essay on water conservation in kannada

%

1.

Godavari

4.41

2.31

2.

Krishna

113.29

59.48

3.

Cauvery

34.27

17.99

4.

North Pennar

6.94

3.64

5.

South Pennar

4.37

2.29

6.

2.97

1.56

7.

24.25

12.73

East Flowing rivers (1 to 6)

166.25

12.73

West Flowing rivers

24.25

87.27

Total

190.5

1

Ghataprabha

8829

Western Ghats,   884 m, 283 kms

Hiranyakeshi, Markandeya

Maharshatra, Karnataka

2

Malaprabha

11549

Western Ghats,  792.48 m, 306 kms

Bennihalla, Hirehalla, Tas nadi

Karnataka

3

Bhima

70,614

Western Ghats, 945 m, 861 kms

Combined waters of      Mula and Mutha Ghod, Nira,Sina

Maharastra, Karnataka

4

Tungabhadra

47,866

Western Ghats at Gangamula, 1198 m, 531 kms

Combined waters of Tunga and Bhadra, Varada, Hagari (vedavathy)

Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh

T

1

 Manjra (tributary of Godavari)

15,667 Sq.kms Maharastra, 
4,406 Sq.kms -Karnataka, 
10,772 Sq.kms -Andhra Pradesh

Bala Ghat range of hills,  823m 

Tirina,Karanja, Haldi,Lendi & Mannar

Maharastra, Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh

S

Uttara Pinakini (North Pennar River )

6937

Nandi hills of Kolar, 597km

Jayamangali, Kumadavathy, Chitravathy and  Papagni 

Karnataka,   Andhra Pradesh

1

South Pennar 

 4370

Nandi hills of Kolar

-

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu 

1

Mahadayi/ Mandavi

2,032

Western Ghats, Belgaum district,       600 m          87 kms.

 Maderi

Karnataka,
Goa 

2

Kalinadi

4,188

Western Ghats, Bidi village, 600 m, 153 kms.

Pandhari, Tatti-halla and Nagi

Karnataka

3

Gangavalli (Bedthi)

3,574

Western Ghats south Of Dharwad    700 m, 152 kms.

-

Karnataka

4

Aghanashini (Tadri)

1,330

Western Ghats Near Sirsi,  500 m   84 kms.

-

Karnataka

5

Sharavathi

3,592

Westren Ghats Ambutirtha in Shimoga district,       700 m, 128 kms.

-

Karnataka

6

Chakra Nadi

336

East of Kodachadri in Shimoga district,       600 m,  52 kms.

Kollur

Karnataka

7

Varahi       (Haladi)

759

Kavaledur-ga in the Shimoga district,       600 m,  66 kms

-

Karnataka

8

Netravathy

3,222

Bellarayan-a Durga in the Dakshina Kannada, 1,000 m, 103 kms

Gundiahole, Kumaradara and Shisiahole. 

Karnataka

9

Barapole (Valapattanam)

1,867

Brahamagiri Ghat Reserve Forest in Coorg, 900 m, 110 kms

  -

Karnataka & Kerala

Independent streams joining the Arabian Sea.  

Swarna, Seethanadhi, Mulki river, Pavanje, Nadisalu, Gurpur,Yennehole and Madisalhole.

Independent streams  

Chandragiri (Payaswani) and Shiriya river.  The Chandragiri rises west of Mercara in Coorg District of Karnataka State at an elevation of about 600 Mts.  Pyayaswani River originates from Patti Ghats reserve forest in Coorg District of Karnataka at an elevation of 1350 Mts. The two river joins together at Machipana about 15 kms upstream of their out fall point into Arabian sea near Kasaragud.  It drains catchment area of 1406 Sq kms out of which 836 Sq kms lies in Karnataka state and the balance portion in Kerala state.

2.0

1

Geography

River Aghanashini is located in Uttara Kannada District of Karnataka (Figure 1). Originating at Sirsi (Figure 2) (Ramachandra et al 2015). Aghanashini river origin in Sirsi and flows for a distance of nearly 117 km  before it joins Arabian Sea at Tadri, Belegadde/Kirubele-Kumta (Uttara Kannada) (Figure 2).
Tributaries of Aghanashini include, Bakurhole, Donihalla, Chandika hole, Masti mane halla, Benne holé, Badala, Divalli, Santeguli, Hulidevara kodalu and many more. Aghanashini river has a catchment area of 1449 sq.km spread across districts of Uttara Kannada (Kumta, Sirsi, Siddapura, Ankola) and Shimoga (Sorba).
.
Rock types: Granites to schists, shale, quartzite’s, Phyllites.
Ores: Iron, limestone, bauxite, quartz, limestone, sand, clay, lime shell, Manganese, Asbestos, Mica.
Soil: Red Soil, Lateritic soils, Black soil, etc

2

Rainfall and Water Yield

Rainfall assessment in Aghanashini catchment (Figure 4) indicates that rainfall in the catchment is orographic with annual rainfall varying spatially between 2500mm at the plains of Sirsi, to over 6300 mm at the Ghats. Water yield in the catchment is about 28-41 TMC (and is showing declining trend with the changes in the land uses in the catchment)

3

Anthropology

Population in the catchment (Figure 5) has increased from 2,21,562 in 2001 to 2,41,884 in 2011 (Census of India) and is projected to increase to 2,53,135 in the year 2016 at a growth rate of 9.2% per decade. Population density in the catchment is 175 persons per square kilometer as on 2016. Major Population is contained at towns such as Sirsi, Gokarna and Kumta.
Communities: Kumri Marati, Goudas, Konkanis. Havyaka Brahmin, Namadhari Naik, Goud Saraswat Brahmin, Nadavas, Kurubas, Siddis, Daivajna, Muslims (Chandran and Hughes 2000, Wikipedia, Gazetter of India-Uttara Kannada district). 

4

History, Culture, Heritage

River Aghanashini has history beyond the Himalayas i.e., 88 Million year compared to Himalayas (50 Million years). Mirjan was known as trading hub for spices such as pepper, cardamom, etc
The word Aghanashini means Destroyer of Sins.
Culture

Major temples in the catchment of Aghanashini includes: Veknateshwara Temple (Majguni - one of the origin of river Aghanashni), Gokarna, Babbru lingeshwara (worshiped by fishermen), Devi mane, and many deities of the sacred groves. Places like Mirjan fort once provided defenses at the coasts

5

Land use dynamics

Land use analysis between 1970’s till 2016 show that the catchment forest cover is reducing due to intense anthropogenic activities such as logging, plantation, etc. Figure 6 depicts FCC in the catchment of 1975 and 2016. Figure 7 and Table 1 depicts land use changes in the catchment between 1973 and 2016.

1973

2016

Built up

0.08%

4.81%

Water

0.80%

2.76%

Crop land

4.05%

16.26%

Open Space

1.43%

3.44%

Moist Deciduous

9.63%

20.41%

Evergreen - Semi Evergreen Forest

73.05%

27.73%

Scrub/Grass land

3.92%

4.01%

Acacia/Eucalyptus/Casuarina

2.86%

2.91%

Teak/Bamboo/Cashew

0.49%

7.90%

Arecanut/Coconut

3.55%

9.22%

Dry Deciduous Forest

0.14%

0.57%

3.0

1

Geography

River Kali is located in Uttara Kannada District of Karnataka (Figure 1). Originating at Diggi Vilalge - Supa (Figure 2), Kali flows for a distance of nearly 184 km (Amit et al 2008, Survey of India Topographic sheets, Gazetteer of India- Karnataka State – Uttara Kannada) before it joins Arabian Sea at Karwar (Uttara Kannada) (Figure 2).
Tributaries of Kali include, Pandrali, Kali, Tattihala, Vaki, Kaneri, Thananala, Kariholé and many more. Kali river has a catchment area of 5085.9 sq.km spread across districts of Uttara Kannada (Ankola, Karwar, Supa, Yellapur, Haliyal), Dharwad (Kalgatgi, Dharwad) and Belgaum (Khanapura, Bialhongal).
.
Rock types: Granites to schists, shale, quartzite’s, Phyllites.
Ores: Iron, limestone, bauxite, quartz, limestone, sand, clay, lime shell, Manganese, Asbestos, Mica.
Soil: Red Soil, Lateritic soils, Black soil, etc

2

Rainfall and Water Yield

Rainfall assessment in Kali catchment (Figure 4) indicates that rainfall in the catchment is orographic with annual rainfall varying spatially between 946 mm at the plains of Dharwad, to over 5951 mm at the Ghats of Anshi-Dandeli.
Water yield in the catchment is 35 - 75 TMC

3

Anthropology

Population in the catchment (Figure 5) has increased from 497892 in 2001 to 542036 in 2011 (Census of India) and is projected to increase to 566065 in the year 2016 at a growth rate of 8.8% per decade. Population density in the catchment is 111.3 persons per square kilometer as on 2016. Major Population is contained at towns such as Dandeli, Haliyar, Dharwad, Karwar, Yellapura, Ramnagar, Virje, Majali, Ammadalli.
Communities: Ambiga, Arer, Bandi, Bedar, Bandaris, Brahmins, Devadiga, Devalis, Gabit, Ganiga, Gouli, Gudikar, Harikanta, Hulsvara, Kahrvi, Vaishyas, Maratha, Kumri Maratha, Lingayath,, Maratha Kubri, Nadava, Namdharis, Padits, Gidbudukis, Siddis, Buddists, Jains, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, etc (Chandran and Hughes 2000, Wikipedia, Gazetter of India-Uttara Kannada district). 

4

History, Culture, Heritage

River Kali has history beyond the Himalayas i.e., 88 Million year compared to Himalayas (50 Million years).
Culture

Major temples in the catchment of Kali includes: Uluvi, Shanthadurga temple, , etc.

5

Land use dynamics

Land use analysis of 2013 show that the catchment forest cover is about 55 % (about 38% covered with evergreen species). Figure 6 depicts FCC of the catchment, Figure 7 and Table 1 depicts land use in the catchment as on 2013.
False colour composite
Land use in Kali Catchment
Land use of Kali Catchment

2013

Urban

1.7%

Water

3.7%

Agriculture

17.4%

Open lands

1.9%

Moist Deciduous Forest

14.5%

Evergreen to Semi Evergreen forest

38.6%

Scrub/Grassland

3.3%

Acacia/Eucalyptus

11.8%

Teak/Bamboo

3.3%

Coconut/Arecanut

1.7%

Dry Deciduous

2.1%

4.0

1

Geography

River Sharavathi is spread across Uttara Kannada and Shimoga District of Karnataka (Figure 1). Originating at Ambutirthha (Tirthahalli) (Figure 2) (Karnataka State Gazetteer, Ramachandra et al 2004), Sharavathi flows for a distance of nearly 128 km (Survey of India Topographic sheets, Water resource information system of India) before it joins Arabian Sea at Karki, Honnavar (Uttara Kannada) (Figure 2).
Tributaries of Aghanashini include, Nandiholé, Haridravathi, Sharmanavathi, Hilkunjiholé, Nagodiholé, Hurliholé, Yenneholé, Mavinaholé, Gundabalaholé, Kalkatteholé, Kandodiholé and many more. Sharavathi river has a catchment area of 3042 sq.km spread across districts of Uttara Kannada (Honavara, Siddapura, Kumta) and Shimoga (Sagara, Hosanagara, Tirthahalli).
Sharavathi River Location
Overlay of Google Earth
Topography

Topography of Sharavathi river catchment is as depicted in Figure 3, elevation ranges between < 0m and 1135m w.r.t Mean Sea Level, slope of the catchment varies up to 187%. Very high slope we observed in the Ghats (Gersoppa Ghat).
The variations in the terrain has led to formation of various water falls such as the Jog falls, Apsarakonda, Mavinagundi falls, Dabbe fall (http://www.karnataka.com) . The plain regions of the catchment are dominated by lakes whereas the Ghats are dominated by streams.
Rock types: Granites to schists, Quartzite’s, Phyllites, Porphyry, etc.
Ores: Iron, bauxite, quartz, sand, clay, lime shell, Manganese, Asbestos, Mica.
Soil: Red Soil, Lateritic soils, etc

2

Rainfall and Water Yield

Rainfall assessment in Sharavathi river catchment (Figure 4) indicates that rainfall in the catchment is orographic with annual rainfall varying spatially between 1700mm at the plains of Siddapura, to over 6500 mm at the Ghats (Gersoppa to Mavinagundi).
Water yield in the catchment is ~60 - 110 TMC

3

Anthropology

Population in the catchment (Figure 5) has increased from 319380 in 2001 to 353800 in 2011 (Census of India) and is projected to increase to 371010 in the year 2016 at a growth rate of 9.72% per decade. Population density in the catchment is 109 persons per square kilometer as on 2016. Major Population is contained at towns such as Honnavar, Sagar, Talguppa.
Communities: Kumri Marati, Goudas, Konkanis. Havyaka Brahmin, Namadhari Naik, Goud Saraswat Brahmin, Nadavas, Kurubas, Siddis, Daivajna, Muslims, (Chandran and Hughes 2000, Wikipedia, Gazetter of India-Uttara Kannada district). 
Population dynamics in Sharavathi river catchment

4

History, Culture, Heritage

River Shatravathi has history beyond the Himalayas i.e., 88 Million year compared to Himalayas (50 Million years). Mirjan was known as trading hub for spices such as pepper, cardamom, etc
River Sharavathi origins at ambutirtha, and is also explained in Epic of Ramayana and Mahabharatha.

Culture

Major temples in the catchment of Sharavati includes: Siganduru, Kollur Mookambika, Gersoppa Hanumatha, Bellimakki Hanumantha, Idugunji, Ramatirtha, Karikan Parameshwari, Mugva Subramanya, Gundbala Hanumanta, Chandavara Hanumantha, Gunavateshwara, and many deities of the sacred groves.

5

Land use dynamics

Land use analysis of 2013 show that the catchment forest cover is reducing due to intense anthropogenic activities such as logging, plantation, etc. Figure 6 depicts FCC, Figure 7 and Table 1 depicts land use in the catchment. Sharavathi catchment has a forest cover of 33.7% (Evergreen 19.6%, Moist Deciduous 14.1%). Upstream of Sharavathi is dominated by agriculture (paddy), and downstream is dominated by horticulture activities (Arecanut).
False colour composite
Land use in Sharavati Catchment
Land use in Sharavati Catchment

2013

Urban

1.0%

Water

6.9%

Agriculture

14.1%

Open lands

1.1%

Moist Deciduous Forest

14.1%

Evergreen to Semi Evergreen forest

19.6%

Scrub/Grassland

9.1%

Acacia/Eucalyptus

13.6%

Teak/Bamboo

8.5%

Coconut/Arecanut

12.0%

5.0

1

Geography

River Varada is spread across Shimoga, Uttara Kannada and Haveri districts of Karnataka (Figure 1). Originating at Varadamoola (Figure 2) (Ramachandra et al 2014), Varada flows in the north east direction for a distance of nearly 198 km (Survey of India Topographic sheets,) before it joins Tungabhadra at Galagantha village Haveri district (Figure 2).
Tributaries of Varada include, and many more. Varada river has a catchment area of 5135 sq.km.
Varada River Location
Overlay of Google Earth
Topography

Topography of Varada river catchment is as depicted in Figure 3, elevation ranges between 507m and 836m w.r.t Mean Sea Level, slope of the catchment varies up to 119%. The catchment has gentle slope flowing to the north eastern direction.
Due to the flatter terrain, numerous lakes (over 4000) in the catchment could be observed which serves as a reserve, recharge pit, for fish culture, agriculture and other activities.
Rock types: Granite, Schists, Porphyry, Chlorite, Limestone
Ores: Iron, Manganese, Limestone, Clay
Soil: Red Soil, Lateritic soils, Black soil, etc

2

Rainfall and Water Yield

Rainfall assessment in Varada catchment (Figure 4) indicates that rainfall in the catchment is orographic with annual rainfall varying spatially between 663mm at the plains of Haveri, to over 3600 mm at the Ghats of Sagar (Shimoga).
Water yield in the catchment is 40 – 80 TMC
Rainfall

3

Anthropology

Population in the catchment (Figure 5) is about1234523. Population density in the catchment is 245 persons per square kilometer as on 2016. Major Population is contained at towns such as Sagara, Siddapura, Haveri, Sorab, Shiggaon, Savanur, Hangal. Agasanahalli, Byadgi,
Communities: Kumri Marati, Goudas, Konkanis. Havyaka Brahmin, , Nadavas, Kurubas, Siddis, Daivajna, Muslims, Lingayaths (Chandran and Hughes 2000, Wikipedia, Gazetter of India-Uttara Kannada district, Mysore Gazetteer). 

4

Culture, Heritage

Culture

Major temples in the catchment of Ikkeri, Keladi, Marikamba, Varadambe, Varadalli, Banavasi, Chandragutgi, Tarakeshwara, Siddeswhara, Kaginele, Kedareswhara, Bankapura, Hosagunda, Ranganatha etc  and many deities of the sacred groves.

5

Land use dynamics

Land use analysis as on 2013 show that the catchment is dominated by agricultural activities towards the plains (69.11% of the total catchment) and plantation activities in the Ghats. Forests cover only 15.4% of the entire catchments, dominated at Ghats. Figure 5 depicts FCC , Figure 6 and Table 1 depicts land use in the catchment as on 2013.
False colour composite
Land use dynamics in Varada Catchment
Land use in Varada Catchment

Water

1.08

Evergreen Forest

5.24

Deciduous Forest

10.23

Horticulture

6.95

Forest Plantation

3.45

Scrub/Grass

1.26

Open/Others

1.95

Built up

0.74

Agriculture

69.11

6.0

1

Geography

River Venkatapura is spread across the Western Ghats in Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts of Karnataka (Figure 1). Originating at Sagara (Figure 2), Originating near Bhimeshwara temple -Sagara (Shimoga), Venkarapura flows for a distance of nearly 50 km (Survey of India Topographic sheets, High resolution satellite data-optical and radar) before it joins Arabian Sea at Alvekodi/ Tenginagundi - Bhatkal (Uttara Kannada) (Figure 2). Tributaries of Venkatapura include, Chitihalla, Katagar Nala, Basti Halla, Kitreholé, Venkatapura river and many more. Venkatapura river has a catchment area of 459.70 sq.km spread across districts of Uttara Kannada (Bhatkal) and Shimoga (Sagar).

Venkatapura River Location
Overlay of Google Earth
Topography

Topography of Venkatapura river catchment is as depicted in Figure 3, elevation ranges between < 0m and 815m w.r.t Mean Sea Level, slope of the catchment varies up to 119%. Very high slope we observed in the Ghats (Kogar Ghat).
Water falls such as the Bhimeshwara falls form in the Ghats of Venkatapura.
Rock types: Granites to schists, shale, quartzite’s, Phyllites.
Ores: Iron, limestone, bauxite, quartz, limestone, sand, clay, shell, Manganese, Asbestos, Mica,Bauxitr
Soil: Red Soil, Lateritic soils, Black soil, etc

2

Rainfall and Water Yield

Rainfall assessment in Venkatapura catchment (Figure 4) indicates that rainfall in the catchment is orographic with annual rainfall varying spatially between 3700mm at the plains of coast, to over 5700 mm at the Ghats.
Water yield in the catchment is 8 - 16 TMC
Rainfall

3

Anthropology

Population in the catchment (Figure 5) has increased from 153032 in 2001 to 175279 in 2011 (Census of India) and is projected to increase to 188020 in the year 2016 at a growth rate of 14.5% per decade. Population density in the catchment is 404 persons per square kilometer as on 2016. Major Population is contained at towns/villages such as Bhatkal, Shirali, Heble.
Communities: Ambiga, Bedar, Devadiga, Devali, Havyaka Brahmin, Kurubas, Siddis, Konkani Kharvi, Kumri Maratha,Namadhari, Muslims, Jains, (Chandran and Hughes 2000, Gazetter of India-Uttara Kannada district). 

4

History, Culture, Heritage

River Venkatapura has history beyond the Himalayas i.e., 88 Million year compared to Himalayas (50 Million years).
Epic of Mahabharatha explains about Bheemeshwara temple, that was constructed by Bheema, during the agnaythavasa and was established by Dharmaraya on Shivrathri. Arjuna bowed an arrow at the nearby mountain to bring the water for worship which is there even today as Sarala river which has not drained out so far (Tripadvisor web portal).
Culture

Religious places in the catchment of Venkatapura includes: Bastis, Khetappayya Narayana,Chindnadapalli mosque etc.

5

Land use dynamics

Land use analysis of 2013 show that the catchment is dominated by evergreen forest cover (~42.7%), followed by Agriculture (~21.8%), etc. Figure 6 depicts FCC, Figure 7 and Table 1 depicts land use in the catchment as on 2013.
False colour composite
Land use of Venkatapura Catchment
Land use in Venkatapura Catchment

2013

Built up

3.8%

Water

0.4%

Crop land

21.8%

Open Space

2.5%

Moist Deciduous

13.5%

Evergreen - Semi Evergreen Forest

42.7%

Scrub/Grass land

2.2%

Acacia/Eucalyptus/Casuarina

7.3%

Teak/Bamboo/Cashew

0.8%

Arecanut/Coconut

5.1%

7.0

) is the largest river in the state and originates at Talakaveri  in Coorg. It is often called the Dakshina Ganga (the Ganges of the South) and considered one of the sacred rivers of India. the origin of the River Kaveri, is a famous pilgrimage and tourist spot set amidst Bramahagiri Hills near Madikeri in Coorg. The tributaries of the Kaveri include: Harangi, Hemavathi (origin in western Ghats joins the river Kaveri near Krishnarajasagar), Lakshmanatirtha, Kabini (originates in Kerala and flows eastward and joins the Kaveri at Tirumakudal, Narasipur), Shimsha, Arkavati, Suvarnavathi or Honnuholé,  Bhavani, Lokapavani, Noyyal, Amaravati

Catchment Area (Sq. Kms)

81,155

2

Basin Extent - Longitude 
Latitude

75° 30’ to 79° 45’ E 
10° 05’ to 13° 30’ N

3

Length of Cauvery River (Km)

800

4

Average Water Resource Potential (MCM)

21358

5

Utilizable Surface Water Resource (MCM)

19000

6

Live Storage Capacity of Completed Projects (MCM)

8978.00

7

Live Storage Capacity of Projects under cnstruction (MCM)

15.0

8

Total Live Storage Capacity of Projects (MCM)

8993.00

9

No. of Hydrological Observation Stations (CWC)

34

10

No. of Flood Forecasting Stations (CWC)

-

8.0

is second largest river in peninsular India, rises in the Western Ghats at an altitude of 1337 m. near Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra State, about 64 km from the Arabian Sea http://nihroorkee.gov.in/ . On the north, the basin is bounded by the range separating it from the Godavari basin, on the south and east by the Eastern Ghats and on the west by the Western Ghats. It flows across the whole width of the peninsula, from west to east, for a length of about 1400 km, through Maharashtra (a distance of 305 km;  catchment area 69,425 sq.km), Karnataka (length 483 km; catchment area 113,271 sq.km) and Andhra Pradesh (length 612 km; catchment area 76,251 sq.km). Krishna basin lies between latitudes 13º 07’ N and 19º 20’ N and longitudes 73º 22’ E and 81º 10’ E with the catchment area of 2,58,948 sq km., spanning across the three major basin states (Maharastra (26.81%), Karnataka (43.74%) and Andhra Pradesh(29.45%)). It originates in Maharashtra and passes through Karnataka. The principal tributaries of the Krishna in Karnataka are: Ghataprabha (Origin in the Western Ghats and flows eastwards and joins the river Krishna. The river forms the well-known Gokak Falls in Belgaum District), Malaprabha (origin in Western Ghats and flows first in easterly and north-easterly directions and joins river Krishna at Kudalasangama), Bhima (originates in the forest of Bhimashankar in Pune, and flows through the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka and joins Krishna near Kudlu in Raichur taluk and Tungabhadra (formed in the district of Shimoga, by the union of the Tunga and the Bhadra rivers. The river Tungabhadra flows east across the Deccan Plateau and join river Krishna in Andhra Pradesh).

http://India-wris.nrsc.gov.in

Details  of the principal tributaries of Krishna in Karnataka are Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Bhima and Tungabhadra and details (catchment area, altitude, length) are given below:

Tungabhadra River

Tungabhadra River also known as Pampa or Hampi is formed by the Tunga River and Bhadra River that originate in the Western Ghats and flows in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Tunga and Bhadra Rivers rise at Gangamoola, in Varaha Parvatha in the Western Ghats forming parts of the Kuduremukh, at an elevation of 1198 metres. Bhadra flows through Bhadravati city and is joined by numerous streams. At Koodli, a small town near Shimoga City, Karnataka, these two rivers meet (Tungabhadra) and then  Thungabhadra meanders through the plains to a distance of 531 km and mingles with the Krishna at Gondimalla, near Mahaboobnagar in Andhra Pradesh.  Significance of Tungabhadra River  are:

• Presence of ancient and holy sites on the banks,  for example Harihareshwara temple at Harihara.
• The river surrounds the modern town of Hampi, where are the ruins of Vijayanagara, the site of the powerful Vijayanagara Empire’s capital city and now a World Heritage Site.
• Alampur, on the left – northern bank of the river, known as Dakshina Kashi in Mahabubnagar Dist. The Nava Brahma Temples complex is one of the earliest models of temple architecture in India.
• Bhadravthi, Hospet, Hampi, Mantralayam, Kurnool are located on its bank.

Tributaries of Tungabhadra: Tunga River, Kumudvati River, Varada River, Bhadra River, Vedavathi River, Handri River

Bhima River

Bhima River originates in Bhimashankar hills near Karjat in Maharashtra and flows southeast for 861 km through Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh states. Bhima river catchment is densely populated and form a fertile agricultural area. During its 861 km journey, many smaller rivers flow into it. Kundali River, Kumandala River, Ghod river, Bhama, Indrayani River, Mula River, Mutha River and Pavna River are the major tributories of this river around Pune. Of these Indrayani, Mula, Mutha and Pawana flow through Pune and Pimpri Chinchwad city limits. Chandani, Kamini, Moshi, Bori, Sina, Man, Bhogwati and Nira are the major tributaries of the river in Solapur. Of these Nira river meets with the Bhima in Narsingpur, in Malshiras taluka in Solapur district. Tributaries of Bhima are: Ghod, Sina, Kagini, Bhama, Indrayani, Mula-Mutha, Nira. Significance of this river are:

• Pandharpur city of is on the bank of Bhima River.
• Bhimashankar is one of the twelve esteemed Jyotirlinga shrines. Other temples are Siddhatek, Siddhivinayak Temple of Ashtavinayak Ganesh Pandharpur Vithoba Temple in Solapur district., Sri Dattatreya Temple, Ganagapura, Gulbarga district, Karnataka, Sri Kshetra Rasangi Balabheemasena Temple in Rasanagi, Jevargi Taluq, Gulbarga district, Karnataka

Malaprabha River

Malaprabha River It rises at Kanakumbi in the Belgaum district and joins Krishna River at Kudalasangama in Bagalkot district. It also flows through Dharwar District. Hubli city gets its drinking water from this reservoir. Tributaries of Malprabha: Bennihalla, Hirehalla and Tuparihalla are the major tributaries to Malaprabha.

Ghataprabha River

Ghataprabha is a tributary of Krishna that flows in Karnataka with the hydroelectric and irrigational dam at Hidkal. Tributaries of Ghataprabha: Hiranyakeshi and Markandeya rivers are tributaries of Ghataprabha.

Other tributaries are: Other tributaries are Koyna River (catchment: 4,890 Km2) , Kudali river, Venna River, Yerla River, Warna River, Dindi River ( 3,490 Km2 ), Halia ( 3,780 Km2 ), Peddavagu (2,343 Km2),  Paleru River, Musi River ( 11,212 Km2 ), Urmodi River, Tarli River and Dudhganga River. The rivers Venna, Koyna, Vasna, Panchganga ( 2,575 Km2) , Dudhganga ( 2,350 Km2) , Ghataprabha, Malaprabha and Tungabhadra join Krishna from the right bank; while the Yerla River, Musi River, Halia, Maneru and Bhima rivers join the Krishna from the left bank.

The geology of the Krishna basin is dominated in the northwest by the Deccan Traps, in the central part by unclassified crystallines, and in the east by the Cuddapah Group. The Dharwars (southwest central) and the Vindhian (east central) form a significant part of the outcrops within the unclassified crystallines. Krishna delta is predominantly formed by Pleistocene to recent material.

Water Potential

Hydropower Potential

Nagarjunsagar

Nagarjunsagar RC

Nagarjunsagar CH

Srisailam LB

Water Utilization

Surface Water Utilization

Drinking 

Ground Water Utilization

Irrigation purposes

Upper Krishna Project Stage-1,Upper Krishna Project Stage-2, Srisailam dam, Pulichintala project, Nagarjunasagar project, Ghatprabha dam, Tungabhadra project, Vanivilas Sagar project, Bennihora project, Bhadha Reservoir project, Bhima Irrigation project, Hipparagi Barrage, Malprabha project, Upper Tunga project,  Koyna dam, Markendaya project, Singatalur lift irrigation, Krishna irrigation project, Osman Sagar reservoir and Prakasam barrage.

Water Quality of the Basin

Due to the sustained inflow of untreated sewage and industrial effluents, the water quality is very poor evident from higher values of BOD, lower values of DO and the presence of total coliform.

Problems in the Basin

The Krishna basin particularly in east coast faces periodically flood problems in the wake of cyclonic storms.

Krishna is a mighty east flowing river of peninsular India. It is the same river as Krsnavena in the Puranas or Krsnaveni in the Yoginitantra. It is also known as Kanhapenna in Jatakas and Kanhapena in the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela. The word Krishna also indicates dark color

Important places

Mahabaleshwar the ‘land of five rivers - Krishna, Koyna, Venna, Gayatri and Savitri’ is located at an altitude of 1,372 meters in the Western Ghats. Some of tourist locations are: Lodwick Point,  Arther Point, Elphinstone Point, Tiger’s Spring, Kate’s Point, Bombay Point, Wilson Point, Venna Lake and Kate’s Point,  Lingmala, Chinaman and Dhobi waterfalls (http://www.gktoday.in/blog/krishna-river/).

Srisailam (in Andhra Pradesh) is a holy town with a sanctuary (an area of 3568 sq kms) located on the banks of the Krishna. Srisailam is surrounded by lush greenery and has beautiful locations around. Krishna river meanders through Narsobachi, Wadi in Maharashtra and flows through Karnataka to Andhra Pradesh.

Nagarjuna Sagar or Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (one of the world’s largest man-made lake) stretches across the mighty river Krishna. Nagarjunakonda was the largest and most important Buddhist centres in South India.

Amaravati is a small town in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh and was once the capital of Satavahanas. The Shiva temple is with five lingams -Pranaveswara, Agasteswara, Kosaleswara, Someswara and Parthiveswara. The remains of a 2000-year-old Buddhist settlement along with the great Buddhist stupa are among the main attractions in Amaravati. Mahachaitya or the Great Stupa was constructed approximately 2000 years ago. The stupa is made of brick with a circular vedika and depicts Lord Buddha in a human form, subduing an elephant (http://www.gktoday.in/blog/krishna-river/).

Vijayawada: Vijayawada is the third largest city and a popular trade and commerce centre in Andhra Pradesh on the banks of Krishna River.

Variety of Paddy, Sugar cane, Banana, Arecanut, Coconut, Mango, spices, Jowar, Ragi, Ground Nut, Cotton, etc.

Diversions/Storage Structures

Numerous small scale diversions (check dams, bunds) can be found along the valley (the plains are dominated by lakes namely Neersagara, Devargudihal, etc… )

Fishes: Mahima et al 2016 Cephalopholis boenak, Caranx ignobilis, Trichiurus lepturus, Colletteichthys dussumieri, Nemipterus japonicus, Sardinella fimbriata, Opisthopterus tardoore, Stolephorus commersonnii, Thryssa mystax, Siganus vermiculatus, Sillago sihama, Otolithes ruber, Sphyraena barracuda, Lactarius lactarius, Eubleekeria splendens, Lobotes surinamensis, Secutor insidiator, Johnius belangeri, Sphyraena obtusata, Lutjanus johnii, Lutjanus russellii, Synaptura commersonnii, Grammoplites scaber, Arius arius, Tricanthus biaculeatus, Arothron stellatus, Etroplus suratensis, Monopterus albus, Pisoodonophis cancrivorus, Mugil cephalus, Liza parsia, Scatophagus argus, Lutjanus argentimaculatus, Glossogobius giuris, Gerres filamentosus, Eleutheronema tetradactylum, Terapon jarbua, Gerres limbatus, Secutor ruconius, Lates calcarifer, Ambassis ambassis, Apogon hyalosoma and Cynoglossus punticeps, etc . Bivalves: Boominathan et al, 2014, Ramesha et al 2013 Paphia malabarica, Katelysia opima, Meretrix meretrix, Meretrix casta, Villorita cyprinoides, Perna viridis, Tegillarca granosa, Polymesoda erosa,. L. margina lis, Parreys ia corrugate, P. favide ns, P. rajahensis, P. theobaldi Flora: Ramchandra et al, 2012, http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/database_new (Sirsi,  Yellapura, Ankola, Hubli Taluks) Forest types found in the district are: Evergreen, Semi Evergreen, Moist Deciduous, Scrub, Thorny, un wooded with following species. Endemic Flowering Species (Trees, Shrubs, Plants): Actinodaphne hookeri, Aerides maculosum, Aerides crispa, Aglaia anamalayana, Ancistrocladus heyneanus, Arenga wightii, Argostemma courtallense, Artocarpus hirsuta, Arundinella metzii, Asystastia dalzelliana, Begonia integrifolia, Begonia malabarica, Beilschmiedia fagifolia, Blepharis asperrima, Boesenbergia pulcherrima, Calamus thwaitesii, Canscora decurrens, Canscora perfoliata, Canthium parviflorum, Casearia rubescens, Chrysophyllum roxburghii, Cinnamomum macrocarpum, Cleisostoma tenuifolium, Connarus wightii, Crotalaria filipes, Crotolaria heyneana, Cryptocoryne spiralis, Curcuma neilgherrensis, Cyanotis papilionaceae, Cyanotis tuberosa, Cyclea peltata, Dimeria hohenackeri, Dimorphocalyx beddomei, Diospyros assimilis, Diospyros candolleana, Diospyros paniculata, Diospyros saldanhae, Drypetes elata, Dysoxylum malabaricum, Erinocarpus nimmonii, Ervatamia heyneana, Euonymus indicus, Flacourtia montana, Garcinia indica, Glochidion johnstonei, Grewia umbellifera, Holigarna arnotiana, Holigarna ferruginea, Holigarna grahamii, Hopea ponga, Hydnocarpus laurifolia, Jasminum malabaricum, Knema attenuata, Linociera malabarica, Litsea floribunda, Litsea laevigata, Mammea suriga, Memecylon talbotianum, Memecylon umbellatum, Memecylon wightii, Myristica malabarica, Neanotis foetida, Nothopegia colebrookeana, Oberonia brunoniana, Oberonia recurva, Oberonia santapaui, Ochlandra scriptoria, Orophea zeylanica, Pittosporum dasycaulon, Polyalthia fragrans, Porpax reticulata, Porpax jerdoniana, Psychotria dalzellii, Psychotria flavida, Psychotria truncata, Pterospermum reticulatum, Sageraea laurifolia, Strobilanthus heyneanus, Symplocos racemosa, Syzygium laetum, Syzygium macrocephala, Tragia hispida, Vepris bilocularis, Walsura trifolia. Trees: Acacia spp, Actinodaphne hookeri, Adina cordifolia, Aglaia anamalayana, Aglaia roxbhurgii, Ailanthus excelsa, Alangium salvifolium, Albizzia lebbeck, Alstonia scholaris, Alseodaphne semecarpifolia, Anacardium occidentale, Annonaceae sp, Anogeissus latifolia, Antidesma menasu, Aporosa lindleyana, Artocarpus hirsuta, Artocarpus gomezianus, Atlantia racemosa, Bauhinia foveolata, Beilschmiedia fagifolia, Bombax ceiba, Bridelia crenulata, Buchanania lanzan, Butea monosperma, Careya arborea, Carallia brachiata, Caryota urens, Cassine glauca, Cassia spp, Casuarina spp, Chrysophyllum roxburghii, Cinnamomum macrocarpum, Dalbergia latifolia, Dillenia pentagyna, Diospyros assimilis, Diospyros buxifolia, Diospyros candolleana, Diospyros ebenum, Diospyros melanoxylon, Diospyros buxifolia, Diospyros montana, Diospyros oocarpa, Diospyros paniculata, Diospyros spp, Dysoxylum malabaricum, Ervatamia heyneana, Euphorbiaceae spp, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus drupacea, Ficus nervosa, Ficus racemosa, Ficus spp, Ficus tsjahela, Flacourtia montana, Garcinia gummi-gutta, Garcinia indica, Garcinia morella, Gliricidia sepium, Gmelina arborea, Grewia tiliaefolia, Heterophragma roxburgii, Hiptage benghalensis, Holigarna arnotiana, Holigarna ferruginea, Holigarna grahamii, Hopea ponga, Hydnocarpus laurifolia, Ixora arborea, Ixora brachiata, Knema attenuata, Lagerstroemia microcarapa, Lannea coromandelica, Lepisanthes tetraphylla, Linociera malabarica, Litsea spp, Lophopetalum wightianum, Macaranga peltata, Madhuca latifolia, Mallotus philippensis, Mangifera indica, Mimusops elengi, Mitragyna parviflora, Myristica malabarica, Olea dioica, Pajanalia longifolia, Persea macrantha, Phyllanthus emblica, Polyalthia fragrans, Pterospermum diversifolium, Pterocarpus marsupium, Randia dumetorum, Saccopetalum tomentosum, Santalum album, Sapindus laurifolia, Saraca asoca, Schleichera oleosa, Scutia myrtina, Sageraea laurifolia, Semecarpus anacardium, Sapium insigne, Spondias pinnata, Steriospermum personatum, Sterculia guttata, Strychnos nux-vomica, Symplocos racemosa, Syzygium caryophyllatum, Syzygium cumini, Syzygium gardnerii, Syzygium hemesphericum, Syzygium laetum, Tectona grandis, Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia alata. etc … Fauna: : http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/database_new Mammals: Tiger, Black Panther, Leopard, Bison, Gaur, Hare, Wild Boar, Sloth Bear, Deer, Thar, Bonnet Macaque, Lion Tailed Macaque, Giant Squirrel, Hanuman Languor, etc. Reptiles: Snakes (Vipers, Cobra, Rat snake, Crate, King cobra, Python, Wolf snake, etc ), Monitor Lizard, Crocodile.

• Mahima, B., Nayak, V. N., Chandran, M. D. S., and Ramachandra, T. V., 2016,  Inventory of fishes of Gangavali estuary in Uttara Kannada, Karnataka state, Journal of Marine Biology Association of India, 58 (1), 69 – 74 (http://mbai.org.in/php/journaldload.php?id=2381&bkid=115)
• Boominathan, M., Ravikumar, G., Chandran, M. D. S., and Ramachandra, T. V., 2014, Impact of Hydroelectric Projects on Bivalve Clams in the Sharavathi Estuary of Indian West Coast, The Open Ecology Journal,7, 52 – 58.
• Ramesha, M. M., Sophia, S., and Muralidhar, M., 2013, Freshwater bivalve fauna in the Western Ghats rivers of Karnataka, India: Diversity, distribution patterns, threats and conservation needs, International Journal of Current Research, 5(9), 2500 – 2505
• Ramachandra, T. V., Chandran, M. D. S., Prakash, M., Rao, G. R., Bharath, S., Bharath, H. A., Harsish, R. B., Sumesh, N. D.,Gautham, K., Sudarshan, P. B., Boominathan, M., Balachandran, C., Vishnu, D. M., and Shrikant, N.,, 2012, Biological Diversity, Ecology and Environment Impact Assessment with Mitigation Measures: Hubli-Ankola New Broad Gauge Railway line, CES Technical Report 125, Energy & Wetlands Research Group, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012.
• http://www.karnataka.gov.in/Gazetteer

Variety of Paddy, Sugar cane, Banana, Arecanut, Coconut, Mango, spices, Cashew nut etc.

No major diversion works in the catchment, however numerous small scale check dams are built for irrigation practice.

Bivalves: EIA of Proposed Mahadayi HEP,1997 Flora: Forest types found in the district are: Evergreen, Semi Evergreen, Moist Deciduous, Scrub, Thorny, un wooded with following species. Acacia sp.,  Artabotrys hexapetalus,  Atlantia recemosa,  Bombax sp,  Butea monosperma,  Calophyllum wightianum,  Calophyllum elatum,  Carallia brachiata,  Careya arborea,  Cassia fistula,  Cinnamomum zeylancium,  Dalbergia latifolia,  Dillenia pentagyana,  Diospyros candolleana,  Diospyros montana,  Embilca officinalis,  Euphoria longana,  Ficus benghalensis,  Ficus religiosa,  Glycosmis sp.,  Holigarna arnotiana,  Hopea parviflora,  Ixora brachiata,  Lagerstroemia lanceolata,  Lygodium sp.,  Lophopetalum wightianum,  Macaranga peltata,  Mallotus philippensis,  Mangifera indica,  Memecylon edula,  Mimusops elengi,  Myristica sp.,  Olea dioica,  Pongamia sp.,  Pongamia pinnata,  Randia dumetorum,  Spatholobus sp.,  Strobilanthes sp.,  Symploca sp.,  Syzygium cumini,  Tectona grandis,  Terminalia chebula,  Terminalia paniculata,  Terminalia tomentosa,  Vitex negundo,  Xanthium sp.,  Ziziphus oenoplia,  Artocarpus hirsutus,  Falconeria sp,  Garcinia indica,  Holigarna sp,  Madhuca indica,  Syzygium sp,  etc Fauna: : EIA of Proposed Mahadayi HEP,1997

Mammals: Tiger, Black Panther, Leopard, Bison, Gaur, Hare, Wild Boar, Sloth Bear, Deer, Thar, Bonnet Macaque, Lion Tailed Macaque, Giant Squirrel, Hanuman Languor, Wroughton’s Freetailed bat (endemic-endangered), Sambar, Chital, Porcupine, Giant Squirrel, Barking Deer, Mouse Deer, Reptiles: Snakes (Vipers, Cobra, Rat snake, Crate, King cobra, Python, Wolf snake, Blind snake, Shield tail snake, Boa, Banded kurki, Russel Kurki snake, Flying snake, coral snake, Russel viper, rat snake, etc ), Monitor Lizard.

• Survey of India Topographic Sheets, 1:50000 scale, http://thesurveyofindia.gov.in
• Census of India, 2001 and 2011, http://censusindia.gov.in.
• Environmental Impact assessment of proposed Mahadayi Hydroelectric Project, KPCL, Bangalore September 1997

Western Ghats is the primary catchment for most of the rivers in peninsular India. Pristine forests in this region are rich in biodiversity and are being cleared due to unsound developmental activities. This has given rise to concerns about land use/land cover changes with the realization that land processes influence climate. Rapid land-use changes have undermined the hydrological conditions, there by affecting all the components in the hydrological regime. The development programmes based on ad-hoc decisions, is posing serious challenges in conserving fragile ecosystems. Considerable changes in the structure and composition of the land use and land cover in the region have been very obvious during the last four decades. Pressure on land for agriculture, vulnerability of degraded ecosystems to the vagaries of high intensity of rainfall and high occurrence of steep erosion and landslide-prone areas, lack of integrated and coordinated land use planning are some of the reasons for rapid depletion of the natural resource base. These changes have adversely affected the hydrological regime of river basins resulting in diminished river / stream flows. This necessitates conservation of ecosystems in order to sustain the biodiversity, hydrology and ecology. In this situation, in order to resolve present problems and to avoid a future crisis, a comprehensive assessment of land use changes, its spatial distribution and its impact on hydrological regime was carried out and accordingly, appropriate remedial methods are being explored for the sustainable utilization of the land and water resources of the catchment.

A total of 140 diatom taxa were identified across sites (Figure 2-5: River basin wise sampling locations), 61 of them reaching a relative abundance of over 5% in at least one site. The species compositions were dominated by Gomphonema gandhii Karthick and Kociolek, Achnanthidium minutissimum Kützing, Achnanthidium sp., Gomphonema sp., Gomphonema parvulum Kützing, Nitzschia palea (Kützing) W.Smith, Nitzschia frustulum (Kützing) Grunow var. frustulum , Navicula sp., Navicula cryptocephala Kützing, Cyclostephanos sp., Cymbella sp., Eolimna subminuscula (Manguin) Moser Lange-Bertalot and Metzeltin, Sellaphora pupula (Kützing) Mereschkowksy, Eunotia minor (Kützing) Grunow in Van Heurck, Nitzschia amphibian Grunow f. amphibia , Cyclotella meneghiniana Kützing, Gomphonema difformum Karthick and Kociolek, Navicula rostellata Kützing, Cocconeis placentula Ehrenberg var. euglypta (Ehr.) Grunow, Brachysira sp., Stauroneis sp., Encyonema minutum (Hilse in Rabh.) D.G. Mann, Cyclotella sp. and Nitzschia sp. The species composition contains cosmopolitan to possible Western Ghats endemic species and in general species from oligotrophy to highly eutrophic condition were also observed. The current study also documents some of the species for the first time in Western Ghats and many new species descriptions are underway. In some sampling locations, water quality show tendency towards alkalinity in the streams drained from agriculture and urban catchment. The highest ionic and nutrient values correspond to the agriculture catchment dominated streams, particularly in the leeward side of the mountains. Oxygenation was generally close to saturation; the lowest values are due to wastewater water inflows in few localities. Streams closer to industries and city reflect higher amount of nutrients and is reflected by pollution tolerant tax (Figure 6). The most oligotrophic sites were located in mountain watercourses, while downstream sites were generally more polluted, becoming eutrophic in condition. The detailed water chemistry variables are presented in Table 1 (Source: Ramachandra T V, Subash Chandran M.D., Joshi N V, Karthick B and Vishnu D. Mukri, 2015. Ecohydrology of Lotic Ecosystems of Uttara Kannada,  Central Western Ghats, In: Ramkumar, M., Kumaraswamy, K. and  Mohanraj, R. (Eds.). Environmental management of River Basin ecosystems, Springer Earth System Sciences, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13425-3_29). Table 1: water chemistry variables in 45 sites (streams) across river basins

The species composition contains cosmopolitan to possible Western Ghats endemic species and in general species from oligotrophy to highly eutrophic condition were also observed. Among the species observed in this study, two species were possibly endemic to Western Ghats ( G . gandhii , G . difformum and few other species yet to identify). In few sites these species were very dominant reaching more than 80% of the total assemblages. The remaining dominant taxa were cosmopolitan and well documented in international literatures (Krammer and Lange Bertalot, 1986-1991). It is important to note that the indices that were developed and tested in European rivers, lacks Western Ghats endemic taxa. Most sites were oligo-mesotrophic and only a few of the streams were eutrophic. The differences in the water quality of these rivers were reflected in the values for the diatom indices, by the relative abundances of indicators of trophic/saprobic stage and by different types of diatom community. Diatom Assemblages: Among the 113 taxa the most common and dominant diatom taxa are Eolimna subminuscula, Achnanthidium sp., Navicula sp., Nitzschia palea, Gomphonema parvulum, Gomphonema sp., Gomphonema gandhii, Achnanthidium minutissima and Cyclostephanos sp. Species richness varied from 4 to 29 with an average of 15. Shannon-Wiener diversity varied from 0.71 to 2.94 with an average of 1.76. According to the pH classification, diatom assemblages were characterized by a high proportion of neutrophilous diatom species (64.62%) followed by alcaliphilous species (26.64%). Salinity classification based on the diatom species assemblages infer the fresh to brackish water species were the dominant form with 86.16% followed by brackish to freshwater (7.84%) and exclusively freshwater (5.3%) flora. Nitrogen autotrophic taxa, which tolerate elevated concentrations of organically bound nitrogen, were dominant with 53.31%.  Species which require 100% oxygen saturation were prevailing community with 42.98% followed by low level (30% oxygen saturation) oxygen requirement species by 29.08%. The composition of diatom community with respect to saprobity in the order or oligosaprobous, β-mesosaprobous, α-mesosaprobous, α-meso-/polysaprobous and polysaprobous were 7.8%, 46.09%, 10.58%, 26.56% and 8.97% respectively. The species occurs in the eutraphentic and oligo to eutraphentic were equally dominant with respect to the trophic state explained by diatoms.

Figure 6: Pollution status in the rivers of Uttara Kannada

Dams : Large to small sized dams used for hydroelectricity production and small size local check dams for intense agriculture purposes (Figure 7). Both large and small check dam affects the riverine biodiversity and water quality. Removal of riparian vegetation is observed in all river basins (figure 7). In particular streams flows next to the agriculture lands shows significant removal of riparian vegetations.

Water pollution due to domestic sewage: Bedthi River Basin, in particular upper reaches of Bedthi shows high level of water quality degradation due to the domestic sewage disposal in the main streams (Figure 9). Certain portion of the domestic sewage of Hubli town is disposed into upper Bedthi River (Figure 10). Sewage contaminants  flows in to Bedthi River and later gets diluted by the water from tributary like Hasehall, which drains more water even during the summer months. Some of the sites, which  are severely affected by the water pollution in Bedthi River basin are Sangadevarakoppa, Kalghatghi and Manchikeri (Yellapura).

Industrial Pollution: Kali River Basin is under the influence of industrialization in Uttara Kannada, in particular Dandeli region with polluting industries. The West Coast Paper Mills Ltd situated in the bank of River Kali pollutes the water and surrounding riparian environment by letting partially treated or untreated effluents into the river. Kervada village, next to Dandeli witness severe water and air pollution due to the effluent of paper mill. Paper mill waste increases total dissolved and suspended solids, turbidity and ionic content. In addition to the effluents the river also receives sewage.  Organic waste let in to the river decreases the dissolved oxygen, which eventually causes threat to aquatic biodiversity. Site where confluence of sewage is also witnessed soaring population of Mugger crocodiles (Figure 10)  resulting in the higher instances of human wildlife conflicts. Sand Mining: Sand mining is one of the common problems observed in lower reaches of all the river basins (Figure 11). Sand mining is predominant in brackish water region of Kali and Sharavathi River Basins, where mechanized sand mining is in practice for a while. Sand mining cause severe threat to the benthic organisms. Most of the marine and esturine benthic organisms breed in brackish regions faces severe threat due to the mechanized sand mining. Mangrove regions in Kali estuary is also threatened by sand mining due to loss or alteration of habitat.

Table 2 lists the river basin wise threats with the appropriate mitigation  measures to enhance the functional aspects of aquatic ecosystems.

Table 2: Threats and Mitigation Measures

• Ramachandra T V, Subash Chandran M.D., Joshi N V, Karthick B and Vishnu D. Mukri, 2015. Ecohydrology of Lotic Ecosystems of Uttara Kannada,  Central Western Ghats, In: Ramkumar, M., Kumaraswamy, K. and  Mohanraj, R. (Eds.). Environmental management of River Basin ecosystems, Springer Earth System Sciences, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13425-3_29
• Ramachandra, T.V. 2014. Hydrological Responses at Regional Scale to Landscape Dynamics, J Biodiversity, 5(1,2): 11-32.
• Ramachandra T V, Vinay S, Bharath Settur and Bharath H. Aithal, 2017.  Profile of Rivers in Karnataka, ENVIS Technical Report 129, Sahyadri Conservation Series 71, Energy & Wetlands Research Group, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012

Waternama - a collection of traditional practices of water conservation and harvesting in Karnataka

Waternama is a collection of traditional practices for water conservation and management in Karnataka. The book is produced by Communication for Development and Learning and edited by Sandhya Iyengar. View/download the full book (29.2 MB) Chapter 1:   Tanks of Karnataka : a historical perspective- Vatsala Iyengar

The rock inscriptions as well as Kaifiyats confirm this. The Puranas too uphold the significance of the tanks. The article also describes the contribution of rulers as well as of unusual people in the building of tanks by quoting historical refernces, quotes and descriptions by travellers and makes connnections between the past and present. The article ends by highlighting the relevance of the historical connections between the populations and their cultures and the water tanks in todays times.

Chapter 2:  Water tradition: the Malnad story -Shivananda Kalave

Chapter 3:   Water management - the neeruganti way -  Dr. S.T. Somashekara Reddy

This article describes the role of a person named as the Neeruganti, who traditionally controlled and managed the distribution of water at the village level or community level in the state of Karnataka.  A Neeruganti was a person appointed by the community to manage water in a just and equitable manner. In order to do this, he made use of very simple, but creative methods to ensure that water was available equally to the whole community. The Neeruganti was thus a highly appreciated member of the community and recognised for his high standards of justice.

Although it is not clear as to when this system came into force and how it was used, yet it is known that the Neeruganti system was in existence in every irrigation system in the state till as recently as 50 years ago. Historically, wherever tanks were in existence, the neerugantis managed the water equitably as well ensured that the tank was maintained. Though water management may appear to be a simple task, yet the duties of the Neeruganti were numerous.  The key functions of the Neeruganti were to: • ensure uniform supply of water to all fields in the command area • determine the type of crop to be grown based upon the water available • decide on the dates and times for supply of water and cessation • inform everybody about the dates through beating of drums • inform the farmers in case their crops were afflicted with pests or diseases • ensure proper maintenance of the tank outlets • decide upon a date to repair the tank canal • arrange “Ganga Pooja” to invoke the blessings of the God for plentiful water in the tank In 1962, a uniform irrigation policy was enacted for the entire state of Karnataka and the Neerugantis associated with huge tanks were taken into government service as Mettis. However, no recognition was given  to the Neerugantis of smaller tanks. Furthermore, they were also ignored when Village Accountants were appointed to each village. Thus, many Neerugantis did not find a place in the changed village administration and this led to a drop in their status in the community.

New cropping patterns of alternate cash crops, like areca and coconut, meant that they no longer received contribution in kind. This added to the problems of the neerugantis, as there was no defined system to decide their remuneration from these crops. The Neerugantis were, thus, increasingly relegated to the background.

The article informs of how the Neerugantis, who for many centuries had been regarded as central to the water management processes in the village, were hurriedly displaced by a government order in 1962, when the tanks were taken over as Government property. The instinctive wisdom and knowledge that they possessed on tank maintenance was lost and they had no recognition in the new political order. This brought a sudden end to this unique time-tested system of water management.  The article describes of how the vast experience, indigenous knowledge and expertise of the Neerugantis in water conservation, distribution and tank management, unfortunately has been allowed to evaporate and fade away and needs urgent revival. 

Chapter 4: Traditional Kattas - cradles of water conservation- Chandrasekhar Etadka

This article describes the efforts made by people in the districts of Kasargod and Dakshin Kannada to revive the traditional kattas for water conservation. Kattas are temporary structures in the form of barricades erected across rivers, streams and rivulets to hold back the flowing water. The entire community involves itself in erecting these kattas. Built out of locally available stone and mud, the kattas are in existence only for three or four months in the summer.

However, the role they play within this short period is very significant. Enormous volumes of water contained by the kattas soak into the soil on both sides of the stream. This moisture, which seeps into the soil, releases itself gradually into the neighboring wells for agricultural purposes. Serial kattas are the best methods to maintain the water level in rivers and play a pivotal role in ensuring prosperity of the farmers.

Such efforts of water conservation have a history spanning many centuries as there have been several land records specifying regulations about the sharing of kattas. The farmers of Dakshina Kannada of Karnataka and Kasargod of Kerala follow the katta tradition. Till recently, the latter district witnessed the construction of more than 500 small and big kattas, every year. But this number has dwindled considerably and only a quarter of them are evident presently. The article ends by identifying the need to revive traditional methods of water storage and conservation such as the Kattas, in recent years.

Chapter-5:   The living wells of Bijapur  - Sumangala

There are a number of bavadis  such as Taj bavadi, Chand bavadi, Ibrahimpur bavadi, Nagar bavadi, Mas Bavadi, Alikhan bavadi, Langar bavadi, Ajgar bavadi, Daulat Koti bavadi, Basri bavadi, Sandal bavadi, Mukhari Masjid bavadi, and Sonar bavadi etc. Of these, the Taj bavadi and the Chand bavadi are the biggest and attract tourists due to their artistic excellence. While Taj bavadi, with its size and grandeur, occupies the first place, Chand bavadi and Ibrahim bavadi occupy the second and the third places respectively. People of the city still use the 30 bavadis that exist today. Recent years have witnessed a drastic change in the water situation and depletion of water levels. While the locals are full of praise for the rulers and philanthropists, who built the wells, the same pride is lacking for the authorities who are incharge of the maintenance and protection of these wonderful water resources. The apathy of the people who use the bavadis is also shocking.  The main reason for water pollution is the vessels and clothes which are washed nearby. Alongwith this, is the immersion of Ganapathi idols, puja items like coconuts and flower garlands that are thrown into the bavadis. Gutter water is also allowed to flow into the bavadi. Instead of getting the bavadis cleaned when they are dry, the sites are used as dumping places. In addition, the negligence of the City Corporation, the Archaeological Department and the Tourism Department has resulted in encroachments and construction of buildings next to the wall of the wells. Many such factors have spelt the death knell for these traditional water-harvesting systems. The article argues that the bavadis, which have withstood the test of time for over three centuries have fallen to ruin only since the past 8-10 years. The negligence and carelessness of both the authorities and community have resulted in reducing these enchanting, living wells to garbage bins. Sincere efforts must be taken to revert to this situation and bring the bavadis back to life once again.

Chapter 6:   Community-led water sharing- the Dhamasha system - H.A. Purushottam Rao

This article describes a system of 'dhamasha' that is practised in a villages named Bodampalli  and Balasandra in Kolar district of Karnataka. The word ‘dhamasha’ means fair and proportionate distribution of water. One of the oldest water sharing methods, this unique system has been traditionally used for agriculture to ensure a good crop to all the farmers. At times, when the water level in the tank is low, the dhamasha system is brought into effect and  ensures that all farmers receive a minimum quantity of water that is adequate to the crop being grown.

This practice is still prevalent in some villages of Kolar district. The village Bodampalli has no water support in the form of either a river or a stream. The average annual rainfall in the region is less than 740 mm. Rainfall is erratic, and if the tank fills up during a year of good rainfall, it could remain depleted for the next two or three years, if the rains fail. At such times, there is acute scarcity of water for agriculture and cattle. In the years when the tank is full, it still does not have sufficient capacity to irrigate the crops. As a consequence, only 50-60 per cent of the command area can be used to grow crops. Due to water shortage, all the farmers in the area cannot cultivate their lands every year. The dhamasha system is a solution worked out by the farmers of Bodampalli to overcome the problem. Using the dhamasha system, all the farmers of the command area in this region share water during the lean period. The crops grown are also decided on the basis of availability of water, suggesting a unique method of community cultivation. Balasandra is another small village in Mulbagal Taluk in Kolar district. Though it is at a distance of just 10km from the town, it is very backward, does not have a good transport system. Despite its underdeveloped state, the village has nurtured within itself the unique system of dhamasha, and is a role model for co-existence and cooperation in the community. The article informs that Dhamasha is not in existence anywhere in the State of Karnataka except in Kolar and argues that the harmony generated through water conservation by the people of Balasandra is rare and unprecedented. The fact that everybody is entitled to an equal share is unique and the populace of Bodampalli and Balasandra who have nurtured and followed this system are worthy of emulation. 

Chapter 7:  How does Bagalkot beat drought ? - Shylaja D.R

Bagalkot district in Karnataka is recognised to have the least amount of rainfall in the state with an average of 543 mm. As per a government estimate, the district has suffered a crop-loss of about Rs. 1500 crores between 2002-04 due to drought conditions and water scarcity. However, there are some villages in the district that have been able to withstand the impact of scanty rainfall and drought conditions. These are Badavadagi, Chittaragi, Ramavadagi, Karadi, Kodihala, Islampur, Nandavadagi, Kesarabhavi which are located in Hunagunda and Benakatti Taluk. Experience shows that these seemingly obscure villages in Bagalkot possess traditional wisdom, which can maximise the scanty rainfall and control the onset of drought. This is the method of drought proofing. Drought proofing is a new concept that has been added to the vocabulary. But this skill is not new to people in Bagalkot District. Contact with the villagers indicates that this age-old method has been nurtured and propagated over time, and the application and impact of this system has been truly amazing.

The drought proofing of Bagalkot provides the assurance of a livelihood to all raindependent farmers. The farmers probably spend more money than any other village in the country to resist drought without any help or support from the government. In fact the government may not even be aware of this extensive work undertaken by the villagers and the prosperity they enjoy as a result of this work. The article argues that, the state administration, government and the developmental pundits have to realise the truth, that such drought proofing systems have been sculpted out of the soil that has witnessed centuries of scarcity and hardship and has fine-tuned itself according to the needs. Thus, sitting in air-conditioned offices of Bangalore or Delhi and thinking about the solution is not enough. These planners should mingle with the people who face these problems, take them into confidence and through research and development, solve the issues.

At a local level, the knowledge can be used not only by neighbouring farmers, agricultural consultants and media to address the drought conditions, but  this traditional knowledge can be the pride of not only the district or the State, but also of the country. 

Chapter 8:   Wealth in the well - Poornaprajna Belur

This article outlines few of the different types of wells found in the state of Karnataka and the practices and rituals associated with it. The common wells are found everywhere  in the state of Karnataka and are constructed in a range of different styles and techniques. Regarded as the main source of water, rural communities have had a long-standing relationship with wells in their area.

A variety of wells such as Picot wells, spinning wheel wells, brick wells, stone wells, Bavadis, wells fitted with pre-cast mud rings, mountain wells, tunnel wells and many others are found in the state. Kolar has the largest number of open wells. Belgaum is in the second place with Bijapur occupying the third place.

Excavated wells that were once an inseparable part of the irrigation system and the life of farming communities has over time been relegated to the background of the social fabric of rural societies. According to data of the Statistical Department, Government of Karnataka, the State has about 4,00,000 excavated wells. Out of these, about 3,50,000 are used for agriculture while the rest are used for drinking purposes.

These figures have not taken into account private wells and wells located in factories and individual premises. In fact, records indicate that each town had a public well, the water from which was freely available to all communities. The public wells also met the water needs of travellers as well as banjaras. Almost every town which has a tank would have about 50-100 wells. Water was drawn from these wells using traditional technologies such as picot, pulley, Persian wheel, spinning wheel etc. as well as diesel and electric machines. Paddy, millet, maize, pulses, groundnut, sugarcane, fruit, vegetables, mulberry and garden produce grew in plenty because of the continuous availability of well water. Patterns show that even when tanks dried up, wells continued to be a reliable water source, a commonality which can be likened to a fixed deposit in a bank. The article goes on to discuss:

• The wells of Bijapur
• Historical records
• Reviving open wells
• Wells within houses
• Festivals with well water
• Water diviners
• Construction of wells

The article ends by arguing that wells are assets of the family, of the community and of the town. It is therefore everyone’s duty to protect them and use the water economically. Once water is drawn out of the well, it cannot be put back or replenished. The area around the well should be clean, with trees and plants growing around it. Wells are a comparatively cheap source of water and if maintained properly and with care, the wellbeing and prosperity of the community is assured.

Chapter 9:   Sand Bore  - A low-cost alternative to borewells- Renuka Manjunath

This article describes the sand bore and the advantages of using a sand bore over a borewell. A sand bore is a simple and economical rural technology through which farmers utilize water available at lesser depths. Sand bores were commonly used before the advent of borewells. As they utilize water that is available at a depth of less than 30 feet, sand bores do not affect groundwater.

A sand bore is a partial solution to the problems created by the borewells. It is a water source that does not harm the environment, and is a friend of the farmer. A sand bore does not have the negative impact of borewells as it does not allow either, overuse or encroachment of water. It is said that sand bores were employed by soldiers on the move to draw water from river basins. This system has various names in local dialects, though in English it is called sand bore, jack well, hand pump, in-well ring etc. Geologists call it filter point. Also known as sand suckerwell in some countries, sand bore is probably the most appropriate name. Sand is the core ingredient for a sand bore. Sand is deposited by running water on either banks of rivers, rivulets, canals, streams and tanks. In addition, when rivers change course, they create canals where they deposit sand. Sand deposits that rise 15-20 feet above the surface are capable of retaining groundwater. In order to use the water thus retained, the sandy soil is dug up by using a manual soil borer. After fitting filter pipes, the water is drawn with the help of an ordinary diesel pump or a low horsepower motor.

Sand bores get filled up with water automatically and generally provide sweet water. These are simple and economical devises as they draw water from depths of just 30 feet, and do not exert any adverse effects on groundwater. The article argues that sand bores are a viable alternative to borewells, use local resources and knowledge and are widely accepted by the community. More importantly, they serve to conserve precious groundwater resources by optimizing water available at higher levels. Thus, the intensive use of this technology should be promoted.

Read a comment on sand bores  by Sekhar Raghavan

Chapter 10:   Jotte  - A pot with a difference- Radhakrishna S. Bhadti

This article describes the Jotte system of extraction of water. Traditionally used in areca-nut plantations in Uttara Kannada, Jottes are an intelligent devise which uses local material and human labour to lift water from wells and tanks. The Jotte system ensures not just economical extraction of water from the wells and tanks, but also guarantees maximum and effective utilisation of the water available. Over the years unfortunately, this system has fallen into disuse.

The jotte system depends solely on human labour. It requires understanding, skill and fine expertise in managing the amount of water that is drawn out and how it is used. The quantity of water to be lifted to irrigate a particular portion of the field is carefully calculated and worked out before the operations start. Yet, careful management ensures that neither is there any shortage of water for the fields. Thus, the word shortage carried no meaning in places where this system was used. The jotte system ensured that not a drop of water is wasted. As the water is lifted from the tank with human labour, the groundwater level is never touched. The jotte system does not deplete the groundwater level. Instead, only the surface water of the tank is utilized. Even after water is lifted from the tank and it appears to be empty, it fills up again the next morning, due to the rainwater which was always directed to the tank. The articles argues that these practices are passing into local memory today. Given the change in the practices, it is likely that people have forgotten how to string the jotte. The change is also evident in the use of the vessels used in this system. Once regarded as the basic utility item of every family in Uttara Kannada, these are seldom seen today. In some cases, these have now been moved into the loft, while in others cases, people have converted the copper jotte into household utensils. Most unfortunate is the case of others who have sold off the traditional pots. The jotte system, which was once an inseparable part of the cultivation practices among the areca-nut growers of Uttara Kannada District is now a rare practice, and worse still, a disappearing practice. Today the system of drawing water using jottes has almost disappeared. As a chain reaction, nobody cares for the tank.  As the tanks become extinct, the canals also dried up and have died a natural death, ending the entire process of water retention. The artice argues that attention needs to be given to revive these age old traditional systems of water retention today.

Chapter 11:   Tapping the water through tunnels - the Malnad way  - Ravishankar Doddamani

Chapter 12:   Marginalised madakas - Harish Halemane

There are similar structures in Rajasthan which are called johads. The traditional pemghara in Orissa also resembles the madaka. The cycle of water is that after rain falls on earth, it joins the streams and rivers and flows into sea before getting absorbed by the clouds to result in rain once again. In this process, some of the rainwater is absorbed by the soil to form groundwater. It is this resource that meets the needs of the community in times of scarcity.

Madakas enhance the decreasing groundwater level. This ensures rejuvenation of the subterranean water.  Madakas increase the water levels in wells, tanks and borewells. Pumping of water to irrigate the land just below the madaka is considerably lessened. This in turn prevents irresponsible use and exploitation of groundwater and water in wells, tanks and borewells. Afforestation is imperative in order to prevent silt deposits in the madakas. This step also augments the level of water. It creates new ecosystem as various animals and birds seek shelter in the forest. The water in the madaka also nurtures aquatic life. The article argues that reviving the old madakas and building new ones should be two important programmes. When this happens, madakas will move out from the pages of history and become a part of our lives once again.

Chapter 13:  A model for rainwater harvesting - the Melukote system - Ravindra Bhatta Inokai Chapter 14:   The water pool for cattle - Gokatte - Ghanadhalu Srikanta

Gokatte or cattle pool is a simple and traditional water conservation practice. These pools can be found all over – in and around villages, outside towns, at one corner of the field, at the base of the hill and in some instances, even in the middle of a tank. While some have been built very systematically using stones, others have been created in pits. This is built without the help of any special tools or gadgets. There are many different types of gokattes in Karnataka, such as community cattle pool, town pond, small pond, madaka, excavated well, water pit etc.

Gokatte is a simple but amazing construction which captures and collects all the rain in an area. Using the unique eye-technology of the elders, this system uses the skill of the trained eye to work out the entire process of the flow of water to the gokattes by just observing the gradient of the land. So scientific was the point of placing the gokattes that not a drop of water is wasted, thereby filling the gokattes to the brim. 

Unfortunately, gokattes have been allowed to fall into disuse. The tanks and bunds that were built and maintained earlier by the communities are now under the village, taluk or district administrations. Thus, the villagers do not volunteer for de-silting the tank or for repairing the gokatte. There is a change in attitude that as tax payers they need not concern themselves with these problems. The government has also turned a blind eye towards these systems, resulting in the unfortunate loss of a tried and tested tradition and a culture associated with it.

At the same time, the government has taken up World Bank aided projects like Sujala, Water Augmentation Project Association and River Basin Development Schemes, through which it has stepped forward to protect gokattes, tanks and the like. These have undergone a metamorphosis and are called canal bunds, gully plugs, agricultural pits etc. The only difference is that the communities no longer evince enough interest in these and the government is trying to persuade them with incentives and money to participate in the project. The article argues that farmers should voluntarily identify the gokattes, tanks and ponds, study their condition and facilitate the smooth flow of rainwater into them. Tanks and ponds should be desilted and the water level should be increased. Construction of a gokatte costs approximately Rs. 40,000 today. If the government can finance this amount, either in the form of a loan or a subsidy and make the construction of a gokatte compulsory, there is no doubt that all the villages will be rich in water within two years. If the gokattes can be revived before the monsoon starts, a traditional and time-tested water harvesting system will get a new lease of life. 

Chapter 15:   A well in every house - the story of Ravur village- Ananda Thirtha Pyati

Open wells are a common feature of every village in India.  Interestingly in Ravur village in northern Karnataka almost every house has a well.  These wells has been have been well-kept and maintained over years and are the source for potable water for not just the household, but the entire village. Chapter 16:   Interlinking ponds - water conservation at Bellary Fort- Sripada Joshi

This article provides an introduction to two practices that highlight the wisdom of farmers in irrigating their lands. Jetti Agrahara is one such village where the system has been kept alive. It has come to be known as the yajaman panagar system. Yajaman means a farmer belonging to the command area and Panagar is a version of the Marathi word Panagrahi. By its very title, it conveys the synergy between the two, and that it provides equal responsibilities and rights to farmers of the command area as well as those who regulate the water. Yajaman Panagars are chosen at a village meeting where villagers from the six villages gather and indicate their selection after a mutual discussion. Caste and creed are not considerations for selection and everybody is eligible. Farmers who can influence opinion within the community and bring them together are given preference. Four individuals from the two villages on the left bank canal and six from the three villages on the right bank canal are appointed as yajaman panagars. The performance of the yajaman panagars is assessed by the community every year, and those who are found lacking in their work are replaced with more committed persons. While building tanks the community devoted special attention towards the courtyard, command area and the maintenance of the tank. Towards this, various indigenous systems and practices were followed bearing in mind the needs of each village and the geographical location of the tank. The tukkadi or the Restriction system is one such unique practice and was earlier in practice in several tanks of Mulbagal taluk of Kolar District. Presently it is followed only in the four tanks of Hanumanahalli, Meleri, Kammadatti and Uttanuru. Yajaman panagara and tukkadi systems are excellent examples of the traditional wisdom exhibited by elders. They also symbolise their spirit of cooperation, which can serve as a lesson for contemporary life.The practices followed by our ancestors for distribution of tank water are numerous. The article argues that the care and concern they took especially during drought and the spirit of sharing they demonstrated while using whatever little water was available is worth emulating. Many practices have not been recorded, and thus are lost and need to be revived. 

Chapter 18:   Sisandra - A watering hole for travellers - C.R. Nagendra Prasad

Sisandras are the traditional water conservation structures found in parts of Karnataka. Built in stone and located on the sides of roads and highways, sisandras can be commonly seen in selected areas of Karnataka. These intriguing tub-like structures were constructed to provide water to the weary traveller. Built by the rich and the poor alike, the sisandras are a unique practice that has sadly, faded away. Sisandras are found on the rural roads of Kolar, Tumkur, Chitradurga and certain parts of Bangalore district. At the entrance to Chitradurga fort, there is a well preserved sisandra. One sisandra was recently found while digging a foundation for a house in Kolar area. It is presently housed in the office of the District Armed Forces. Similar structures are also found in Dakshin Kannada, though these are smaller in size and are earmarked for animals.  While kings and emperors provided tanks, wells and rest houses, the rich traders of major towns built sisandras for the common man. Inscriptions dating as far as 600 years back in Kolar district give evidence of a sisandra built by a trader, who founded the town of Madamangala. Providing water in Hindu mythology was considered “dharma”. People from the scheduled caste community were employed to fill water in these sisandras. In the words of Sri V.S.S. Shastry of Kolar, “Even upper caste pilgrims drank water from the sisandra thus proving that caste differences were washed away by the water in the sisandras!” Feudal chiefs were instrumental in building small townships as well as the roadside sisandras. People were employed not only to erect the structures, but also to fill water in these sisandras. Employment was thus generated not only through the construction of sisandras but also for ensuring that there was always enough water in them. The king’s officials made the payment to the people who carried the water from the tanks and wells to the sisandras.

The article informs that, unfortunately very little documentation is available about this unique system. The sisandras is a simple practice which can easily and should be revived, which will provide relief and earn goodwill from the ordinary traveller.

Chapter 19:   Talaparige - Nature's science and art of water management - Mallikarjuna Hosapalya

Talaparige is a water source commonly found in Karnataka. The word talaparige is used for the point where water springs out from sandy soil. This is a unique water source that gets activated only when the tank dries up. Talapariges were major sources of water supply in the hilly areas of Tumkur, Chitradurga and Kolar districts. Once revered and celebrated by the community, talapariges were focal points of rural culture. Sadly, today talapariges have disappeared.

A talaparige is the point in the tank bed where water springs out from the sandy soil. It is also referred to as a swamp or a sweet water spring. Water from a talaparige is harnessed at the point where the maximum water springs out. Talapariges however become active only when the water in the tank dries up. Water in talapariges is used as drinking water for humans and animals and also for agricultural purposes. Talapariges are found on rocky surfaces of the hill slopes where the water flows down during the monsoon and dries up in the summer, as well as on riverbanks, rivulets or streams. When it rains, water soaks in through cracks in the rocks and boulders and collects as subterranean water. It later springs forth wherever there is sandy soil. Rain water that collects under the earth by the banks of rivers, rivulets or streams gushes forth through talapariges when these water sources run dry in summer and the sand is struck. The point where water trickles, oozes or springs out is called the talaparige. Talapariges do not have any definite shape. Most generally have a stonewall on three sides with an open portion on one side, so as to facilitate flow of water. A pit is dug wherever water can soak through. The maximum depth is about 15 feet, although the average depth is only 5 feet. The length and breadth is usually between 15-20 feet. As the canals are equal in measurement to these talapariges, both sometimes appear to be a single structure. While talapariges are generally built of stone in the middle of the tanks, sometimes these can also be found in places where there are no tanks. The uniqueness of a talaparige is that water flows out of it only when it is used. This is owing to the fact that the eye of the talaparige closes when water does not flow out. The portion or the corner of the talaparige from where water oozes out is called the ‘water eye’. This point is of special significance. Workers who repair the canal observe this eye constantly to prevent it from getting covered with topsoil. For instance, the talaparige in Akkiramapur, Koratagere Taluk remained unused for many years, and the ‘water eye’ has choked up with moss and lichen. In Karnataka, talapariges exist in the rocky surfaces of the mountainous areas of Tumkur, Kolar and Chitradurga districts. Anantapur and Cuddapah in Andhra Pradesh are also believed to have talapariges.  The article informs that Talapariges, once a central part of the rural community have mostly fallen into disuse today. While some have dried up due to continuous drought and indifference, others have been encroached upon. One such example is a public talaparige near Koratagere town, which has now become part of a private property. Many such instances have virtually erased the tradition of the talaparige, thereby destroying entire chains of this unique system. The article ends by arguing that there is an urgent need to undertake a detailed study of the significance of talapariges and revive this beautiful art and science in nature.

Chapter 20:  The friendly water pond - Kuntes - Poornima K.K.

Kuntes are the structure for water storage in Karnataka. Every village in Karnataka has a kunte, the water, in which, serves several purposes. Situated in or very close to the village, these kuntes also help to maintain the ecological balance in the area around it. However kuntes are facing extinction today due to land encroachments. A kunte is very similar to a pond. It is normally circular in shape and not very deep. It is structured in such a way that the rainwater directly flows into it and is collected in it. Some kuntes had a sluice and a natural waste weir, which helped in controlling the water outflow. It is a very simple technique and one that is very friendly to the environment and community. In addition to the water being used for domestic purposes, these manmade water harvesting pools were also used as soak pits to increase the groundwater level. The water collected in the kunte were greatly beneficial in recharging the surrounding open wells. As a natural corollary, the vegetation around the pools also increased and this in turn helped to maintained the ecological balance in the areas around it. Water from the kuntes was also used for growing vegetables, millet and even for soaking paddy fields. Another use for this water is in the brick kiln constructions. The various uses of the kunte prove that it was a community asset, which met community needs and generated livelihood. Some are of the opinion that kuntes and the cattle dikes are one and the same. But this may not be true, as the latter was meant only for animals and was constructed wherever the cattle grazed, whereas the kunte was within the village and was meant for human use. The article argues that unfortunately, land encroachments and the ubiquitous borewell have proved to be the undoing for these traditional kuntes, which need to be urgently restored.

Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Water Conservation — Importance of Water Conservation

Importance of Water Conservation

• Categories: Water Conservation

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Words: 880 |

Published: Jan 30, 2024

Words: 880 | Pages: 2 | 5 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, the significance of saving water, methods of saving water, case studies/examples, challenges in water conservation and protection efforts, a. water conservation practices at homes.

• Installing water-saving fixtures and appliances, such as low-flow showerheads, faucets, and toilets.
• Fixing leaks and reducing water wastage by taking shorter showers, turning off the tap while brushing, and fixing dripping taps.
• Implementing efficient water usage habits such as using a broom instead of a hose to clean outdoor areas and washing laundry and dishes only with full loads.

B. Agriculture Water Management

• Implementing efficient irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and precision irrigation, which reduce water wastage by up to 30%.
• Crop selection and rotation to optimize water usage by selecting crops that require less water and reducing water-intensive crops, such as rice and cotton.
• Using precision farming methods such as soil moisture sensors, weather forecasts, and crop modeling to optimize water usage.

C. Industrial Water Conservation

• Recycling and reusing water in manufacturing processes by using closed-loop systems.
• Implementing water-efficient technologies such as water-efficient boilers, cooling towers, and dry lubrication processes.
• Promoting water stewardship among industries by adopting best practices and engaging in water conservation efforts.

D. Government Policies and Programs

• Providing incentives for water-saving practices such as tax credits, rebates, and grants for installing water-efficient appliances and fixtures.
• Implementing water regulations and enforceable laws such as water pricing, water rights, and zoning regulations to ensure efficient water use.
• Educating and creating awareness among citizens through campaigns such as the WaterSense program, which educates consumers on water-efficient products.
• United Nations. (2021, March 22). Water and Sanitation. https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/water-and-sanitation/
• WaterSense. (n.d.). Water-Efficient Products. https://www.epa.gov/watersense/water-efficient-products
• Valsecchi, G. B., & Faggian, R. (2019). The Alliance for Water Stewardship certification program in the Netherlands: measuring the performance of a water sustainability standard for industries. Water, 11(12), 2608. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122608
• Maheshwari, B. L. (2019). Rainwater harvesting impacts on crop yield: a review with a case study of Tamil Nadu, India. Water, 11(5), 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11051018

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Essay on Water Conservation

Water, a precious resource, sustains all life on Earth. In this essay, we will explore the critical need for water conservation, the challenges we face in preserving this invaluable resource, and the actions we can take to ensure a sustainable future.

The Essence of Water

Water is often called the elixir of life because it is essential for all living beings. It makes up a significant part of our bodies and is crucial for various biological processes. Without water, life as we know it would cease to exist.

The Global Water Crisis

Despite Earth’s abundant water supply, only a small fraction is freshwater, suitable for drinking and agriculture. The rest is saline water in oceans and ice in polar regions. This limited freshwater is unevenly distributed, leading to water scarcity in many parts of the world.

Wasteful Practices

Wasteful water practices are a significant concern. Inefficient irrigation methods, leaky pipes, and excessive use of water in industries and households contribute to water waste. According to the United Nations, nearly one-third of the world’s population lacks access to safe drinking water.

Impact on Ecosystems

Water conservation is not just about human needs; it’s also about protecting ecosystems. Many aquatic species depend on healthy water bodies for their survival. Excessive water use and pollution harm these habitats, leading to the decline of numerous plant and animal species.

Agriculture’s Role

Agriculture is the largest consumer of freshwater, accounting for around 70% of global water use. Efficient irrigation methods, crop selection, and responsible water management in agriculture are essential to conserve water resources and ensuring food security.

The Drying of Rivers

Rivers are the lifelines of many regions, providing water for drinking, agriculture, and transportation. However, numerous rivers are drying up due to over extraction and climate change. The Ganges and Colorado Rivers are prime examples of once-mighty rivers facing significant challenges.

Climate Change and Water

Climate change exacerbates water-related issues. Rising temperatures lead to increased evaporation rates, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent droughts and floods. This poses a severe threat to water availability and quality.

The Importance of Groundwater

Groundwater, stored beneath the Earth’s surface, is a critical source of freshwater. It supplies drinking water to millions and sustains ecosystems. However, over-pumping and contamination of groundwater aquifers are depleting this resource at an alarming rate.

Water Conservation Strategies

We have the power to make a difference through water conservation strategies. Fixing leaks, using water-saving appliances, and adopting responsible water practices in our daily lives can significantly reduce water wastage.

Educating and Raising Awareness

Education is key to promoting water conservation. Schools, communities, and organizations play a crucial role in raising awareness about the importance of water and teaching responsible water usage.

Government Policies and Regulations

Governments worldwide must implement and enforce policies and regulations to protect water resources. These measures can include water pricing, water recycling, and restrictions on water usage during droughts.

International Cooperation

Water conservation is a global issue that requires international cooperation. Countries must work together to manage transboundary water resources, such as rivers and lakes, to ensure equitable access and sustainable use.

Conclusion of Essay on Water Conservation

In conclusion, water conservation is not just an option; it’s a necessity. Our planet’s future depends on responsible water management. We must address wasteful practices, protect ecosystems, and adapt to the challenges posed by climate change. By implementing effective strategies and raising awareness, we can safeguard this precious resource for ourselves and future generations. Water conservation is not merely a choice; it’s an ethical responsibility we all share to ensure a sustainable and thriving world.

Also Check: Essay on Essay: All you need to know

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ವಿಶ್ವ ಪರಿಸರ ದಿನ: ನೀರುಳಿಸುವ 10 ಉಪಾಯಗಳು

ಮನೆಯ ತ್ಯಾಜ್ಯ ನೀರನ್ನು ಮರು ಬಳಕೆ ಮಾಡಿ ಸಾರ್ವಜನಿಕ ಪಾರ್ಕ್‌ಗೆ  ಆ ನೀರನ್ನು ಬಳಸಬಹುದು| ಕೆರೆಗೆ ಗಟಾರಗಳ ಮೂಲಕ ತ್ಯಾಜ್ಯದ ನೀರನ್ನು ಬಿಡುವ ಬದಲು, ಮನೆಯ ತಾರಸಿಯ ಮಳೆ ನೀರನ್ನು ಕೆರೆಗೆ ಹೋಗುವಂತೆ ಮಾಡಿ ಸಂಗ್ರಹಿಸಿಡಬಹುದು|  

ಶಿವಾನಂದ ಕಳವೆ, ಜಲ ತಜ್ಞ

ಮುಂಗಾರು ಜಡಿಮಳೆ ಶುರುವಾಗುತ್ತಿದೆ. ಪ್ರತೀ ಸಲ ಮಳೆಯಾದಾಗಲೂ ಎಣಿಕೆಗೆ ಸಿಗದಷ್ಟುನೀರು ಪೋಲಾಗುವುದು, ಬೇಸಿಗೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ನೀರಿಗಾಗಿ ತಹತಹಿಸುವುದು ಸರ್ವೇ ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ. ಈ ಬಾರಿಯಾದರೂ ಮಳೆ ಬರುವಾಗಲೇ ನೀರು ಉಳಿಸುವ ಪ್ರಯತ್ನ ಮಾಡೋಣ.

1 ಎಕರೆಯಲ್ಲಿ 20 ಲಕ್ಷ ಲೀಟರ್‌

1. ಮಳೆಯನ್ನು, ಭೂಮಿಯ ಸ್ವರೂಪವನ್ನು ಅರ್ಥ ಮಾಡಿಕೊಳ್ಳೋದು. 1 ಎಕರೆಯಷ್ಟುಭಾಗದಲ್ಲಿ 15ರಿಂದ 20 ಲಕ್ಷ ಲೀಟರ್‌ ಮಳೆನೀರು ಸಂಗ್ರಹವಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಈ ನೀರನ್ನು ಉಳಿಸುವ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ನಾವು ಚಿಂತಿಸಬೇಕು.

ಕಾಡು ಬೆಳೆಸುವುದು

2. ಬಿದ್ದ ಮಳೆಯ ಶೇ.12ರಷ್ಟನ್ನು ಭೂಮಿಗೆ ಸೇರಿಸುವುದು ಕಾಡು. ಈಗ ಕಾಡು ಬೆಳೆಸಲೇಬೇಕಾದ ಅನಿವಾರ್ಯತೆ ಇದೆ.

ಪರಿಸರಸ್ನೇಹಿ ಊಟಕ್ಕೆ 10 ಉಪಾಯಗಳು!

ಅಲ್ಲಲ್ಲಿ ಹೊಂಡ ಮಾಡಿ

3. ಕಣಿವೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ನೀರು ಹರಿದುಹೋಗಲು ಬಿಡದೇ ಅಲ್ಲಲ್ಲಿ ಹೊಂಡ ಮಾಡಿಟ್ಟರೆ ಅದೊಂಥರ ನೀರಿನ ಟ್ಯಾಂಕ್‌ನಂತಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಬಿದ್ದ ಹನಿಯನ್ನು ಬಿದ್ದಲ್ಲೇ ಉಳಿಸುವ ಪ್ರಯತ್ನವಾಗಬೇಕು.

ಕೆರೆಗಳನ್ನು ಉಳಿಸೋದು

4. ಕೆರೆಗಳಿದ್ದರೆ ಪ್ರವಾಹದ ಭೀತಿ ಕಡಿಮೆಯಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಮೊದಲಿನ ಕೆರೆಗಳನ್ನು ಉಳಿಸಿಕೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತಿದ್ದರೆ ಈ ಬಾರಿಯ ಗಂಗಾವಳಿ ಪ್ರವಾಹದ ಅಪಾಯ ಇರುತ್ತಿರಲಿಲ್ಲ. ಅರ್ಧರಾತ್ರಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಮಳೆ ಬಂದರೂ ಆ ನೀರನ್ನು ಕೆರೆ ಸಂಗ್ರಹಿಸಿಟ್ಟುಕೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತದೆ. ಕೆರೆಗಳನ್ನು ಉಳಿಸೋಣ.

ಹೊಲದ ಬದು, ಮರದ ರಕ್ಷಣೆ

5. ಹೊಲದ ಬದು ಮತ್ತು ಸಸ್ಯಗಳನ್ನು ಕಾಯಬೇಕು. ಹೊಲಗಳ ಬದು ಹೊಲದ ನೀರನ್ನು ತಡೆಯುತ್ತದೆ. ಬದುವಿನಲ್ಲಿರುವ ಮರ ಮಳೆ ನೀರನ್ನು ಇಂಗಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. ಬಯಲುಸೀಮೆಯ ಕಪ್ಪು ನೆಲದಲ್ಲಿ ಎರೆಹುಳುಗಳು ಸಮೃದ್ಧವಾಗಿದ್ದರೆ ವರ್ಷಕ್ಕೆ 300 ರಿಂದ 600 ಮಿಮೀನಷ್ಟುಮಳೆ ಬಿದ್ದರೂ ಸಾಕಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಕೃಷಿ ಹೊಂಡಗಳೂ ಸಹಕಾರಿ.

ಶ್ರುತಿ ನಾಯ್ಡು ವಿಚಾರಗಳು: ಮಕ್ಕಳಿಗೆ ವಿದೇಶದ ಬದಲು ಕಾಡು ತೋರಿಸೋಣ!

ರಸ್ತೆಯಿಂದ ಕೆರೆ ನಿರ್ಮಾಣ

6. ಕೋಟ್ಯಂತರ ರುಪಾಯಿ ಖರ್ಚು ಮಾಡಿ ರಸ್ತೆ ನಿರ್ಮಾಣ ಮಾಡುತ್ತೇವೆ. ಆ ವೇಳೆಗೆ ಬಹಳಷ್ಟುಮಣ್ಣು ಬೇಕಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಸುರಕ್ಷಿತ ಜಾಗದಲ್ಲಿ ಕೆರೆಯ ರೂಪದಲ್ಲಿ ಆ ಮಣ್ಣು ತೆಗೆಯಬಹುದು. ರಸ್ತೆಯ ಪಕ್ಕದ ಕಾಲುವೆ ನೀರನ್ನು ಹಾಗೆ ನಿರ್ಮಾಣವಾದ ಕೆರೆಗೆ ಸೇರಿಸಬಹುದು.

ತೋಟಕ್ಕೆ ತ್ಯಾಜ್ಯ ನೀರು

7. ಮನೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಬಳಸುವ ನೀರನ್ನು ಗಟಾರಕ್ಕೆ ಸುರಿಯುವ ಬದಲು ತ್ಯಾಜ್ಯ ನೀರಿನ ಮರುಬಳಕೆ ಮಾಡಬಹುದು. ಕೈತೋಟಕ್ಕೆ, ತರಕಾರಿ ಬೆಳೆಯಲು, ಟಾಯ್ಲೆಟ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ಬಳಕೆಗೆ ಈ ತ್ಯಾಜ್ಯದ ನೀರನ್ನು ಬಳಸಬಹುದು.

ತಾರಸಿ ನೀರು ಕೆರೆಗೆ

8. ಕೆರೆಗೆ ಗಟಾರಗಳ ಮೂಲಕ ತ್ಯಾಜ್ಯದ ನೀರನ್ನು ಬಿಡುವ ಬದಲು, ಮನೆಯ ತಾರಸಿಯ ಮಳೆ ನೀರನ್ನು ಕೆರೆಗೆ ಹೋಗುವಂತೆ ಮಾಡಿ ಸಂಗ್ರಹಿಸಿಡಬಹುದು.

ಮನೆಬಳಕೆ ನೀರು ಪಾರ್ಕ್‌ಗೆ 

9. .ಮನೆಯ ತ್ಯಾಜ್ಯ ನೀರನ್ನು ಮರು ಬಳಕೆ ಮಾಡಿ ಸಾರ್ವಜನಿಕ ಪಾರ್ಕ್‌ಗೆ  ಆ ನೀರನ್ನು ಬಳಸಬಹುದು

ಕೃಷ್ಣಭೈರೇಗೌಡರ ಯೋಜನೆಗಳು

10. ಕೃಷ್ಣಭೈರೇಗೌಡ ಅವರು ಕೃಷಿ ಸಚಿವರಾಗಿದ್ದಾಗ ಅನೇಕ ಪರಿಸರಕ್ಕೆ ಪೂರಕ ಯೋಜನೆಗಳನ್ನು ಜಾರಿಗೆ ತಂದಿದ್ದರು. ಬಹಳ ಪರಿಣಾಮಕಾರಿದ ಆ ಯೋಜನೆಗಳನ್ನು ವಿಸ್ತರಿಸಿದರೂ ಬಹಳಷ್ಟುನೀರಿನ ಉಳಿತಾಯ ಮಾಡಬಹುದು.  

• World Environment Day
• ವಿಶ್ವ ಪರಿಸರ ದಿನ

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