conductive properties experiment

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4 Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions

To investigate and explain factors affecting the solubility of different aqueous solutions.

Learning Outcomes

After completing this experiment, you should be able to

• Describe and explain the difference in conductivity between strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes, and non-electrolytes.
• Describe and explain the relationship between the concentration of ions and the conductivity of solutions.

Textbook Reference

Tro, Chemistry – A Molecular Approach (5th Ed), Ch. 5.4.

Introduction

The behavior of compounds when dissolved in water.

When dissolved in water, ionic and molecular compounds behave differently: [1]

Ionic Compounds

When ionic compounds dissolve in water, they would dissociate into their constituent ions when they dissolve in water.

When potassium chloride dissolves in water, the crystal structure breaks apart such that the potassium and chloride ions dissolve separately in water.

Note that polyatomic ions will remain as discrete units; when dissociation occurs, covalent bonds will not be broken. You will also need to pay attention to the number of ions present.

When sodium sulfate dissociates in water, the sulfate ions do not dissociate further.  This is what we would expect to find.

Molecular Compounds

As these are held together by covalent bonds which will not break when dissolved in water, these do not dissociate when dissolved in water.

We have to be more cautious about acids and bases, however.  Acids and bases ionize and form charged particles in solution.  Of these,  strong acids such as HCl would ionize completely (i.e. all of the molecules react with water to form the constituent ions): [2]

On the other hand, most acids and bases (weak acids and bases) do not ionize completely; only a small proportion of ions are ionized, as illustrated for acetic acid below.  As a result, there is a dynamic equilibrium . [3]

Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions

It is known that while some liquids will conduct electricity to various extents, other liquids are shown to not conduct electricity. We can also distinguish between these within the realm of aqueous solutions – solutions where the solvent is water.

Types of Aqueous Solutions

Non-electrolytes.

Non-electrolytes do not conduct electricity when dissolved in water. These compounds are \emph{molecular} and are not acids or bases and hence will not dissociate in water.

Electrolytes

These solutions contain ions, and since there are freestanding charged particles in the solution, they conduct electricity to varying extents. Since the mobility of different types of ions in solution vary significantly, so will the conductivity. Regardless, two different factors that we understand will affect the conductivity significantly:

• Weak electrolytes do not dissociate/ionize much, they tend to have significantly lower ion concentrations and therefore they do not conduct as much as strong electrolytes.
• Strong electrolytes dissociate/ionize completely; none of it would not dissociate and they tend to conduct well.

Salts are generally strong electrolytes.  For acids and bases, your strong acids and bases are strong electrolytes while your weak acids and bases are weak electrolytes.

• There are six main strong acids: HCl, HBr, HI (not HF), H 2 SO 4 (first proton only), HClO 4 , HNO 3 .  All other acids are weak acids (for the purpose of this class).
• The main strong bases we are concerned with are Groups I and II hydroxides (and a few others that we don’t worry about too much in this class).  Other bases are typically weak.

Measurement of Conductivity [4]

As far as this course is concerned, you are not required to understand the physics associated with conductivity; you just need to be able to recognize that these are values of conductivity

Experimental Procedures

There are two parts to this experiment.  In the first part of the experiment, you will use the PhET Sugar and Salt Solution simulation to visualize how salts dissociate.  In the second part of the experiment, you will use Gary Bertrand’s Conductivity simulation to examine how different solutions have different conductivities.

Electrolytes versus Non-Electrolytes

Open the PhET Sugar and Salts solution simulation and open the Macro tab.

• Put the conductivity probe into the solution.  What happens to the light bulb?
• Add salt from the shaker and see what happens to the light bulb.  What happens when you add even more salt?
• Remove all the salt in the container and repeat (2) with sugar instead of salt.

Now, open the Micro tab.  Put some of each substance in turn into the container and draw what you see.  Take a screenshot of the container with salt and with sugar.

Conductivity of Different Solutions

Open the Gary Bertrand’s Conductivity simulation .  The way this works is that you select:

• The concentration

and then the beaker on the right will magically contain that solution.  To measure the conductivity of that solution (in μS), press the right hand side of the conductivity meter (purple bar).

Conductivity of Water

Measure the conductivity of pure water.

Comparing the Conductivity of Different Electrolytes

Measure the conductivity of 0.0050 M solutions of each of the following:

• Ca(NO 3 ) 2
• NH 4 OH (=NH 3 )
• HC 2 H 3 O 2

Comparing the Conductivities as a Function of Concentration

Measure the conductivity of HCl from 0.0010 to 0.0050 M at 0.0010 M increments.

• This will be explained later in Tro, Ch. 10.4. ↵
• This is a simplification, which we will break down next semester in CHEM-C 106 (Principles of Chemistry II). ↵
• We will explore this much more next semester in CHEM-C 106. ↵
• You may be more familiar with the concept of resistivity, which is the inverse of conductivity. ↵

Virtual Chemistry Experiments Copyright © by Yu Kay Law. All Rights Reserved.

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Which substances conduct electricity?

In association with Nuffield Foundation

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In this class practical, students test the conductivity of covalent and ionic substances in solid and molten states

This experiment enables students to distinguish between electrolytes and non-electrolytes, and to verify that covalent substances never conduct electricity even when liquefied, whereas ionic compounds conduct when molten.

The practical works well as a class experiment, with students working in groups of two to three. There will not be time to investigate all the substances, so each group could be assigned three or four of these, and the results pooled at the end.

• Eye protection
• Carbon (graphite) electrodes, fitted in a holder (see note 1 below)
• Bunsen burner
• Pipeclay triangle
• Heat resistant mat
• Clamp and stand
• Small pieces of emery paper
• Connecting leads and crocodile clips
• DC power pack, 6 V
• Light bulb in holder, 6 V (see note 2 below)

Apparatus notes

• The carbon electrodes need to be fixed in some sort of support – such as a polythene holder or large rubber bung – so that there is no possibility of the electrodes being allowed to short-circuit. The electrodes need to be fixed in such a way as to fit inside the crucible supplied.
• A light bulb has more visual impact, but an ammeter can be used instead.
• Small pieces of lead (TOXIC), copper and perhaps other metals
• Phenylsalicylate (salol) (IRRITANT, DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT)
• Zinc chloride (CORROSIVE, DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT)
• Potassium iodide
• Sulfur (optional)

Health, safety and technical notes

• Read our standard health and safety guidance.
• Wear eye protection throughout.
• Lead, Pb(s), (TOXIC) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC056 .
• Copper, Cu(s) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC026 . 
• Phenylsalicylate (salol), C 6 H 4 (OH)COOC 6 H 5 (s), (IRRITANT, DANGROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC052 . 
• Wax – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC045b . 
• Sugar (sucrose), C 12 H 22 O 11 (s) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC040c . 
• Zinc chloride, ZnCl 2 (s) (CORROSIVE, DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC108a . 
• Potassium iodide, KI(s) - see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC047b . 
• Sulfur, S 8 (s) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC096A . Sulfur is a non-metallic element and is a good substance to have included in the list. But there is a strong likelihood of it catching fire, with sulfur dioxide, SO 2 (g), (TOXIC), given off. Sulfur fires are hard to extinguish. If it happens, cover the vessel with a damp cloth and leave in place until cool. If there is time, sulfur can be done as a teacher demonstration. Heat a small sample of ‘flowers of sulfur’ very, very slowly. Sulfur is a very poor conductor of heat, and localised heating is likely to cause it to start burning! You must use a fume cupboard.
• Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram, at this stage do not include the crucible or bunsen burner flame (these are for later).

Source: Royal Society of Chemistry

The apparatus required for testing the conductivity of different substances when solid and molten

• Select one of the metals, and by holding the electrodes in contact with it, find out whether or not it conducts electricity then switch the current off.
• Note down the results using the student sheet available with this resource (see download links below) and repeat this experiment with each metal available.
• Select one of the solids contained in a crucible. Lower the electrodes so that they are well immersed in the solid, and then clamp the electrodes in position.
• Switch on the current and find out whether the solid conducts electricity or not, then switch the current off again.
• Set the crucible over a Bunsen burner on a pipeclay triangle and tripod, and clamp the electrodes in position over the crucible. Gently heat the sample until it just melts, and then turn off the Bunsen flame. If necessary lower the electrodes into the molten substance, before clamping them again.
• Switch on the current again. Does the molten substance conduct electricity now? Switch the current off again.
• Write up all your observations.
• Raise the electrodes from the crucible, and allow them to cool.
• Clean the electrodes with emery paper.

Repeat steps 4 to 10 with some or all of the other solids.

Pool your results with other groups so that your table is complete.

Teaching notes

The covalent solids only need to be heated for a short time for melting to take place. Under no circumstances should heating be prolonged, otherwise the substances may decompose and/or burn. The students should be warned about what to do if this happens eg cover with a damp cloth. The experiments should be done in a well-ventilated laboratory.

It may be helpful to reserve a crucible for each of the powdered compounds, while having one or two others that can be heated. Once a solid has been liquefied and allowed to cool, the solidified lump is often hard to break up or powder in the crucible.

Zinc chloride melts at about 285 °C, so heating needs to be fairly prolonged in comparison with the covalent solids. It will, however, produce chlorine (TOXIC) so heating should stop as soon as conductivity is detected. Potassium iodide melts at about 675 °C, so very strong and prolonged heating is needed here.

Student questions

• What do you conclude about the electrical conductivity of metals?
• Do all of the solid compounds conduct electricity?
• Do any of the molten compounds conduct electricity. If so, which ones?
• Why do some substances conduct only when they have been liquefied?
• Can you now classify all the compounds as being either ionic or covalent?
• All the metals conduct electricity well. You should explain this conductivity in terms of the ‘free’ electrons within a metallic structure.
• No, none of them.
• Yes, zinc chloride and potassium iodide.
• Some substances are ionic, but electrical conduction is only possible when the ions are free and mobile. This happens once the solid has been melted.
• Phenylsalicylate, polythene, wax and sugar are covalent. Zinc chloride and potassium iodide are ionic.

Which substances conduct electricity? worksheet

Additional information.

This is a resource from the  Practical Chemistry project , developed by the Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Practical Chemistry activities accompany  Practical Physics and  Practical Biology .

© Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry

• 14-16 years
• Practical experiments
• Compounds and mixtures
• Properties of matter
• Electrochemistry

Specification

• 2.7.2 predict the products of electrolysis of molten salts including lithium chloride and lead(II) bromide using graphite electrodes and state appropriate observations at the electrodes.
• 2.7.3 interpret and write half equations for the reactions occurring at the anode and cathode for the electrolysis processes listed in 2.7.2, for other molten halides and in the extraction of aluminium;
• These substances do not conduct electricity because the molecules do not have an overall electric charge.
• Metals are good conductors of electricity because the delocalised electrons in the metal carry electrical charge through the metal.
• When melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds conduct electricity because the ions are free to move and so charge can flow.
• Explain how the bulk properties of materials are related to the different types of bonds they contain, their bond strengths in relation to intermolecular forces and the ways in which their bonds are arranged, recognising that the atoms themselves do not…
• Explain how the bulk properties of materials are related to the different types of bonds they contain, their bond strengths and the ways in which their bonds are arranged, recognising that the atoms themselves do not have these properties.
• 1.32 Explain why elements and compounds can be classified as: ionic, simple molecular (covalent), giant covalent, metallic, and how the structure and bonding of these types of substances results in different physical properties, including relative…
• C2.3f explain how the bulk properties of materials (ionic compounds; simple molecules; giant covalent structures; polymers and metals) are related to the different types of bonds they contain, their bond strengths in relation to intermolecular forces and…
• C4.3.1 explain how the bulk properties of materials (including strength, melting point, electrical and thermal conductivity, brittleness, flexibility, hardness and ease of reshaping) are related to the different types of bonds they contain, their bond st…
• C4.2.1 explain how the bulk properties of materials (including strength, melting point, electrical and thermal conductivity, brittleness, flexibility, hardness and ease of reshaping) are related to the different types of bonds they contain, their bond st…
• In general, covalent network substances do not conduct electricity. This is because they do not have charged particles which are free to move.
• Ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in solution as the lattice structure breaks up allowing the ions to be free to move.
• (a) the properties of metals, ionic compounds, simple molecular covalent substances and giant covalent substances

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Shop Chemistry Investigating Ions: Three Chemistry Experiments with the Go Direct Conductivity Probe Sharing ideas and inspiration for engagement, inclusion, and excellence in STEM Home  >  Blog  >  Investigating Ions: Three Chemistry Experiments with the Go Direct Conductivity Probe Investigating Ions: Three Chemistry Experiments with the Go Direct Conductivity Probe

By Vernier Science Education

Students are often a little shocked to learn that water is actually a poor conductor of electricity. So, why the caution with electronics near water? This is because water can dissolve ionic compounds into individual ions that carry electric charges—electrolytes. Measuring a solution’s conductivity tells us about its ionic content and its electrical conductivity, and investigating this phenomena can help students develop a stronger understanding of the structure and properties of matter and chemical reactions . The Go Direct ® Conductivity Probe , with its wide range of 0 to 20,000 μS/cm and alternating current that improves sensor longevity, is an excellent tool for deepening student understanding of many fundamental chemistry concepts, from ionic bonding to chemical titrations. Here are three investigations to help you get started.

Investigation 1: Electrolytes and Ionization

Properties of Solutions: Electrolytes and Non-Electrolytes Experiment #13, Chemistry with Vernier

Many students, especially athletes, may recognize the word “ electrolytes ,” but they may not understand their chemical significance. Electrolytes are salts and molecules that ionize to some degree, and by investigating them, students can develop a stronger understanding of ionic compounds, how ionic compounds dissociate in water, and the role ions play in conducting electricity.

In this experiment, students explore the properties of strong, weak, and non-electrolytes by observing a range of substances in aqueous solutions using the Go Direct Conductivity Probe. When ions are present in a solution, they complete an electrical circuit across the probe’s electrodes, generating a conductivity reading in microsiemens per centimeter (μS/cm) that students can use to classify the different substances.

For an introductory lesson, this experiment can be tailored to focus on ionic and molecular compounds. For a more advanced version, students can investigate molecular acids as well.

The conductivity values of three different solutions (CaCl 2 , AlCl 3 , and NaCl) are collected and displayed in Vernier Graphical Analysis ® Pro . Note: Bar graphs and categorical data are Pro features.

As students test the conductivity of each solution using the probe, real-time data is graphed and displayed in Vernier Graphical Analysis. The recorded conductivity values reflect the solution’s ion concentration: strong electrolytes show high conductivity, weak electrolytes show low conductivity, and nonelectrolytes show none. After collecting data from each solution, students can make inferences about whether they contain ionic or molecular compounds and classify them as strong or weak electrolytes.

This experiment not only helps students observe these distinctions but also understand the different factors affecting a solution’s conductivity.

When a sensor is connected, Graphical Analysis defaults to “Time Based” data-collection mode. Changing to “Event Based” mode can be more useful in experiments where time-based data isn’t relevant. In this mode, you can choose between “Events with Entry,” which prompts you to manually enter each event value and “Selected Events,” which automatically ascribes the row number as the event value.

In the basic version of Graphical Analysis, “Selected Events” is the most efficient mode for this experiment; just make sure your students track sample numbers to their corresponding compounds. If you have Graphical Analysis Pro, choose “Events with Entry” mode and enter the name of the compound directly in the table.

Investigation 2: Concentration and Molarity

Conductivity of Solutions: The Effect of Concentration Experiment #14, Chemistry with Vernier

After students have a better understanding of how different compounds affect the conductivity of a solution, it’s an easy transition to explore how the concentration of ions in a solution also influences its ability to conduct electricity. This investigation helps introduce students to the concept of molarity and the relationship between solute concentration and solution properties.

In this experiment, students study the effect of increasing the concentration of an ionic compound on conductivity. Start by taking a look at one specific compound, such as sodium chloride (NaCl). When it dissolves in water, it releases ions according to the following equation:

NaCl(s) → Na + (aq) + Cl – (aq)

Using the conductivity probe, students measure conductivity as they gradually add drops of concentrated NaCl to increase the concentration of the solution.

Conductivity data of sodium chloride, NaCl, collected and graphed as a function of concentration versus volume (in drops) in Graphical Analysis

The same procedure is used to investigate the effect of adding solutions with the same concentration (1.0 M) but different numbers of ions in their formulas: aluminum chloride, AlCl 3 , and calcium chloride, CaCl 2 .

Conductivity data of three ionic compounds (NaCl, AlCl 3 , and CaCl 2 ) collected and graphed as a function of concentration versus volume (in drops) in Graphical Analysis

Ask your students to analyze the graph curves and describe how conductivity changes as the solution concentration increases. Why are their slopes different? This investigation is an easy, hands-on way to introduce students to the significance of molar concentration and its relationship to conductivity.

If you have the Pro version of Graphical Analysis, you have access to a whole library of sample experiments, including this one! All Graphical Analysis sample experiments, which can be sorted by subject or lab book, include videos demonstrating the experiments along with the corresponding data. This is a great way to get started on topics that you may not have the equipment or opportunity to try in your lab, or for helping students catch up on missed work.

Investigation 3: Chemical Reactions and Changes

Using Conductivity to Find an Equivalence Point Experiment #26, Chemistry with Vernier

By measuring conductivity before and after a chemical reaction, students can observe how reactions alter the ionic composition of a solution. This illustrates the concepts of reactants, products, and the conservation of matter in chemical reactions, as well as the effect of ions, precipitates, and water on conductivity.

In this experiment, students monitor conductivity during the reaction between sulfuric acid, H 2 SO 4 , and barium hydroxide, Ba(OH) 2 , in order to determine the equivalence point. Using their findings, they can then calculate the concentration of the Ba(OH) 2 solution. Adding an indicator before titration helps students visually identify the equivalence point when conductivity reaches its minimum value.

Students analyze the graph to identify when the conductivity reaches a minimum value—the equivalence point of the reaction.

Before starting the experiment, prompt your students to predict what will happen to the conductivity of the solution at various stages during the reaction. Do they expect the conductivity reading to be high or low, and increasing or decreasing, in each of the following situations?

• In Ba(OH) 2 , before adding H 2 SO 4
• When H 2 SO 4 is slowly added, producing Ba(OH) 2 and H 2 O
• When the moles of H 2 SO 4 added equal the moles of BaSO 4 originally present
• When excess H 2 SO 4 is added beyond the equivalence point

After completing the titration, discuss with your students how their data compare to their predictions and have them explain the reasoning behind any discrepancies.

This experiment can be conducted using either a buret or a drop counter to perform the titration. With a buret, volumes must be read and entered in Graphical Analysis manually. With a Go Direct Drop Counter , volume data is recorded automatically in Graphical Analysis.

For best results, we recommend calibrating the drop counter prior to use. Note that this calibration is not stored to the sensor, as it varies depending on the reagent reservoir used. However, to save time in future experiments, record the calibrated drop size of your reagent reservoir. Then, when you use the reagent reservoir again, students can simply enter the drops/mL value in the calibration dialog, avoiding the need for recalibration.

These three investigations using the Go Direct Conductivity Probe provide engaging, hands-on learning experiences for students, helping them understand key concepts in ionic bonding and conductivity. For more tips and demonstrations, check out our webinar on teaching ionic and covalent bonds with conductivity.

We’re here to help! Reach out to us at [email protected] or call 888-837-6437 with any questions. Looking for water quality investigations for your Go Direct Conductivity Probe? Check out our lab book Earth Science with Vernier or explore our other environmental science solutions .

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AP®︎/College Physics 2

Course: ap®︎/college physics 2   >   unit 1.

• Thermal energy, temperature, and heat
• First and second laws of thermodynamics
• Understand: thermal energy and equilibrium
• Apply: thermal energy and equilibrium
• Understand: thermodynamics
• Apply: thermodynamics
• Specific heat capacity
• Apply: specific heat capacity

What is thermal conductivity?

What is thermal conduction?

What's the equation for the rate of thermal conduction, what does each term represent in the thermal conduction equation.

Why do metals feel both colder in the winter, and hotter in the summer?

What do solved examples involving thermal conduction look like, example 1: window makeover.

• (Choice A)   double the area, double the thickness, quadruple the k constant A double the area, double the thickness, quadruple the k constant
• (Choice B)   quadruple the area, double the thickness, cut the k constant in half B quadruple the area, double the thickness, cut the k constant in half
• (Choice C)   cut the area in half, cut the thickness in half, and double the k constant C cut the area in half, cut the thickness in half, and double the k constant
• (Choice D)   double the area, cut the thickness in half, cut the k constant in half D double the area, cut the thickness in half, cut the k constant in half

Example 2: Window heat loss

• "Conduction" from Openstax College Physics. Download the original article free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:105/Conduction

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Table of Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity

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• Ph.D., Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee at Knoxville
• B.A., Physics and Mathematics, Hastings College

This table presents the electrical resistivity and electrical conductivity of several materials, including copper, gold, platinum, glass, and more.

Electrical resistivity, represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho), is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. The lower the resistivity, the more readily the material permits the flow of electric charge.

Electrical conductivity is the reciprocal quantity of resistivity. Conductivity is a measure of how well a material conducts an electric current. Electric conductivity may be represented by the Greek letter σ (sigma), κ (kappa), or γ (gamma).

Table of Resistivity and Conductivity at 20°C

What Factors Affect Electrical Conductivity?

Three main factors affect the conductivity or resistivity of a material:

• Cross-Sectional Area: If the cross-section of a material is large, it can allow more current to pass through it. Similarly, a thin cross-section restricts current flow.
• Length of the Conductor: A short conductor allows current to flow at a higher rate than a long conductor. It's a bit like trying to move a lot of people through a hallway.
• Temperature: Increasing temperature makes particles vibrate or move more. Increasing this movement (increasing temperature) decreases conductivity because the molecules are more likely to get in the way of the current flow. At extremely low temperatures, some materials are superconductors.

What Is the Most Conductive Element?

Silver is the most electrically conductive element, followed by copper and gold. Even though silver is more conductive, copper and gold are used more often in electrical applications because copper is more affordable and gold has superior corrosion resistance.

Key Takeaways

• Use this table to see how electrically conductive and resistant different materials are.
• Silver ranks as the most electrically conductive element; however, copper and gold are more frequently utilized in electrical applications due to their cost-effectiveness and superior corrosion resistance, respectively.
• Factors such as cross-sectional area, length of the conductor, and temperature significantly influence the conductivity or resistivity of materials.

MatWeb. " Material Property Data ."

• How to Draw a Lewis Structure
• Fun and Interesting Chemistry Facts
• Ionic vs. Covalent Bonds: How Are They Different?
• Molarity Definition in Chemistry
• Chemistry Glassware Types, Names and Uses
• The Difference Between Intensive and Extensive Properties
• Examples of Physical Changes
• The Difference Between Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures
• Chemical Properties of Matter
• What is the Difference Between Molarity and Molality?
• Examples of Polar and Nonpolar Molecules
• The Difference Between a Cation and an Anion
• How to Calculate Density of a Gas
• What Is Alum and How Is It Used?
• The Visible Spectrum: Wavelengths and Colors
• The Difference Between Control Group and Experimental Group

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Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics

Extensive research of conductivity in the fluorite-like kln 4 mo 3 o 15 f (ln = la, pr, nd) rare earth molybdates: theoretical and experimental data †.

* Corresponding authors

a Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Physics, Moscow 119991, Russia E-mail: [email protected]

b Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography of Federal Scientific Research Centre ‘Crystallography and Photonics’ of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119333, Russia

c Samara State Technical University, Samara 443100, Russia

d Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg 620075, Russia

e Institute of High Temperature Electrochemistry, Ural Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg 620219, Russia

f P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Samara 443011, Russia

g N.N. Semenov Federal Research Center for Chemical Physics RAS, Moscow 119991, Russia

h Federal Research Center for Problems of Chemical Physics and Medical Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Chernogolovka 142432, Russia

i HSE University, Moscow 101000, Russia

j Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Geology, Moscow 119991, Russia

The conductive properties of fluorite-like structures KLn 4 Mo 3 O 15 F (Ln = La, Pr, Nd: KLM, KPM, KNM) have been studied theoretically and experimentally. Theoretical studies included the geometrical-topological analysis of voids and channels available for migration of working ions; bond valence site energy calculations of the oxygen ions’ migration energy; quantum-chemical calculations for the estimation of the oxygen vacancies formation energy. Experimental measurements of conductivity were made using impedance spectroscopy and as a function of oxygen partial pressure. The total conductivity was ∼10 −3 S cm −1 for KLM and ∼10 −2 S cm −1 for KPM and KNM at 800 °C. Measurements with changes in partial pressure proved the mixed nature of electric transport in KLM, KPM, and KNM phases, with predominantly ionic conductivity. The measured ion transference numbers in air reached approximately 0.9 at 800 °C for the KPM and KNM ceramics. Also, evaluated proton transfer numbers were less than 10%, indicating a small contribution to the total conductivity.

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Extensive research of conductivity in the fluorite-like KLn 4 Mo 3 O 15 F (Ln = La, Pr, Nd) rare earth molybdates: theoretical and experimental data

E. I. Orlova, Y. A. Morkhova, A. V. Egorova, A. A. Kabanov, E. D. Baldin, E. P. Kharitonova, N. V. Lyskov, V. O. Yapaskurt, O. A. Alekseeva, V. I. Voronkova and D. V. Korona, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2024,  26 , 7772 DOI: 10.1039/D3CP06134E

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Prediction of the thermal conductivities of liquids

• Published: August 1987
• Volume 53 , pages 976–985, ( 1987 )

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• L. P. Filippov 1  

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Unfortunately the premature death of Lev Petrovich Filippov prevented him from giving a clear substantiation for the estimate of the error in the prediction of the thermal conduc tivity, but this in no way reduces the great practical value of this work. Editors.

Translated from Inzhenerno-Fizicheskii Zhurnal, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 328–338, August, 1987.

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Filippov, L.P. Prediction of the thermal conductivities of liquids. Journal of Engineering Physics 53 , 976–985 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00872429

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Received : 23 April 1986

Issue Date : August 1987

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00872429

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• Preprint egusphere-2024-2445

Snow thermal conductivity controls future winter carbon emissions in shrub-tundra

Abstract. The Arctic winter is disproportionately vulnerable to climate warming and approximately 1700 Gt of carbon stored in high latitude permafrost ecosystems is at risk of degradation in the future due to enhanced microbial activity. Few studies have been directed at high-latitude cold season land-atmosphere processes and it is suggested that the contribution of winter season greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes to the annual carbon budget may have been underestimated. Snow, acting as a thermal blanket, influences Arctic soil temperatures during winter and parameters such as snow effective thermal conductivity (K eff ) are not well constrained in land surface models which impacts our ability to accurately simulate wintertime soil carbon emissions. A point-model version of the Community Land Model (CLM5.0) forced by an ensemble of NA-CORDEX (North American Coordinated Regional Downscaling Experiment) future climate realisations (RCP 4.5 and 8.5) indicates that median winter CO 2 emissions will have more than tripled by the end of the century (2066–2096) under RCP 8.5 and using a K eff parameterisation which is more representative of Arctic snowpack. Implementing this K eff parameterisation increases simulated winter CO 2 in the latter half of the century (2066–2096) by 130 % and CH 4 flux by 50 % under RCP 8.5 compared to the widely used default K eff parameterisation. The influence of snow K eff parameterisation within CLM5.0 on future simulated CO 2 and CH 4 is at least as significant, if not more so, than climate variability from a range of NA-CORDEX projections to 2100. Furthermore, CLM5.0 simulations show that enhanced future air and soil temperatures increases the duration of the early winter (Sept–Oct) zero-curtain, a crucial period of soil carbon emissions, by up to a month and recent increases in both zero-curtain and winter CO 2 emissions appear set to continue to 2100. Modelled winter soil temperatures and carbon emissions demonstrate the importance of climate mitigation in preventing a significant increase in winter carbon emissions from the Arctic in the future.

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