaluate any shifts in the main CFA after the changes.
Data analysis
The aggregate data used for this study was sourced and processed through MySQL using 117 lines of SQL queries layered upon a set of 3 (112 lines total) SQL/PSM functions (Structured Query Language/ Persistent Stored Modules) [ 59 ]. Designed to maximise consistency of data, and to allow the pooling of outcomes and species, the functions were used to filter and aggregate the raw data and to generate comma separated (csv) files. One exception was the per month/year data that were further processed using simple Java command-line application of 230 lines of code to collate the up to 3,700 data values for each of eight sheets. The csv files were imported into Microsoft Excel and manipulated into tables of total admitted animals, causes for admission and outcomes, and grouped according to higher classification. Microsoft Excel was also used to calculate the summary statistics (totals, means and proportions), and to generate graphical outputs.
Statistical analysis
Data were imported into IBM SPSS Statistics v24.0 [ 60 ] and reformatted where necessary. Data were assessed for distribution prior to parametric or non-parametric inferential analyses. For data with normal distribution, we performed one-way ANOVA with a Tukey Post-hoc test, and for data with non-normal distribution, we performed Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA. We used a statistical significance level of 0.05. We performed odds-ratio analysis using the risk estimate statistic in the cross-tabs option, with a 95% confidence interval. Lastly, we performed linear regression analysis on human population figures and admissions, in Microsoft Excel using the “Analysis Toolpak” add-in.
We studied 31,626 native animal admissions to the AZWH, a large WRC in Beerwah, Queensland, Australia, and the outcomes of those admissions, from January 2006 to December 2017. A summary of admissions over this time period is found in Table 1 . A total of 83 species were included in this study, which were grouped by taxonomy, ecological niche or behavioural traits to assist analysis ( S1 File ).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.t001
Animal admissions
Mammals represented the majority of admissions to AZWH at 51.1% ( n = 15,824) ( Table 1 ). Possums (nocturnal marsupials belonging to the Phalangeridae family) were the most commonly admitted multi-species group, with 17.8% ( n = 5,615) of admissions over the study period. This was closely followed by admissions of koalas (threatened arboreal marsupials; Phascolarctos cinereus ), at 11.4% ( n = 3,590), making them the most commonly admitted single species ( Table 1 , Fig 2a ). Eastern grey kangaroos ( Macropus giganteus ) and small macropods (a multi-species group comprising wallabies and pademelons in the Macropodidae family; S1 File ) comprised 3.7% ( n = 1,165) and 3.6% ( n = 1,139) of all admissions, respectively. Flying foxes ( Pteropus alecto and P . poliocephalus ) were the main eutherian mammal admitted ( n = 2,774; 8.8% of admissions), and the fourth most commonly admitted taxa overall (6.4%; n = 2,026) ( Table 1 ).
(a) Number of admissions per species or multi-species group. Taxa are ordered within their animal groups by abundance. Taxa are coloured based on higher classifications; see legend. (b) Total admissions per month (left axis) and per year (right axis). The increase in human population in the region is also overlaid (grey dashed lines); one one-hundredth of the total is represented (right axis). (c) Number of monthly admissions per animal group. Taxa are coloured based on higher taxonomic classifications; see legend.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.g002
Avians were the second most admitted animal group, accounting for 35.2% ( n = 11,128) of all admissions ( Table 1 ). The most commonly admitted avian species were lorikeets ( Trichoglossus haematodes and T . chlorolepidotus ) colourful psittacines common to Eastern Australia; n = 2,625) accounting for 23.6% of avian admissions and 8.3% of admissions overall, and tawny frogmouths (nocturnal birds related to nightjars; Podargus strigoides; n = 1,920); whilst high numbers of laughing kookaburras ( Dacelo novaeguineae; the largest species in the Kingfisher family) and Australian magpies ( Gymnorhina tibicen; omnivorous passerine songbirds) were also admitted ( n = 1,741 and n = 1,263, respectively).
The reptile group contributed 14.4% ( n = 4,568) of all admissions, represented by six individual species and two multi-species groups ( Table 1 , S1 File ). Blue-tongued skinks (short legged diurnal lizards; Tiliqua scincoides ), carpet pythons (large semi-arboreal pythons with a wide distribution; Morelia spilota ) and eastern water dragons (arboreal lizards in the Agamidae family; Intellagama lesueurii ) were the three most commonly admitted reptilian taxa, together comprising 8.5% of all admissions ( n = 930, 888 and 856, respectively; Table 1 , Fig 2a ). The remaining 0.3% ( n = 106) of admissions were attributed to amphibians, represented in our study only by tree frogs ( Litoria caerula and Litoria gracilenta ) ( Table 1 ).
We observed a steady increase in the total number of admissions over the study period, with almost a 3-fold increase in annual admissions from 2006 ( n = 1,216) to 2017 ( n = 3,582) ( Fig 2b , S1 Table , S1a Fig ). The average annual admission rate equated to 2,635.5 animals per year (±744.8). The number of admissions of each animal group also increased steadily, with avians and marsupials showing the greatest increases in admission, at more than 300% throughout the study period (avians; n = 318 to 1,147 and marsupials; n = 562 to 1,505) ( S1 Table , S1 , S2a and S2d Figs).
Seasonal admission trends were apparent in the dataset: the greatest number of admissions occurred annually in spring, with a mean difference of 356.8 (5.5%) from autumn (p < 0.001). Interestingly though, each animal group exhibited a different seasonal profile. Mean bird admissions were highest in spring, as were mammal admissions, while reptile admission peaks occurred largely in summer ( Fig 2c , S1 and S2 Figs).
Causes for admission
Causes for admission ( n = 31,626) are summarised in Table 2 and Fig 3 . The most common CFA was ‘hit by car’ (HBC), accounting for 10,973 admissions (34.7%), followed by ‘orphaned/dependent young’ (24.6%; n = 7,771), ‘overt signs of disease’ (9.7%; n = 3,057), ‘dog attack’ (9.2%; n = 2,913), ‘entanglement’ (7.2%; n = 2,274) and ‘cat attack’ (5.3%; n = 1,667). These six causes together constituted 90.6% of all admissions (28,655/31,626) and accounted for 64.4% to 100% of admissions for individual taxa. Only four CFA affected all 30 study taxa (abnormal animal location, dog attack, orphaned young, and overt signs of disease), with the remaining CFA applicable for 1 to 29 species or groups (mean 20.5) ( Table 2 ).
All CFA are represented in descending order on the main graph (a), whilst admissions in categories that are not one of the top six CFA are provided on an additional graph, inset (b). Taxa are coloured based on higher taxonomic classifications; see legend.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.g003
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.t002
Car strikes were the leading cause for admission of 16 out of 19 taxa ( Table 1 ). Avians were the most common group admitted for road trauma (16.5% of all admissions) with 47.5% (5,216/11,128) of avians admitted in this CFA. This mainly comprised tawny frogmouths, laughing kookaburras and lorikeets, which each had over 1,000 admissions ( Fig 3 , S2 Table ). Marsupials and reptiles were also heavily affected by car strikes, accounting for 11.2% and 5.2% of all admissions, respectively ( Table 2 ) with approximately a third of all marsupials (27.2%) and reptiles (35.7%) admitted for this affliction ( Fig 3 , Table 2 ). More specifically, koalas and possums together accounted for over 70% of marsupial car strikes (2,558/3,546) whilst freshwater turtles accounted for the highest proportion of reptile car strikes (28.2; 461/1630).
The second highest admission category was ‘orphaned or dependent young’, which accounted for 24.6% of all admissions ( n = 7,771). Marsupials were most frequently admitted in this category (56.6% of orphaned admissions; n = 4,397; Table 2 , Fig 3 ), with possums alone contributing over half of these (2,314/4,397). Avians together contributed a further 28.4% ( n = 2,206), mainly consisting of native ducks ( n = 628).
‘Overt signs of disease’ was one of four CFA shared by all studied species and was the third highest CFA overall ( Fig 3 ). This CFA accounted for high proportions of koala (e.g. chlamydial disease) and lorikeet (e.g. lorikeet paralysis) admissions, at 33.6% ( n = 1,207) and 29.6% ( n = 777), respectively. Overt signs of disease also accounted for 17.6% of Australian pelican admissions (e.g. botulism-like symptoms).
‘Dog attack’ was the fourth most common CFA (9.2% of admissions). Marsupials made up the largest proportion of dog attack admissions (44.3%; n = 1,291) and was the CFA for 9.9% of marsupials. Dog attacks accounted for 10.8% to 13.8% of possum, bandicoot and koala admissions ( Table 2 ). Reptiles comprised a further 38.3% of dog attack admissions, with 24.4% ( n = 1,1115) of reptiles admitted for this reason ( Table 2 , S2 Table ). In particular, 57.2% of blue-tongue skink admissions ( n = 535) were due to dog attacks.
‘Entanglements’ (e.g. fence or fruit netting entanglements) accounted for 7.2% of all admissions ( n = 2,274). Eutherian mammals made up 46.2% of all entanglement admissions ( Table 2 , Fig 3 ). This mainly consisted of flying foxes ( n = 1,034), for which entanglement accounted for 51.0% of admissions. Avians comprised a further 27.4% of entanglements ( n = 1,253), with a heavy proportion of Australian Pelicans admitted following entanglement (66.1%; n = 162; Table 2 , S2 Table ). Entanglements also represented a sizeable proportion of large glider admissions (21.8%; n = 164). This multi-species group consists of the greater glider, squirrel glider and sugar glider, which are comparable in size to flying foxes.
‘Cat attack’ rounded out the top six CFA at 5.3% of all admissions ( n = 1,667). Cat attacks accounted for 49.6% of feathertail glider admissions ( n = 114), and over 20% of admissions of Australian brush turkeys, green tree snakes, venomous snakes, large gliders and microbats ( Table 2 ). Over 8% of both reptiles and amphibians were admitted due to cat attacks ( S2 Table ).
Some animals had unique or specific CFA that were distinct from the top six CFA. Reptiles were commonly admitted for ‘machine injury’, which includes incidents involving lawn mowers, grass cutters, whipper snippers, chainsaws, tractor slashers etc ( Fig 3 ). Carpet pythons were also highly represented ( n = 40) in this category ( Table 2 ). The most common CFA for amphibians was HBC ( n = 37), but they were also prone to dog attacks and ‘natural predation’ (native predator attack resulting in injury; n = 12 and 13, respectively). In fact, natural predation accounted for 12.3% ( n = 13) of amphibian and 8.1% ( n = 69) of eastern water dragon admissions ( Table 2 , S2 Table ). Lace monitor admissions were primarily the result of tree-felling (13.1%; n = 40), which results in injury or displacement. ‘Abnormal animal location’ was a common CFA for microbats and feathertail gliders (18.6%; n = 55 and 8.3%; n = 19, respectively; Table 2 ), whereby they may be found on the ground, in unsuitable locations within building infrastructure, or other locations compromising their welfare. A small percentage of animals (0.9%, 288/31,626) were admitted for ‘malicious injury or poisoning’, where injury or illness was suspected due to a malicious act. Australian pelicans appeared to be overrepresented in this category ( n = 20, 8.2% of pelican admissions), though this may be the result of assignment of some pelicans affected by botulism-related disease to this category ( Table 2 ). Eight animal species were affected by ‘fire’, which includes bush fire and other fire, and ‘electrocution’. Admissions resulting from fire-related events were mostly restricted to mammals ( Table 2 ). Electrocution largely affected arboreal animals from all groups, with possums and flying foxes most commonly admitted under this category. Birds and bats were infrequently admitted for hitting a window, whilst ‘fishing tackle ingestion’ admissions were restricted to birds and freshwater turtles ( Table 2 ). Laughing kookaburras were the most commonly admitted species in the ‘drowning’ ( n = 86) and ‘oiling’ categories ( n = 11) and lorikeets in the ‘hit window’ ( n = 155) category.
Consistent with the overall increase in admissions over time, admissions due to each of the top six CFA increased considerably over the study period, with these six CFA increasing by up to ten-fold between 2006 and 2017 ( Fig 4a , S3 Fig ).
Trend lines are included in (a) to highlight the overall increase in admissions over the study period. See legend for CFA categories.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.g004
Some CFA exhibited cyclic trends ( Fig 4b , S4 Fig ). Admissions of orphaned animals were clearly seasonal (admissions in spring were statistically different from admissions in autumn, winter and summer ( p = 0.001, 0.018, 0.016, respectively; Fig 4b ), with avian and marsupial admissions increasing from late winter, and remaining high throughout spring and summer ( S4 Fig ). Entanglements peaked in spring, and dog attack admissions were highest overall during late winter and spring.
Outcomes of admission
Animal outcomes following admission were grouped simply into either ‘positive ‘outcome’ or ‘mortality’. Positive outcomes included release into wild or into care, whilst mortality encompassed both natural death and euthanasia on welfare grounds.
Mortality was listed as the outcome for the majority of animals (57.4%; n = 18,153), with an average mortality rate of 53.6% ( Table 1 , Fig 5 ). Overall mortality among birds and reptiles was slightly greater than the average (55.7% and 57.4%, respectively; Table 1 ), whilst mortality in amphibians was highest at 67.9% (72/106). Lorikeets had the highest mortality rate at 75.2%, whilst Australian pelicans had the lowest mortality rate at 16.7% ( Fig 5a ).
(a) Proportion of total admissions for each species or multi-species group. Total annual (b) and mean monthly/seasonal (c) admissions resulting in positive outcomes and mortality. Trend lines are included in (b) to emphasise the increasing disparity between positive outcome and mortality over time.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.g005
Deaths due to HBC accounted for 26.0% of all admissions (8,208/31,626; Table 3 ). Mortality rates among individual species attributed to HBC ranged from 44.4% (microbats; 4/9) to 92.5% (eastern grey kangaroo; 468/506), with an overall mortality rate of 74.8%, and a mean mortality rate of 69.1% ( Table 3 , S5 Fig ). HBC also had the highest odds ratio for mortality at 3.3 ( Table 4 ).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.t003
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.t004
Dog attacks had the highest mean mortality rate at 72.7%, with 80.8% and 80.4% mortality rates in avians and reptiles, respectively ( Table 3 ). The relative risk of dog attack was second only to HBC, at 1.333, and the odds ratio for mortality ranged from 0.542 in amphibians to 3.741 in reptiles ( Table 4 , S4 Table ). Cat attacks also resulted in high mortality rates, ranging from 39.1% in green tree snakes to 81.3% in native ducks (with the omission of animals that had fewer than 4 cat attack admissions; Table 3 , S5 Fig ). The relative risk for cat attacks (1.126) was lower than that for dog attacks ( Table 4 ).
The overall rate of positive outcomes was 42.6% ( n = 13,473), and the average rate of positive outcomes ranged from 32.1% for amphibians to 58.1% for eutherian mammals (Tables 1 and 3 , S2 Table ). Marsupials had 50.1% positive outcomes and 49.9% mortality across all CFA ( Table 1 ).
Orphaned or dependent young carried the highest rate of positive outcomes (77.9%), which was high in all groups, ranging upwards from 69.0% of marsupials, and the associated relative risk of mortality for all species was only 0.366 (Tables 3 and 4 ). The relative risk of mortality was lower than average in avians, reptiles and eutherians ( S4 Table ). Entanglements had a relatively high positive outcome rate, at 53.5% on average, with reptiles and eutherians exhibiting very high positive outcome rates (76.5% and 76.4%, respectively) ( Table 3 , S3 Table ). Relative risk of mortality was also low at 0.748, although the risk was higher for marsupials and eutherians ( Table 4 , S4 Table ).
Overall, increases in annual admissions were mirrored by increases in mortality rate ( Fig 5b ), however, this was not accompanied by a change to the average annual mortality rate. There were no prominent seasonal differences between positive and negative outcomes overall ( Fig 5c ).
Native wildlife faces an ever-increasing range and magnitude of threats with the continuing increase of human population, associated urbanisation and anthropogenic-driven climate change being of immediate concern. Several studies have characterised declines in particular species or animal groups, whilst others have examined the impacts of a specific threat in a single biogeographical location, yet few have quantified the factors contributing to morbidities and mortalities longitudinally across a wide taxonomic range of native fauna.
This study has the widest breadth of any longitudinal analysis to date on the animals admitted to a WRC. It examines and critically analyses trends in admissions, causes for admission and animal outcomes over a twelve-year period at a WRC in South-East QLD, Australia. We observed a mean annual admission rate of 2,635 animals for the dataset examined, comparable to some previous studies in Europe, Africa and USA [ 19 , 24 , 26 , 61 , 62 ]. Differences in admission rates between WRCs in different countries or biogeographical areas are largely a consequence of variations in species richness, human population density, local natural and anthropogenic threats, admission capacity and cultural attitudes to wildlife.
WRC databases provide an opportunity for wildlife monitoring
Mammalian and avian taxa were the most commonly admitted groups in our study, reflecting the abundance and diversity of these groups in South-East QLD. Mammals comprised over 50% ( n = 15,826) of our dataset, providing a wealth of knowledge regarding the diversity and abundance of these native animals in South-East QLD. Of these, koalas, possums and flying foxes were among the five most admitted animals overall, highlighting the need for us to understand the human-induced pressures placed on these animals. A further 35.2% of our studied admissions were avians. This is considerably lower than other studies that report up to 57.1% [ 47 ] in the UK, and even 90% [ 63 ] in South Africa, whilst higher than a study from the USA (12.2%) [ 24 ].
We expect that these discrepancies are largely due to differences in species richness in SEQ compared to other regions [ 13 , 23 , 43 , 49 , 64 , 65 ]. These differences will inform and influence monitoring efforts and conservation priorities. We focussed only on terrestrial and freshwater species (including avians), omitting marine species as we consider these to be threatened by distinct factors warranting their own analysis.
An overall increase in admissions was witnessed over the study period, which we believe is largely attributed to human population increases, as evidenced by the increase over time of admissions due to human-associated CFA. This is supported by human population growth in the Sunshine Coast region from 236,654 residents in 2006 to 346,522 in 2016 [ 66 ]: linear regression of the human population and admissions over this time period showed a correlation coefficient of 0.9999 (R 2 of 0.9998; p = 0.006). The population is expected to reach 500,000 by 2031 [ 67 ], which we anticipate will result in further increases in wildlife admissions to AZWH.
Human activities are contributing to the decline of Australian icons
Given their iconic nature as representatives of the unique fauna found in Australia, and “vulnerable” status (up from “least concern” in 2008) [ 68 ], the health, welfare and conservation status of koalas continue to be of prime interest for the Australian public and the international community. Koala populations have suffered massive decline over the last 30 years, particularly in QLD, with recent localised population collapses documented [ 4 , 5 , 69 ]. Emphasising the precarious nature of the koala’s survival in South-East QLD, koala admissions were high and constant throughout the study period, consistent with reports from other WRCs [ 1 , 3 – 5 , 69 ].
Major threats to the koala include habitat fragmentation, road trauma and disease [ 4 , 69 ]. Land clearing, to facilitate urban expansion and agriculture is also having devastating effects on the welfare of native fauna worldwide [ 37 ]. Whilst we did not directly measure habitat fragmentation in our study, most koala admissions were from urbanised areas with high numbers of car strikes, dog attacks and animals found in abnormal locations (e.g. telegraph poles and bridges), demonstrating a clear link between urban encroachment and its effect on koalas. Chlamydial disease is highly prevalent in koalas from South-East QLD and has been identified as a key threat to koala populations [ 70 , 71 ]. As such, identifying and quantifying the prevalence of chlamydial disease in koalas is vital for ongoing management. Urogenital disease caused by Chlamydia pecorum can diminish the fecundity of the population as it can lead to infertility, whilst ocular disease can lead to blindness and increased risk of morbidity. Overt chlamydial disease, in the form of a stained rump and inflamed exudative eyes, is one of the most common reasons for koala rescue and admissions to WRCs in South-East QLD, yet hospital databases may not always accurately capture this as a primary CFA. In 2013, AZWH revised their animal accession/admission data capture and on-site database to enhance both the quality of animal admission data and ability to report on CFA. This process included revisions to CFA categories and the inclusion of a category for ‘overt signs of disease’. As a result, admissions for overt signs of disease appeared to increase markedly from mid-2013 ( Fig 4 ), yet realistically, the prevalence of overt chlamydial disease in koalas was similar to previous years. Our study was able to demonstrate how advances in the accuracy of data recording can result in an improved understanding of true threats to wildlife.
The most commonly admitted multi-species group in this study was possums, which are prolific in South-East QLD and thrive in urban areas. Due to their widespread nature and high density within urban and peri-urban regions, possums are predisposed to anthropogenic-related threats as demonstrated by high numbers of cat attacks, dog attacks and car strikes in this study, all of which resulted in high proportions of mortality (72.0%, 82.4% and 81.5%, respectively).
Another iconic Australian marsupial is the kangaroo. A recent study of eastern grey kangaroo with an overlapping study area, but also encompassing other regions of Australia, found that 42% of studied populations were in decline, with the most prominent impacts found in areas of high, ongoing urbanisation and transport infrastructure development [ 72 ]. In support of these findings, within our study area, 43.4% of eastern grey kangaroos were admitted due to car strike, with 92.5% of those incidents resulting in mortality; eastern grey kangaroos had the fourth highest total mortality rate. Interestingly, small macropods fared better than eastern grey kangaroos following car strikes for which they were commonly admitted, with more than double the positive outcome rate (16.6%), which was contrary to expectations as they have similar physiological and behavioural traits other than body size. Overall these results reiterate the substantive negative impacts of building roads through remaining habitat or habitat linkage pathways of animals that are already vulnerable due to previous habitat modification and destruction at a landscape scale, in the absence of the implementation of adequate conservation strategies to mitigate the negative impact. By addressing factors such as vehicle density, vehicle speed, signage, road side habitat and lighting (including daylight savings time) and appropriately designed wildlife corridors, the impact of vehicle collisions can be reduced [ 3 , 16 , 73 ]. However, the rate of human population expansion and urbanisation in our study area, as well as across many global regions, mean that vehicle associated wildlife mortality will still occur and likely constitutes one of the most prominent threats to the persistence of viable wild populations of many taxa.
The highest mortality rates of any taxa in this study were for lorikeets. Rainbow lorikeets are one of the most commonly observed birds in Australia with a natural distribution along the east coast [ 74 ] but are considered pests in other parts of Australia and New Zealand [ 75 ]. Whilst they were most commonly admitted in the hit window category, tree-felling and disease were also common reasons for lorikeets to be admitted. Disease resulted in a 94.9% mortality rate in lorikeets. Two diseases are primarily responsible for this: Psittacine beak and feather disease, a skin disease caused by Circovirus that is often fatal [ 76 ]; and necrotising enteritis, a gastrointestinal disease caused by Clostridia spp [ 77 ]. The latter is associated with altered dietary regimes associated with human habitat modification, or in some instances ingestion of inappropriate food directly sourced from humans in the form of garden bird-feeders and human food [ 77 , 78 ], providing yet another example of the preventable impact of human activities on wildlife.
Human-related CFA contribute to higher wildlife mortality rates
Unfavourable outcomes were statistically more likely if the CFA was domestic cat or dog attack, car strike or entanglements. The combined average mortality rate of these four human-related CFA was 61.3%., with the relative risk of mortality ranging from 1.3 to 1.6 compared to 0.4 and 0.7 for orphaning or overt signs of disease, respectively. These differences are due to the severity of the trauma caused by cats, dogs, cars and fencing and netting, which reduce the likelihood of successful rehabilitation, and are also likely underrepresented in our data given that orphaning would be in many instances a result of human linked impacts on the parents of orphaned individuals.
Entanglements were one of the human-related CFA responsible for a high proportion of admissions and mortality, again driving home the significant impact human activities have on a diverse range of wildlife. In the case of flying foxes, which were the fourth most commonly admitted taxa in our study, 51% were admitted due to entanglements, which resulted in a 57.6% mortality rate. Whilst we grouped all types of entanglements on the basis of insufficient data, a recent study in Victoria showed that a high proportion of animals were admitted due to fruit netting entanglements (36.8%), where up to 56.1% of each entanglement subcategory resulted in mortality [ 6 ]. This was one of the highest mortality rates in our study and suggests that changes in land management practices may be the most effective way of ameliorating native wildlife mortality associated with entanglement, particularly for terrestrial taxa. Within the study region, several local councils have initiatives such as ‘land for wildlife’, partly aimed at converting conventional barbed-wire livestock fencing into wildlife friendly options, as well as reducing the use of monofilament netting which present entanglement risk to taxa such as flying foxes [ 79 ]. However, these efforts rely on goodwill from landholders, and there is no legislative requirement at either the local, state or federal level to enforce such practices. This highlights the need for consistent, overarching policy to guide land management practices toward mitigation of unnecessary risk to native fauna.
Estimates in the USA place annual cat-related predation in the billions [ 21 , 22 ], and predation of native animals by both feral and domestic cats in Australia is similarly devastating. For example, predation by feral cats has resulted in the early localised extinction of indigenous wildlife such as the western quoll ( Dasyurus geoffroii ) and golden bandicoot ( Isoodon auratus ), from islands off Western Australia [ 80 ], with more recent declines in numbers of other marsupials such as the northern brown bandicoot ( Isoodon macrourus ) in Northern Australia [9, 81, among other examples [ 81 , 82 , 83 ]. Cats are ubiquitous in Australia, with millions kept as pets that are permitted outdoors, and others free-ranging in urban environments and the wild [ 82 – 84 ]. Cat attacks have particularly serious effects on birds and reptiles, and microbats are also especially susceptible to cat trauma, demonstrated by 63.6% mortality in our study, 28.7% of bat casualties in a study in Italy [ 85 ] and around half of the traumatic deaths of bats found in Germany [ 86 ]. The admissions figures for cat attacks in our dataset are deceiving as we omitted animals that were DOA. Cats are generalist predators that are known to consume prey, which has also been documented in Northern Australia: birds, small mammals and small reptiles are common food sources when available [ 87 ]. Such mortalities were not captured in our dataset. Further, cat removal measures have resulted in reversal of population declines in some areas [ 88 , 89 ] suggesting that such measures may be successful elsewhere. The culling of dingoes in many Australian jurisdictions has also been demonstrated to be detrimental to ecosystem functioning, as they act as top predators, often minimising the negative effects of feral mesopredators such as cats and foxes [ 90 – 93 ]. Further, cats do not only prey on native fauna but may also out-compete smaller bodied native predators such as quolls for resources [ 89 ], proving another, indirect, effect of the negative impact of such introduced species on our native fauna.
Dog attacks were another CFA resulting in significant mortality, with reptiles highly represented in this category. This is in agreement with another Australian study that showed around 49.2 to 52.4% of admissions of bluetongue lizards, which are common in backyards, were admitted following dog attacks, and 70% of all dog attack admissions did not recover [ 8 ]. A study in Tennessee however, reported far fewer admissions (only 6.1%) of reptiles due to dog attacks, where “human-induced trauma” was listed as the most common CFA for reptiles [ 24 ]. Dog attacks were also responsible for high mortality rates of koalas in our study. This is another example of the value of local wildlife monitoring to ascertain the specific threats faced by wildlife in distinct regions.
The influence of animal morphology and behavioural traits on predisposition to threats
Habitat characteristics, foraging practises, circadian movement patterns, size and other behavioural traits appear to predispose some taxa to certain threats, which are augmented by human-induced habitat alteration in the absence of suitable measures for impact reduction. The CFA for which this appears most clear is HBC, which was the leading CFA in our study. A detailed review of road trauma throughout Europe reported on average 2 to 8.5 million road kills per year among birds, reptiles and mammals (particularly ungulates) in countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium and Sweden [ 15 ]. The authors suggested that these animals are predisposed to vehicle collisions due to behavioural and ecological factors. A recent review of the propensity of wildlife to suffer from car strikes highlighted the increased risk for omnivorous avian taxa [ 94 ], which can be correlated in our study with the high rate of car strikes for tawny frogmouths, which are nocturnal omnivores with a tendency to hunt for insects that are attracted to car headlights on the road. Other avian species utilise roadside telegraph poles and fences as vantage points for hunting, further predisposing them to vehicle strikes [ 58 ].
Similarly, hedgehogs, which are nocturnal animals with morphological and behavioural traits resembling echidnas, (i.e. relatively slow movement, poor eyesight, limited defence against car strikes) have been documented to be profoundly affected by car strikes in the UK, with admission and mortality rates due to car strikes of 10.3% and over 85%, respectively [ 50 ]. In our study echidnas had a much higher admission rate due to car strikes (72.2%) with a corresponding mortality rate of 56.6%. Other taxa, such as herpetofauna are predisposed to car hits as they are drawn to the microclimate of a warm road, or they may be migrating to or from a hibernation site [ 51 , 94 ]. Turtles are also disadvantaged at evading car strikes due their slow speed, as evidenced by previous Australian research that reported an 82.3% admission rate of Long-necked turtles ( Chelodina longicollis ) over a 13-year study, with an overall mortality rate of 60.9% after impact with a motor vehicle [ 8 ]. This is comparable to the mortality rate of freshwater turtles in our study at 56.6%, as well as the morbidity/mortality rate reported for three turtle species at a WRC in Virginia [ 96 ]. These findings are also consistent with a study that showed that maximum sprint speed may be a determinant of an animal’s ability to evade injury or mortality associated with car strikes [ 95 ]. Further, Heigl et al reported a higher number of road-killed amphibians and reptiles on agricultural roads than municipal roads. Whilst we didn’t measure this in our study, our common admissions area does include rural and bushland zones, so a similar trend may be apparent in our study.
We saw prominent differences in the admission and outcome rates of predatory, aggressive, or territorial birds versus more placid birds. For example, there were only 351 admissions of raptors, which is a grouping of 17 species. Raptors were the only birds apart from pelicans and noisy miners that were almost never admitted due to cat or dog attack, with low admissions most likely to their low relative abundance, coupled with their behavioural characteristics, which comprise ambush attack on prey from high vantage points, with little time spent in vulnerable positions. Conversely, noisy miners, although smaller in body size than raptors, are gregarious and territorial, forming colonies that can contain hundreds of birds providing a means of communal territory defence, which could explain the relative paucity of dog and cat attacks. These behavioural traits may also influence people’s perceptions of the value of certain wildlife and the likelihood of presenting them to a WRC, for example in the case of noisy miners.
Severe weather events result in spikes in admissions
Besides an overall increase in admissions over the course of our study, we observed several distinct peaks in total admissions (2010, 2014, 2016, 2017) that may be correlated with severe local weather events affecting the region of South-East QLD, Australia. December 2010 recorded the “wettest December on record” with widespread heavy rainfall and thunderstorms, culminating in one of the most significant flood events in QLD’s recorded history [ 97 ]. Flood events damage animal habitat and alter animal movement and behavioural patterns, often resulting in mortality, displacement, injury, stress or disease. We observed an expected increase in orphaned cases in December 2010, particularly for birds and marsupials. Reptile admissions did not show the same trend, which may reflect the ability of snakes in particular to traverse floodwaters by swimming. Animals capable of climbing, which are heavily represented in our dataset by arboreal marsupials, may not have been as heavily affected by flooding, but thunderstorms, such as the ‘super-cell’ that affected the city of Brisbane in South-East QLD ( Fig 1 ) in November 2016 [ 98 ], likely resulted in mass animal displacement and injury, evidenced by a similar increase in orphan cases at that time. The same month also saw a heatwave in Kilcoy (~40 km west of AZWH), which, combined with recent land-clearing in the area, resulted in mass morbidity and mortalities of flying foxes.
Unusually dry and hot months were seen in Spring 2014, with QLD temperature records broken through October and November 2014 following ongoing and widespread drought [ 99 ] (e.g. temperatures of 35.4 to 44.0), prior to a damaging super cell storm in Brisbane at the end of November with heavy wind gusts and large hail stones [ 100 ]. These events coincided with peaks in avian and marsupial admissions. Similarly, 2017 was Australia’s third-warmest year on record, with persistently warmer than average days year-round [ 101 ]. High ambient temperatures cause morbidity and mortality due to heat stress, whilst prolonged drought destroys habitat and limits food and water sources. Alongside the more obvious and conspicuous threats associated with human activities, such as car strikes, these results highlight that anthropogenically induced climate change will likely exacerbate threats to wildlife, due to the predicted higher frequency of severe weather events that have not been as prevalent in the recent evolutionary history of Australian fauna.
Seasonality of admissions
Previous studies have shown that admissions to WRCs are markedly higher throughout the breeding season of included taxa (commonly occurring in spring) [ 5 , 13 , 47 , 85 , 102 , 103 . As weather begins to warm, many native species begin courtship and mating, prior to nesting, giving birth and carrying young. Some young may also go through weaning, and later disperse during the spring and summer months. Studies of birds and mammals in WRCs in South Africa and Colorado exhibited peaks in overall and orphaned/juvenile admissions during their common breeding season [ 17 , 63 ]. The same trend was also apparent in a 15-year longitudinal study of little owls in Spain in which orphaned young were the most common CFA overall [ 13 ]. Furthermore, peak admissions were also reported for reptiles in late spring in Victoria, Australia [ 8 ]. We observed similar increases in admissions in our study, with higher admission rates overall during the spring months (September, October, November; mean difference of 356.8 from autumn; p < 0.001). The precise timing of species-specific admission peaks varied between animal groups, which is likely a reflection of the relative length of breeding seasons, mating and nesting habits, gestation period, and time to independence for different taxa. Peak periods of juvenile dispersal also coincide with influxes of holidaying families and tourist drawn to the Sunshine Coast region, for the summer Christmas holiday period (December and January), resulting in increased human activity and motor vehicle use. We believe this cyclical, transient population increase and its effects on wildlife can be used to predict the long-term effects of ongoing urbanisation in the area and further highlight the need for proactive conservation management to be a paramount consideration in short and long term town planning for the region.
Limitations and future directions
The primary but unavoidable limitation of this study lies in the fact that causes for morbidity that occur in close proximity to, or are directly due to, human activities are strongly selected for in our study. Car strikes, entanglements, domestic dog and cat attacks, window hits and mower strikes are all examples of this bias, with displacements from normal habitat also potentially bringing animals into closer proximity with humans and their activities. Further, charismatic and non-threatening animals such as possums and several birds are more likely to be admitted to WRCs than seemingly dangerous, unpredictable or large animals such as snakes, kangaroos and large reptiles. This likely results in an under-representation of many taxa and some CFA. These limitations are common among these types of studies and have been raised by other authors [ 19 ]. Importantly, they highlight the significant impact of human activities on wildlife welfare and the need for awareness and education. There may also be a related bias toward diurnal animals, as humans are more likely to present injured animals during the day.
Some CFA categories are likely under-represented or may be mis-categorised. One example is cat attack admissions, whereby the devastating effects of domestic and feral cat predation on Australian wildlife are well established [ 81 ], however their mode of predation often results in mortality or injury in a manner that does not result in WRC admission [ 84 ], or results in immediate death, and hence were omitted from our study. This is also likely to be true of fox predation, leading to under-representation within this dataset. Disease may also be under-represented. For example, reptile viral disease is often undetected if funding is unavailable to carry out specific diagnostic tests, and botulism in birds may be placed into the poison category.
Whilst other studies have also reported the age and sex breakdown of admissions and outcomes of particular species, the emphasis of this study was on longitudinal data for a range of diverse species and therefore did not focus at that level of detail. Future studies within the region and comparative studies between regions could focus on age and sex as factors contributing to admissions and outcomes of certain species or animal groups. This data can also be mined as a tool for general wildlife monitoring.
Lastly, many admissions were eliminated from our analysis. This included cases in which a single cause for admission could not be distinguished. Again, this appears to be common practise in this style of study, and authors have addressed this differently. For example, by combining all traumas, or by including an “unknown” or “other” category. We opted to include as many clearly delineated admission categories as possible, based on information given upon presentation that is clarified by veterinary examination. Some CFA frequently occur together, such as car strikes of the mother leading to orphaned young, which further confounds exact numbers in each category. We predict that in cases where more than one CFA may be evident, the animal had a lower chance for survival, as studies have shown that trauma severity increases mortality risk [ 47 ]. Our subset analysis of CFA before and after the changes to data capture methods at AZWH, showed that, by and large, the top six CFA have remained constant ( S5 Table ), primarily affecting the overt signs of disease category, admissions for which increased dramatically following this change ( S3 Fig , S5 Table ). The main impact was thus on the proportion of admissions we could include in our final dataset due to a more complete reporting system. However, overall sample sizes were robust, and the main findings of this study were not impacted.
From our retrospective longitudinal study of wildlife admissions to a WRC, it is clear that direct and indirect human-related factors are key drivers of morbidity and mortality of wildlife in Australia. Car strikes, entanglements and attacks by domestic pets accounted for over 80% of all admissions, and together these admission categories had low survival rates compared to “natural” causes for admission.
We observed a steady increase in the number of admissions to AZWH that mirrors the increasing human population in the corresponding area. Whilst we did not directly measure habitat-fragmentation and loss in this study, its effects are evident and the continued population growth and consequential urban expansion in this area will inevitably be accompanied by land clearing and habitat modification. We predict that without intervention, this will result in a continued increase in admissions and ultimately, the ongoing decline of local wildlife populations.
Given the above, it stands to reason that substantial, human-driven conservation management is required to minimise the collateral damage wrought by modern civilisation. Hence, proactive and strategic management efforts to mitigate threats to biodiversity, and to the survival of wild populations of native species are an imminent and critical need, and it is also critical that these are underpinned by overarching legislative control and policy to balance the needs for human development alongside the conservation of biodiversity. Anthropogenic threats may be minimised by thoughtful landscape scale planning, incorporating biological corridors, strategic habitat restoration and defragmentation, implementation of technology- based harm mitigation strategies, such as highway alert systems, as well as measures to minimise the spread of infectious diseases. Education, awareness and fundraising campaigns regarding thoughtful pet ownership alongside wildlife friendly driving habits and conservation strategies that aim to mitigate threats posed by feral animals will also be a step toward ameliorating the detrimental effects of human activities on wildlife. Without significant action, we are likely to are likely to see indelible changes to the unique Australian biota including more human-induced localised extinctions and the decline of species that are currently deemed ‘common’.
Supporting information
S1 file. list of species and species pools (sorted into animal groups) studied between 2006 and 2017..
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s001
S2 File. List of causes for admission studied between 2006 and 2017.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s002
S1 Table. Number of monthly admissions to AZWH per species or multi-species group between January 2006 and December 2017 (inclusive).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s003
S2 Table. Number of admissions to AZWH in each CFA category.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s004
S3 Table. Outcomes of the top six CFA.
Raw values and proportions of admissions for each species or multi-species group are both presented.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s005
S4 Table. Odds ratio and relative risk analysis for the top six CFA, for each animal group.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s006
S5 Table. Analysis of changes to the order of the top six CFA following changes to database capture.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s007
S1 Fig. Animal admissions to the Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital between January 2006 and December 2017 (inclusive).
Total annual (a) and average (b) admissions per animal group. Taxa are coloured based on higher classifications; see legend.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s008
S2 Fig. Monthly animal admissions to AZWH between January 2006 and December 2017 (inclusive) for each animal group.
(a) avians; (b) reptiles; (c) amphibians; (d) marsupial mammals; (e) eutherian mammals. Trend lines are included to highlight the overall increase in admissions over the study period. Note the different Y axis ranges.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s009
S3 Fig. Monthly animal admissions to AZWH between January 2006 and December 2017 (inclusive) for the top six CFA.
(a) hit by car; (b) overt signs of disease; (c) orphaned/dependent young; (d) entanglements; (e) dog attacks; (f) cat attacks. Trend lines are included to highlight the overall increase in admissions over the study period. Note the different Y axis ranges.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s010
S4 Fig. Seasonality of animal admissions to AZWH between January 2006 and December 2017 (inclusive) for the top six CFA.
(a) hit by car; (b) overt signs of disease; (c) orphaned/dependent young; (d) entanglements; (e) dog attacks; (f) cat attacks. The mean per animal group is shown. Taxa are coloured based on higher classifications; see legend. Note the different Y axis ranges.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s011
S5 Fig. Outcomes of the top six CFA.
Values depicted are the proportions of total admissions for each species or multi-species group, for each CFA: (a) hit by car; (b) overt signs of disease; (c) orphaned/dependent young; (d) entanglements; (e) dog attacks; (f) cat attacks. Taxa are ordered per mortality rate (beige bars); note the different order for graphs (a) to (f).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206958.s012
Acknowledgments
We are greatly appreciative of input from the Australia Zoo Wildlife hospital, especially Kathy Whitefield. We highly value the continued contribution of volunteers and wildlife carers.
View Article
Google Scholar
PubMed/NCBI
27. United Nations. World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables. In: Department of Economic and Social Affairs PD, editor. New York: Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP/248; 2017.
35. McDonald R, Marcotullio P. Global Effects of Urbanization on Ecosystem Services. In: Niemelä J, Breuste JH, Elmqvist T, Guntenspergen G, James P, McIntyre NE, editors. Urban Ecology: Patterns, Processes, and Applications: Oxford Scholarship Online; 2011.
49. Bouchon-Small A. The rescue and rehabilitation of wildlife in South East Queensland with a case study of the birds of prey: University of Queensland; 2015 (Thesis).
54. Trocini S, Pacioni C, Warren K, Butcher J, Robertson I. Wildlife disease passive surveillance: the potential role of wildlife rehabilitation centres. National Wildlife Rehabilitation Conference; Canberra, ACT, Australia2008.
58. Burton DL, Dobar KA, editors. Morbidity and mortality of urban wildlife in the midwestern United States. Proceedings 4th International Urban Wildlife Symposium; 2004.
59. ISO. International Organization for Standardization. Persistent stored modules (SQL/PSM). SQL2016.
60. IBM Corp. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 24.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.; 2016.
61. RSPCA: Wildlife Hospital; What we do 2017 [22/05/2018]. https://www.rspcaqld.org.au/what-we-do/care-for-animals/wildlife-hospital
75. Pest & Disease Information Service. Rainbow lorikeet: management. WA Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development. South Perth, WA, Australia 2018.
78. NSW Government. The danger of feeding lorikeets. 2018.
79. Queensland Land for Wildlife. Wildlife Friendly Fencing and Netting. Healthy Land and Water; 2017.
84. Dickman C. Overview of the impacts of feral cats on australian native fauna. University of Sydney Institute of Wildlife Research and School of Biological Sciences for the Australian Nature Conservation Agency; 1996.
89. Denny E, Dickman CR. Review of cat ecology and management strategies in Australia. Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre. Canberra, Australia:; 2010.
97. Bereau of Meteorology. Queensland in December 2010: The wettest December on record 2011 [16/05/2018]. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/month/qld/archive/201012.summary.shtml .
98. Bureau of Meteorology. Brisbane in November 2016: Very warm days; dry 2016 [16/05/2018]. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/month/qld/archive/201611.brisbane.shtml .
99. Bureau of Meteorology. Queensland in spring 2014: Dry over large parts of the State; some extremely hot days 2014 [16/05/2018]. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/season/qld/archive/201411.summary.shtml .
100. Bureau of Meteorlogy. Brisbane in November 2014: A hot month; severe thunderstorms lash the city 2014 [16/05/2018]. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/month/qld/archive/201411.brisbane.shtml .
101. Bureau of Meteorology. Annual climate statement 2017. 2018 [16/05/2018]. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/aus/ .
Articles on Australian wildlife
Displaying 1 - 20 of 24 articles.
Sugar gums have a reputation as risky branch-droppers but they’re important to bees, parrots and possums
Gregory Moore , The University of Melbourne
I collect marsupial poo. A crack team of volunteers across Australia helps me out
Angela Russell , La Trobe University
Barkindji custodians near Broken Hill continue to care for ancestral dingo remains with help from archaeologists
Amy Mosig Way , Australian Museum ; Barbara Quayle , Indigenous Knowledge , and Dave Doyle , Indigenous Knowledge
They sense electric fields, tolerate snow and have ‘mating trains’: 4 reasons echidnas really are remarkable
Kate Dutton-Regester , The University of Queensland
Dingo attacks are rare – but here’s what you need to know about dingo safety
Bill Bateman , Curtin University
The historic COP15 outcome is an imperfect game-changer for saving nature. Here’s why Australia did us proud
Sarah Bekessy , RMIT University ; Brendan Wintle , The University of Melbourne ; Jack Pascoe , The University of Melbourne ; James Fitzsimons , Deakin University ; Rachel Morgain , The University of Melbourne , and Rebecca Spindler , UNSW Sydney
Research reveals 111 times Australian quolls reportedly chewed on human corpses
David Eric Peacock , University of Adelaide
7 reasons Australia is the lucky country when it comes to snakes
Christina N. Zdenek , The University of Queensland
This adorable mouse was considered extinct for over 100 years — until we found it hiding in plain sight
Emily Roycroft , Australian National University
Fox scents are so potent they can force a building evacuation. Understanding them may save our wildlife
Stuart McLean , University of Tasmania
Photos from the field: zooming in on Australia’s hidden world of exquisite mites, snails and beetles
Nick Porch , Deakin University
A rare discovery: we found the sugar glider is actually three species, but one is disappearing fast
Teigan Cremona , Charles Darwin University ; Alyson Stobo-Wilson , Charles Darwin University ; Andrew M. Baker , Queensland University of Technology ; Steve Cooper , South Australian Museum , and Sue Carthew , Charles Darwin University
Turn off the porch light: 6 easy ways to stop light pollution from harming our wildlife
Emily Fobert , Flinders University ; Katherine Dafforn , Macquarie University , and Mariana Mayer-Pinto , UNSW Sydney
Australia’s threatened birds declined by 59% over the past 30 years
Elisa Bayraktarov , The University of Queensland and Jaana Dielenberg , The University of Queensland
Natural history on TV: how the ABC took Australian animals to the people
Gay Hawkins , Western Sydney University and Ben Dibley , Western Sydney University
What happens after you take injured wildlife to the vet?
Bronwyn Orr , University of Sydney
Is that selfie really worth it? Why face time with wild animals is a bad idea
Kathryn Teare Ada Lambert , University of New England
Australia’s species need an independent champion
Euan Ritchie , Deakin University ; Dale Nimmo , Charles Sturt University ; Don Driscoll , Deakin University ; Geoffrey Heard , Charles Sturt University ; James Watson , The University of Queensland ; Megan C Evans , The University of Queensland , and Tim Doherty , Deakin University
A venomous paradox: how deadly are Australia’s snakes?
Ronelle Welton , The University of Melbourne and Peter Hobbins , University of Sydney
Welcome to Australia, a land of creatures out to kill you… maybe
Ronelle Welton , The University of Melbourne
Related Topics
Australian fauna
Biodiversity
Endangered species
Native Australian wildlife
Venomous snakes
Wildlife conservation
Top contributors
Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin University
Research Manager, Melbourne Clinical And Translational Sciences, The University of Melbourne
Emeritus Professor in Animal Behaviour, University of New England
Senior Lecturer, Public Sector Management, School of Business, UNSW Sydney
Head of Knowledge, Australian National Maritime Museum and Honorary Affiliate, University of Sydney
Professor in Ecology, Charles Sturt University
Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, Deakin University
Leader, Science Communication Teaching Program, The University of Melbourne
Honorary Research Fellow, University of Sydney
Vice Chancellor's Research Fellow, Edith Cowan University
Professor in Sustainability and Urban Planning, Leader, Interdisciplinary Conservation Science Research Group (ICON Science), RMIT University
Professor in Conservation Science, School of the Environment, The University of Queensland
Professor, Research Institute for Environment & Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Charles Darwin University
Senior Lecturer in marine ecology, UNSW Sydney
Professor of Environmental Management, The University of Queensland
X (Twitter)
Unfollow topic Follow topic
The AWPC provides this resource list for non-commercial research, educational, advocacy and land management activities of Australians on behalf of biodiversity and wildlife.
National habitat conservation programs, kangaroo advocacy groups, wildlife rescue organisations, state-based habitat conservation programs, dingo advocacy groups, general & legal advice resources, children's books, radio & podcasts, national wildlife education & advocacy groups, other state wildlife action groups, law & advice - flora, fauna, natural environment conservation, films & tv programs, habitat conservation programs - national, government conservation agreement.
A legally binding conservation agreement between the Australian Government Environment Minister and a private landholder for the protection and conservation of biodiversity in an area of land or sea. A conservation agreement protects biodiversity and heritage values. Some large-scale examples are declared World Heritage properties or the ecological character of a declared Ramsar wetland or other common habitat/ biodiversity values on private property. See also National Reserve System.
National Reserve System
The National Reserve System offers private landholders, particularly farmers and graziers, conservation agreements to voluntarily place perpetual covenants over parts of their working properties, conserving land for future generations. In return they receive government support, including relief from rates and taxes, possibly infrastructure support, and expert advice.
1800 900 090
Humane Society International Wildlife Land Trust (WLT) Australia
The Humane Society International Wildlife Land Trust (WLT) Australia is a free and voluntary program to preserve and protect habitats and wildlife on non-reserved and private land in a network of sanctuaries throughout Australia.
1800 333 737
The Nature Conservancy (Australia)
Nature Conservancy Australia works with individuals, local communities, government agencies, private corporations, and not-for-profit organisations to protect natural areas, transform management practices and inspire action for the conservation of wildlife, oceans, land and freshwater.
03 8346 8600
The Nature Conservancy
Australian Wildlife Conservancy
Australian Wildlife Conservancy is a private owner and manager of over 6.5 million hectares of conservation land in the Kimberley, Cape York, Kati Thanda (Lake Eyre) and in the Top End and works to develop and implement a new model for wildlife conservation.
Landcare Australia’s mission is to protect, enhance or restore the natural environment through sustainable agricultural practices, conservation activities, including expertise with revegetation, and fostering community spirit.
1800 151 105
Habitat Conservation Programs - STATE-BASED
* Land for Wildlife in states and the Northern Territory offers landholders and managers a voluntary, free and non-legally binding program to create or protect wildlife habitats on public and private property. The scheme offers property assessment and advice whether for a farm, a bush block, a council park, or a school ground.
Land for Wildlife (South East Queensland)
Land for Wildlife (Mackay)
Land for wildlife (townsville), the private protected area program (queensland).
The Private Protected Area Program is a state government voluntary conservation covenanting program. The program encourages private landholders to conserve their land through the declaration of nature refuges or special wildlife reserves. Financial incentives may be offered through the Nature Assist program or Nature Refuge Landholder Grants (NRLG).
Queensland Water and Land Carers (QWaLC) offers representation, advocacy, promotion, networking and insurance administration in community-based approaches to create more productive and sustainable farms, conservation and managing and protecting natural resources.
The Biodiversity Conservation Trust offers legally binding conservation covenants between the NSW state government and private landholders. These agreements include Biodiversity Stewardship, Conservation and Wildlife Refuges.
*Land for Wildlife voluntary, free and non-legally binding program to create or protect wildlife habitats on public and private property. Offers property assessment and advice whether for a farm, a bush block, a council park, or a school ground.
In NSW regional activities are coordinated state-wide by the Community Environment Network (CEN). Contact CEN for your regional coordinating agency. CEN: PO Box 149 Ourimbah, NSW 2258
*Notable that the ACT, that kills kangaroos, does not have a habitat-focused Land for Wildlife or support for private conservation programs that we can find.
*Land for Wildlife (Victoria)
Land for Wildlife (Vic) similar program to NSW and Qld – above. Victoria’s program is run directly by the state government. Contact it for regional/local coordinators. Land for Wildlife State Coordinator details: Department of Environment Land, Water and Planning Peter Johnson
Trust for Nature (TFN) works with private landholders and government agencies to protect and restore native plant and wildlife habitats in Victoria. TFN negotiates permanent and legally binding covenants between TFN and landowners and managers. TFN also purchases private properties with unique conservation value, to restore and re-sell with perpetual conservation covenants.
Land for Wildlife (Tas), similar program to that in other states, above. Delivered by Tasmanian Land Conservancy. Landholders benefit from onsite assessments and advice about land management, species and habitats. Tasmanian Land Conservancy Based in Lower Sandy Bay, TAS
State government program offering conservation covenants to manage and protect native flora and fauna, natural wetlands, and geo conservation areas. Covenants are legally binding and are usually permanent, unless registered for a fixed term. Members benefit from land tax exemptions, rate rebates (in some council areas), support and advice.
Similar program to those above, Kangaroo Island Land for Wildlife (KI LfW) is a voluntary, biodiversity conservation program that supports landholders with assessment and advice.
State government voluntary program encouraging and assisting private or public landowners to provide habitats for wildlife on their property. Sanctuaries are declared on land containing areas of established habitat where landowners are committed to conservation management.
Department of Environment and Water South Australia
08 8204 1910
Northern Territory
*land for wildlife top end.
Land for Wildlife (Top End) is managed by Territory Natural Resource Management for retention of habitat and promoting wildlife awareness and education. The program covers residential and rural blocks, conservation reserves, woodland, riverine landscapes, lagoons, sand sheet, coastal vine thicket and monsoon rainforest.
TCAs support land managers to protect areas of ecologically significant habitat, including wetlands and rivers, escarpment country and woodland. TCAs are 10-year voluntary agreements between Territory Natural Resource Management (TNRM) and private landowners. The program is funded through the Australian Government’s National Landcare Program.
Land for Wildlife (WA) is coordinated through the Department of Parks and Wildlife and Natural Resource Management (now Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions), for landholders to retain and provide wildlife habitat on their property.
Land for Wildlife Coordinator Species and Communities Branch
Private landowners and the WA Commissioner of Soil and Land Conservation establish conservation agreements for specified habitat areas. There are two types of covenants: Conservation Covenants (irrevocable) and Agreement to Reserve (ATR), which can be for perpetuity, or for specified time frames.
The Australian Wildlife Protection Council (AWPC) – that publishes this resource list – a national not-for-profit organisation dedicated to education and advocacy as a voice for Australian wildlife and its habitat. Working to stop persecution of some of Australia’s best-known native animals, not yet listed as endangered, has been a long-term focus. Re-establishing respect for and co-existence with all Australia’s unique animals and natural ecosystems are key goals.
Humane Society International, Australia (HSI)
HSI is an international animal advocacy and conservation not-for-profit. In Australia, HSI works to protect on-land and marine wildlife and its habitat. Facilitates a habitat conservation program, Wildlife Land Trust. HSI is also active in bushfire and disaster recovery for animals and works also to protect animals in agriculture.
A national not-for-profit dedicated to animal protection and to exposing cruelty against animals, particularly focused on farm and livestock animals, e.g. live export trade, and caged hens. Increasing focus on Australian wildlife, grants to smaller groups, submissions, disaster assistance, exposure of hunting and cruel practices against wildlife.
Voiceless is an animal protection charity in Australia that has focused on education and legal aspects of animal protection and has moved into grant-making for animal campaigns as a primary focus. Animal law research material and education resources remain on its website. Note Voiceless is not a legal advisory service.
People can subscribe to their mailing list or follow Voiceless on social media.
Groups and archives dedicated to kangaroo advocacy
With kangaroos (and dingos) now Australia’s most exploited and persecuted indigenous wildlife – a situation supported by government policies – much citizen research and advocacy has been dedicated to documenting the situation and to helping these animals regain respect and enjoy peaceful co-existence. Here are some online dedicated resources . See other resources with more general advocacy groups, books and films.
Within Australia
Thinkk: the think tank for kangaroos.
THINKK, published by scientists, is an archive of research and review documents about kangaroo treatment in Australia. The archive critically reviews the scientific evidence underpinning kangaroo management practices and issues with the commercial kangaroo industry including unhygienic field conditions. It also explores non-lethal management options that are consistent with ecology, animal welfare, human health, and ethics.
Animal Justice Party
AJP in the ACT, NSW, Victoria and Queensland initiated campaigns for kangaroos. In NSW, elected AJP representatives did the groundwork for a detailed and damning 2020 state legislative review into commercial and non-commercial kangaroo ‘management’ and welfare, that yielded much information but reform has yet to happen.
Advocacy, public awareness campaigns nationally and internationally against kangaroo commercial and non-commercial killing. Established by producers of film Kangaroo: A love-hate story. Organises World Kangaroo Day end of October.
Along with the Animal Justice Party NSW and independent scientific advisors, has been pursuing an awareness campaign in the European Union to stop countries buying kangaroo meat. Europe is now the biggest market for kangaroo meat.
Kangaroos at Risk – an independent scientific and cultural research project offering resource material on kangaroo history, science and management and provides analysis and critique of the evidence shaping the kangaroo space.
Animal defender based in Canberra. Campaigns and educates for all animals and particularly against the Australian Capital Territory government’s annual kangaroo killing program on suburban public reserves where the national icon is shot and kangaroo pouch joeys bludgeoned to death. — a situation that is still little known outside Australia’s national capital.
APA advocates in collaboration with Animal Liberation ACT, Save Canberra’s Kangaroos and, for legal issues with the Animal Defenders Office (ADO) in Canberra.
Animal Protection Alliance
Save Canberra's Kangaroos
A FB page for a collaborative campaign between all the defenders of ACT kangaroos with combined efforts to pressure the ACT government to stop the killing. Also initiator of a citizen science project to count kangaroos in ACT reserves that challenge inflated official numbers.
Victorian Kangaroo Alliance
Group advocating for kangaroos in Melbourne eastern region, in Victoria and nationally. Great kanga-focused website and Facebook for ongoing campaign information.
Mornington Peninsula Kangaroo Count (Count Your Mob, citizen science)
The Mornington Peninsula Wildlife Action Group (MPWAG) count your mob project collects long-term data to assess kangaroo populations, distribution, behaviour, and seasonal movements on the Mornington Peninsula. Anyone can participate by counting macropods and submitting a photo that records the time and location.
Kanga Watch Inc. was particularly active in Victoria and in Qld with a co-founder Lyn Gynther, having first-hand experienced in the kangaroo industry, featured in film Kangaroo: a love– hate story and also in book Injustice, hidden in plain sight the war on Australian nature… . Kanga Watch objective is legislative change to counter macropod killings.
Creative cowboy films’ Nature Knowledge Channel is an international resource that provides detailed analysis of the circumstances for wildlife alongside stories, films and the voices of the people dedicated to wildlife conservation.
International Kangaroo Protection Alliance (IKPA)
Some of above organisations and other not-for-profits that work for kangaroos are listed with links at International Kangaroo Protection Alliance (IKPA).
The Kangaroo Trail project, developed by the Australian Wildlife Protection Council and Dr David Croft promotes ‘rootourism’ and education about the remaining species of kangaroos in Australia. Tourists and locals alike can use the trail map to visit unique habitats and see kangaroos while supporting local tourism.
Based in California, the Center for a Humane Economy conducts a global kangaroo consumer campaign aimed at sports shoe businesses that use ‘k leather’, kangaroo leather, (traditionally Adidas Nike, Puma etc.).
UK Vegan animal advocacy group. Championed kangaroos since the 1990s and convinced UK supermarkets to stop carrying kangaroo products.
Groups and info dedicated to dingo advocacy
Animal liberation nsw.
Animal Liberation NSW have an active program of information and advocacy against government policies to poison with 1080 and shoot the Australian indigenous companion, the dingo. The resources also educate why 1080 is so awful and widely toxic that it has been banned in almost all countries except Australia and New Zealand which use it extensively.
Dingo sanctuaries can be found by a search on the internet.
State wildlife action and advocacy groups – other
Branches in states —- see above entry for kangaroos. Also advocate legislative change for dingoes, non-wildlife animals.
General - Queensland
Wildlife preservation society of queensland (wpsq).
WPSQ campaign for the survival of wildlife and ecosystems by monitoring wildlife populations consulting with government and speaking out against habitat destruction. WPSQ is not a wildlife rescue or care organisation but are happy to connect you with services and support.
Wildlife Victoria’s emergency response phone line provides 24 hours a day, 7 days a week access for reporting injured, sick and orphaned wildlife. This service includes both the Melbourne metro area and rural Victoria.
03 8400 7300
Birds - General
Birdlife australia.
Find a bird or a local branch of Birdlife Australia and much educational information.
Regional Victorians Opposed to Duck Shooting Inc (RVOTDS)
Coalition Against Duck Shooting
Coastal Emu Alliance (New South Wales)
Coastal Emu Alliance
Coastal Emu Recovery Program and Coastal Emu Register (New South Wales)
Emu friendly fencing, abc story of emus in longreach..
Good photos. A co-existence story.
Small marsupials
Gilbert's potoroo action group.
Citizen group in south-west Western Australia working for the endangered Gilbert’s Potoroo. May be one model for citizen action.
Koalas, having been brought to the brink of endangered status or are regionally extinct, have many groups rescuing and providing sanctuaries and supporting.
Check the internet for regional, state-based sanctuaries and hospitals. Good place to start is:
Australian Koala Foundation
Two Thumbs Wildlife Trust
Two Thumbs Wildlife
Story on AWPC website about 2020 fire at Two Thumbs Koala Sanctuary, Peak Hill.
Based in the Adelaide Hills. The Wombat Awareness Organisation (WAO) specialises in the rescue, rehabilitation and advocacy of the Southern Hairy-Nosed Wombat. Focus on conserving and protecting wild wombats whilst supporting a 24-hour rescue and rehabilitation centre within the largest and only free-range, cage-free wombat sanctuary.
Based in NSW, WPSA is a national organisation for the protection/’harm prevention’ of wombats through education, research and public awareness. They fund suitable habitat and research projects – check website. Combating mange is a top research and education objective.
Information on raising/ caring for and releasing bare-nosed wombats.
Wombat Mange Management
There is no dedicated not-for-profit currently, but if you search 'echidna conservation' on the internet and research projects, natural history information and frequently asked questions, there is plenty of information within easy reach.
Marine mammal society.
Society for Marine Mammology
More to come...
Wildlife Rescue Australia-wide
Warriors 4 Wildlife lists the contact phone numbers of wildlife rescuers, carers and shelters nationwide. It is a great resource for members of the public needing advice or rescue for wildlife that is sick, injured or orphaned in their local area.
Warriors 4 Wildlife
Resources for general and legal advice
Swifft (victoria).
The State-wide Integrated Flora and Fauna Teams (SWIFFT ) is a free network for knowledge sharing and information exchange that supports conservation and management of threatened species, biodiversity, and the natural environment across Victoria.
Flora, Fauna, natural environment conservation – law & advice:
Environmental defenders office (edo).
A free legal service for initial advice to citizens about issues affecting the natural environment including wildlife and habitat and possible remedies. Can provide advice on how federal and state laws apply to aspects of the environment e.g; on land-clearing, other developments affecting the natural environment, wildlife killing .and habitat destruction.
Environmental Defenders Office
EDO also offers
A Guide to Private Land Conservation for Landholders (2021) Free initial legal advice to landholders who are considering entering a legally binding private conservation agreement. Further to that, landholders need to seek private legal, tax and financial advice based on their individual circumstances. See the guide (link below) for conservation programs in your region.
Not-for-profit, national office for animal legal issues, based in Canberra
Voiceless - 2020 Animal Law Services List
At the time of publication, listed were law organisations with interest and expertise on native animal issues in Australia.
(AWPC does not guarantee these services continue, but offers this list as indicative for further exploration).
Injustice - Hidden in Plain Sight
Documentary journalist and author Maria Taylor’s 2021 book Injustice, hidden in plain sight, the war on Australian nature unveils a cultural history of warfare against Australia’s other indigenous inhabitants – Australian wildlife. Her investigation draws on an archive of evidence collected by the Australian Wildlife Protection Council and from other documentary sources and testimony.
It exposes a history of wildlife exploitation and removal since settlement and the narratives that are spun to the public justifying wildlife and biodiversity destruction. The history has left Australians today owning the world’s largest on-land wildlife trade – kangaroos slaughtered for shoe leather, human and pet food. Koalas suffered a similar commercial hunt up to the 1930s and have never recovered. Told through the voices of citizen activists, first Australians, scientists, authors, graziers and industry whistle-blowers.
Here too are paths to reconciliation and sharing that marry ecological and economic concerns.
The bibliography lists many useful books and other records of Australian wildlife from the history of colonial settlement.
Written for general public and educational use.
Maria is an active member of AWPC and can also be reached via the contact page .
Kangaroos, Myths and Realities
An anthology of essays by scientific and civilian experts on kangaroos and their treatment in Australia. One of the books published by the AWPC in the 1990s and early 2000s. Suitable for general public and educational use. AWPC has copies available and free copies will be shipped to schools and libraries. Others by donation.
Second edition by Terrence J Dawson. Natural history, biology, population studies and behaviour of the unique hopping marsupials. CSIRO Publishing.
Compassionate conservation: A paradigm shift for wildlife management in Australasia
This publication is a chapter in the 2013 book Ignoring Nature No More: The Case for Compassionate Conservation . Zoology researchers present case studies of wildlife management in Australasia to explore the goals of animal welfare and animal conservation science concerning wild and free-living animals.
The Red Sands of Hattah
A new historical novel exploring how Australians have come to accept the killing of native Australian wildlife, even within reserved places such as national parks.
The story comes from Peter Preuss, a former president of the Australian Wildlife Protection Council. It tells of a citizen campaign to stop the killings by government forces in the 1980s in Hattah-Kulkyne National Park in Victoria.
In the 1980s scientific, conservation and animal welfare movements came together to question and stop the killing of wildlife and specifically of kangaroos. The citizen campaign that unfolds in the book ultimately failed and parks and wildlife services have continued to kill kangaroos under the guise of a ‘management tool’ accepted as standard practice in national parks and reserves across the country.
Copies available via:
If buying from the author, $5 from the sale of each book will be donated to the wildlife conservation or animal welfare organisation of your choice.
The Animals' Agenda: Freedom, Compassion, and Coexistence in the Human Age
The Animals’ Agenda will educate and inspire people to rethink how we affect other animals, and how we can evolve toward more peaceful and less violent ways of interacting with our animal kin in an increasingly human-dominated world. Written by
The Butchulla First Nations People of Fraser Island (K’Gari) and their Dingoes
A 2015 book by photographer and wildlife campaigner Jennifer Parkhurst exploring the life of the dingoes on Fraser Island and their relationship to the First Nations people of that area. Beautiful photography. (Publication was supported by AWPC)
Also found on Amazon.com and other retailers via an internet search.
Dawn of a Dingo Day
Written by Josef Lasarow is a little book with terrific photography in praise of the Australian dingo and its natural history. Along with kangaroos, dingoes are the most persecuted Australian native wildlife (dingoes driven to endangered species listing). This book provides a much-needed antidote of respect and understanding along with a theory about the role of dingoes as top predator in stable Australian ecosystems. A book suitable for all ages.
Available via Amazon, Booktopia, Dymocks, Fishpond.
Voiceless has a digital bookshop of publications relating to animal welfare and law.
Dot and the Kangaroo
Ethell C Pedley’s 1899 Australian classic children’s book about a little girl named Dot who gets lost in the outback and is eventually befriended by a kangaroo and several other marsupials. Compassionate and compelling historical view. The book was adapted into a film in 1977.
View the Book here
Watch the full film here
The Little Helpers: Kati helps avoid hunger
‘The little helpers’ is a new series of climate-conscious children’s books written to support the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. The little helpers: Kati helps avoid hunger (2021) follows Kati the kangaroo on her mission to help her friend Keli the koala to find ever dwindling eucalyptus leaves to eat. Endorsed by the Australian Wildlife Protection Council, this story shows children how cooperation and conservation can be lots of fun through the colourful animal characters.
Margaret Warner Books
Margaret Warner, a writer, teacher, and wildlife carer, has published children’s fiction, non-fiction and educational books including Wombat tracks, Possum tails, Kangaroo footprints , Noises in the night and various Australian wildlife activity books.
AWPC welcomes suggestions for additions to this list of children’s books that assist learning about Australian wildlife as well as being a good read.
Films & Television Programs
Creative cowboy films’ nature knowledge channel is an international resource that provides detailed analysis of the circumstances for wildlife alongside stories, films and the voices of the people dedicated to wildlife conservation., the language of fire: did australian aboriginals burn as we are told.
In 2014, Gunditjmara southwest Victorian man Joel Wright, spoke to the Australian Wildlife Protection Council to explain misconceptions about Indigenous fire-stick farming and ‘traditional burning’. As an Aboriginal Affairs and language expert, Wright examined historical records to find little justification for the regime of planned burns of Victorian forests at the hands of the state government.
Kangaroo: A Love-Hate Story (M)
This award-winning film captures the untold love-hate story of Australia’s most famous national icon. Kangaroo exposes the divisive opinions around this unique Australian icon, subject to the largest mass destruction of terrestrial wildlife in the world. A must see for all animal lovers and advocates. Available to buy or rent at the links below.
Kangaroo The Movie
Watch the Trailer
Australia remastered: ABC Series on Australian Nature (G)
Hosted by Aaron Pedersen. Mines the ABC’s excellent library of wildlife cinematography during the past decades with new narratives.
Forces of nature
Examines the apocalyptic forces that nature inflicts upon the Australian landscape. Australian wildlife must adapt rapidly to survive the impacts of climate change, drought and flood.
Life in Australia is a battle. Shaped by the challenges of epic environments the creatures of the island continent compete for mating rights, to eat, and avoid being eaten.
Wild Australians
This series explores some of Australia’s most fascinating animals; From the mysterious (and misunderstood) orca to the iconic kangaroo, parrots of high intelligence and the secret lives of reptiles, all have evolved and survived across the harsh Australian landscape.
Wild Treasures
Aaron Pedersen explores Australian places of ecological significance and natural beauty and the diverse and unique animals adapted to such habitats.
Australia's Oceans
Delves into the incredible diversity of oceanic wildlife and how life changes for creatures along the coast and beneath the surface as environmental changes heat the ocean.
The Kangaroo Trail: The case for ecotourism
Interview by The World Today host Sara Everingham in 2008, kangaroo advocates Dr David Croft and Maryland Wilson detail the ‘The Kangaroo Trail’. The project aims to promote and provide education about ‘roo tourism’ and the 50 species of kangaroos we have in Australia. Tourists and locals alike can use the trail map to visit unique habitats and see kangaroos while supporting local tourism.
ABC Radio National Recording
Roo Tourism ABC Recording
The Australian Wildlife Protection Council is not responsible for the results obtained from this information or for any errors, omissions or source removal of website information or links. Content of this resource list comes from publicly published sources that can be found on the internet.
Copyrighted material such as logos and title images are not for re-use and appear to identify organisations or material as allowed under ‘fair dealing’..
Are you an organisation that would like to be considered for our resource list? Is your information on our list up-to-date? Please contact us.
Australia is one of the most important nations on Earth for biodiversity. In fact, it is one of only 17 ‘megadiverse’ nations and is home to more species than any other developed country. Most of Australia’s wildlife is found nowhere else in the world, making its conservation even more important – 87 per cent of our mammal species, 93 per cent of reptiles, 94 per cent of frogs and 45 per cent of our bird species are found only in Australia.
Unique Australian Animals
Australian wildlife - the cuties & the nasties in australia.
When I travel to Australia, many people envy me because of the unique Australian animals I probably get to see. Koalas and Kangaroos are well-known and loved all over the world. I am always happy when I see one of the cuties in the wild. It is very special, and different than marvelling at them at a zoo.
But there are other people I know who would never go because of all the dangerous creatures in Australia. They really don't know what they miss! However, for most people in the northern hemisphere the Australian wildlife is just something special, despite spiders, snakes and crocodiles. In this section about Australian animals I am going to tell you about the most common and cutest, as well as the most dangerous species of native Australian animals. You also learn why many introduced animals are considered "a pest" in Australia. Scary? I don't think so. I always say to myself (and to the worried people) "Hey, more than 20 million people live down under. It can't be that dangerous!"
Why is Australian wildlife so unique?
Climatic and geologic events helped Australia to form its unique fauna. Australia was part of Gondwana , the huge super-continent of the southern hemisphere. About 50 million years ago Australia became an island. Due to this isolation and the lack of predators, Australia's unique fauna developed. Marsupials that originated in Gondwana adapted in Australia, and survived until today. Australia's climate became drier about 15 million years ago, resulting in more uniquely adapted species.
Now this is only a very short introduction into the geology of Australia. I really don't want to bother you with a lengthy scientific excursion. If you are interested to read more, you'll find some interesting books at the bottom of this page.
Capital Cities
Accommodation.
Adelaide City Hotels
Adelaide Beach Resorts
Stay In The Outback
Special Interests
General Facts
Australian States
Photo Gallery
Climate & Bushfires
Australian Wildlife
Australian Opal
Rent A Campervan
Campervan Info
Australian mammals
Kangaroos and Koalas are marsupials everyone outside Australia knows. They just represent Australia's famous wildlife. With a little luck and patience, you'll see them in their natural habitat when you travel around Australia. Okay, it's not always their natural habitat anymore, but you can really meet them outside of wildlife parks.
Marsupials don't have a placenta. The young are born in a very immature state, make their way through their mothers' fur to the pouch where say stay until fully developed. Wallabies, wombats and possums are other well-known marsupials in Australia.
The third group of mammals are the monotremes , warm-blooded animals that lay eggs. The echidna and platypus are the only survivor of monotremes and are indigenous to Australia and New Guinea. When the first Europeans sent a pelt and a sketch of a platypus back home to Great Britain, British scientists thought it was a hoax. Platypus and Echidna are certainly the most unique Australian animals.
Australian Birds
Among Australia's 800 species of birds about 350 are endemic. The songbirds include species like wrens, robins, magpies and many more. And then there are all the colourful parrots and cockatoos . The budgerigar is certainly the best known Australian parrot in the world.
Waterbirds are represented by about 200 species like the Australian pelican, jabiru, ducks and herons. Take your time, sit down and watch Australia's amazing birdlife. Listen to the foreign sounds, enjoy the colourful species. There's nothing better than waking up by the concert of laughing kookaburras in the early morning. Though, this won't happen in the Outback, unfortunately, as the habitats of the kookaburra are the open forests along the east coast and in south west of Australia.
Australian Reptiles
In the varied group of reptiles you'll find a huge number of unique Australian animals. There are frogs, turtles, snakes, lizards, and last but not least, saltwater and freshwater crocodiles. Yep, here we come to the dangerous Australian wildlife of the Outback, and the dangerous species that inhabit the coastal areas of the tropical north. The latter should worry you more than snakes and spiders.
Among the reptiles some "nasties" are included. But they shouldn't keep you off from visiting the Outback, not at all! Australia has more lizards than any country in the world. Like crocodiles , they look like reminders from an ancient time. And somehow these creatures fascinate me! Lizards are reptiles you will certainly see the most in the Australian Outback.
Australia has more venomous snakes than non-venomous, and some of their venoms are very potent. America's rattle snake would barely make it into Australia's top 20. Although snakes can be found anywhere in Australia, you won't see them very often. The most important thing is that they hardly harm you if you take some precautions.
Australian Insects
Insects and molluscs, or invertebrates as scientists call them, make up the biggest group of unique Australian animals. About 90 % are considered endemic. Yep, there are a lot of these crawling and flying critters out there. The Australian Outback is alive! :)
Which one will you encounter in the Outback? The flies , of cours!. Sometimes they can drive you crazy, but hey, that's Australia. And they are not only in the Outback. And the Australian spiders? No need to worry about them if you are a bit careful.
Introduced species
During the 200+ years of white settlement in Australia many species of exotic fauna have been introduced either on purpose or accident. Most of these animals have flourished, spread all over the continent and became feral pests .
You've heard about the feral rabbits, goats, foxes, cats? These species all threaten the native fauna. Unfortunately, some unique Australian species have already become extinct. Australian camels belong to these introduced species. Although the numbers of feral camels have been increasing since their release into the Outback, it is widely accepted that their damage to the Australian environment is less serious.
I hope you enjoyed this summary of unique Australian animals. Please come back when you get the chance. The animal section will be growing all the time.
Articles about other unique Australian animals you might enjoy
Home | New Pages | Site Index
Legal Stuff
Privacy Policy Disclaimer Impressum
Website Info
About the Author Contact
Connect And Follow Our Tracks
Please join me at Facebook & Twitter
An official website of the United States government
The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.
The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.
Publications
Account settings
Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .
Advanced Search
Journal List
The impact of human activities on Australian wildlife
Alyce taylor-brown.
1 Genecology Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia
2 Animal Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia
Rosie Booth
3 Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital, Beerwah, Queensland, Australia
Amber Gillett
Erica mealy.
4 Faculty of Arts, Business and Law, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia
Steven M. Ogbourne
Adam polkinghorne, gabriel c. conroy, associated data.
All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.
Increasing human population size and the concomitant expansion of urbanisation significantly impact natural ecosystems and native fauna globally. Successful conservation management relies on precise information on the factors associated with wildlife population decline, which are challenging to acquire from natural populations. Wildlife Rehabilitation Centres (WRC) provide a rich source of this information. However, few researchers have conducted large-scale longitudinal studies, with most focussing on narrow taxonomic ranges, suggesting that WRC-associated data remains an underutilised resource, and may provide a fuller understanding of the anthropogenic threats facing native fauna. We analysed admissions and outcomes data from a WRC in Queensland, Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital, to determine the major factors driving admissions and morbidity of native animals in a region experiencing rapid and prolonged urban expansion. We studied 31,626 admissions of 83 different species of native birds, reptiles, amphibians, marsupials and eutherian mammals from 2006 to 2017. While marsupial admissions were highest (41.3%), admissions increased over time for all species and exhibited seasonal variation (highest in Spring to Summer), consistent with known breeding seasons. Causes for admission typically associated with human influenced activities were dominant and exhibited the highest mortality rates. Car strikes were the most common reason for admission (34.7%), with dog attacks (9.2%), entanglements (7.2%), and cat attacks (5.3%) also high. Admissions of orphaned young and overt signs of disease were significant at 24.6% and 9.7%, respectively. Mortality rates were highest following dog attacks (72.7%) and car strikes (69.1%) and lowest in orphaned animals (22.1%). Our results show that WRC databases offer rich opportunities for wildlife monitoring and provide quantification of the negative impacts of human activities on ecosystem stability and wildlife health. The imminent need for urgent, proactive conservation management to ameliorate the negative impacts of human activities on wildlife is clearly evident from our results.
Introduction
There is substantive evidence to suggest that anthropogenic factors are having devastating consequences on native fauna, both in Australia [ 1 – 9 ] and internationally [ 10 – 26 ]. The stability of entire ecosystems is compromised through the process of urban expansion and global population growth, which both continue to increase at unprecedented rates [ 27 ]. The sustained acceleration in human population growth and resulting expansion in anthropogenic activities appear to be the primary causes of an accelerated increase in extinction rates globally [ 28 – 32 ].
Global population growth contributes to the destruction, modification and fragmentation of wildlife habitat, reduced genetic diversity, threats from pathogens, the spread of exotic and invasive species, air, noise and light pollution, alteration in natural hydrologic and fire regimes, and a rapidly changing climate [ 33 – 37 ]. The consequences of these environmental changes for most species include a reduced ability to forage, reduced prey or food availability, altered immune function, and diminished breeding success [ 38 – 45 ]. Changes to any of these life traits can compromise the persistence of native fauna populations in the wild.
Conception and implementation of effective conservation management strategies should be guided by a thorough understanding of the underlying causes of wildlife population decline [ 18 , 19 , 46 – 48 ]. Evaluation of longitudinal data from wildlife rehabilitation centres (WRC), including causes of admission and resultant outcomes, can be used to conduct general wildlife monitoring and investigate threats to local species [ 6 – 8 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 23 , 24 , 26 , 47 , 49 – 53 ], and may provide information about ecosystem health and stability [ 53 , 54 ], quantify and delineate natural and anthropogenic elements that present potential hazards to wildlife survival.
Previous research using WRC admissions data has generally concentrated on either a single species or narrow taxonomic clusters [ 6 – 8 , 15 , 17 , 20 , 23 , 50 , 55 , 56 ], with understandable foci on threatened taxa. Others have focused on particular threats, such as cat attacks, land clearing and emerging diseases [ 16 , 21 , 22 , 25 , 57 ], which have increased as human activities have encroached on wildlife habitat [ 26 , 58 ].
This study takes a broader perspective, by examining a wide suite of species in South-East Queensland (QLD), Australia, including representatives from a variety of taxonomic, life history and trophic groups. The overall objective of this research was to investigate the major causes and patterns of WRC admissions and outcomes, with a sub-aim of identifying opportunities to provide targeted management solutions. The results of this longitudinal retrospective study have wide ramifications, particularly where impacts from anthropogenic processes are implicated.
We collated hospital records from the Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital (AZWH) in Beerwah, Queensland. AZWH has collected data from all wildlife admissions since its opening in 2004. AZWH is located 80 km north of Brisbane, on the Sunshine Coast, which is a rapidly growing residential and tourist area, with mixed land use comprising a combination of rural, urban, peri-urban, bushland and coastal zones. The majority of AZWH admissions come from an area spanning approximately 200 km north (to Maryborough, with occasional admissions from as far north as Proserpine), 150 km west (e.g. Gatton and Kingaroy) and up to 300 km south (Lismore, New South Wales; mostly Koala admissions) ( Fig 1 ), although admissions from central western QLD and the Northern Territory also sporadically occur.
Map of Australian states and territories, showing the location of AZWH, with a zoomed-in image of Queensland demonstrating the common admissions area of AZWH (hashed area). Scale bar is representative for the zoomed in image.
AZWH was established as a wildlife treatment facility (previously The Australian Wildlife Hospital) in March 2004. Due to a rapidly growing wildlife admission rate, a new purpose-built facility was constructed in November 2008 and is one of the largest WRCs in the world. The AZWH facilities include multiple state of the art triage assessment areas, intensive care and rehabilitation wards customised for birds, reptiles, mammals and orphaned young; radiology, laboratory, surgery and pathology facilities; and multiple large outdoor rehabilitation enclosures. It operates 24 hours a day with a team of wildlife veterinarians, vet nurses and volunteers attending to the needs of up to 8,000 wildlife admissions annually.
Data collection
Data for 74,230 admissions between 1 st January 2006 and 31 st December 2017 were obtained from AZWH. Of these, 42,604 admission records were excluded as follows: a) data for which there were unknown, multiple, or ambiguous cause for admission (CFA) were removed from the analysis; b) admissions of animals that were dead on arrival (DOA); c) species for which there were less than 100 admissions over the time period, unless they could be suitably pooled and were a taxonomic group of interest e.g. Amphibians (see below); d) admissions of marine animals, which occupy a specific niche that we believe warrants its own detailed investigation in future studies (with the exception of the Australian pelican ( Pelecanus conspicillatus ) which had significant admission numbers from predominantly freshwater sources); e) admissions for which the outcome was not reported.
Where data on a single species were insufficient (i.e. <100 admissions) for meaningful analysis of admission and outcome trends following the exclusion criteria above, but the species was part of a larger taxonomic or ecological group of interest, we pooled these species to create a ‘multi-species group’ ( S1 File ). Species were grouped based on either taxonomy (e.g. ‘small macropods’ are small-bodied species within the Macropodidae family, compared to Eastern grey kangaroos for example, which are larger macropods) or behaviour (e.g. raptors are a group of birds of prey that include representatives from several families) ( S1 File ). For simplicity, taxa are referred to by their higher taxonomic groupings, termed ‘animal groups’ throughout the manuscript (i.e. avians, reptiles, amphibians, marsupial mammals and eutherian mammals; S1 File ).
The final dataset of 31,626 individual admissions included terrestrial and freshwater wildlife species of differing age classes, taxonomic classes and trophic groups. These data were analysed for admission and outcome trends. Where trends were assessed per season, seasons are referred to as; Summer: December, January, February; Autumn: March, April, May; Winter: June, July, August; Spring: September, October, November. CFA were listed as per their categories in the admission/accession sheets, with some CFA pooled (e.g. Bush fire and fire; S2 File ). Animal outcomes following admission were also grouped into either ‘positive outcome’ (release into wild or into care) or ‘mortality’ (natural death and euthanasia on welfare grounds).
Throughout the period of interest for this study, various alterations were made to the data collection methods at AZWH in response to the expansion of overall admissions and improvements in data capture methodology. Changes included; 1) intermittent updating (addition or deletion of some CFA categories) of animal admission/accession sheets; 2) restructuring of animal admission/accession sheets and redevelopment of the internal database (largely in mid-2013). Subsequently, some CFA categories were subject to change throughout the study period and may not have been clearly represented in data prior to mid-2013. To assess whether these changes might significantly alter the main findings, we performed a small subset analysis on data from 2014–2017 to evaluate any shifts in the main CFA after the changes.
Data analysis
The aggregate data used for this study was sourced and processed through MySQL using 117 lines of SQL queries layered upon a set of 3 (112 lines total) SQL/PSM functions (Structured Query Language/ Persistent Stored Modules) [ 59 ]. Designed to maximise consistency of data, and to allow the pooling of outcomes and species, the functions were used to filter and aggregate the raw data and to generate comma separated (csv) files. One exception was the per month/year data that were further processed using simple Java command-line application of 230 lines of code to collate the up to 3,700 data values for each of eight sheets. The csv files were imported into Microsoft Excel and manipulated into tables of total admitted animals, causes for admission and outcomes, and grouped according to higher classification. Microsoft Excel was also used to calculate the summary statistics (totals, means and proportions), and to generate graphical outputs.
Statistical analysis
Data were imported into IBM SPSS Statistics v24.0 [ 60 ] and reformatted where necessary. Data were assessed for distribution prior to parametric or non-parametric inferential analyses. For data with normal distribution, we performed one-way ANOVA with a Tukey Post-hoc test, and for data with non-normal distribution, we performed Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA. We used a statistical significance level of 0.05. We performed odds-ratio analysis using the risk estimate statistic in the cross-tabs option, with a 95% confidence interval. Lastly, we performed linear regression analysis on human population figures and admissions, in Microsoft Excel using the “Analysis Toolpak” add-in.
We studied 31,626 native animal admissions to the AZWH, a large WRC in Beerwah, Queensland, Australia, and the outcomes of those admissions, from January 2006 to December 2017. A summary of admissions over this time period is found in Table 1 . A total of 83 species were included in this study, which were grouped by taxonomy, ecological niche or behavioural traits to assist analysis ( S1 File ).
Animal group
Species
Number of admissions
% of total admissions
% of animal group
% Positive outcome
% Mortality
Leading CFA
431
1.4%
3.9%
31.1%
68.9%
HBC
1263
4.0%
11.3%
37.1%
62.9%
HBC
245
0.8%
2.2%
83.3%
16.7%
Entanglements
762
2.4%
6.8%
51.8%
48.2%
Orphaned
1741
5.5%
15.6%
37.3%
62.7%
HBC
2625
8.3%
23.6%
24.8%
75.2%
HBC
948
3.0%
8.5%
67.3%
32.7%
Orphaned
842
2.7%
7.6%
39.1%
60.9%
Entanglements
351
1.1%
3.2%
44.4%
55.6%
HBC
1920
6.1%
17.3%
27.1%
72.9%
HBC
404
1.3%
8.8%
31.4%
68.6%
HBC
930
2.9%
20.4%
27.6%
72.4%
Dog attack
888
2.8%
19.4%
51.0%
49.0%
HBC
856
2.7%
18.7%
39.3%
60.7%
HBC
646
2.0%
14.1%
52.9%
47.1%
HBC
243
0.8%
5.3%
42.4%
57.6%
Cat attack
306
1.0%
6.7%
43.8%
56.2%
HBC
295
0.9%
6.5%
52.5%
47.5%
Cat attack
106
0.3%
100.0%
32.1%
67.9%
HBC
367
1.2%
2.8%
42.2%
57.8%
Orphaned
1165
3.7%
8.9%
30.6%
69.4%
HBC
230
0.7%
1.8%
63.0%
37.0%
Cat attack
3590
11.4%
27.5%
44.8%
55.2%
HBC
754
2.4%
5.8%
55.2%
44.8%
Orphaned
190
0.6%
1.5%
73.7%
26.3%
Orphaned
5615
17.8%
43.0%
43.8%
56.2%
Orphaned
1139
3.6%
8.7%
47.2%
52.8%
Orphaned
453
1.4%
16.3%
51.9%
48.1%
HBC
2026
6.4%
73.0%
56.7%
43.3%
Entanglements
295
0.9%
10.6%
65.8%
34.2%
Cat attack
1 Positive outcome includes rehabilitation, sent to carer and released to wild.
2 Mortality includes unassisted death and euthanised on site.
Animal admissions
Mammals represented the majority of admissions to AZWH at 51.1% ( n = 15,824) ( Table 1 ). Possums (nocturnal marsupials belonging to the Phalangeridae family) were the most commonly admitted multi-species group, with 17.8% ( n = 5,615) of admissions over the study period. This was closely followed by admissions of koalas (threatened arboreal marsupials; Phascolarctos cinereus ), at 11.4% ( n = 3,590), making them the most commonly admitted single species ( Table 1 , Fig 2a ). Eastern grey kangaroos ( Macropus giganteus ) and small macropods (a multi-species group comprising wallabies and pademelons in the Macropodidae family; S1 File ) comprised 3.7% ( n = 1,165) and 3.6% ( n = 1,139) of all admissions, respectively. Flying foxes ( Pteropus alecto and P . poliocephalus ) were the main eutherian mammal admitted ( n = 2,774; 8.8% of admissions), and the fourth most commonly admitted taxa overall (6.4%; n = 2,026) ( Table 1 ).
(a) Number of admissions per species or multi-species group. Taxa are ordered within their animal groups by abundance. Taxa are coloured based on higher classifications; see legend. (b) Total admissions per month (left axis) and per year (right axis). The increase in human population in the region is also overlaid (grey dashed lines); one one-hundredth of the total is represented (right axis). (c) Number of monthly admissions per animal group. Taxa are coloured based on higher taxonomic classifications; see legend.
Avians were the second most admitted animal group, accounting for 35.2% ( n = 11,128) of all admissions ( Table 1 ). The most commonly admitted avian species were lorikeets ( Trichoglossus haematodes and T . chlorolepidotus ) colourful psittacines common to Eastern Australia; n = 2,625) accounting for 23.6% of avian admissions and 8.3% of admissions overall, and tawny frogmouths (nocturnal birds related to nightjars; Podargus strigoides; n = 1,920); whilst high numbers of laughing kookaburras ( Dacelo novaeguineae; the largest species in the Kingfisher family) and Australian magpies ( Gymnorhina tibicen; omnivorous passerine songbirds) were also admitted ( n = 1,741 and n = 1,263, respectively).
The reptile group contributed 14.4% ( n = 4,568) of all admissions, represented by six individual species and two multi-species groups ( Table 1 , S1 File ). Blue-tongued skinks (short legged diurnal lizards; Tiliqua scincoides ), carpet pythons (large semi-arboreal pythons with a wide distribution; Morelia spilota ) and eastern water dragons (arboreal lizards in the Agamidae family; Intellagama lesueurii ) were the three most commonly admitted reptilian taxa, together comprising 8.5% of all admissions ( n = 930, 888 and 856, respectively; Table 1 , Fig 2a ). The remaining 0.3% ( n = 106) of admissions were attributed to amphibians, represented in our study only by tree frogs ( Litoria caerula and Litoria gracilenta ) ( Table 1 ).
We observed a steady increase in the total number of admissions over the study period, with almost a 3-fold increase in annual admissions from 2006 ( n = 1,216) to 2017 ( n = 3,582) ( Fig 2b , S1 Table , S1a Fig ). The average annual admission rate equated to 2,635.5 animals per year (±744.8). The number of admissions of each animal group also increased steadily, with avians and marsupials showing the greatest increases in admission, at more than 300% throughout the study period (avians; n = 318 to 1,147 and marsupials; n = 562 to 1,505) ( S1 Table , S1 , S2a and S2d Figs).
Seasonal admission trends were apparent in the dataset: the greatest number of admissions occurred annually in spring, with a mean difference of 356.8 (5.5%) from autumn (p < 0.001). Interestingly though, each animal group exhibited a different seasonal profile. Mean bird admissions were highest in spring, as were mammal admissions, while reptile admission peaks occurred largely in summer ( Fig 2c , S1 and S2 Figs).
Causes for admission
Causes for admission ( n = 31,626) are summarised in Table 2 and Fig 3 . The most common CFA was ‘hit by car’ (HBC), accounting for 10,973 admissions (34.7%), followed by ‘orphaned/dependent young’ (24.6%; n = 7,771), ‘overt signs of disease’ (9.7%; n = 3,057), ‘dog attack’ (9.2%; n = 2,913), ‘entanglement’ (7.2%; n = 2,274) and ‘cat attack’ (5.3%; n = 1,667). These six causes together constituted 90.6% of all admissions (28,655/31,626) and accounted for 64.4% to 100% of admissions for individual taxa. Only four CFA affected all 30 study taxa (abnormal animal location, dog attack, orphaned young, and overt signs of disease), with the remaining CFA applicable for 1 to 29 species or groups (mean 20.5) ( Table 2 ).
All CFA are represented in descending order on the main graph (a), whilst admissions in categories that are not one of the top six CFA are provided on an additional graph, inset (b). Taxa are coloured based on higher taxonomic classifications; see legend.
Species
Known COA
Abnormal animal location
Boat Strike
Cat Attack
Dog Attack
Drowning
Electro-cuted
Entangle-ments
Fell out of tree
Fire
Fishing tackle ingestion
Hit by Car
Hit window
Machine injury
Malicious injury/ poisoning
Natural predation
Oiling
Orphaned/ Dependent Young
Overt signs of disease
Tree felling
431
1.2%
0.0%
28.5%
14.4%
0.9%
0.0%
9.3%
0.2%
0.0%
0.0%
32.5%
0.2%
0.2%
1.6%
5.1%
0.0%
4.4%
1.4%
0.0%
1263
1.3%
0.0%
2.5%
3.6%
0.2%
0.2%
7.4%
3.3%
0.0%
0.1%
33.8%
0.4%
0.1%
3.7%
2.9%
0.7%
28.0%
11.6%
0.1%
245
1.6%
0.4%
0.0%
0.4%
0.0%
0.0%
66.1%
0.0%
0.0%
2.9%
2.4%
0.0%
0.0%
8.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.4%
17.6%
0.0%
762
0.4%
0.0%
7.7%
0.5%
0.1%
0.0%
0.5%
4.7%
0.0%
0.0%
24.7%
4.9%
0.3%
0.4%
3.1%
0.0%
51.3%
1.2%
0.1%
1741
1.3%
0.0%
1.1%
3.1%
4.9%
0.0%
5.5%
1.3%
0.0%
0.0%
69.6%
0.9%
0.0%
0.6%
1.3%
0.6%
8.8%
0.7%
0.2%
2625
3.1%
0.0%
2.9%
3.7%
0.5%
0.0%
1.1%
1.1%
0.0%
0.0%
41.4%
5.9%
0.0%
0.3%
2.4%
0.1%
6.4%
29.6%
1.5%
948
1.1%
0.0%
1.7%
2.1%
0.2%
0.0%
3.5%
0.1%
0.0%
0.3%
19.6%
0.3%
0.0%
1.3%
1.3%
0.2%
66.2%
2.1%
0.0%
842
1.0%
0.0%
11.0%
2.5%
0.8%
0.0%
1.4%
3.6%
0.0%
0.0%
43.3%
1.8%
0.1%
0.4%
2.7%
0.4%
29.7%
1.3%
0.0%
351
4.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.9%
2.0%
0.0%
10.8%
1.4%
0.0%
0.3%
57.8%
2.8%
0.3%
2.6%
3.4%
0.0%
10.0%
3.7%
0.0%
1920
1.1%
0.0%
0.5%
0.9%
0.2%
0.1%
6.0%
1.5%
0.0%
0.0%
73.0%
0.6%
0.1%
0.8%
1.3%
0.0%
10.8%
3.3%
0.0%
11128
186
1
427
323
125
4
624
194
0
12
5216
252
7
135
241
28
2206
1101
46
0.59%
0.00%
1.35%
1.02%
0.40%
0.01%
1.97%
0.61%
0.00%
0.04%
16.49%
0.80%
0.02%
0.43%
0.76%
0.09%
6.98%
3.48%
0.15%
1.67%
0.01%
3.84%
2.90%
1.12%
0.04%
5.61%
1.74%
0.00%
0.11%
46.87%
2.26%
0.06%
1.21%
2.17%
0.25%
19.82%
9.89%
0.41%
404
0.7%
0.0%
6.4%
22.0%
0.2%
0.0%
1.0%
0.2%
0.2%
0.0%
46.0%
0.0%
1.2%
0.7%
0.7%
0.0%
17.3%
2.7%
0.2%
930
0.6%
0.0%
10.3%
57.5%
1.3%
0.0%
0.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
14.2%
0.0%
2.0%
0.6%
0.9%
0.0%
10.4%
1.3%
0.1%
888
2.3%
0.0%
1.5%
11.7%
0.2%
0.1%
8.1%
0.5%
0.1%
0.0%
45.8%
0.0%
4.5%
1.7%
1.8%
0.1%
17.3%
3.9%
0.3%
856
2.1%
0.0%
10.9%
21.6%
0.9%
0.0%
8.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
22.5%
0.0%
1.6%
1.4%
8.1%
0.2%
20.6%
1.9%
0.0%
646
4.5%
0.0%
0.2%
3.3%
0.2%
0.0%
6.0%
0.0%
0.0%
3.7%
71.4%
0.0%
0.6%
0.3%
0.6%
0.0%
7.3%
2.0%
0.0%
243
1.2%
0.0%
28.4%
27.2%
0.0%
0.0%
8.2%
0.4%
0.0%
0.0%
21.4%
0.0%
2.5%
0.4%
1.2%
0.0%
7.0%
1.2%
0.8%
306
0.3%
0.0%
1.0%
23.9%
0.0%
0.0%
1.0%
0.3%
0.0%
0.0%
51.3%
0.0%
0.3%
0.7%
0.0%
0.0%
6.2%
2.0%
13.1%
295
2.0%
0.0%
31.9%
14.2%
0.3%
0.0%
17.3%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
14.2%
0.0%
5.1%
3.1%
1.7%
0.3%
8.1%
1.4%
0.3%
4568
86
0
395
1115
25
1
265
7
2
24
1630
0
104
50
108
4
604
100
48
0.27%
0.00%
1.25%
3.53%
0.08%
0.00%
0.84%
0.02%
0.01%
0.08%
5.15%
0.00%
0.33%
0.16%
0.34%
0.01%
1.91%
0.32%
0.15%
1.88%
0.00%
8.65%
24.41%
0.55%
0.02%
5.80%
0.15%
0.04%
0.53%
35.68%
0.00%
2.28%
1.09%
2.36%
0.09%
13.22%
2.19%
1.05%
106
6.6%
0.0%
8.5%
11.3%
0.9%
0.0%
3.8%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
34.9%
0.0%
7.5%
2.8%
12.3%
0.9%
0.9%
9.4%
0.0%
106
7
0
9
12
1
0
4
0
0
0
37
0
8
3
13
1
1
10
0
0.02%
0.00%
0.03%
0.04%
0.00%
0.00%
0.01%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.12%
0.00%
0.03%
0.01%
0.04%
0.00%
0.00%
0.03%
0.00%
6.60%
0.00%
8.49%
11.32%
0.94%
0.00%
3.77%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
34.91%
0.00%
7.55%
2.83%
12.26%
0.94%
0.94%
9.43%
0.00%
367
1.1%
0.0%
18.0%
11.2%
5.4%
0.0%
0.5%
0.0%
0.3%
0.0%
24.5%
0.0%
1.1%
0.0%
1.1%
0.0%
35.4%
1.1%
0.3%
1165
0.3%
0.0%
0.0%
4.4%
0.1%
0.0%
7.3%
0.1%
0.0%
0.0%
43.4%
0.0%
0.0%
0.3%
0.1%
0.0%
38.8%
5.2%
0.0%
230
8.3%
0.0%
49.6%
3.5%
1.7%
0.0%
0.4%
2.6%
0.4%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
2.2%
27.0%
0.9%
3.5%
3590
2.1%
0.0%
0.0%
13.8%
0.3%
0.0%
0.7%
2.2%
0.1%
0.0%
36.4%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.2%
0.0%
10.5%
33.6%
0.1%
754
1.3%
0.0%
24.7%
6.1%
0.3%
0.1%
21.8%
3.8%
0.0%
0.0%
4.0%
0.1%
0.1%
0.4%
3.4%
0.0%
30.8%
1.2%
1.9%
190
1.1%
0.0%
7.9%
2.1%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.5%
0.0%
0.0%
0.5%
0.5%
0.0%
86.3%
1.1%
0.0%
5615
2.1%
0.0%
6.4%
10.8%
0.2%
2.0%
0.5%
2.1%
0.1%
0.0%
22.3%
0.0%
0.2%
1.5%
2.4%
0.1%
41.2%
7.9%
0.3%
1139
0.1%
0.0%
0.2%
3.2%
0.4%
0.0%
2.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
31.7%
0.0%
0.0%
0.2%
0.3%
0.0%
58.5%
3.3%
0.0%
13050
230
0
745
1291
51
116
330
231
11
0
3546
1
16
93
173
9
4397
1764
46
0.73%
0.00%
2.36%
4.08%
0.16%
0.37%
1.04%
0.73%
0.03%
0.00%
11.21%
0.00%
0.05%
0.29%
0.55%
0.03%
13.90%
5.58%
0.15%
1.76%
0.00%
5.71%
9.89%
0.39%
0.89%
2.53%
1.77%
0.08%
0.00%
27.17%
0.01%
0.12%
0.71%
1.33%
0.07%
33.69%
13.52%
0.35%
453
1.8%
0.0%
0.2%
13.9%
0.9%
0.0%
0.7%
0.0%
0.2%
0.0%
72.2%
0.0%
0.9%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
7.5%
1.5%
0.2%
2026
1.6%
0.0%
0.6%
5.2%
0.2%
2.7%
51.0%
1.0%
0.0%
0.0%
10.3%
0.4%
0.0%
0.2%
1.2%
0.0%
22.7%
2.7%
0.1%
295
18.6%
0.0%
26.1%
1.4%
6.4%
0.3%
4.7%
1.4%
0.3%
0.0%
3.1%
3.7%
0.7%
0.7%
0.7%
0.3%
23.7%
7.1%
0.7%
2774
96
0
91
172
28
55
1051
25
2
0
544
19
6
7
26
2
563
82
5
0.30%
0.00%
0.29%
0.54%
0.09%
0.17%
3.32%
0.08%
0.01%
0.00%
1.72%
0.06%
0.02%
0.02%
0.08%
0.01%
1.78%
0.26%
0.02%
3.46%
0.00%
3.28%
6.20%
1.01%
1.98%
37.89%
0.90%
0.07%
0.00%
19.61%
0.68%
0.22%
0.25%
0.94%
0.07%
20.30%
2.96%
0.18%
1 Entanglements includes netting, fencing, fishing line and other entanglements.
2 Fire includes bush and other fires.
Car strikes were the leading cause for admission of 16 out of 19 taxa ( Table 1 ). Avians were the most common group admitted for road trauma (16.5% of all admissions) with 47.5% (5,216/11,128) of avians admitted in this CFA. This mainly comprised tawny frogmouths, laughing kookaburras and lorikeets, which each had over 1,000 admissions ( Fig 3 , S2 Table ). Marsupials and reptiles were also heavily affected by car strikes, accounting for 11.2% and 5.2% of all admissions, respectively ( Table 2 ) with approximately a third of all marsupials (27.2%) and reptiles (35.7%) admitted for this affliction ( Fig 3 , Table 2 ). More specifically, koalas and possums together accounted for over 70% of marsupial car strikes (2,558/3,546) whilst freshwater turtles accounted for the highest proportion of reptile car strikes (28.2; 461/1630).
The second highest admission category was ‘orphaned or dependent young’, which accounted for 24.6% of all admissions ( n = 7,771). Marsupials were most frequently admitted in this category (56.6% of orphaned admissions; n = 4,397; Table 2 , Fig 3 ), with possums alone contributing over half of these (2,314/4,397). Avians together contributed a further 28.4% ( n = 2,206), mainly consisting of native ducks ( n = 628).
‘Overt signs of disease’ was one of four CFA shared by all studied species and was the third highest CFA overall ( Fig 3 ). This CFA accounted for high proportions of koala (e.g. chlamydial disease) and lorikeet (e.g. lorikeet paralysis) admissions, at 33.6% ( n = 1,207) and 29.6% ( n = 777), respectively. Overt signs of disease also accounted for 17.6% of Australian pelican admissions (e.g. botulism-like symptoms).
‘Dog attack’ was the fourth most common CFA (9.2% of admissions). Marsupials made up the largest proportion of dog attack admissions (44.3%; n = 1,291) and was the CFA for 9.9% of marsupials. Dog attacks accounted for 10.8% to 13.8% of possum, bandicoot and koala admissions ( Table 2 ). Reptiles comprised a further 38.3% of dog attack admissions, with 24.4% ( n = 1,1115) of reptiles admitted for this reason ( Table 2 , S2 Table ). In particular, 57.2% of blue-tongue skink admissions ( n = 535) were due to dog attacks.
‘Entanglements’ (e.g. fence or fruit netting entanglements) accounted for 7.2% of all admissions ( n = 2,274). Eutherian mammals made up 46.2% of all entanglement admissions ( Table 2 , Fig 3 ). This mainly consisted of flying foxes ( n = 1,034), for which entanglement accounted for 51.0% of admissions. Avians comprised a further 27.4% of entanglements ( n = 1,253), with a heavy proportion of Australian Pelicans admitted following entanglement (66.1%; n = 162; Table 2 , S2 Table ). Entanglements also represented a sizeable proportion of large glider admissions (21.8%; n = 164). This multi-species group consists of the greater glider, squirrel glider and sugar glider, which are comparable in size to flying foxes.
‘Cat attack’ rounded out the top six CFA at 5.3% of all admissions ( n = 1,667). Cat attacks accounted for 49.6% of feathertail glider admissions ( n = 114), and over 20% of admissions of Australian brush turkeys, green tree snakes, venomous snakes, large gliders and microbats ( Table 2 ). Over 8% of both reptiles and amphibians were admitted due to cat attacks ( S2 Table ).
Some animals had unique or specific CFA that were distinct from the top six CFA. Reptiles were commonly admitted for ‘machine injury’, which includes incidents involving lawn mowers, grass cutters, whipper snippers, chainsaws, tractor slashers etc ( Fig 3 ). Carpet pythons were also highly represented ( n = 40) in this category ( Table 2 ). The most common CFA for amphibians was HBC ( n = 37), but they were also prone to dog attacks and ‘natural predation’ (native predator attack resulting in injury; n = 12 and 13, respectively). In fact, natural predation accounted for 12.3% ( n = 13) of amphibian and 8.1% ( n = 69) of eastern water dragon admissions ( Table 2 , S2 Table ). Lace monitor admissions were primarily the result of tree-felling (13.1%; n = 40), which results in injury or displacement. ‘Abnormal animal location’ was a common CFA for microbats and feathertail gliders (18.6%; n = 55 and 8.3%; n = 19, respectively; Table 2 ), whereby they may be found on the ground, in unsuitable locations within building infrastructure, or other locations compromising their welfare. A small percentage of animals (0.9%, 288/31,626) were admitted for ‘malicious injury or poisoning’, where injury or illness was suspected due to a malicious act. Australian pelicans appeared to be overrepresented in this category ( n = 20, 8.2% of pelican admissions), though this may be the result of assignment of some pelicans affected by botulism-related disease to this category ( Table 2 ). Eight animal species were affected by ‘fire’, which includes bush fire and other fire, and ‘electrocution’. Admissions resulting from fire-related events were mostly restricted to mammals ( Table 2 ). Electrocution largely affected arboreal animals from all groups, with possums and flying foxes most commonly admitted under this category. Birds and bats were infrequently admitted for hitting a window, whilst ‘fishing tackle ingestion’ admissions were restricted to birds and freshwater turtles ( Table 2 ). Laughing kookaburras were the most commonly admitted species in the ‘drowning’ ( n = 86) and ‘oiling’ categories ( n = 11) and lorikeets in the ‘hit window’ ( n = 155) category.
Consistent with the overall increase in admissions over time, admissions due to each of the top six CFA increased considerably over the study period, with these six CFA increasing by up to ten-fold between 2006 and 2017 ( Fig 4a , S3 Fig ).
Trend lines are included in (a) to highlight the overall increase in admissions over the study period. See legend for CFA categories.
Some CFA exhibited cyclic trends ( Fig 4b , S4 Fig ). Admissions of orphaned animals were clearly seasonal (admissions in spring were statistically different from admissions in autumn, winter and summer ( p = 0.001, 0.018, 0.016, respectively; Fig 4b ), with avian and marsupial admissions increasing from late winter, and remaining high throughout spring and summer ( S4 Fig ). Entanglements peaked in spring, and dog attack admissions were highest overall during late winter and spring.
Outcomes of admission
Animal outcomes following admission were grouped simply into either ‘positive ‘outcome’ or ‘mortality’. Positive outcomes included release into wild or into care, whilst mortality encompassed both natural death and euthanasia on welfare grounds.
Mortality was listed as the outcome for the majority of animals (57.4%; n = 18,153), with an average mortality rate of 53.6% ( Table 1 , Fig 5 ). Overall mortality among birds and reptiles was slightly greater than the average (55.7% and 57.4%, respectively; Table 1 ), whilst mortality in amphibians was highest at 67.9% (72/106). Lorikeets had the highest mortality rate at 75.2%, whilst Australian pelicans had the lowest mortality rate at 16.7% ( Fig 5a ).
(a) Proportion of total admissions for each species or multi-species group. Total annual (b) and mean monthly/seasonal (c) admissions resulting in positive outcomes and mortality. Trend lines are included in (b) to emphasise the increasing disparity between positive outcome and mortality over time.
Deaths due to HBC accounted for 26.0% of all admissions (8,208/31,626; Table 3 ). Mortality rates among individual species attributed to HBC ranged from 44.4% (microbats; 4/9) to 92.5% (eastern grey kangaroo; 468/506), with an overall mortality rate of 74.8%, and a mean mortality rate of 69.1% ( Table 3 , S5 Fig ). HBC also had the highest odds ratio for mortality at 3.3 ( Table 4 ).
Cat attack
Dog attack
Entanglements
HBC
Orphaned
Overt signs of disease
Animal group
Outcomes
Mortality
Positive outcome
Mortality
Positive outcome
Mortality
Positive outcome
Mortality
Positive outcome
Mortality
Positive outcome
Mortality
Positive outcome
52.0%
48.0%
80.6%
19.4%
62.5%
37.5%
86.4%
13.6%
52.6%
47.4%
83.3%
16.7%
75.0%
25.0%
88.9%
11.1%
57.4%
42.6%
82.9%
17.1%
35.9%
64.1%
66.4%
33.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
100.0%
11.1%
88.9%
50.0%
50.0%
0.0%
100.0%
32.6%
67.4%
78.0%
22.0%
100.0%
0.0%
75.0%
25.0%
77.7%
22.3%
23.0%
77.0%
33.3%
66.7%
57.9%
42.1%
87.0%
13.0%
65.6%
34.4%
71.3%
28.7%
15.0%
85.0%
84.6%
15.4%
72.4%
27.6%
75.0%
25.0%
75.9%
24.1%
76.9%
23.1%
26.2%
73.8%
94.9%
5.1%
81.3%
18.8%
70.0%
30.0%
54.5%
45.5%
78.5%
21.5%
12.9%
87.1%
85.0%
15.0%
79.6%
20.4%
85.7%
14.3%
91.7%
8.3%
75.6%
24.4%
28.8%
71.2%
45.5%
54.5%
0.0%
0.0%
100.0%
0.0%
44.7%
55.3%
65.5%
34.5%
25.7%
74.3%
61.5%
38.5%
77.8%
22.2%
76.5%
23.5%
75.0%
25.0%
80.4%
19.6%
25.1%
74.9%
81.0%
19.0%
294
133
261
62
318
306
4007
1209
508
1698
948
153
68.9%
31.1%
80.8%
19.2%
51.0%
49.0%
76.8%
23.2%
23.0%
77.0%
86.1%
13.9%
69.2%
30.8%
83.1%
16.9%
50.0%
50.0%
83.3%
16.7%
12.9%
87.1%
72.7%
27.3%
65.6%
34.4%
84.5%
15.5%
33.3%
66.7%
88.6%
11.4%
5.2%
94.8%
66.7%
33.3%
53.8%
46.2%
67.3%
32.7%
19.4%
80.6%
69.0%
31.0%
2.6%
97.4%
65.7%
34.3%
66.7%
33.3%
82.2%
17.8%
35.7%
64.3%
87.6%
12.4%
9.7%
90.3%
93.8%
6.3%
100.0%
0.0%
47.6%
52.4%
15.4%
84.6%
56.6%
43.4%
19.1%
80.9%
46.2%
53.8%
39.1%
60.9%
84.8%
15.2%
20.0%
80.0%
76.9%
23.1%
17.6%
82.4%
66.7%
33.3%
100.0%
0.0%
74.0%
26.0%
0.0%
100.0%
59.9%
40.1%
36.8%
63.2%
100.0%
0.0%
48.9%
51.1%
66.7%
33.3%
13.7%
86.3%
81.0%
19.0%
0.0%
100.0%
100.0%
0.0%
227
168
896
219
60
205
1151
479
54
550
72
28
57.5%
42.5%
80.4%
19.6%
22.6%
77.4%
70.6%
29.4%
8.9%
91.1%
72.0%
28.0%
100.0%
0.0%
66.7%
33.3%
25.0%
75.0%
86.5%
13.5%
0.0%
100.0%
60.0%
40.0%
9
0
8
4
1
3
32
5
0
1
6
4
100.0%
0.0%
66.7%
33.3%
25.0%
75.0%
86.5%
13.5%
0.0%
100.0%
60.0%
40.0%
56.1%
43.9%
73.2%
26.8%
50.0%
50.0%
83.3%
16.7%
43.1%
56.9%
100.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
94.1%
5.9%
91.8%
8.2%
92.5%
7.5%
36.5%
63.5%
68.9%
31.1%
45.6%
54.4%
50.0%
50.0%
0.0%
100.0%
0.0%
0.0%
37.1%
62.9%
0.0%
100.0%
100.0%
0.0%
54.8%
45.2%
64.0%
36.0%
60.1%
39.9%
35.5%
64.5%
58.4%
41.6%
73.1%
26.9%
78.3%
21.7%
32.3%
67.7%
60.0%
40.0%
24.1%
75.9%
66.7%
33.3%
60.0%
40.0%
50.0%
50.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
100.0%
22.0%
78.0%
0.0%
100.0%
72.0%
28.0%
82.4%
17.6%
71.4%
28.6%
81.5%
18.5%
28.8%
71.2%
76.6%
23.4%
50.0%
50.0%
80.6%
19.4%
88.0%
12.0%
83.4%
16.6%
34.2%
65.8%
39.5%
60.5%
496
249
923
368
190
140
2667
879
1365
3032
1110
654
66.6%
33.4%
71.5%
28.5%
57.6%
42.4%
75.2%
24.8%
31.0%
69.0%
62.9%
37.1%
0.0%
100.0%
20.6%
79.4%
0.0%
100.0%
56.6%
43.4%
29.4%
70.6%
71.4%
28.6%
69.2%
30.8%
76.2%
23.8%
42.2%
57.8%
77.9%
22.1%
11.5%
88.5%
64.8%
35.2%
63.6%
36.4%
100.0%
0.0%
28.6%
71.4%
44.4%
55.6%
10.0%
90.0%
33.3%
66.7%
58
33
97
75
440
611
351
193
70
493
47
35
63.7%
36.3%
56.4%
43.6%
41.9%
58.1%
64.5%
35.5%
12.4%
87.6%
57.3%
42.7%
CFA
Outcome
Number of admissions
Odds Ratio
Relative Risk
Chi-square; Fisher’s exact
Hit by Car
Mortality
8208
10973
3.237
1.564
2023.648; 0.000
Positive Outcome
2765
0.483
Orphaned
Mortality
1997
7771
0.146
0.366
4617.653; 0.000
Positive Outcome
5774
2.497
Overt signs of disease
Mortality
2183
3057
1.917
1.262
246.855; 0.000
Positive Outcome
874
0.658
Dog attack
Mortality
2185
2913
2.334
1.333
378.239; 0.000
Positive Outcome
728
0.571
Entanglements
Mortality
1009
2274
0.546
0.748
193.018; 0.000
Positive Outcome
1265
1.368
Cat attack
Mortality
1084
1667
1.361
1.126
34.291; 0.000
Positive Outcome
583
0.828
Dog attacks had the highest mean mortality rate at 72.7%, with 80.8% and 80.4% mortality rates in avians and reptiles, respectively ( Table 3 ). The relative risk of dog attack was second only to HBC, at 1.333, and the odds ratio for mortality ranged from 0.542 in amphibians to 3.741 in reptiles ( Table 4 , S4 Table ). Cat attacks also resulted in high mortality rates, ranging from 39.1% in green tree snakes to 81.3% in native ducks (with the omission of animals that had fewer than 4 cat attack admissions; Table 3 , S5 Fig ). The relative risk for cat attacks (1.126) was lower than that for dog attacks ( Table 4 ).
The overall rate of positive outcomes was 42.6% ( n = 13,473), and the average rate of positive outcomes ranged from 32.1% for amphibians to 58.1% for eutherian mammals (Tables (Tables1 1 and and3, 3 , S2 Table ). Marsupials had 50.1% positive outcomes and 49.9% mortality across all CFA ( Table 1 ).
Orphaned or dependent young carried the highest rate of positive outcomes (77.9%), which was high in all groups, ranging upwards from 69.0% of marsupials, and the associated relative risk of mortality for all species was only 0.366 (Tables (Tables3 3 and and4). 4 ). The relative risk of mortality was lower than average in avians, reptiles and eutherians ( S4 Table ). Entanglements had a relatively high positive outcome rate, at 53.5% on average, with reptiles and eutherians exhibiting very high positive outcome rates (76.5% and 76.4%, respectively) ( Table 3 , S3 Table ). Relative risk of mortality was also low at 0.748, although the risk was higher for marsupials and eutherians ( Table 4 , S4 Table ).
Overall, increases in annual admissions were mirrored by increases in mortality rate ( Fig 5b ), however, this was not accompanied by a change to the average annual mortality rate. There were no prominent seasonal differences between positive and negative outcomes overall ( Fig 5c ).
Native wildlife faces an ever-increasing range and magnitude of threats with the continuing increase of human population, associated urbanisation and anthropogenic-driven climate change being of immediate concern. Several studies have characterised declines in particular species or animal groups, whilst others have examined the impacts of a specific threat in a single biogeographical location, yet few have quantified the factors contributing to morbidities and mortalities longitudinally across a wide taxonomic range of native fauna.
This study has the widest breadth of any longitudinal analysis to date on the animals admitted to a WRC. It examines and critically analyses trends in admissions, causes for admission and animal outcomes over a twelve-year period at a WRC in South-East QLD, Australia. We observed a mean annual admission rate of 2,635 animals for the dataset examined, comparable to some previous studies in Europe, Africa and USA [ 19 , 24 , 26 , 61 , 62 ]. Differences in admission rates between WRCs in different countries or biogeographical areas are largely a consequence of variations in species richness, human population density, local natural and anthropogenic threats, admission capacity and cultural attitudes to wildlife.
WRC databases provide an opportunity for wildlife monitoring
Mammalian and avian taxa were the most commonly admitted groups in our study, reflecting the abundance and diversity of these groups in South-East QLD. Mammals comprised over 50% ( n = 15,826) of our dataset, providing a wealth of knowledge regarding the diversity and abundance of these native animals in South-East QLD. Of these, koalas, possums and flying foxes were among the five most admitted animals overall, highlighting the need for us to understand the human-induced pressures placed on these animals. A further 35.2% of our studied admissions were avians. This is considerably lower than other studies that report up to 57.1% [ 47 ] in the UK, and even 90% [ 63 ] in South Africa, whilst higher than a study from the USA (12.2%) [ 24 ].
We expect that these discrepancies are largely due to differences in species richness in SEQ compared to other regions [ 13 , 23 , 43 , 49 , 64 , 65 ]. These differences will inform and influence monitoring efforts and conservation priorities. We focussed only on terrestrial and freshwater species (including avians), omitting marine species as we consider these to be threatened by distinct factors warranting their own analysis.
An overall increase in admissions was witnessed over the study period, which we believe is largely attributed to human population increases, as evidenced by the increase over time of admissions due to human-associated CFA. This is supported by human population growth in the Sunshine Coast region from 236,654 residents in 2006 to 346,522 in 2016 [ 66 ]: linear regression of the human population and admissions over this time period showed a correlation coefficient of 0.9999 (R 2 of 0.9998; p = 0.006). The population is expected to reach 500,000 by 2031 [ 67 ], which we anticipate will result in further increases in wildlife admissions to AZWH.
Human activities are contributing to the decline of Australian icons
Given their iconic nature as representatives of the unique fauna found in Australia, and “vulnerable” status (up from “least concern” in 2008) [ 68 ], the health, welfare and conservation status of koalas continue to be of prime interest for the Australian public and the international community. Koala populations have suffered massive decline over the last 30 years, particularly in QLD, with recent localised population collapses documented [ 4 , 5 , 69 ]. Emphasising the precarious nature of the koala’s survival in South-East QLD, koala admissions were high and constant throughout the study period, consistent with reports from other WRCs [ 1 , 3 – 5 , 69 ].
Major threats to the koala include habitat fragmentation, road trauma and disease [ 4 , 69 ]. Land clearing, to facilitate urban expansion and agriculture is also having devastating effects on the welfare of native fauna worldwide [ 37 ]. Whilst we did not directly measure habitat fragmentation in our study, most koala admissions were from urbanised areas with high numbers of car strikes, dog attacks and animals found in abnormal locations (e.g. telegraph poles and bridges), demonstrating a clear link between urban encroachment and its effect on koalas. Chlamydial disease is highly prevalent in koalas from South-East QLD and has been identified as a key threat to koala populations [ 70 , 71 ]. As such, identifying and quantifying the prevalence of chlamydial disease in koalas is vital for ongoing management. Urogenital disease caused by Chlamydia pecorum can diminish the fecundity of the population as it can lead to infertility, whilst ocular disease can lead to blindness and increased risk of morbidity. Overt chlamydial disease, in the form of a stained rump and inflamed exudative eyes, is one of the most common reasons for koala rescue and admissions to WRCs in South-East QLD, yet hospital databases may not always accurately capture this as a primary CFA. In 2013, AZWH revised their animal accession/admission data capture and on-site database to enhance both the quality of animal admission data and ability to report on CFA. This process included revisions to CFA categories and the inclusion of a category for ‘overt signs of disease’. As a result, admissions for overt signs of disease appeared to increase markedly from mid-2013 ( Fig 4 ), yet realistically, the prevalence of overt chlamydial disease in koalas was similar to previous years. Our study was able to demonstrate how advances in the accuracy of data recording can result in an improved understanding of true threats to wildlife.
The most commonly admitted multi-species group in this study was possums, which are prolific in South-East QLD and thrive in urban areas. Due to their widespread nature and high density within urban and peri-urban regions, possums are predisposed to anthropogenic-related threats as demonstrated by high numbers of cat attacks, dog attacks and car strikes in this study, all of which resulted in high proportions of mortality (72.0%, 82.4% and 81.5%, respectively).
Another iconic Australian marsupial is the kangaroo. A recent study of eastern grey kangaroo with an overlapping study area, but also encompassing other regions of Australia, found that 42% of studied populations were in decline, with the most prominent impacts found in areas of high, ongoing urbanisation and transport infrastructure development [ 72 ]. In support of these findings, within our study area, 43.4% of eastern grey kangaroos were admitted due to car strike, with 92.5% of those incidents resulting in mortality; eastern grey kangaroos had the fourth highest total mortality rate. Interestingly, small macropods fared better than eastern grey kangaroos following car strikes for which they were commonly admitted, with more than double the positive outcome rate (16.6%), which was contrary to expectations as they have similar physiological and behavioural traits other than body size. Overall these results reiterate the substantive negative impacts of building roads through remaining habitat or habitat linkage pathways of animals that are already vulnerable due to previous habitat modification and destruction at a landscape scale, in the absence of the implementation of adequate conservation strategies to mitigate the negative impact. By addressing factors such as vehicle density, vehicle speed, signage, road side habitat and lighting (including daylight savings time) and appropriately designed wildlife corridors, the impact of vehicle collisions can be reduced [ 3 , 16 , 73 ]. However, the rate of human population expansion and urbanisation in our study area, as well as across many global regions, mean that vehicle associated wildlife mortality will still occur and likely constitutes one of the most prominent threats to the persistence of viable wild populations of many taxa.
The highest mortality rates of any taxa in this study were for lorikeets. Rainbow lorikeets are one of the most commonly observed birds in Australia with a natural distribution along the east coast [ 74 ] but are considered pests in other parts of Australia and New Zealand [ 75 ]. Whilst they were most commonly admitted in the hit window category, tree-felling and disease were also common reasons for lorikeets to be admitted. Disease resulted in a 94.9% mortality rate in lorikeets. Two diseases are primarily responsible for this: Psittacine beak and feather disease, a skin disease caused by Circovirus that is often fatal [ 76 ]; and necrotising enteritis, a gastrointestinal disease caused by Clostridia spp [ 77 ]. The latter is associated with altered dietary regimes associated with human habitat modification, or in some instances ingestion of inappropriate food directly sourced from humans in the form of garden bird-feeders and human food [ 77 , 78 ], providing yet another example of the preventable impact of human activities on wildlife.
Human-related CFA contribute to higher wildlife mortality rates
Unfavourable outcomes were statistically more likely if the CFA was domestic cat or dog attack, car strike or entanglements. The combined average mortality rate of these four human-related CFA was 61.3%., with the relative risk of mortality ranging from 1.3 to 1.6 compared to 0.4 and 0.7 for orphaning or overt signs of disease, respectively. These differences are due to the severity of the trauma caused by cats, dogs, cars and fencing and netting, which reduce the likelihood of successful rehabilitation, and are also likely underrepresented in our data given that orphaning would be in many instances a result of human linked impacts on the parents of orphaned individuals.
Entanglements were one of the human-related CFA responsible for a high proportion of admissions and mortality, again driving home the significant impact human activities have on a diverse range of wildlife. In the case of flying foxes, which were the fourth most commonly admitted taxa in our study, 51% were admitted due to entanglements, which resulted in a 57.6% mortality rate. Whilst we grouped all types of entanglements on the basis of insufficient data, a recent study in Victoria showed that a high proportion of animals were admitted due to fruit netting entanglements (36.8%), where up to 56.1% of each entanglement subcategory resulted in mortality [ 6 ]. This was one of the highest mortality rates in our study and suggests that changes in land management practices may be the most effective way of ameliorating native wildlife mortality associated with entanglement, particularly for terrestrial taxa. Within the study region, several local councils have initiatives such as ‘land for wildlife’, partly aimed at converting conventional barbed-wire livestock fencing into wildlife friendly options, as well as reducing the use of monofilament netting which present entanglement risk to taxa such as flying foxes [ 79 ]. However, these efforts rely on goodwill from landholders, and there is no legislative requirement at either the local, state or federal level to enforce such practices. This highlights the need for consistent, overarching policy to guide land management practices toward mitigation of unnecessary risk to native fauna.
Estimates in the USA place annual cat-related predation in the billions [ 21 , 22 ], and predation of native animals by both feral and domestic cats in Australia is similarly devastating. For example, predation by feral cats has resulted in the early localised extinction of indigenous wildlife such as the western quoll ( Dasyurus geoffroii ) and golden bandicoot ( Isoodon auratus ), from islands off Western Australia [ 80 ], with more recent declines in numbers of other marsupials such as the northern brown bandicoot ( Isoodon macrourus ) in Northern Australia [9, 81, among other examples [ 81 , 82 , 83 ]. Cats are ubiquitous in Australia, with millions kept as pets that are permitted outdoors, and others free-ranging in urban environments and the wild [ 82 – 84 ]. Cat attacks have particularly serious effects on birds and reptiles, and microbats are also especially susceptible to cat trauma, demonstrated by 63.6% mortality in our study, 28.7% of bat casualties in a study in Italy [ 85 ] and around half of the traumatic deaths of bats found in Germany [ 86 ]. The admissions figures for cat attacks in our dataset are deceiving as we omitted animals that were DOA. Cats are generalist predators that are known to consume prey, which has also been documented in Northern Australia: birds, small mammals and small reptiles are common food sources when available [ 87 ]. Such mortalities were not captured in our dataset. Further, cat removal measures have resulted in reversal of population declines in some areas [ 88 , 89 ] suggesting that such measures may be successful elsewhere. The culling of dingoes in many Australian jurisdictions has also been demonstrated to be detrimental to ecosystem functioning, as they act as top predators, often minimising the negative effects of feral mesopredators such as cats and foxes [ 90 – 93 ]. Further, cats do not only prey on native fauna but may also out-compete smaller bodied native predators such as quolls for resources [ 89 ], proving another, indirect, effect of the negative impact of such introduced species on our native fauna.
Dog attacks were another CFA resulting in significant mortality, with reptiles highly represented in this category. This is in agreement with another Australian study that showed around 49.2 to 52.4% of admissions of bluetongue lizards, which are common in backyards, were admitted following dog attacks, and 70% of all dog attack admissions did not recover [ 8 ]. A study in Tennessee however, reported far fewer admissions (only 6.1%) of reptiles due to dog attacks, where “human-induced trauma” was listed as the most common CFA for reptiles [ 24 ]. Dog attacks were also responsible for high mortality rates of koalas in our study. This is another example of the value of local wildlife monitoring to ascertain the specific threats faced by wildlife in distinct regions.
The influence of animal morphology and behavioural traits on predisposition to threats
Habitat characteristics, foraging practises, circadian movement patterns, size and other behavioural traits appear to predispose some taxa to certain threats, which are augmented by human-induced habitat alteration in the absence of suitable measures for impact reduction. The CFA for which this appears most clear is HBC, which was the leading CFA in our study. A detailed review of road trauma throughout Europe reported on average 2 to 8.5 million road kills per year among birds, reptiles and mammals (particularly ungulates) in countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium and Sweden [ 15 ]. The authors suggested that these animals are predisposed to vehicle collisions due to behavioural and ecological factors. A recent review of the propensity of wildlife to suffer from car strikes highlighted the increased risk for omnivorous avian taxa [ 94 ], which can be correlated in our study with the high rate of car strikes for tawny frogmouths, which are nocturnal omnivores with a tendency to hunt for insects that are attracted to car headlights on the road. Other avian species utilise roadside telegraph poles and fences as vantage points for hunting, further predisposing them to vehicle strikes [ 58 ].
Similarly, hedgehogs, which are nocturnal animals with morphological and behavioural traits resembling echidnas, (i.e. relatively slow movement, poor eyesight, limited defence against car strikes) have been documented to be profoundly affected by car strikes in the UK, with admission and mortality rates due to car strikes of 10.3% and over 85%, respectively [ 50 ]. In our study echidnas had a much higher admission rate due to car strikes (72.2%) with a corresponding mortality rate of 56.6%. Other taxa, such as herpetofauna are predisposed to car hits as they are drawn to the microclimate of a warm road, or they may be migrating to or from a hibernation site [ 51 , 94 ]. Turtles are also disadvantaged at evading car strikes due their slow speed, as evidenced by previous Australian research that reported an 82.3% admission rate of Long-necked turtles ( Chelodina longicollis ) over a 13-year study, with an overall mortality rate of 60.9% after impact with a motor vehicle [ 8 ]. This is comparable to the mortality rate of freshwater turtles in our study at 56.6%, as well as the morbidity/mortality rate reported for three turtle species at a WRC in Virginia [ 96 ]. These findings are also consistent with a study that showed that maximum sprint speed may be a determinant of an animal’s ability to evade injury or mortality associated with car strikes [ 95 ]. Further, Heigl et al reported a higher number of road-killed amphibians and reptiles on agricultural roads than municipal roads. Whilst we didn’t measure this in our study, our common admissions area does include rural and bushland zones, so a similar trend may be apparent in our study.
We saw prominent differences in the admission and outcome rates of predatory, aggressive, or territorial birds versus more placid birds. For example, there were only 351 admissions of raptors, which is a grouping of 17 species. Raptors were the only birds apart from pelicans and noisy miners that were almost never admitted due to cat or dog attack, with low admissions most likely to their low relative abundance, coupled with their behavioural characteristics, which comprise ambush attack on prey from high vantage points, with little time spent in vulnerable positions. Conversely, noisy miners, although smaller in body size than raptors, are gregarious and territorial, forming colonies that can contain hundreds of birds providing a means of communal territory defence, which could explain the relative paucity of dog and cat attacks. These behavioural traits may also influence people’s perceptions of the value of certain wildlife and the likelihood of presenting them to a WRC, for example in the case of noisy miners.
Severe weather events result in spikes in admissions
Besides an overall increase in admissions over the course of our study, we observed several distinct peaks in total admissions (2010, 2014, 2016, 2017) that may be correlated with severe local weather events affecting the region of South-East QLD, Australia. December 2010 recorded the “wettest December on record” with widespread heavy rainfall and thunderstorms, culminating in one of the most significant flood events in QLD’s recorded history [ 97 ]. Flood events damage animal habitat and alter animal movement and behavioural patterns, often resulting in mortality, displacement, injury, stress or disease. We observed an expected increase in orphaned cases in December 2010, particularly for birds and marsupials. Reptile admissions did not show the same trend, which may reflect the ability of snakes in particular to traverse floodwaters by swimming. Animals capable of climbing, which are heavily represented in our dataset by arboreal marsupials, may not have been as heavily affected by flooding, but thunderstorms, such as the ‘super-cell’ that affected the city of Brisbane in South-East QLD ( Fig 1 ) in November 2016 [ 98 ], likely resulted in mass animal displacement and injury, evidenced by a similar increase in orphan cases at that time. The same month also saw a heatwave in Kilcoy (~40 km west of AZWH), which, combined with recent land-clearing in the area, resulted in mass morbidity and mortalities of flying foxes.
Unusually dry and hot months were seen in Spring 2014, with QLD temperature records broken through October and November 2014 following ongoing and widespread drought [ 99 ] (e.g. temperatures of 35.4 to 44.0), prior to a damaging super cell storm in Brisbane at the end of November with heavy wind gusts and large hail stones [ 100 ]. These events coincided with peaks in avian and marsupial admissions. Similarly, 2017 was Australia’s third-warmest year on record, with persistently warmer than average days year-round [ 101 ]. High ambient temperatures cause morbidity and mortality due to heat stress, whilst prolonged drought destroys habitat and limits food and water sources. Alongside the more obvious and conspicuous threats associated with human activities, such as car strikes, these results highlight that anthropogenically induced climate change will likely exacerbate threats to wildlife, due to the predicted higher frequency of severe weather events that have not been as prevalent in the recent evolutionary history of Australian fauna.
Seasonality of admissions
Previous studies have shown that admissions to WRCs are markedly higher throughout the breeding season of included taxa (commonly occurring in spring) [ 5 , 13 , 47 , 85 , 102 , 103 . As weather begins to warm, many native species begin courtship and mating, prior to nesting, giving birth and carrying young. Some young may also go through weaning, and later disperse during the spring and summer months. Studies of birds and mammals in WRCs in South Africa and Colorado exhibited peaks in overall and orphaned/juvenile admissions during their common breeding season [ 17 , 63 ]. The same trend was also apparent in a 15-year longitudinal study of little owls in Spain in which orphaned young were the most common CFA overall [ 13 ]. Furthermore, peak admissions were also reported for reptiles in late spring in Victoria, Australia [ 8 ]. We observed similar increases in admissions in our study, with higher admission rates overall during the spring months (September, October, November; mean difference of 356.8 from autumn; p < 0.001). The precise timing of species-specific admission peaks varied between animal groups, which is likely a reflection of the relative length of breeding seasons, mating and nesting habits, gestation period, and time to independence for different taxa. Peak periods of juvenile dispersal also coincide with influxes of holidaying families and tourist drawn to the Sunshine Coast region, for the summer Christmas holiday period (December and January), resulting in increased human activity and motor vehicle use. We believe this cyclical, transient population increase and its effects on wildlife can be used to predict the long-term effects of ongoing urbanisation in the area and further highlight the need for proactive conservation management to be a paramount consideration in short and long term town planning for the region.
Limitations and future directions
The primary but unavoidable limitation of this study lies in the fact that causes for morbidity that occur in close proximity to, or are directly due to, human activities are strongly selected for in our study. Car strikes, entanglements, domestic dog and cat attacks, window hits and mower strikes are all examples of this bias, with displacements from normal habitat also potentially bringing animals into closer proximity with humans and their activities. Further, charismatic and non-threatening animals such as possums and several birds are more likely to be admitted to WRCs than seemingly dangerous, unpredictable or large animals such as snakes, kangaroos and large reptiles. This likely results in an under-representation of many taxa and some CFA. These limitations are common among these types of studies and have been raised by other authors [ 19 ]. Importantly, they highlight the significant impact of human activities on wildlife welfare and the need for awareness and education. There may also be a related bias toward diurnal animals, as humans are more likely to present injured animals during the day.
Some CFA categories are likely under-represented or may be mis-categorised. One example is cat attack admissions, whereby the devastating effects of domestic and feral cat predation on Australian wildlife are well established [ 81 ], however their mode of predation often results in mortality or injury in a manner that does not result in WRC admission [ 84 ], or results in immediate death, and hence were omitted from our study. This is also likely to be true of fox predation, leading to under-representation within this dataset. Disease may also be under-represented. For example, reptile viral disease is often undetected if funding is unavailable to carry out specific diagnostic tests, and botulism in birds may be placed into the poison category.
Whilst other studies have also reported the age and sex breakdown of admissions and outcomes of particular species, the emphasis of this study was on longitudinal data for a range of diverse species and therefore did not focus at that level of detail. Future studies within the region and comparative studies between regions could focus on age and sex as factors contributing to admissions and outcomes of certain species or animal groups. This data can also be mined as a tool for general wildlife monitoring.
Lastly, many admissions were eliminated from our analysis. This included cases in which a single cause for admission could not be distinguished. Again, this appears to be common practise in this style of study, and authors have addressed this differently. For example, by combining all traumas, or by including an “unknown” or “other” category. We opted to include as many clearly delineated admission categories as possible, based on information given upon presentation that is clarified by veterinary examination. Some CFA frequently occur together, such as car strikes of the mother leading to orphaned young, which further confounds exact numbers in each category. We predict that in cases where more than one CFA may be evident, the animal had a lower chance for survival, as studies have shown that trauma severity increases mortality risk [ 47 ]. Our subset analysis of CFA before and after the changes to data capture methods at AZWH, showed that, by and large, the top six CFA have remained constant ( S5 Table ), primarily affecting the overt signs of disease category, admissions for which increased dramatically following this change ( S3 Fig , S5 Table ). The main impact was thus on the proportion of admissions we could include in our final dataset due to a more complete reporting system. However, overall sample sizes were robust, and the main findings of this study were not impacted.
From our retrospective longitudinal study of wildlife admissions to a WRC, it is clear that direct and indirect human-related factors are key drivers of morbidity and mortality of wildlife in Australia. Car strikes, entanglements and attacks by domestic pets accounted for over 80% of all admissions, and together these admission categories had low survival rates compared to “natural” causes for admission.
We observed a steady increase in the number of admissions to AZWH that mirrors the increasing human population in the corresponding area. Whilst we did not directly measure habitat-fragmentation and loss in this study, its effects are evident and the continued population growth and consequential urban expansion in this area will inevitably be accompanied by land clearing and habitat modification. We predict that without intervention, this will result in a continued increase in admissions and ultimately, the ongoing decline of local wildlife populations.
Given the above, it stands to reason that substantial, human-driven conservation management is required to minimise the collateral damage wrought by modern civilisation. Hence, proactive and strategic management efforts to mitigate threats to biodiversity, and to the survival of wild populations of native species are an imminent and critical need, and it is also critical that these are underpinned by overarching legislative control and policy to balance the needs for human development alongside the conservation of biodiversity. Anthropogenic threats may be minimised by thoughtful landscape scale planning, incorporating biological corridors, strategic habitat restoration and defragmentation, implementation of technology- based harm mitigation strategies, such as highway alert systems, as well as measures to minimise the spread of infectious diseases. Education, awareness and fundraising campaigns regarding thoughtful pet ownership alongside wildlife friendly driving habits and conservation strategies that aim to mitigate threats posed by feral animals will also be a step toward ameliorating the detrimental effects of human activities on wildlife. Without significant action, we are likely to are likely to see indelible changes to the unique Australian biota including more human-induced localised extinctions and the decline of species that are currently deemed ‘common’.
Supporting information
Raw values and proportions of admissions for each species or multi-species group are both presented.
Total annual (a) and average (b) admissions per animal group. Taxa are coloured based on higher classifications; see legend.
(a) avians; (b) reptiles; (c) amphibians; (d) marsupial mammals; (e) eutherian mammals. Trend lines are included to highlight the overall increase in admissions over the study period. Note the different Y axis ranges.
(a) hit by car; (b) overt signs of disease; (c) orphaned/dependent young; (d) entanglements; (e) dog attacks; (f) cat attacks. Trend lines are included to highlight the overall increase in admissions over the study period. Note the different Y axis ranges.
(a) hit by car; (b) overt signs of disease; (c) orphaned/dependent young; (d) entanglements; (e) dog attacks; (f) cat attacks. The mean per animal group is shown. Taxa are coloured based on higher classifications; see legend. Note the different Y axis ranges.
Values depicted are the proportions of total admissions for each species or multi-species group, for each CFA: (a) hit by car; (b) overt signs of disease; (c) orphaned/dependent young; (d) entanglements; (e) dog attacks; (f) cat attacks. Taxa are ordered per mortality rate (beige bars); note the different order for graphs (a) to (f).
Acknowledgments
We are greatly appreciative of input from the Australia Zoo Wildlife hospital, especially Kathy Whitefield. We highly value the continued contribution of volunteers and wildlife carers.
Funding Statement
This study was funded by the University of the Sunshine Coast and the Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital.
Data Availability
Animals in Australia
How to Add Us to Google News
Advertisement
Below you can find a complete list of Australian animals. We currently track 366 animals in Australia and are adding more every day!
Australia is the sixth-largest country in the world. It is also one of the driest continents on Earth. Its huge landmass offers a varied landscape of deserts, tropical rainforests, and mountain ranges, which provide a variety of habitats for animals in Australia. It’s famous for its Great Barrier Reef, the largest coral reef in the world. An island continent, it is surrounded by the Indian and Pacific Oceans . It includes the Australian mainland, the island of Tasmania , and other small islands.
Unique Australian Animals
With so many species not found anywhere else in the world, Australia has a very rich and diverse animal population. Some of its most well-known and best-loved animals are its marsupials.
The kangaroo is synonymous with Australia. And there are a lot of them in the country — 30-40 million, and more than 55 different species, such as the Red Kangaroo , the largest marsupial on earth. They belong to a group of animals called macropods, which includes wallabies and tree kangaroos . Another macropod is the quokka , called “the world’s happiest animal” for its smiling expression and friendliness, which can be found mainly on Rottnest Island in Western Australia.
Koalas are recognized as distinctly Australian. Despite many calling them “koala bears,” they are not bears but are marsupials without a tail. They spend 18-20 hours a day sleeping to preserve the energy it takes to digest their fibrous diet (and it’s a myth they sleep so much because they are “drunk” on gum leaves!).
Australia is the only country where you can find the platypus , which is a monotreme, a mammal that lays eggs instead of bearing live young. Because it appears to have the body of a mole, the tail of a beaver, and the beak of a duck, when biologists first saw a platypus some of them thought it was a crazy, elaborate hoax and not a real animal. It’s also one of the few venomous mammals on Earth, as the male has poisonous stingers on its hind feet.
Koalas are one of the best-loved and most recognizably Australian marsupials.
What Is the National Animal of Australia?
The national animal of Australia is the red kangaroo ( Macropus rufus ). It’s also known as the red giant kangaroo, reaching over 6 feet tall, weighing around 190 pounds, and able to hop at 40 miles per hour. It is the largest land mammal native to Australia.
Red kangaroos are abundant in the country, found in most of the nation’s interior and along some of the northwestern coast. Their conservation status is “least concern,” however, like all wildlife they are protected by Australian law.
Male red kangaroos will engage in ritualized fighting over females and to show dominance in social groups. Famed for their boxing abilities, they use their arms to punch and legs to kick and destabilize their opponents. If a red roo loses a battle, they avoid close contact with other kangaroos and live alone.
The red kangaroo is Australia’s largest land mammal and its national animal.
Which Animals Are Extinct or Endangered in Australia?
Despite its rich, unique biodiversity, Australia is at risk of losing many valuable species. According to Australian Geographic, it has the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world.
In 2021, 13 more species were listed as extinct under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, bringing the total number of extinct native species to 100. The update means that more than 10% of the 320 land mammals known to exist since Australia was colonized in 1788 are extinct. It’s probable that there are more species extinct in the wild, including several invertebrates, currently unaccounted for. The likely reasons for extinction are feral cats and foxes preying on animals and habitat loss and destruction due to fire.
The Thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger , is one well-known example of a species considered extinct in mainland Australia for more than 2,000 years and has not been seen for more than 70 years in Tasmania. This large carnivorous marsupial with a dog-like head was once widespread across the continent and it is thought to have been wiped out due to the introduction of dogs to its habits, competition with the dingo, and humans hunting it.
The summer bushfires of 2019-2020 in the southeast, from southeast Queensland to Kangaroo Island, had a catastrophic effect on Australia’s fauna and flora, and are believed to have killed more than a billion animals and resulted in numerous species becoming endangered.
Koala: Koalas are listed as endangered, with population estimates ranging from 33,000 to 60,000, and their numbers are rapidly declining as much of their native habitat has been destroyed by land clearing and bushfires. The body tissue of most koalas contains chlamydia , which can make the animals sick when they are stressed by habitat loss, the threat of starvation, and dangers posed by cars and dogs.
Spotted Quoll : This carnivorous marsupial has a spotted coat and a long snout. The quoll’s tendency to eat cane toads, mistaking them for native toads, partially caused its population decline. Conservation efforts to establish them on toad-free islands have shown success.
Tasmanian Devil : Australia’s largest carnivorous marsupial, this sharp-toothed, cute critter is extinct on the mainland and found only in Tasmania. Since Tasmanian devils can protect themselves from foxes and cats, conservationists are hopeful about their chances of making a comeback.
Black-Flanked Rock-Wallaby: This kangaroo-like marsupial lives in the rocky areas of the desert. The Australian government has listed the rock-wallaby as a priority for conservation efforts.
Eastern curlew: The world’s largest shorebird depends on safe, protected wetlands to survive. This bird eats crabs and mollusks, but habitat loss has led to an 80% population decline.
Tasmanian devils now only exist on the island state of Tasmania.
Native Birds
With around 850 species of birds, Australia is a birdwatcher’s paradise. Around 45% of these species are only found in Australia. The country has an especially high diversity of parrots, with more than 50 species, and the highest number of seabird species at around 80, in the world.
The laughing kookaburra is an iconic Australian bird known for its call. Magpies are one of the country’s most recognizable birds, known for their territorial swooping, as they dive toward people’s heads to protect their young from what they perceive as predators. Another species commonly found in urban areas is the galah, also known as the pink cockatoo, which has a shrill shriek and often gathers by the hundreds. A popular parrot species is the rainbow lorikeet , named for its colorful plumage. Another bird with a distinctive feature is the sulphur-crested cockatoo , which is white with a bright yellow crest.
One of the nation’s best locations for bird watching is Kakadu National Park . Here you’ll find more than 280 different types of birds, including lorikeets , red-tailed black cockatoos , white-bellied sea eagles, and crimson finches. Another notable birding location is the Daintree rainforest on the northeast coast of Queensland. More than 430 species of birds call the Daintree home. You can see several species of kingfishers , cranes, pied monarchs, and lesser sooty owls.
Emu : Emus are the second-largest bird in the world and are found in a variety of habitats throughout most of Australia.
Rock Parrot : Endemic to coastal habitats of Southern Australia, these mainly terrestrial parrots can be seen foraging in pairs and small flocks in the early morning and late afternoon.
Little Penguin : The smallest species of penguin, they nest on Australia’s southern coastline. Phillip Island has the largest colony of Little Penguins in Australia.
Cassowary : The heaviest bird in Australia, cassowaries are flightless birds closely related to emus. They are found in tropical habitats of North Queensland, including in the Daintree rainforest.
Tawny Frogmouth : Often mistaken for owls, these birds are related to nightjars. They are found in a variety of habitats throughout the mainland. These nocturnal birds camouflage with branches during the day.
Kookaburras are famous for their call, which sounds like laughter.
National Bird of Australia
While Australia does not have an official national bird, many believe that the emu is a worthy representative. It is featured on the country’s coat of arms, alongside a kangaroo, symbolizing a forward-moving nation since both animals do not move backward easily.
The emu is a large, soft-feathered, flightless bird similar to an ostrich that can be found throughout Australia, although the Tasmanian, Kangaroo Island, and King Island subspecies have been extinct since colonization.
It can grow up to 6.2 feet tall, weigh up to 132 pounds, and reach speeds of 30 miles per hour, with a stride measuring up to 9 feet. These omnivores eat a variety of fruit, seeds, insects, and flowering plants, although they can last for weeks without eating. Emus don’t have any teeth, so they swallow small stones that help them grind up and digest food. They drink a lot of water, sometimes around 2.5 gallons daily, but are able to survive without water for 2 weeks if sources are scarce, as they take in moisture from their diet.
The emu is the unofficial national bird and is featured on Australia’s coat of arms.
Australian Fish
Whether you’re looking to go sport fishing, scuba diving, or snorkeling, this island continent has something for you. It hosts more than 4,000 species of fish. Because Australia is such a dry continent, there aren’t as many freshwater fish species. Most of the approximately 300 species are found in tropical and subtropical habitats. Some of the most common types of freshwater fish in Australia are galaxias, perch, and gudgeons.
Australia’s marine fish diversity is incredible. A few of the most popular game fish in the country include barramundi , swordfish, marlin, tuna , and mackerel. Peak fishing seasons vary by species, but there’s always something to catch year-round. If you’re swimming in one of Australia’s famous coral reefs you might see clownfish , angelfish , parrotfish, manta rays , or butterflyfish .
Around 170 species of sharks , the world’s largest fish, can be found in the nation’s waters, with about 70 species believed to be endemic. The Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, has more than 50 shark species. Types of sharks in Australia include whale sharks , great whites , Port Jackson, grey nurse, zebra , tiger , bull , great hammerhead , and pygmy sharks . Sharks live in all habitats off the country’s coastlines, with the majority on the continental shelf, others in coastal waters, and some in rivers and estuaries. Due to a decline in the shark population, they are listed as “threatened.” Western Australia’s Ningaloo Reef is famed for its large congregations of whale sharks, and many people visit between March and July for a chance to swim with them.
Whale sharks are abundant in the Ningaloo Reef of Western Australia.
Australian Snakes
Australia is known for its animals that can kill you, and its snakes don’t disappoint. 20 of the 25 most venomous snakes in the world are native to Australia. It also has more species of reptiles than any other country in the world. There are around 140 species of land snakes and 32 species of sea snakes.
Snakes can live in all types of environments in Australia except the highest altitudes, which are too cold for these reptiles to thermoregulate. Most of the venomous snakes are found in South Australia, as the state experiences large amounts of sun but also has enough cover for protection.
The most venomous snake in the world, the inland taipan , is present in Australia. Fortunately, it’s rarely encountered in its semi-arid habitats of east central Australia. There are two other species, coastal taipans and central ranges taipans . The longest snake in Australia is the amethystine python, which lives mainly in the rainforests of Queensland and grows up to 19 feet long.
Brown Snakes: These are one of the best-known snakes in the country. There are nine species of venomous brown snakes, with the Eastern Brown Snake being the second most venomous snake in the world.
Tiger Snakes: Identified by the region of their habitat, some species of tiger snakes include the mainland tiger snake (also known as the common tiger snake), western tiger snake, Chappell Island tiger snake, King Island and Tasmanian tiger snake, and Peninsula tiger snake.
Pythons: There are 15 species of pythons ranging throughout most of Australia, including the carpet python , children’s python, green tree python, and woma python.
Sea snakes: All species of sea snakes are venomous, but bites are extremely rare. Species include the yellow-bellied sea snake, olive sea snake , and the banded sea krait.
Death Adders: There are around eight species of death adders in Australia. The common death adder is one of the most venomous snakes in the country and is the fastest snake on Earth.
Australia is home to the inland taipan, which is the most venomous snake known.
The Flag of Australia
The flag of Australia features a dark blue background with the Union Jack representing Australia’s history with Great Britain. Below the Union Jack is a star with seven points signifying unity amongst the country’s states and territories. The Southern Cross in white is a constellation of five stars visible from the night skies that also serves as a reminder of Australia’s geography.
Australia’s flag was the first national flag to be created by a country’s citizens. The 1901 Federal Flag Design Competition was open to the public and more than 32,000 entries were received. The winners were five very similar designs by four Australians (two teenagers) and one New Zealand man. A simplified version was submitted to the British admiralty for entry into their register of flags, with the design officially recognized in 1903.
The Australian flag incorporates the Southern Cross constellation.
National Parks in Australia
Visiting a national park is one of the best ways to learn about a country’s landscape, flora, and fauna, and Australia has everything from deserts and sandy beaches to rainforests and grasslands in its abundant, beautiful national parks.
One of the best-known national parks is Uluṟu-Kata Tjuṯa National Park in the Northern Territory. This UNESCO World Heritage-listed park is home to Uluṟu, once commonly called Ayers Rock. A large sandstone formation in the center of Australia, it is one of the nation’s most recognizable landmarks, famous tourist destinations, and most culturally significant sites to indigenous Australians, sacred to the Pitjantjatjara, the Aboriginal people of the area. Also within the park is Kata Tjuṯa, known as the Olgas, which is a group of 36 domed rock formations.
Kakadu National Park is another well-known World Heritage-listed national park in the Northern Territory. It is Australia’s largest national park, consisting of more than 7,000 square miles of rainforests, wetlands, waterfalls, billabongs, and ancient indigenous rock art.
Kosciuszko National Park in New South Wales is named for mainland Australia’s highest peak, Mount Kosciuszko. It has 1.7 million acres of rugged mountain and wilderness, and the Thredbo-Perisher area is a popular spot for skiers, snowboarders, mountain bikers, and hikers.
The Daintree Rainforest in Australia is the oldest tropical rainforest in the world.
The 5 Rarest Animals in Australia
Silver-Headed Antechinus: This tiny shrew-like marsupial is so rare that up until 2013 no one knew they existed! They were found nesting in the wet eucalypt and rainforests of central Queensland, and only 2,500 are believed to exist in the wild. Their numbers have been reduced by fire destroying their habitat, leading to a lack of food sources, and due to the species being suicidal reproducers, meaning the males die once they finish mating.
Kangaroo Island Dunnart: With around 30% of Kangaroo Island devastated by the 2019-2020 bushfires, these carnivorous marsupials found only on the island were pushed nearer to extinction and now less than 50 are thought to be alive in the wild. Conservation groups are working to protect the species and efforts include creating a refuge area that is free of predators such as feral cats.
Orange-Bellied Parrot: One of the rarest species in the world, there are only about 50 of these parrots left in the wild. Habitat loss, the reduction of food sources due to the spread of noxious plants and increased competition from other birds, and threats from foxes and cats have all led to this species becoming critically endangered.
Numbat : Also called the banded anteater, this small termite-eating marsupial has become rarer over the years to see in the wild. It used to be widespread across the country, but is now only found in Western Australia, where it is the official state animal. With the main threat to numbats from foxes, cats, and birds of prey, conservationists are protecting populations in wildlife sanctuaries. A 2022 study estimates there are 1,900 numbats in existence, twice as many as previously thought.
Mountain Pygmy- Possum : Fewer than 2,000 of these tiny marsupials exist in the wild, so it is very hard to spot them in New South Wales and Victoria. Habitat loss has contributed to their decline as they live in areas also home to ski resorts. Climate change leading to shorter winters and less snow has greatly affected their ability to hibernate under the snow for up to 7 months a year.
Once widespread, the numbat, also called the banded anteater, now only exists in Western Australia.
The 5 Largest Animals in Australia
Whale Sharks : The UNESCO World Heritage-listed Ningaloo Marine Park in Western Australia is one of the only places in the world where whale sharks, often numbering up to 400, reliably gather every year in search of plankton and krill. The world’s largest fish can weigh up to 20 tons and grow up to 65 feet in length, although those seen at Ningaloo generally measure up to 39 feet long. Whale sharks have also been sighted in waters off the Northern Territory and Queensland, with isolated reports of some in Victoria and New South Wales.
Humpback Whales : Humpbacks can reach 52 feet and weigh up to 45 tons, and Western Australia’s waters are home to more than anywhere else on the planet. It has one of the longest whale-watching seasons in the world and each year from May to December approximately 45,000 migrate along the coast. Humpback whales also can be found off the eastern coast of Australia, when whales travel north from Antarctic waters after a summer feeding on krill to breed and give birth, with coastal towns such as Byron Bay and Hervey Bay popular whale-watching spots.
Killer Whales : The largest congregation of killer whales in the Southern Hemisphere gathers near Bremer Bay in Western Australia due to the abundance of prey available. Between January and April reliably every year, more than 150 of the apex predators, also known as orcas, can be seen in these waters. Male killer whales can grow to 32 feet long and weigh up to 6 tons.
Saltwater crocodile : The world’s largest reptile, which is capable of reaching lengths of over 23 feet and weighing over 2,200 pounds, lives in Australian coastal waters, estuaries, lakes, inland swamps, marshes, and despite its name, freshwater bodies. It can be found throughout coastal Northern Territory, where it’s estimated there are more than 100,000, and in Queensland and Western Australia. Read about what might happen in a confrontation between a human and a crocodile here .
Kangaroo : The red kangaroo is not only Australia’s national animal, it’s the largest marsupial in the world. With a maximum height of 6 feet and weight of 200 pounds, these kangaroos also boast tails that can reach 3 feet long. Kangaroos can develop muscular physiques through kicking and boxing, and one of the most muscular in the world was “Ripped Rodger.” Rodger was 6 feet 7 inches tall, weighed 200 pounds, and lived at The Kangaroo Sanctuary in Alice Springs until his death in 2018.
Humpback whales can weigh up to 45 tons and are found off the western and eastern costs of Australia.
Australian Animals
Ackie Monitor
The ackie monitor has a spiny tail which it uses as in self-defense.
Admiral Butterfly
Stunningly beautiful wings
The largest wingspan of any bird in the world!
Differnt Lizard” or Allosaurus weighed around two tonnes that is almost equal to a car.
Amethystine Python (Scrub Python)
Their milky-iridescent scales have a purplish hue in the light, reminiscent of the gemstone.
Angora Goat
Each adult Angora goat produces about 12 inches of mohair annually while kids have about 8 inches.
Anomalocaris
First evolved 100 million years ago!
In Australia the LBAM causes $21.1 million annually in lost production and control costs
Arafura File Snake
These snakes have rough, file-like skin.
Adult atlas moths do not eat - they live off fat they stored as larvae.
Australian Bulldog
The Aussie is a strong swimmer, a good workout in nice weather.
Australian Cattle Dog
High energy levels and active minds!
Australian Cockroach
The most common type outdoor roach in Florida
Australian Firehawk
Australian firehawks are the arsonists of the avian world!
Australian Flathead Perch
This small fish fetches a high price tag, with individuals selling from $1,000 to $5,000.
Australian Gecko
Geckos have 100 teeth and continually replace them.
Australian Kelpie Dog
Friendly, intelligent and energetic!
Australian Labradoodle
The "Australian" just refers to where the breed originated
Australian Mist
The only cat breed to originate in Australia.
Australian Shepherd
Sweet, faithful and affectionate!
Australian Terrier
Spirited, alert and courageous!
Australorp Chicken
Australorp chickens are among the best egg producers in the world, Hens in Australia set consecutive world records with one laying 364 eggs in a single year!
Has a curved, upturned beak!
Banana Spider
People spin clothing and fishing nets out of these spiders’ silk.
Bandicoot Many species are endangered or extinct!
Found everywhere around the world!
Barn Swallow
Older offspring help care for new hatchlings.
Prized by sport fishers for their size and strength
Detects prey using echolocation!
These dogs have great sniffer abilities
Bearded Dragon
Can grow to up 24 inches long!
Bed bugs feed for 4-12 minutes.
Rock paintings of bees date back 15,000 years
They roll around in dirt to prevent external parasites
There are more than 350,000 different species
Despite its small size, the alert nature and sharp bark of this canine make it a good watch dog.
In Australia, the chocolate bilby replaces the chocolate bunny for Easter.
Not all birds are able to fly!
Bird Of Paradise
There are around 50 different species!
Biscuit Beetle
The biscuit beetle form a symbiotic relationship with yeast
Black-headed python
Black-headed pythons gather heat with their heads while their bodies stay hidden and safe.
Black Widow Spider
They typically prey on insects!
Blind Snake
The blind snake is often mistaken for a worm.
Can smell rotting carcasses up to one mile away
Blue Andalusian
Blue Andalusian chickens are a classic example used to teach students about genetics!
Blue Dragon Sea Slug
They inflict a painful, venomous sting
Box Jellyfish
Venomous marine animals
Brahminy Blindsnake
These snakes have been introduced to all continents, except Antarctica!
Brazilian Treehopper
“Mild-Mannered Minimonsters”
Bredl’s Python
These snakes love to climb trees, and young snakes often hide high in the branches.
Brown Dog Tick
Can live its entire life indoors
Brown Snake
Causes the most snake bite deaths in Australia!
Brown Tree Snake
People have reported seeing these snakes in Texas, Oklahoma, and Hawaii, but this has never been proven!
Natively found in Australia!
Burrowing Frog
Found close to marshes, streams and lakes!
There are thought to be up 17,500 species!
Cactus Moth
Cactus moths can cause serious damage to cacti in locations where they have no predators.
Can survive without water for 10 months!
Camel Cricket
The camel crickets that are found in the USA are light brown in color. They also have dark streaks all over their body.
Campine Chicken
Campine chickens were exported from Belgium by Julius Caesar!
Cane Spider
Cane spiders don't spin webs to catch prey
Carpenter Ant
Carpenter ants can lift up to seven times their own weight with their teeth!
Carpet Python
Carpet pythons are popular pets because of their calm temperament.
Cashmere Goat
Cashmere goat are named after Kashmir regions of India and Pakistan
Can reach speeds of 30 mph!
May have been domesticated up to 10,000 years ago.
Caterpillar
The larvae of a moth or butterfly!
There are nearly 3,000 different species!
There are about 3,000 documented species!
Central Ranges Taipan
The central ranges taipan may be among the deadliest snakes in the world.
First domesticated more than 10,000 years ago!
Children’s python
These snakes come in a wide variety of patterns and colors.
Christmas Beetle
Christmas beetles got their common name because they’re most abundant around Christmas time.
Christmas Island Red Crab
During the breeding season, roads can dangerous for cars as well as the crab. Their shells are so hard they can puncture tires.
Cicadas have one of the longest insect lifespans
Clock Spider
Males make a rhythmic thrumming like a clock
Coastal Carpet Python
This subspecies can reach 13 feet, but usually tops out at 9 or 10.
Coastal Taipan
The venom in its bite starts to have adverse effects on a human within 30 minutes
Cochin Chicken
Cochin chickens gifted to Queen Victoria started a craze that lasted more than a decade!
They have crests that rise or fall depending on their emotions
Highly social, smart, and chatty bird.
Dated to be around 300 million years old!
Codling Moth
Pupae are able to undergo diapause to survive poor fruit yield years and winter.
Collett’s Snake
Collett’s snake is beautiful but almost as dangerous as a mulga snake.
Comb-crested Jacana
They are busy foragers, always on the move
Common Furniture Beetle
The common furniture beetle feeds exclusively on wood
Common House Spider
House spiders have the ability to eat most insects in a home.
Common Spotted Cuscus
Has a long, strong prehensile tail!
Beautiful, but deadly!
Corella birds are noisy, especially during the early morning or late evening.
They can fly 35 mph and dive 150 feet below water.
There are nearly 1.5 billion worldwide!
There are 93 different crab groups
Crab Spider
Crab Spiders can mimic ants or bird droppings
Many are critically endangered species!
Male crickets can produce sounds by rubbing their wings together
Have changed little in 200 million years!
Crocodylomorph
Crocodylomorphs include extinct ancient species as well as 26 living species today.
A group of these birds is called a Murder.
Death Adder
The Death Adder is more closely related to the Cobra than other Australian snakes.
Diamond Python
These pythons live at higher altitudes and further south than any other python species.
Diamondback Moth
Adult males make high amplitude boing noise to attract females
Dickinsonia
Natively found on the Australian continent!
Diprotodon was the largest marsupial that ever lived.
The dobsonfly spends up three years as a larva, and only a week as an adult.
First domesticated in South-East Asia!
Dog ticks feed on dogs and other mammals
First domesticated 5,000 years ago!
It's larvae are carnivorous!
Dromornis stirtoni
Rows of tiny plates line their teeth!
Dung Beetle
The dung beetle can push objects many times its own weight
Dusky Shark
The Dusky Shark sometimes eats trash discarded by humans.
They are hermaphrodites, which means they have male and female organs
There are nearly 2,000 different species!
Eastern Barred Bandicoot
Digs funnel-shaped holes in search of insects
Eastern Brown Snake
Eastern Tiger Snake
More than 10 percent of eastern tiger snakes are blind in at least one eye.
Also known as the Spiny Anteater!
Eels can be a mere few inches long to 13 feet!
Elephant Fish
Elephant fish are known as the Australian ghost shark, but they are not actually a shark species!
Emerald Tree Monitor
They lay their eggs in termite nests!
The largest bird in Australia!
English Longhorn Cattle
Although they look similar to the Texas Longhorn, they are not closely related.
European Starling
European starlings are accomplished mimics, often copying songs or sounds of other birds and animals (frog calls, goats, cats), or even mechanical sounds and human speech!
They forage in groups
The fastest creatures on the planet!
Fallow deer
The fallow deer has more variation in its coat colors than most other deer.
False Widow Spider
False spiders actually prey on black widow spiders and other hazardous spiders
Fiddler Crab
The fiddler crab gets its name from the motion the males make with their over-sized claw during the mating ritual.
Fierce Snake
It can kill multiple humans with the amount of venom it releases in one bite.
The firefly produces some of the most efficient light in the world
Adult fleas can jump up to 7 inches in the air
There are more than 240,000 different species!
Most of the hundreds of varieties of flycatchers belong to the Tyrannidae and Muscicapidae families!
Freshwater Crocodile
The freshwater crocodile is the fastest crocodile on land.
Frilled Lizard
Mainly lives in the trees!
Frizzle Chicken
Frizzle chickens are known for their frizzled feathers, which result from a genetic mutation.
There are around 7,000 different species!
Among the largest bats in the world
Fruit flies are among the most common research animals in the world
Galapagos Shark
Galapagos sharks are cannibalistic and sometimes eat their young, so the pups stay away from the adults in shallow water.
There are thought to be over 2,000 species!
German Cockroach
The most common type of urban roach
Giant Trevally
The largest fish in its genus
Giant Wood Moth
The giant wood moth is the heaviest known moth in the world.
Found inhabiting dense woodland and caves!
Males form large mating swarms at dusk
Gouldian Finch
The male Gouldian finch bobs its head and fluffs its feathers to court a female.
Grasshopper
There are 11,000 known species!
Green Tree Frog
Green tree frogs breathe through their skin
Green Tree Python
Green tree pythons are non-venomous, so to subdue their prey, they have a couple of very unique and highly successful hunting techniques.
Gypsy Moth Caterpillar
Able to run as quickly backwards as forwards!
Can reach speeds of over 50 mph!
Hawk Moth Caterpillar
Many hawk moth caterpillars eat toxins from plants, but don’t sequester them the way milkweed butterflies do. Most toxins are excreted.
Helicoprion
Helicoprion was one of the largest cartilaginous fish of all time.
Hercules Moth
Adult Hercules moths don’t eat since they don’t have mouths.
Inhabits wetlands around the world!
Highland Cattle
Natively found in the Scottish Highlands!
Holy Cross Frog
The holy cross frog has a cross-shaped colored pattern on its back.
There are only 8 recognized species!
Has evolved over 50 million years!
Horseflies have been seen performing Immelmann turns, much like fighter jets.
House Sparrow (English Sparrow)
The house sparrow has been introduced all over the world
The fly has no teeth
Thought to have orignated 200,000 years ago!
Huntsman Spider
Some huntsman spiders have an interesting way of moving around. Some cartwheel while others do handsprings or backflips.
Found in swamps, marshes and wetlands!
Inland Taipan
A single inland taipan bite has enough venom to kill a hundred men.
There are an estimated 30 million species!
Irukandji Jellyfish
Tiny ocean killer
The jacana has the ability to swim underwater
The John Dory is often labeled one of the ugliest fish in the world and has no known relatives.
Jungle Carpet Python
Their stunning coloration is sometimes muddy yellow or even tan and black in the wild.
Females have a deep pouch on their front!
These adorable dogs are known for their love of children, strangers, and other animals because of their docile demeanor.
The checkered keelback of the east Indies can detach its tail and grow it back, much like a lizard.
Females look similar to males but don’t come in shades of blue
Kitefin Shark
Spends up to 80% of the time sleeping or resting!
The name "koolie" comes from the German mispronunciation of "collie."
Kowaris do not drink or take water; all they get is the water content in their diet.
Labout’s Fairy Wrasse
Females are sequential hermaphrodites, which means they can convert to males anytime during their life cycle.
Labradoodle
Friendly and energetic mix-breed!
Lace Monitor
When communicating, they make a loud, terrifying hissing sound, and they will strike any potential danger with their mighty tails.
There are more than 5,000 species worldwide!
Laughing Kookaburra
The laughing kookaburra is one of four kookaburra species.
Lawnmower Blenny
Must be in temperatures of 78 degrees Fahrenheit to breed
Has 10 pairs of eyes!
Leghorn Chicken
Leghorn chickens, one of the most popular industrial breeds, lay up to 320 eggs per year!
Leichhardt’s Grasshopper
Spend their lives
Little Penguin
The smallest species of penguin!
There are around 5,000 different species!
Each locust can eat its weight in plants each day.
The lorikeet has a long brush-like tongue with fine hairs on it
The lungfish first evolved almost 400 million years ago.
Lyrebirds mimic birds of prey to deter predators such as birds of prey.
They are found across Europe, Asia and Africa!
With an appropriate tail wind, the mallard can travel hundreds of miles a day
Maltese Shih Tzu
Both parent breeds, the Maltese and Shih Tzu, once entertained royalty!
Marans Chicken
Marans chickens produce some of the darkest, chocolate-brown eggs in the world!
Marine Toad
Produces a toxin used in arrow darts!
There are 2,500 known species worldwide!
Mealworm Beetle
In 1968, the mealworm beetle traveled to space and circled the moon on the Soviet mission Zond 5.
They have a symbiotic relationship with ants.
Some people believe that Megalania still exists in remote areas, although those beliefs have never been validated with evidence.
The Meiolania had a massive head that it was unable to put fully inside its shell.
Some species have a poisonous bite!
Modern Game Chicken
The Modern Game chicken is a lanky bird with legs that go for days!
Primarily hunts and feeds on Earthworms!
Mole Crab (Sand Flea)
They eat jellyfish tentacles
Mole Cricket
Adult Mole crickets may fly as far as 5 miles during mating season and are active most of the year.
Monarch Butterfly
During migration, Monarch Butterflies may travel 250 or more miles each day.
Has characteristics of two or more breeds!
Monitor Lizard
Some species are thought to carry a weak venom!
Feeds on aquatic insects and water-spiders!
Only the female mosquito actually sucks blood
There are 250,000 different species!
Mourning Gecko
Found on every continent on Earth!
Mouse Spider
The female mouse spider is rarely seen because they don't leave their burrows.
Mulga Snake
Muscovy Duck
Unlike most duck species, the Muscovy is silent and only makes noise when excited or threatened.
Muttaburrasaurus
They stood about 26 feet tall and weighed more than 3 tons, as heavy as today's African forest elephants.
Muttaburrasaurus is named after the town of Muttaburra in central Queensland.
Many people believe the hill myna bird is better at mimicking humans than a parrot!
Nabarleks have teeth like a shark, with new molars continuously emerging from the back.
no stomach to digest food
Neptune Grouper
The largest recorded specimen ever caught was 17" long
Nicobar pigeon
Unlike other pigeons, Nicobar pigeons don't fly in haphazard flocks but in columns or single file.
There are more than 5,000 species.
There are less than 1,000 left in the wild!
Oenpelli python
Oenpelli pythons are unusually thin for a python.
Olive python
The olive python is a gentle giant that is rarely aggressive.
Oranda Goldfish
Oranda goldfish are one of the most popular fancy goldfish breeds
Females are about four times the size of males
Oriental Cockroach
Unlike other cockroach species that live indoors living off humans, oriental cockroaches are outdoor scavengers.
They reuse nesting sites for 70 years!
There are 13 different species worldwide
The owl can rotate its head some 270 degrees
Owlfly (Ascalaphidae)
Adult owlflies can capture prey while flying in the air.
Inhabits the jungles of the far east!
Monk parakeets are the only parakeets that actually build nests. They’re also the only parakeets to nest in great colonies.
Can live for up to 100 years!
Peacock Spider
They can jump up to 10 centimeters (40 times their body size) and see the full rainbow spectrum of light, including UV.
Some of the most delicious gamefish in the world
Peregrine Falcon
Fastest animal on Earth
Females lay between 8 and 12 eggs per clutch!
Pheasant-tailed Jacana
The pheasant-tailed jacana is the only species in its family that migrates long distances.
Pig-Nosed Turtle
Their family lineage dates back 140 million years
They can find their way back to their nests from up to 1300 miles away.
Platinum Arowana
The male broods the eggs and baby fish in his mouth.
One of the only mammals to lay eggs!
Pliosaurs were the short-necked version of plesiosaurs.
Polish Chicken
The Polish chicken has a large, feathered crest supported by a round, bony prominence on the skull!
Pompano Fish
They are bottom-feeders
The Poochon was first bred in Australia.
There are 69 species on the Australian continent!
They can carry items with their tail.
Praying Mantis
The mantis can turn its head 180 degrees.
Procoptodon
The largest variety of kangaroo to have ever been discovered.
Pterodactyl
Pterodactyl is not technically a dinosaur. Although they lived during the same time as dinosaurs, they are classified as winged reptiles.
Pygmy python
These snakes have been seen traveling as group of 3-5.
Inhabits woodland and forest areas worldwide!
Makes runways through the long grasses!
Found across Australia and Papua New Guinea!
Omnivores that eat anything!
Red Ackie Monitor
The red ackie prefers burrowing to climbing.
Red-Bellied Black Snake
These snakes are the only ones in the genus Pseudechis to give birth to live offspring.
Red-Eared Slider
Sliders spend lots of time basking in the sun. As cold-blooded animals, they need the sun to heat up.
The red fox actually has many different variations of fur, including silver and brown.
Redback Spider
The redback spiders found in New Caledonia differ from other populations in that they don’t practice sexual cannibalism and don’t bite people as much.
Can fit its body into a tiny crevice of a reef
River Turtle
Inhabits freshwater habitats around the world!
There are more than 45 species in Australia alone!
The capybara, the world’s largest rodent, likes to be in and around bodies of water. Because of this, the Catholic Church in South America decided that it was a fish, and people were allowed to eat it during Lent and First Fridays.
Will mate with the entire flock!
Sable Ferret
Ferrets were used during the Revolutionary War to keep down the rat population.
Fast billfish with a sail-like dorsal fin
Male sambars will compete for mates by clashing together with their antlers
The sand crab burrows beneath the sand with its tail
Sarus Crane
Parents use low calls to tell their chicks to freeze and lie still when danger lurks.
Savanna Goat
Savanna goats have only existed since 1957.
Scarab Beetle
The ancient Egyptians worshipped scarabs.
There are around 2,000 known species!
Inhabits tropical coastal waters of Australia!
The sea eagle tends to mate for life with a single partner
Males give birth to up to 1,000 offspring!
Senepol Cattle
Senepol cattle have a distinctive red color and no horns.
Sequined Spider
You may even be able to see a reflection in their reflective sequins!
Around 35 million in the English countryside!
There are 2,000 different species worldwide!
Silky Terrier
Silky terriers can be trained to participate in many events, including herding, agility, rally, tracking and fly ball.
Skink Lizard
Some skinks lay eggs in some habitats while giving birth to skinklets in other habitats.
Skuas will chase other birds until they give up their catch
They glide around on one foot, which is aided by the slime they produce
Smokybrown Cockroach
Has up to 45 eggs per egg case
There are nearly 1,000 different species!
There are around 4,000 known species worldwide
There are 140 different species!
Spider Wasp
They prey on spiders to feed their larvae or they parasitize other spider wasps.
Spotted Garden Eel
Males battle each other over females and territory
Spotted python
Their favorite food is bats and they hang from cave entrances to snatch them out of midair!
Stargazer Fish
Uses an electric shock to stun its prey!
Stick Insect
There are more than 3,000 different species!
They can’t sing like other birds.
Strawberry Hermit Crab
When strawberry hermit crabs find shells that are larger than their own, they gather in a line from biggest to smallest. Once the biggest one sheds its shell, the next one in line will claim it, which is repeated down the line.
Striped Rocket Frog
Long powerful hind legs!
Stromatolite
Stromatolites played a key role in the development of life on Earth.
Swallowtail Butterfly
Swallowtail Caterpillar
Populations have been affected by pollution!
The Most Venomous Snakes On Earth
Tarantula Hawk
Tarantula hawks are excellent pollinators, especially for milkweed.
Tawny Frogmouth
The tawny frogmouth is a master of camouflage that can hide in plain sight!
Teacup Miniature Horse
Female teacup minis become sexually mature between 2 and 5 years old, but breeders typically wait until their horse is 3 before letting her reproduce to prevent complications.
Tenterfield Terrier
These terriers have quick minds and fast feet making them excellent for agility competitions.
Their mounds can be up to 9 meters tall!
Terriers were once the greatest dogs in the world.
Some theropods had feathers and may have been ancestors of modern birds.
Thorny Devil
Found only on mainland Australia!
The American robin is called the robin because its red breast reminded European settlers of the robin back in the old country.
Scientists have speculated that its bite force was equivalent to that of a 551 pound lion!
Thylacoleo carnifex
Thylacoleo carnifex was the largest carnivorous mammal in Australia
They inject hosts with a chemical that stops them from feeling the pain of the bite
Tiger Beetle
The adult tiger beetle is one of the fastest land insects in the world
Tiger snake
Tiger Snakes can spend nine minutes underwater without returning to the surface to breathe
Tiger Trout
As tiger trout are sterile, they cannot produce offspring. However, they do have relatively long lifespans and can live up to 10 years in captivity.
Among the largest land animals to ever exist
Tomato Hornworm
The tomato hornworm is a ferocious pest that can eat all parts of a plant, including the fruits.
Tree Cricket
They make music with their wings
Found in warmer jungles and forests!
Tree Kangaroo
It’s the only macropod that lives in trees.
Though this snake’s venomous bite isn’t harmful to adults, it can be dangerous to children
Treecreeper
Their tailfeathers help them maintain their balance on a tree trunk
Turtle Frog
A turtle frog can eat more than 400 termites in a single meal.
Some species of aquatic turtles can get up to 70 percent of their oxygen through their butt.
There are roughly 30 different species!
Warblers are so called because of the trills of their song.
There are around 75,000 recognised species!
Water Buffalo
Has been domesticated for thousands of years!
Water Dragon
Spends most of it's time in the trees!
The Wax Moth larvae are more dangerous than the adult.
Welsh Black Cattle
Welsh Black Cattle were once used as currency in Wales and referred to as “black gold”.
White Butterfly
This butterfly determines the smell and taste of a flower with its feet.
White Ferret / Albino Ferrets
There are two different types of white ferrets!
The body of Wiwaxia was covered by rows of sclerites and spines
Wolf Spider
Carnivorous arachnid that hunts its prey.
Woma Python
Woma pythons often prey on venomous snakes and are immune to some venoms.
Spends most of the day underground!
This animal can roll up into a ball
Woodlouse Spider
Unlike most spiders, woodlouse spiders don’t build a web.
Doesn’t have eyes.
Wyandotte Chicken
The Wyandotte chicken was the first dual-purpose American chicken bred for both meat and eggs!
Xenacanthus
Smal eel-like ancient shark
The yabby can survive long periods of droughts by burrowing into the soil.
Yellow-Bellied Sea Snake
Sea snakes spend approximately 90% of their lives under water.
Yellow Crazy Ant
One of the top 100 worst invasive species!
Yellowhammer
It interbreeds with the pine bunting
Yokohama Chicken
Yokohama chickens have snow white feathers with tails reaching up to 4 feet in length.
Zebra Finch
The male zebra finch creates a unique song by drawing inspiration from its parent or tutor
Australian Animals List
Catherine Gin
Faqs (frequently asked questions) .
What Animals Live in Australia?
Australia has many exotic animals.
Southern cassowary: This flightless bird resembles an ostrich but with a large blue head, a crest and huge claws. Cassowaries can run, swim and use their claws to fight.
Laughing kookaburra: This small, pretty bird is famous for its high-pitched call that sounds like a crazy laugh. It usually makes the sound at dawn and at dusk.
Pellucid hawk moth: This moth has transparent wings without scales, which makes it unique among members of the Lepidoptera family.
Bats: Australia has some of the biggest bats in the world. They can have wingspans of five feet and weigh more than two pounds. They are sometimes called megabats or flying foxes.
How Many Deadly Animals Are There in Australia?
Australia has many scary animals, and it’s known for its deadly snakes. It is the only continent where venomous snakes outnumber non-venomous ones. The eastern brown snake, inland taipan and eastern tiger snake are all scary. The eastern tiger snake has caused more deaths by snake bite than any other snake in Australia.
Bull shark ( Carcharhinus leucas ): One of the most feared predators in the water, the bull shark will eat anything it can catch.
Saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus ): Also known as the estuarine crocodile, this crocodile is fast, aggressive and extremely scary. This fierce hunter is the biggest reptile in the world. It can weigh up to 1000 pounds. Steve Irwin, the famous Australian “Crocodile Hunter,” was known for his work rescuing these massive beasts.
Australia also has freshwater crocodiles, but they are not dangerous to humans unless you’re crazy enough to deliberately provoke them.
The Sydney funnel-web ( Atrax robustus ) is one of the world’s most dangerous spiders.
What Is the Most Dangerous Animal in Australia?
Box jellyfish ( Chironex fleckeri ): This transparent animal has no teeth or claws, but it has the strongest venom in the world. A typical box jellyfish has 15 long tentacles, and each contains enough poison to kill several grown adults.
What Is the Most Beautiful Animal in Australia?
Australia has many animals that are utterly adorable. Most people are crazy about cuddly koalas or Tasmanian devils. It’s also impossible to resist quokkas, with their smiling faces and friendly natures. In fact, quokkas top our list of the 10 cutest animals .
Despite this stiff competition, we choose sugar gliders ( Petaurus brevicep ) as Australia’s loveliest creature. Native to Australia, sugar gliders are tiny, gorgeous marsupials with pink feet and enormous eyes. They get their name from their love of sap and nectar. They can also glide from one tree branch to another.
Australia has many amazing animals you won’t find anywhere else. That’s why its zoos and wildlife sanctuaries attract millions of visitors every year.
What Rivers are in Australia?
Australia is home to a number of rivers including what’s believed to be the oldest river in the world . The Finke River, located in central Australia, is believed to be about 350 million years old. Interestingly, while extremely old, the river is sporadic. It flows only a few times per year after heavy rains.
What is the largest plant in Australia?
The largest plant in Australia is actually the world’s biggest plant ! Poseidon’s ribbon weed, Posidonia australis , is located in the World Heritage Listed Shark Bay Conservation Area.
Did the largest gold nugget ever found come from Australia?
The Welcome Stranger was an alluvial nugget found in Victoria, Australia in February 1869. It was the largest gold nugget ever found and weighed 3,523.5 troy ounces when it was first pulled from the ground and produced 3,123 troy ounces (ozt) of gold when it was refined.
Sourcing Our Content
Privacy Policy
Terms & Conditions
Editorial Guidelines
As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases. Learn more about us & read our affiliate disclosure .
This subject will introduce students to the biology of Australia's vertebrate fauna with an emphasis on ecology and behaviour of frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals. There will be particular focus on the adaptations of the fauna to the unique and uncertain nature of the Australian terrestrial environment. A variety of topics will be discussed including diversity of Australian vertebrate groups in comparison to other parts of the world; the impact of human activities and introduced animals on native fauna; wildlife diseases; and the ethics associated with research and experimentation on animals.
Intended learning outcomes
Upon completion of this subject students should have an appreciation of the diversity, natural history and uniqueness of a broad range of Australian wildlife; and a sound knowledge of the interactions between wildlife and natural and human-modified environments.
Generic skills
This subject builds upon generic skills developed in first-year subjects, including an ability to approach and assimilate new knowledge and an ability to use that knowledge to evaluate and communicate the ideas. Students should learn how to observe critically and to use the results of those observations to pose and answer theoretical questions and to solve practical problems. They should gain experience in mastering the terminology of a scientific field and then in using that mastery to access an established body of scientific literature and material and to develop the ability to critically evaluate questions and issues in that scientific field. Students should also learn how to collect and interpret data in field situations and write this up as a scientific report.
Last updated: 17 May 2024
Essay on Australia
Students are often asked to write an essay on Australia in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.
Let’s take a look…
100 Words Essay on Australia
Australia’s location.
Australia is a country in the Southern Hemisphere, located between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It’s the world’s smallest continent but the sixth-largest country by total area.
Natural Beauty
Culture and people.
Australia is a multicultural country with people from many backgrounds. English is the main language. Australians are known for their friendly and laid-back nature.
Australia has a strong economy, with sectors like mining, agriculture, and tourism playing key roles.
250 Words Essay on Australia
Introduction.
Australia, often referred to as “Down Under”, is a unique country that is also a continent. It is renowned for its rich culture, diverse ecosystem, and vibrant economy.
Geography and Biodiversity
Australia is the world’s smallest continent but the sixth-largest country by land area. It boasts a diverse geography, from the arid deserts of the Outback to the snowy peaks of the Australian Alps. This diversity extends to its wildlife, with species like kangaroos and koalas that are found nowhere else on earth.
Australian culture is a blend of its Indigenous roots and more than two centuries of immigration. This multicultural mix has created a vibrant, inclusive society that values diversity. Australians are known for their laid-back attitude and friendly demeanor, often characterized by the term ‘mateship’.
Australia has a strong, stable economy, ranked 13th largest in the world. It is rich in natural resources, including coal, iron ore, and gold. The services sector, including tourism, education, and finance, also plays a significant role.
500 Words Essay on Australia
Australia, also known as “the land Down Under,” is a country known for its rich cultural heritage, diverse ecosystems, and progressive economy. The country is characterized by its unique flora and fauna, captivating landscapes, and vibrant cities that blend modernity with tradition.
Australia is the world’s sixth-largest country by total area and is located in the Southern Hemisphere. It is surrounded by the Indian and Pacific Oceans, featuring a wide range of geographical landscapes, from arid deserts and stunning beaches to lush rainforests and snow-capped mountains. This geographical diversity has resulted in a unique biodiversity. Australia is home to a myriad of endemic species, including the kangaroo, koala, and emu. The Great Barrier Reef, the world’s largest coral reef system, is another testament to Australia’s rich biodiversity.
Australian culture is a blend of its Indigenous heritage and multiple waves of immigration. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, the country’s original inhabitants, have a rich cultural history dating back at least 65,000 years. Their stories, traditions, and living cultures are a significant part of Australia’s identity.
Influences from British colonization are also evident in Australian culture, particularly in its legal and political systems. More recent immigration waves from Europe, Asia, and Africa have further diversified the cultural fabric, making Australia a multicultural society with a high degree of social integration.
Australia boasts one of the world’s largest mixed-market economies. It is particularly strong in sectors such as mining, agriculture, and services. The country is known for its significant natural resources, including gold, iron ore, and coal. Australia’s economic stability is also attributed to its robust financial sector, sound regulatory systems, and a strong emphasis on innovation and technology.
Education and Research
Australia is a vibrant and dynamic country with a rich history, diverse culture, and robust economy. Its unique biodiversity, commitment to education and research, and multicultural society make it a fascinating subject of study. Understanding Australia’s complexities and nuances provides valuable insights into how diverse elements can coexist and thrive in harmony.
Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .
Leave a Reply Cancel reply
Information
Author Services
Initiatives
You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.
All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .
Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.
Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.
Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.
Original Submission Date Received: .
Active Journals
Find a Journal
Proceedings Series
For Authors
For Reviewers
For Editors
For Librarians
For Publishers
For Societies
For Conference Organizers
Open Access Policy
Institutional Open Access Program
Special Issues Guidelines
Editorial Process
Research and Publication Ethics
Article Processing Charges
Testimonials
Preprints.org
SciProfiles
Encyclopedia
Article Menu
Subscribe SciFeed
Recommended Articles
PubMed/Medline
Google Scholar
on Google Scholar
Table of Contents
Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.
Please let us know what you think of our products and services.
Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.
JSmol Viewer
The demography and practice of australians caring for native wildlife and the psychological, physical and financial effects of rescue, rehabilitation and release of wildlife on the welfare of carers.
Simple Summary
1. introduction, 2. materials and methods, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.
Fitzpatrick, K. Sir John Franklin in Tasmania, 1837–1843 ; Melbourne University Press: Melbourne, Austrilia, 1949. [ Google Scholar ]
Haering, R.; Wilson, V.; Zhuo, A.; Stathis, P. Towards a more effective model of local wildlife care with the volunteer wildlife rehabilitation sector: A survey of volunteers in New South Wales, Australia. In AWRC 2018 ; NSW Office of Environment and Heritage, National Parks and Wildlife Service: Sydney, Austrilia, 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
Englefield, B.; Starling, M.; McGreevy, P. A review of roadkill rescue: Who cares for the mental, physical and financial welfare of Australian wildlife carers? Wildl. Res. 2018 , 45 , 103. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Englefield, B.; Blackman, S.A.; Starling, M.; McGreevy, P.D. A Review of Australian Animal Welfare Legislation, Regulation, Codes of Practice, and Policy, and Their Influence on Stakeholders Caring for Wildlife and the Animals for Whom They Care. Animals 2019 , 9 , 335. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
Scientific American. Wildlife Presented to the RSPCA has Significantly Increased. Available online: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/roadkill-endangers-endangered-wildlife/ (accessed on 6 February 2019).
Penny Travers, ABC News. More Wildlife Carers and Volunteers are Needed–Are You up for Cuddle Time with Wombat Joeys? Available online: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-02/more-wildlife-carers-and-volunteers-wanted-in-the-act/8762602 (accessed on 11 April 2019).
Guy, A.J.; Banks, P. A survey of current rehabilitation practices for native mammals in eastern Australia. Aust. Mammal. 2010 , 34 , 108–118. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Australian Bureau of Statistics. Motor Vehicle Census Australia. Available online: http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/ [email protected] /Lookup/9309.0Main+Features131%20Jan%202017?Open Document (accessed on 1 May 2019).
Australian Bureau of Statistics. Special Feature; Household Pets. Available online: https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/ [email protected] /2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/5ef8016f420622a3ca2570ec00753524!OpenDocument (accessed on 21 October 2019).
Australia, R. How Many Pets are There in Australia? Available online: https://kb.rspca.org.au/knowledge-base/how-many-pets-are-there-in-australia (accessed on 21 October 2019).
Wires. How Many Branches and Volunteer Members Does WIRES Have. Available online: https://www.wires.org.au/wildlife-info/faqs (accessed on 21 October 2019).
Invasive Species Council. Invasive Species a Leading Threat to Australia’s Wildlife. Available online: https://invasives.org.au/publications/invasive-species-leading-threat/ (accessed on 11 April 2019).
Mellor, D.J. Updating Animal Welfare Thinking: Moving beyond the “Five Freedoms” towards “A Life Worth Living”. Animals 2016 , 6 , 21. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment. General Requirements for the Care and Rehabilitation of Injured and Orphaned Wildlife in Tasmania. Available online: http://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/Carers%20General%20Requirements%20May%202012.pdf (accessed on 1 May 2019).
Tribe, A.; Brown, P.R. The role of wildlife rescue groups in the care and rehabilitation of Australian fauna. Hum. Dimens. Wildl. 2000 , 5 , 69–85. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Tribe, A.; Hanger, J.; Nottidge, B.; Kawakami, T. Measuring the success of wildlife rehabilitation: Koalas and brushtail possums. In Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference on Wildlife Rehabilitation, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia, 31 August–2 September 2005. [ Google Scholar ]
Figley, C.R. Compassion Fatigue: Coping with Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder in Those Who Treat the Traumatized ; Brunner/Mazel: New York, NY, USA, 1995; Volume 23. [ Google Scholar ]
Williams, D.; Tricomi, G.; Gupta, J.; Janise, A. Efficacy of burnout interventions in the medical education pipeline. Acad. Psychiatry 2015 , 39 , 47–54. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Heritage, B.; Rees, C.S.; Hegney, D.G. The ProQOL-21: A revised version of the Professional Quality of Life (ProQOL) scale based on Rasch analysis. PLoS ONE 2018 , 13 , e0193478. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
van Mol, M.M.C.; Kompanje, E.J.O.; Benoit, D.D.; Bakker, J.; Nijkamp, M.D.; Seedat, S. The prevalence of compassion fatigue and burnout among healthcare professionals in intensive care units: A systematic review. PLoS ONE 2015 , 10 , e0136955. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Clifford, K. Who cares for the carers? Literature review of compassion fatigue and burnout in military health professionals. J. Mil. Veterans Health 2014 , 22 , 53. [ Google Scholar ]
Severn, M.S.; Searchfield, G.D.; Huggard, P. Occupational stress amongst audiologists: Compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, and burnout. Int. J. Audiol. 2012 , 51 , 3–9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Smallwood-Butts, K. Burnout, Compassion Fatigue, and the Utilization of Evidence-based Practices by Mental Health Professionals ; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing: Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2012. [ Google Scholar ]
Yeung, P.; White, B.; Chilvers, B.L. Exploring wellness of wildlife carers in New Zealand: A descriptive study. Anthrozoös 2017 , 30 , 549–563. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Frances, C. Wildlife Rescue and the Potential Impacts on Mental Health ; Australian Wildlife Rehabiltators Conference; University of Sydney New South Wales: Sydney, NSW, Austrilia, 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
Kidd, A.H.; Kidd, R.M.; Zasloff, R.L. Characteristics and motives of volunteers in wildlife rehabilitation. Psychol. Rep. 1996 , 79 , 227. [ Google Scholar ] [ PubMed ]
Allison, L.D.; Okun, M.A.; Dutridge, K.S. Assessing volunteer motives: A comparison of an open-ended probe and Likert rating scales. J. Community Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2002 , 12 , 243–255. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Clark, S.; Marley, J.; Hiller, J.E.; Leahy, C.; Pratt, N. A Grief Diagnostic Instrument for General Practice. Omega J. Death Dying 2006 , 52 , 169–195. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Reid, W.H. DSM-IV Training Guide ; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2012. [ Google Scholar ]
Hadfield, J.D. MCMC Methods for Multi-Response Generalized Linear Mixed Models: The MCMCglmm R Package. J. Stat. Softw. 2010 , 33 , 1–22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Wood, S.; Scheipl, F. Generalized Additive Mixed Models Using Mgcv and Lme4 ; R Package Version 0.2-3; CRC Press: London, UK, 2015. [ Google Scholar ]
Statistics, A.B.O. Census of Population and Housing: Reflecting Australia—Stories from the Census, 2016 ; Australian Bureau of Statistics: Canberra, Australia, 2017.
Rizopoulos, D. ltm: An R Package for Latent Variable Modeling and Item Response Theory Analyses. J. Stat. Softw. 2006 , 17 , 1–25. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Guy, A.J.; Curnoe, D.; Banks, P.B. A survey of current mammal rehabilitation and release practices. Biodivers. Conserv. 2013 , 22 , 825–837. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Pospisil, H. Perspectives on Wildlife from the Practice of Wildlife Rehabilitation. Ph.D. Thesis, California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, CA, USA, 2014. [ Google Scholar ]
Dubois, S. A Survey of Wildlife Rehabilitation Goals, Impediments, Issues, and Success in British Columbia, Canada. Ph.D. Thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Cannada, 2003. [ Google Scholar ]
Pinillos, R.G.; Appleby, M.C.; Manteca, X.; Scott-Park, F.; Smith, C.; Velarde, A. One welfare–a platform for improving human and animal welfare. Vet. Rec. 2016 , 179 , 412–413. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Rosemary Elliott, C.H. Australian Wildlife Rehabilitation Conference 2018 ; University of Sydney: Sydney, NSW, Austrilia, 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
Wimberger, K.; Downs, C.; Boyes, R. A survey of wildlife rehabilitation in South Africa: Is there a need for improved management? Anim. Welf. 2010 , 19 , 481–499. [ Google Scholar ]
Roche, M.A.; Laschinger, H.K.S.; Duffield, C. Testing the nursing worklife model in Canada and Australia: A multi-group comparison study. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2015 , 52 , 525–534. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Waldman, J.D.; Arora, S. Measuring retention rather than turnover: A different and complementary HR calculus. Hum. Resour. Plan. 2004 , 27 , 6–9. [ Google Scholar ]
ASFA Research and Resource Centre. ASAF Retirement Standard. Available online: https://www.superannuation.asn.au/ArticleDocuments/269/ASFA-RetirementStandard-Summary-2018.pdf.aspx?Embed=Y (accessed on 30 Apirl 2019).
Australian Bureau of Statistics. 4159.0–General Social Survey: Summary Results, Australia, 2014. Available online: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/ [email protected] /Latestproducts/4159.0Main%20Features152014 (accessed on 23 Apirl 2019).
Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1370.0–Measures of Australia’s Progress, 2010 Work Hours, Online ; Australian Bureau of Statistics: Adelaide, SA, Austrilia, 2010.
Cremona, T.; Spencer, P.; Shine, R.; Webb, J. Avoiding the last supper: Parentage analysis indicates multi-generational survival of re-introduced ‘toad-smart’ lineage. Conserv. Genet. 2017 , 18 , 1475–1480. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Shier, D.M.; Owings, D.H. Effects of predator training on behavior and post-release survival of captive prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). Biol. Conserv. 2006 , 132 , 126–135. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Moseby, K.E.; Cameron, A.; Crisp, H.A. Can predator avoidance training improve reintroduction outcomes for the greater bilby in arid Australia? Anim. Behav. 2012 , 83 , 1011–1021. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Coote, G.; James, M. ABC News. Fewer Than Half of Quolls Survive First Three Months after Landmark Return to Australian Mainland. Available online: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-06-07/fewer-than-half-of-quolls-in-landmark-rewilding-program-survive/9841620 (accessed on 19 April 2019).
Saran, K.; Parker, G.; Parker, R.; Dickman, C. Rehabilitation as a conservation tool: A case study using the common wombat. Pac. Conserv. Biol. 2011 , 17 , 310–319. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Moro, D.; Hayward, M.W.; Seddon, P.J.; Armstrong, D.P. Reintroduction Biology of Australian and New Zealand Fauna ; Surrey Beatty & Sons: Chipping Norton, NSW, Austrilia, 1995. [ Google Scholar ]
Armstrong, D. Advances in Reintroduction Biology of Australian and New Zealand Fauna ; Csiro Publishing: Melbourne, Austrilia, 2015. [ Google Scholar ]
Bennett, P.; Rohlf, V. Perpetration-induced traumatic stress in persons who euthanize nonhuman animals in surgeries, animal shelters, and laboratories. Soc. Anim. 2005 , 13 , 201–220. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Whiting, T.L.; Marion, C.R. Perpetration-induced traumatic stress–A risk for veterinarians involved in the destruction of healthy animals. Can. Vet. J. 2011 , 52 , 794. [ Google Scholar ]
Reeve, C.L.; Rogelberg, S.G.; Spitzmuller, C.; DiGiacomo, N. The caring-killing paradox: Euthanasia-related strain among animal-shelter workers.(Author Abstract). J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2005 , 35 , 119. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Stafford, K.; McKelvey, K.; Budge, C. How does animal euthanasia affect people and how do they cope. Companion Anim. Soc. Newsl. 1999 , 10 , 7–14. [ Google Scholar ]
Martin, F.; Ruby, K.L.; Deking, T.M.; Taunton, A.E. Factors associated with client, staff, and student satisfaction regarding small animal euthanasia procedures at a veterinary teaching hospital. J. Am. Vet. Med Assoc. 2004 , 224 , 1774–1779. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Von Dietze, E.; Gardner, D. Euthanizing wildlife: Experiences and coping strategies among people who conduct euthanasia. Pac. Conserv. Biol. 2014 , 20 , 28–36. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Barnard-Nguyen, S.; Breit, M.; Anderson, K.A.; Nielsen, J. Pet loss and grief: Identifying at-risk pet owners during the euthanasia process. Anthrozoös 2016 , 29 , 421–430. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Fletcher, D. Managing Eastern Grey Kangaroos Macropus Giganteus in the Australian Capital Territory: Reducing the Overabundance–Of Opinion ; Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Mosman, Australia, 2007; pp. 117–128. [ Google Scholar ]
Cheal, D. A park with a kangaroo problem. Oryx 1986 , 20 , 95–99. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
Hampton, J.O.; Forsyth, D.M. An assessment of animal welfare for the culling of peri-urban kangaroos. Wildl. Res. 2016 , 43 , 261–266. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Jevne, R.F. When Dreams Don’t Work: Professional Caregivers and Burnout ; Baywood Publisher: Amityville, NY, USA, 1998. [ Google Scholar ]
D’anjou, E.W. Caregiver burnout. Neurol. Now 2012 , 8 , 6. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
Questions Relevant to the Year July 1st 2016 to June 30th 2017
1
In which year did you become a volunteer wildlife carer
2
Which of the following Australian native marsupial joeys; rescued as orphans, have you hand-reared
3
How did the joeys you hand-reared become orphans
4
Give an approximate figure for the total number of rescued joeys that died whilst you were caring for them
5
What teaching did the animals receive before they were released
6
What was the method used to release any animals
7
Were the animals identifiable
8
Did you receive any feedback indicating what happened to the animals after they were released?
9
Have you received any formal instruction or training in animal behavior modification techniques?
10
Which method would you prefer to use to release the animals you reared
11
Which method would you prefer to see used as a temporary home
12
What should happen to an animal that cannot be released?
13
Are the methods of release that are currently being employed optimal for the welfare of the animals
14
Approximately how many hours per week on average did you spend doing volunteer work as a wildlife carer?
15
What was your approximate personal financial contribution?
16
During the time you have been a wildlife carer give an approximate overall total for the personal money you have spent on caring for animals?
Questions Concerning Distressing Events Wildlife Carers Had Experienced
1
Receiving adverse comments about the way you care for animals
2
Rescuing pouch-young or an injured joey from a dead female
3
The death or serious illness of an animal in your care
4
Releasing animals to the wild and not knowing whether they survived or had a life worth living
5
Had an animal taken by authorities, hard released to the wild and which died shortly afterwards
6
Financial hardship as a result of the cost of caring for animals
7
Health-related loss
8
Loss of freedom through being a carer
9
Other
Questions about the Effect of Experiencing the Losses Experienced by the Wildlife Carers
1
Have thoughts of the losses made it difficult for you to concentrate, remember things or make decisions
2
Have you experienced images of the losses surrounding the event
3
Have you found yourself longing for what has been or will be lost
4
Have reminders of the loss caused you to feel longing for what has been or will be lost
5
Have thoughts or reminders of the loss caused you to feel guilt
6
Have thoughts or reminders of what has been or will be lost caused you to feel sick or ill in any way
7
Have thoughts of the loss come into your mind whether you wish it or not
8
Have you felt distress by the reality of the loss
9
Have thoughts or reminders of the loss caused you to feel dread of the future
10
Have thoughts of your loss caused you to be more irritable with others
11
Overall, how much have thoughts and feelings about your loss or losses distressed you
12
Have other animals, people or familiar objects reminded you of the loss
13
Have thoughts or reminders of the loss caused your emotions to feel numb
14
Have you found yourself imagining that the loss did not or will not occur
15
Have reminders of the loss caused you to feel sadness
16
Have thoughts or reminders of the loss caused you to feel anger?
Motivation
Number of Respondents
Percentage of Responses
Female
Male
Total
I had an affinity with animals and a desire to help them
209
29
238
88.5
To help conserve the environment
155
31
186
69.1
To contribute to my community
93
14
107
39.8
I had the skills to rear animals
93
11
104
38.7
I related better with animals than humans
70
9
79
29.4
To learn something new
62
7
69
25.7
To handle animals
63
10
73
27.1
To challenge myself
57
4
61
22.7
I believed that I had a special gift in relating to animals
56
8
64
23.8
To socialise and meet people
21
2
23
8.6
To do something different
23
3
26
9.7
To fill a void in my life
24
1
25
9.3
To help me get a future job with animals
12
1
13
4.8
Total Animals Released
Feedback Received
SE
Yes
No
Antechinus
15
2
13
0.18
Bandicoot
46
17
29
0.14
Glider
58
3
4
0.13
Kangaroo
117
31
27
0.09
Koala
10
7
3
0.29
Pademelon
27
17
10
0.19
Phascogale
8
0
8
0.00
Possum
189
102
87
0.07
Quoll
5
0
5
0.00
Wallaby
103
66
37
0.09
Wallaroo
32
23
9
0.16
Wombat
57
37
20
0.13
Share and Cite
Englefield, B.; Candy, S.; Starling, M.; McGreevy, P. The Demography and Practice of Australians Caring for Native Wildlife and the Psychological, Physical and Financial Effects of Rescue, Rehabilitation and Release of Wildlife on the Welfare of Carers. Animals 2019 , 9 , 1127. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9121127
Englefield B, Candy S, Starling M, McGreevy P. The Demography and Practice of Australians Caring for Native Wildlife and the Psychological, Physical and Financial Effects of Rescue, Rehabilitation and Release of Wildlife on the Welfare of Carers. Animals . 2019; 9(12):1127. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9121127
Englefield, Bruce, Steve Candy, Melissa Starling, and Paul McGreevy. 2019. "The Demography and Practice of Australians Caring for Native Wildlife and the Psychological, Physical and Financial Effects of Rescue, Rehabilitation and Release of Wildlife on the Welfare of Carers" Animals 9, no. 12: 1127. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9121127
Article Metrics
Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.
Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals
Science & Environment
History & Culture
Opinion & Analysis
Destinations
Activity Central
Creature Features
Earth Heroes
Survival Guides
Travel with AG
Travel Articles
About the Australian Geographic Society
AG Society News
Sponsorship
Fundraising
Australian Geographic Society Expeditions
Sponsorship news
Our Country Immersive Experience
AG Nature Photographer of the Year
Web Stories
Adventure Instagram
Sex, stress and fertility in Australian wildlife
When a Zoos Victoria team had difficulties breeding some of their critically endangered mountain pygmy-possums, they decided to investigate the animals’ hormone levels. A lot is known about hormones in humans and domestic animals, but it was the first time anyone had looked at pygmy-possum hormones – and, in fact, one of the first times a non-invasive hormone approach had been used in any marsupial conservation program.
It was a serendipitous moment that ultimately fuelled a revolutionary new Melbourne-based program now helping to save some of Australia’s most endangered creatures from extinction, by applying the scientific discipline of wildlife endocrinology. At the program’s helm are two reproductive biologists who were on that original team: Dr Marissa Parrott, Senior Conservation Biologist in the Wildlife Conservation and Science team at Zoos Victoria, and Dr Kerry Fanson, who leads the Wildlife Conservation and Reproductive Endocrinology Lab (WiCRE) at Melbourne’s La Trobe University.
Wildlife endocrinology is simply the study of hormones in wild animals, and during the past two decades it has successfully underpinned breeding programs for many exotic species – from tigers and elephants to pandas – in zoos around the world. But until now, it’s rarely been used in Australia to help recover declining populations of native species, and its potential is huge.
To understand this, it’s necessary to appreciate the role played by hormones, which are chemical messages produced inside all animals and detectable in biofluids such as saliva and urine, and in faeces. “They underlie every part of animal health, behaviour and reproduction,” Marissa says. “Knowing what healthy baseline levels of hormones are allows us to identify [physiological] problems and look for solutions, which is important in endangered and critically endangered species.”
That’s because when a species’ population falls to desperately low levels it usually means a captive breeding program is needed to save it, but this is unfortunately often viewed as a last resort. “But by the time a species is brought in to start a captive breeding program, it usually has low genetic diversity because its populations are so reduced, and that often leads to health and hormone issues that cause low fertility and low fecundity,” Marissa says.
And that’s exactly what’s happened with a key population of the mountain pygmy-possum.
Pygmy-possum breeding success
With fewer than 2000 of the critically endangered possums now estimated to survive in the wild, inbreeding – which leads to a loss of genetic diversity – is a major issue. The species has a complex life history. The mountain pygmy-possum’s natural distribution range is limited to Australia’s alpine areas and it is the only Australian marsupial that hibernates for around six months a year beneath a thick layer of snow. Its survival is also closely tied to the life cycle of its major food source – the migratory bogong moth, which is also endangered.
When Zoos Victoria began its mountain pygmy-possum breeding program almost two decades ago, wild-caught females were brought in to mate with wild-caught males from a different population. The males were genetically robust and had already proven to be successful in the breeding stakes. But the new females came from an extremely small inbred wild population and some weren’t becoming pregnant.
“We looked at hormone levels in our breeding females that had successfully raised young and compared them with the females that hadn’t bred,” Marissa says.
Kerry elaborates: “We found that successfully breeding females had really nice clear cycles, whereas the unsuccessful breeders didn’t have any progesterone cycles – they didn’t seem to be ovulating when they should have been.”
In response, the team refined the care and management of the possums, including their diet and social system. When further wild-caught females from genetically healthy populations were introduced to the breeding program, all of them successfully bred and raised young.
The zoo’s breeding success rate for mountain pygmy-possums is now up to 100 per cent.
Building a database
Leadbeater’s possum is another critically endangered species that’s now having its hormones scrutinised and documented by the team. It has a vastly different reproductive strategy from the pygmy-possum. But there also appear to be treatable hormone imbalances in animals that have been failing to reproduce, and the team was able to breed the first Leadbeater’s babies in the new conservation breeding program last year.
“At the moment we’re looking at what’s happening with females that are reproducing versus those not reproducing, as we did in the pygmy-possums,” Marissa says, explaining that for female Leadbeater’s the current focus is on the hormone progesterone. One of the major challenges is recognising and understanding individual differences in animals’ physiology –not all females are the same. “We found that female Leadbeater’s in this population have seasonal changes in reproduction. For some females, the window of reproductive activity is quite long, whereas other females have a restricted window of breeding opportunity. But our next step is working with male samples and looking at testosterone.”
The Tasmanian devil is another endangered marsupial species that’s so far been a focus for the project, and the New Holland mouse, also known as the pookila, a native mouse that’s now extinct from large parts of its former range, is another.
The project is still in its early stages. Currently it’s focused mainly on building a database of what are normal and abnormal hormone levels for some endangered and critically endangered species – mostly mammals, although some work has begun on frogs that, as a group globally, have suffered significant declines.
This work alone is of massive interest simply because it’s never been done before. It will help flesh out what makes our native animals function and inform conservation breeding programs. But what makes this project particularly exciting are the ways in which this vast bank of knowledge will ultimately be used in the field.
Non-invasive approach
Unlike a lot of animal research that requires live specimens to be captured and handled, endocrinology can be a non-invasive science. Hormone levels can be detected from biofluids, hair, feathers and scales, so urine and gland secretions used to scent-mark territories, and faeces left at regular latrine sites – like those used by devils – can be sampled in the field without even needing to see an animal.
“Non-invasive hormone monitoring has a couple of unique benefits for understanding the physiology and behaviour of Australia’s unique endangered wildlife,” Kerry says. She explains that for mountain pygmy-possums, urine – which is easy to collect in captive populations – has so far been the preferred sample type for the project.“ But for Leadbeater’s possums, Tassie devils and pookila, we’re largely using faeces because it’s so much easier to collect without even seeing the animals.”
To collect hormone samples as non-invasively as possible in frogs, the team is developing special capabilities that involve placing a small patch of filter paper onto the frog’s back to pick up skin secretions without hurting it. “Yes, you would have to first find the frogs to do that,” Kerry says. “But for all these species, we’re currently using captive-based populations to establish a critical foundation of knowledge about what their normal reproductive physiology is, and from that we’ll be able to develop biomarkers.”
The sorts of physiological conditions for which researchers are hoping to develop biomarkers include, for example, reproductive health, pregnancy and lactation. Having this sort of capability would allow researchers to identify situations such as whether or not a wild population of an endangered animal was successfully breeding. This could be done without exposing animals, or mothers and offspring, to a potentially stressful experience.
Taking this sort of application even further: Zoos Victoria already has a team of highly trained wildlife-detection dogs that can detect the presence (or absence) of particular species without the need for trapping or tagging. The dogs have also been trained to detect scents associated with reproductive status and cycling in Tasmanian devil faecal samples. It’s a world first using detection dogs to track reproductive cycles in a conservation breeding program and may be adaptable to wild populations.
“It’s an exciting time in the field of wildlife endocrinology. Much of the groundwork has been laid, so now we can start applying these methods to generate meaningful insights for wildlife conservation,” Kerry says. “It’s revolutionising what we can do. That’s why this new partnership between my lab and Zoos Victoria is so important, because they are on the ground with the animals, either for captive breeding or in the field, and we are able to turn those samples they collect into meaningful insights about reproductive biology, how healthy a population is and how the animals perceive their environment.”
Relevance to human reproduction
Perhaps, however, the most remarkable aspect of Kerry and Marissa’s work is how it’s informing our understanding of human reproduction and potential infertility issues. Their work together – first in mountain pygmy-possums, but now also in devils and Leadbeater’s – has, for example, revealed a new role for the group of hormones called glucocorticoids. These have widely and traditionally been thought of as stress hormones.
“But they’re not!” Kerry says. “They do so many different things to the body.” When Kerry and Marissa were studying mountain pygmy-possums, they found that cortisol, a type of glucocorticoid, consistently increased before ovulation. At first, this was counter-intuitive, because everyone thought that elevated glucocorticoid levels should inhibit reproduction.
“But we’ve been looking a lot more closely at reproduction and glucocorticoids in other species and found that they increase during important reproductive events: when females become reproductively mature, before they ovulate and throughout pregnancy,” Kerry says. These insights have come from the endocrinology studies done by her and Marissa.
“If glucocorticoids increase at all these critical stages in female reproduction and promote successful outcomes, we need to change our thinking about how glucocorticoids affect reproduction. We are really driving this paradigm change together,” Kerry says. “We found that in mountain pygmy-possums, cortisol [one of the glucocorticoids] increases just before the female ovulates and that it’s followed by an increase in progesterone. That will be really useful for giving us another tool to first diagnose and then potentially treat reproductive failure.”
And that is likely to not just be limited to these three mammal species, but to all mammals.
Not surprisingly, researchers in the areas of fertility and IVF have begun looking at how this might be relevant to treating infertility in humans.
Haliskia peterseni is only the second partial pterosaur skeleton ever found in Australia.
Lions and tigers and bears, oh my! Unlikely animal friendships
Why do we love to see unlikely animal friendships? A psychology expert explains.
Australia's space race: From red dirt to the stars
Despite the lack of a strong, overarching national strategy, engineers, scientists, academics and entrepreneurs across the continent have been busy developing Australia into a spacefaring nation, building our modern space industry from the ground up.
Watch Latest Web Stories
Birds of Stewart Island / Rakiura
Endangered fairy-wrens survive Kimberley floods
Australia’s sleepiest species
Enter the 2022 Nature Photo Contest! You could win over $20,000 in prizes! Enter today>>
Show search
Email Sign Up
Take action
Nature Writing Prize
May 01, 2023 | Last updated May 04, 2023
2023 Nature Writing Prize Winners
The Winners of the 2023 Nature Writing Prize have been announced. Congratulations to Connor Tomas O’Brien who took out the $7500 major prize for his essay 'The Cryptids' and Lily Chan who received the Rosina Joy Buckman Award, a $1000 prize for highly commended essay, 'The Golden Age'.
Join us for a special evening to celebrate the 2023 winner announcement and see who will be awarded the $7,500 prize for their winning essay in the genre of ‘Writing of Place’, with a keynote presentation from author and passionate conservationist, Tim Winton.
Wednesday 22nd November 2023, 7pm-9pm
Rmit’s the capitol,, 113 swanston st, melbourne vic, keynote presenter: tim winton.
Tim Winton is the author of 29 books. Listed as a National Living Treasure, few other Australian writers have had such a broad-ranging and far-reaching cultural impact, from the arts and sciences, to environmental education, and conservation policy. In June 2023, Tim Winton received an Order of Australia (AO) for distinguished service to literature as an author and novelist, to conservation, and to environmental advocacy.
The event is proudly brought to you by The Nature Conservancy Australia and has been made possible thanks to the vision, and a generous donation, from The McLean Foundation, which promotes and celebrates the literature of nature and literature in nature in Australia.
Read more for more information on the 2023 shortlist.
'Writing of Place'
Essay between 3,000 and 5,000 words
$7,500 will be awarded to the winning author.
The winning writer will be announced at a very special event in Melbourne in November 2023, featuring keynote speaker Tim Winton.
They will also be offered for publication, with the possibility of being published in The Monthly at the discretion of Schwartz Media's editorial team.
An additional author receiving a Highly Commended Prize - the Rosina Joy Buckman Award, a $1,000 prize, made possible thanks to the generous support of Life at Springfield .
The prize is open to Australian citizens and permanent residents. Participants will need to pay an entry fee of $25.
Read the full Terms & Conditions .
The competition’s judges are novelist, essayist and editor Ashley Hay and writer and environmental historian Cameron Muir.
They will award the prize to an Australian writer whose entry is judged to be of the highest literary merit and which best explores his or her relationship and interaction with some aspect of the Australian landscape.
Ashley works as a writer, editor, facilitator and mentor and is based in Brisbane. Between 2018 and 2022, she was the editor of the Griffith Review where she curated, commissioned and composed sixteen editions of Australia's leading quarterly of great writing and new ideas. Learn more about Ashley Hay.
Cameron Muir
Cameron's essays and features have appeared in Griffith Review, Meanjin, Inside Story, Overland, The Guardian, Australian Book Review, The Canberra Times and Best Australian Science Writing, among others. He has been awarded the Griffith Review Emerging Writers’ Prize, an Australian Society of Authors Mentorship (with Bruce Pascoe), a Griffith Review Contributor’s Circle Varuna Fellowship, shortlisted for the 2019 Bragg Prize for Science Writing and was a finalist in the 2019 Eureka Prizes for Science Journalism. Cameron has a PhD in environnmental history from the Australian National University. Learn more about Cameron Muir.
The Nature Writing Prize 2023 is proudly brought to you by The Nature Conservancy Australia and The McLean Foundation.
The Rosina Joy Buckman Award for Highly Commended essay, prize donated by: Life at Springfield
Presented in partnership with: RMIT Culture
Media partner: The Monthly
Previous winners
In 2021, Gregory Day was awarded the Nature Writing Prize 2021 Winner, for his essay The Watergaw .
Gregory Day is a novelist, poet, essayist and musician from the Eastern Otways region of south-west Victoria. He is a winner of the Australian Literature Society Gold Medal, the Elisabeth Jolley Prize, and his latest novel, A Sand Archive, was shortlisted for the 2019 Miles Franklin Award. In 2020 Gregory received the prestigious Patrick White Award for his ongoing body of work.
The announcement event featured an interview between Ashley Hay, then Editor of the Griffith Review , where the essay was published, in conversation with Gregory.
Gregory’s essay was chosen by judges Tara June Winch and Geordie Williamson, out of almost 140 pieces of writing received in the last competition.
The judging process was completely anonymous. Each judge read one half of all essays received, then from each batch they choose a longlist (usually 10 essays each judge) and swapped these with their counterparts. A shortlist is chosen from these, of five essays in total, with one winner and one highly commended writer agreed by both.
Of Gregory’s piece The Watergaw , judge Tara June Winch said: “…striking for its nuance and accomplishment in expressing nostalgia, and the language of belonging to a place. A beautiful and subtle work.”
Other 2021 prize recipients
Read Crocodile Country.
Michael Bradley is an ecologist based in North Queensland. He studies how rivers, forests and reefs support diverse communities of fish, and how they in turn support people through rich and varied fisheries. Michael has worked across the tropical landscapes of the Indo-Pacific for more than ten years, with a focus on northern Australia and Papua New Guinea.
He is a lecturer and research scientist at James Cook University, where he works with government and non-government organisations to better manage coastal ecosystems. In his first piece of nature writing, Crocodile Country , Michael grapples with working alongside animals that see us as prey, and the very real possibility of becoming part of the food-chains he studies.
Judge Tara June Winch of Bradley’s work said “…written with depth and a strong literary quality, investigating predator and prey in the north.”
Read Meditation in Stone.
Marian McGuinness is a Sydney-based freelance writer. From the Antarctic to the Arctic; from skull-riddled catacombs to ice cathedrals; from French wine caves to opal-bearing tunnels.
Marian’s interest in landscape and culture has seen her award-winning travel stories bunker down in major Australian newspapers, magazines and anthologies. Her recent story launched BBC Travel’s latest series, Nature's Curiosities.
Read Twelve and a Half Kilometres of Road.
Jenny Sinclair is a Melbourne writer. Her work has appeared in Griffith Review, Meanjin, Best Australian Stories, The Age, Island, Verandah, The Lifted Brow, The Big Issue and on ABC radio. Her non-fiction books are Much Ado About About Melbourne (2015) and A Walking Shadow (2012). She has been on staff at The Age and has written for a wide variety of publications. She holds a PhD in creative writing from the University of Melbourne, currently teaches writing at the university and was the co-winner of the 2019 Nature Writing Prize.
She lives and works on Wurundjeri and Dja Dja Wurrung land, with frequent excursions to the traditional country of the Djab Wurrung.
Read The Lone Tree of Mackay.
Dave Witty is an emerging writer, currently finishing a book on the storytelling power of trees. He moved to Melbourne in 2014 after spending several years living in Central Queensland where, among the gaunt eucalypts of the Peak Ranges, he developed his love of the Australian landscape. An urban planner during the day, Dave enjoys leaving the city behind at the weekend and exploring the bush. He also volunteers for the Hobsons Bay Wetlands Centre.
Judge Tara June Winch of Witty’s work said “…an informative enquiry into Queensland’s history of slavery and bondage on the sugarcane fields, written with gentle meditative control.”
More Actions
5 ways to create a wildlife friendly garden
Follow these top five tips for growing a native Australian, urban garden and see how much of a difference you can make for wildlife in your neck of the urban woods.
Can We Avoid an Uninhabitable Earth
Investing in nature can help us prevent and adapt to climate change–but only if we can summon the political will for action.
Adopt an acre
What if everyone took responsibility for one small piece of the planet? You can be the one to help ensure that nature’s most vulnerable lands and waters are given the care, love and the protection that they need.
Australian Wildlife, An Once In A Lifetime Experience
Wildlife in australia
Wildlife in Australia
12 Australian animals and where to find them
Key Guide to Australian Wildlife (Cronin's)
VIDEO
A guide on where to find Australian wildlife #aussie #australia #traveladvice #travel #satire
Write 10 lines on Wildlife
Amazing Australian wildlife so many Australian kangaroos
10 lines on Wildlife in English
2022: A Year in Review
The impact of conservation efforts to save the Woylie
COMMENTS
Australia
Australia - Wildlife, Ecosystems, Diversity: The distribution of climates, topography, and soils that has produced the zones and ecological variation of Australian vegetation has also been reflected in the distribution of animal life. Australia probably has between 200,000 and 300,000 species, about 100,000 of which have been described. There are some 250 species of native mammals, 550 species ...
153 Australian Wildlife Facts: Uniqueness, Native Animals And More
Earthworms in Australia are as big as 3-9 ft (0.9-2.7 m) long, spiders have a leg span of 1 ft (0.3 m) across, and ants are as long as 0.5-2.0 in (1.27-5.08 cm). Bats are so big that they can hover around your heads and are known as flying foxes. Cockroaches in Australia are as big as 3 in (7.62 cm).
Beginner's guide to Australian wildlife
From charismatic kangaroos to enigmatic emus, most of Australia's wildlife is endemic - found nowhere else on the planet - and an animal encounter is a highlight of any visit. By Allie Metz & Carolyn Beasley. A long period of separation from the rest of the world has blessed Australia with its utterly unique fauna.
Fauna of Australia
The key is understanding of Australia's diverse wildlife and fauna; what seems safe is often deadly. The Australian Wildlife Conservancy is the largest private owner of land for conservation in the country which is dedicated to protecting endangered species across 4.8 million hectares of land in the most popular regions such as the Kimberley ...
Wildlife Extinction in Australia
Wildlife management and extinction prevention in Australia is a critical topic of discussion as the country faces unprecedented biodiversity losses. This paper investigates the threats to wildlife in Australia and strategies for managing and preventing their extinction. Sources of stress on wildlife are discussed, including habitat loss and ...
Wildlife of Australia
it is the only country in the world to have kangaroos (although it shares wallabies with New Guinea), koalas, wombats numbats, platypus, lyrebirds and many other strange and fascinating creatures. most of the world's cockatoos are native to Australia, and it has more parrots than any continent other than South America.
To the future: An ecology of love, hope, and action
This essay was written by Australian Wildlife Conservancy Board Director, Professor John C. Z. Woinarski and was originally published in the journal Austral Ecology. It is republished here under Creative Commons. Living in a time of loss. This essay is personal and about emotion.
How Australia's animals and plants are changing to keep up with the climate
Climate change is one of the greatest threats facing Australia's wildlife, plants and ecosystems, a point driven home by two consecutive years of mass coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef ...
Koala
The koala is one of the world's most iconic animal species - right up there with the panda, tiger, elephant, dolphin, and polar bear. With their round bodies, large fluffy ears and distinctive spoon-shaped noses, koalas are not only loved around the world but treasured symbols of Australia. The future of Australian species depends on trees ...
High School Summer Abroad in Australia
Observe unique Australian wildlife in the marine, coastal, and bushland ecosystems in and around Sydney alongside a local guide and environmentalist. ... Topics for your college essays, experience to inform your future career, a portfolio of work to showcase a Conservation Campaign, and service-learning hours documenting your engagement with ...
The impact of human activities on Australian wildlife
We analysed admissions and outcomes data from a WRC in Queensland, Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital, to determine the major factors driving admissions and morbidity of native animals in a region experiencing rapid and prolonged urban expansion. We studied 31,626 admissions of 83 different species of native birds, reptiles, amphibians, marsupials ...
Australian wildlife News, Research and Analysis
Australia's threatened birds have declined by 59%, on average, between 1985 and 2016 based on 400,000 surveys at more than 17,000 locations according to Australia's world-first Threatened Bird ...
Resources
The Australian Wildlife Protection Council (AWPC) - that publishes this resource list - a national not-for-profit organisation dedicated to education and advocacy as a voice for Australian wildlife and its habitat. ... An anthology of essays by scientific and civilian experts on kangaroos and their treatment in Australia. One of the books ...
Explore Australia's Wild Animals & Wildlife
Most of Australia's wildlife is found nowhere else in the world, making its conservation even more important - 87 per cent of our mammal species, 93 per cent of reptiles, 94 per cent of frogs and 45 per cent of our bird species are found only in Australia. Learn about Australia's native animals & Wildlife, their habitats, diversity, and how ...
Wildlife stories
Australian animal oddities. Australia's geographical isolation has meant that most of our animals have evolved separately from animals in many other parts of the world. The result is a number of unique animal groups with some very curious ways of surviving in in the Australian environment.
Unique Australian Animals
In the varied group of reptiles you'll find a huge number of unique Australian animals. There are frogs, turtles, snakes, lizards, and last but not least, saltwater and freshwater crocodiles. Yep, here we come to the dangerous Australian wildlife of the Outback, and the dangerous species that inhabit the coastal areas of the tropical north.
The impact of human activities on Australian wildlife
Mortality rates were highest following dog attacks (72.7%) and car strikes (69.1%) and lowest in orphaned animals (22.1%). Our results show that WRC databases offer rich opportunities for wildlife monitoring and provide quantification of the negative impacts of human activities on ecosystem stability and wildlife health.
Wildlife in Australia
Most of the approximately 300 species are found in tropical and subtropical habitats. Some of the most common types of freshwater fish in Australia are galaxias, perch, and gudgeons. Australia's marine fish diversity is incredible. A few of the most popular game fish in the country include barramundi, swordfish, marlin, tuna, and mackerel.
Australian Wildlife Biology (ZOOL20004)
This subject will introduce students to the biology of Australia's vertebrate fauna with an emphasis on ecology and behaviour of frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals. There will be particular focus on the adaptations of the fauna to the unique and uncertain nature of the Australian terrestrial environment. A variety of topics will be discussed ...
Essay on Australia
250 Words Essay on Australia Introduction. Australia, often referred to as "Down Under", is a unique country that is also a continent. It is renowned for its rich culture, diverse ecosystem, and vibrant economy. ... This diversity extends to its wildlife, with species like kangaroos and koalas that are found nowhere else on earth. Culture ...
The Demography and Practice of Australians Caring for Native Wildlife
The rescue, rehabilitation and release of injured and orphaned Australian wildlife is managed by over 20,000 carers, mostly voluntarily. These volunteers experience mental, physical and financial challenges that have not been researched adequately. This study collated the responses (n = 316) to a survey conducted among Australian wildlife carers who actively foster orphaned joeys for hand ...
Australian Wildlife: Everything You Need to Know
It is a habitat of strangely big and scary spiders, hot-tempered kangaroos, and cute wombats. You can find many unique species on this continent as people mainly live along the coast. The central part of the country belongs to all the magnificent and inimitable animals. Due to this fact, many organizations like Wipa pay close attention to the ...
Sex, stress and fertility in Australian wildlife
When Zoos Victoria began its mountain pygmy-possum breeding program almost two decades ago, wild-caught females were brought in to mate with wild-caught males from a different population. The males were genetically robust and had already proven to be successful in the breeding stakes. But the new females came from an extremely small inbred wild ...
Nature Writing Prize
Join us for a special evening to celebrate the 2023 winner announcement and see who will be awarded the $7,500 prize for their winning essay in the genre of 'Writing of Place', with a keynote presentation from author and passionate conservationist, Tim Winton. Wednesday 22nd November 2023, 7pm-9pm. RMIT's The Capitol,
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Australia - Wildlife, Ecosystems, Diversity: The distribution of climates, topography, and soils that has produced the zones and ecological variation of Australian vegetation has also been reflected in the distribution of animal life. Australia probably has between 200,000 and 300,000 species, about 100,000 of which have been described. There are some 250 species of native mammals, 550 species ...
Earthworms in Australia are as big as 3-9 ft (0.9-2.7 m) long, spiders have a leg span of 1 ft (0.3 m) across, and ants are as long as 0.5-2.0 in (1.27-5.08 cm). Bats are so big that they can hover around your heads and are known as flying foxes. Cockroaches in Australia are as big as 3 in (7.62 cm).
From charismatic kangaroos to enigmatic emus, most of Australia's wildlife is endemic - found nowhere else on the planet - and an animal encounter is a highlight of any visit. By Allie Metz & Carolyn Beasley. A long period of separation from the rest of the world has blessed Australia with its utterly unique fauna.
The key is understanding of Australia's diverse wildlife and fauna; what seems safe is often deadly. The Australian Wildlife Conservancy is the largest private owner of land for conservation in the country which is dedicated to protecting endangered species across 4.8 million hectares of land in the most popular regions such as the Kimberley ...
Wildlife management and extinction prevention in Australia is a critical topic of discussion as the country faces unprecedented biodiversity losses. This paper investigates the threats to wildlife in Australia and strategies for managing and preventing their extinction. Sources of stress on wildlife are discussed, including habitat loss and ...
it is the only country in the world to have kangaroos (although it shares wallabies with New Guinea), koalas, wombats numbats, platypus, lyrebirds and many other strange and fascinating creatures. most of the world's cockatoos are native to Australia, and it has more parrots than any continent other than South America.
This essay was written by Australian Wildlife Conservancy Board Director, Professor John C. Z. Woinarski and was originally published in the journal Austral Ecology. It is republished here under Creative Commons. Living in a time of loss. This essay is personal and about emotion.
Climate change is one of the greatest threats facing Australia's wildlife, plants and ecosystems, a point driven home by two consecutive years of mass coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef ...
The koala is one of the world's most iconic animal species - right up there with the panda, tiger, elephant, dolphin, and polar bear. With their round bodies, large fluffy ears and distinctive spoon-shaped noses, koalas are not only loved around the world but treasured symbols of Australia. The future of Australian species depends on trees ...
Observe unique Australian wildlife in the marine, coastal, and bushland ecosystems in and around Sydney alongside a local guide and environmentalist. ... Topics for your college essays, experience to inform your future career, a portfolio of work to showcase a Conservation Campaign, and service-learning hours documenting your engagement with ...
We analysed admissions and outcomes data from a WRC in Queensland, Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital, to determine the major factors driving admissions and morbidity of native animals in a region experiencing rapid and prolonged urban expansion. We studied 31,626 admissions of 83 different species of native birds, reptiles, amphibians, marsupials ...
Australia's threatened birds have declined by 59%, on average, between 1985 and 2016 based on 400,000 surveys at more than 17,000 locations according to Australia's world-first Threatened Bird ...
The Australian Wildlife Protection Council (AWPC) - that publishes this resource list - a national not-for-profit organisation dedicated to education and advocacy as a voice for Australian wildlife and its habitat. ... An anthology of essays by scientific and civilian experts on kangaroos and their treatment in Australia. One of the books ...
Most of Australia's wildlife is found nowhere else in the world, making its conservation even more important - 87 per cent of our mammal species, 93 per cent of reptiles, 94 per cent of frogs and 45 per cent of our bird species are found only in Australia. Learn about Australia's native animals & Wildlife, their habitats, diversity, and how ...
Australian animal oddities. Australia's geographical isolation has meant that most of our animals have evolved separately from animals in many other parts of the world. The result is a number of unique animal groups with some very curious ways of surviving in in the Australian environment.
In the varied group of reptiles you'll find a huge number of unique Australian animals. There are frogs, turtles, snakes, lizards, and last but not least, saltwater and freshwater crocodiles. Yep, here we come to the dangerous Australian wildlife of the Outback, and the dangerous species that inhabit the coastal areas of the tropical north.
Mortality rates were highest following dog attacks (72.7%) and car strikes (69.1%) and lowest in orphaned animals (22.1%). Our results show that WRC databases offer rich opportunities for wildlife monitoring and provide quantification of the negative impacts of human activities on ecosystem stability and wildlife health.
Most of the approximately 300 species are found in tropical and subtropical habitats. Some of the most common types of freshwater fish in Australia are galaxias, perch, and gudgeons. Australia's marine fish diversity is incredible. A few of the most popular game fish in the country include barramundi, swordfish, marlin, tuna, and mackerel.
This subject will introduce students to the biology of Australia's vertebrate fauna with an emphasis on ecology and behaviour of frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals. There will be particular focus on the adaptations of the fauna to the unique and uncertain nature of the Australian terrestrial environment. A variety of topics will be discussed ...
250 Words Essay on Australia Introduction. Australia, often referred to as "Down Under", is a unique country that is also a continent. It is renowned for its rich culture, diverse ecosystem, and vibrant economy. ... This diversity extends to its wildlife, with species like kangaroos and koalas that are found nowhere else on earth. Culture ...
The rescue, rehabilitation and release of injured and orphaned Australian wildlife is managed by over 20,000 carers, mostly voluntarily. These volunteers experience mental, physical and financial challenges that have not been researched adequately. This study collated the responses (n = 316) to a survey conducted among Australian wildlife carers who actively foster orphaned joeys for hand ...
It is a habitat of strangely big and scary spiders, hot-tempered kangaroos, and cute wombats. You can find many unique species on this continent as people mainly live along the coast. The central part of the country belongs to all the magnificent and inimitable animals. Due to this fact, many organizations like Wipa pay close attention to the ...
When Zoos Victoria began its mountain pygmy-possum breeding program almost two decades ago, wild-caught females were brought in to mate with wild-caught males from a different population. The males were genetically robust and had already proven to be successful in the breeding stakes. But the new females came from an extremely small inbred wild ...
Join us for a special evening to celebrate the 2023 winner announcement and see who will be awarded the $7,500 prize for their winning essay in the genre of 'Writing of Place', with a keynote presentation from author and passionate conservationist, Tim Winton. Wednesday 22nd November 2023, 7pm-9pm. RMIT's The Capitol,