research papers on student athletes

Student-Athletes: An exploration of subjective wellbeing

Authors: Laura M. Morris 1 , Danny Twilley 2 , Cara L. Sidman 3 , Hannah Adamczyk 1 , Zoe Gasell 1 , and Karly Plemmons 1

1 School of Health & Applied Human Sciences, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, USA 2 Outdoor Economic Development Collaborative, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA 3 College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA

Corresponding Author: Laura M. Morris, EdD 601 S. College Road Wilmington, NC 28403 [email protected] 910-962-2451

Laura M. Morris, EdD is an Assistant Professor of Recreation, Sport Leadership & Tourism Management at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. Her research interests include leisure behavior, recreation/leisure in relation to lifelong health and wellbeing, happiness/positive psychology, and recreational sport and college student development.

Danny Twilley , PhD is the Assistant Dean of Outdoor Economic Development Collaborative at West Virginia University. Research interests include outdoor recreation’s role in community development, leisure as a catalyst for change, and subjective wellbeing. 

Cara L. Sidman , PhD is a Clinical Assistant Professor in Population Health in the College of Health Solutions at Arizona State University. Her research interests focus on wellbeing, online teaching, and college students.

Hannah Adamczyk is a recent graduate of the Recreation, Sport Leadership & Tourism Management program at the University of North Carolina Wilmington.

Zoe Gasell is a recent graduate of the Recreation, Sport Leadership & Tourism Management program at the University of North Carolina Wilmington.

Karly Plemmons is an undergraduate student in Recreation, Sport Leadership & Tourism Management at the University of North Carolina Wilmington.

Student-athletes: An exploration of subjective wellbeing

This research examined the subjective wellbeing scores of student-athletes at a mid-sized National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Southeastern university. Understanding student-athlete mental health is a growing concern among the NCAA and intercollegiate athletics programs. Much of the literature examines the issue from a clinical perspective related to depression. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore the subjective wellbeing of student-athletes at a NCAA Division I university by examining gender, in-season v. out-of-season, and team sport v. individual sports. Methods: A survey methodology was adopted to measure participant (N=109) perceptions of subjective wellbeing utilizing a valid subjective happiness scale. Results: Overall, participants indicated high levels of perceived happiness. In-season athletes, men, and team sport athletes scored highest. Conclusions: Research on student-athlete mental health has been inconsistent. Findings from this study were encouraging as student-athletes reported a high level of reported happiness. Application in Sports: This study provides insight into student-athletes’ wellbeing and mental health. Findings suggest additional programs and services focused on out-of-season student-athletes, women, and those in individual sports be considered.

Key Words: NCAA, Division I, happiness, mental health

INTRODUCTION

Recently, there has been an enhanced focus on student-athlete mental health (4). A 2015 NCAA report found that suicide was the fourth leading cause of death among college athletes (16), while 6.3% of student-athletes met the criteria for clinically significant depression and 24% had low moods considered “clinically relevant” (24). These factors have prompted states like New Mexico to introduce legislation aimed at providing additional monetary support for student-athlete mental health initiatives (19). Consequently, understanding student-athlete mental health and wellbeing is an important topic for universities, athletic administrators, and other stakeholders.

While non-student-athletes suffer from anxiety and depression, student-athletes are not immune to the problem. Student-athletes are a unique sub-group within the campus community with access to significant support systems, academic assistance centers, healthy food, and meet weekly guidelines for physical activity. Yet, student-athletes may be more vulnerable to mental health problems than originally thought. Suicide was found to be the fourth leading cause of death for student-athletes (16). Depression and anxiety rates may be influenced by lack of sleep, stress from academics, sport injuries, pressure to perform, and overtraining (4, 23). Studies on student-athlete mental health have generated mixed results-some findings indicate athletes are less likely to be depressed (2), while others show these students are not insulated from depression (25). Originally, it was believed depression did not impact the student-athlete population. It was assumed since athletes got more exercise and identify with a specific group, they were less likely clinically depressed. However, recent studies have shown otherwise-athletics is not a buffer against depression. Data showed 23.7% of athletes displayed mild symptoms of depression, while 6.3% had severe symptoms of depression (25). Even without a clinically diagnosed mental health disorder, student-athletes may have impaired overall wellbeing such as anxiety, insomnia, or substance misuse (14). A study of current and former student-athletes from nine different universities showed current college athletes were twice as likely to be depressed as former athletes, with females having a much higher rate of depression than males (23). Student-athletes are not immune to depression and may have some factors that are unique to the population-injury, performance expectations, career termination, and overtraining (14, 23, 24).

Unfortunately, student-athletes are often reluctant to seek professional help (16). The culture of athletics is to be “mentally tough”, therefore, athletes do not want to show weakness by expressing signs of depression (17, 24). Stigma was the largest barrier to seeking help for student-athletes, although perceptions of mental health assistance may be changing with the population (3, 10, 22). Lack of mental health literacy was also a barrier (8). The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) has recognized the need for taking proactive steps in managing mental health for student-athletes, as well as informing athletes of what mental health issues are, and how they can seek help (14). As key stakeholders, coaches need to be trained to recognize mental health symptoms. They play an essential role in identifying student-athletes who may benefit from mental health resources, have the ability to foster a health-promoting environment supportive of wellbeing, and can normalize and support care seeking (14). To address these issues, intercollegiate athletics is interested in providing support systems, interventions, and programs to help student-athletes. The findings on student-athlete depression have been mixed and inconsistent, indicating a need to study mental health from a variety of lenses (24). The aim of this study was to examine the subjective wellbeing of student-athletes at a NCAA Division I university.

One way of examining the mental health of athletes is to assess their levels of subjective wellbeing. Subjective wellbeing (SWB) is the scientific term for happiness and life satisfaction. It is how individuals evaluate their own lives, where people identify positive feelings and believe their life is going well (6). Wolanin, Gross, and Hong (24) call for further inquiry into the topic of athletes’ mental health, thus subjective wellbeing provides another perspective from which to view the issue.

This study analyzed scores on a subjective happiness scale by gender, in-season v. out-of-season, and team v. individual sport. Based on previous research related to mental health and athletes, the authors predicted men would score higher than females, in-season athletes lower than out-of-season, and individual sports lower than team sports.

Participants

The study sample was comprised of student-athletes (n = 109) from a medium-sized (17,500), NCAA Division I, Southeastern university without a football program.

This study aimed to enhance understanding of subjective happiness scores of NCAA Division I student-athletes. Subjective happiness levels among student-athletes were measured using a valid subjective happiness scale (SHS) (12). The instrument has been used in numerous other studies on happiness and wellbeing, (7, 11), including college populations (13). Student-athletes self-evaluated their subjective wellbeing while completing the instrument.

After receiving permission from the Institutional Review Board and The Division of Intercollegiate Athletics, surveys were emailed to all 332 registered student-athletes for the spring 2019 semester. One-hundred nine student-athletes completed the subjective happiness scale (SHS) and demographic questions via online survey.

Instruments

The SHS is a four-item instrument that uses a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (a great deal). One of the items uses reverse scoring. Sample items include: “Some people are generally very happy. They enjoy life regardless of what is going on, getting the most out of everything. To what extent does this characterization describe you?”

Test re-test reliability ranged from 0.55 to 0.90 (M = .72), while convergent validity had correlations of 0.52 to 0.72 (M = 0.62) and discriminant validity tests found all but one variable failed to reach statistical significance (12). Demographic questions related to gender, year in school, and sport were also asked.

Data Analyses

Data analysis was completed using Jeffreys’s Amazing Statistics Program (JASP). Table 1 provides descriptive statistics for all variables in the study. For categorical variables, frequencies (number and percentage) are reported, while the means, standard deviations, and ranges are reported for the SHS. The amount and percentage of missing data is also reported for all study variables.

The sample was fairly evenly distributed across all four undergraduate class standings, with 28.44% identifying as a sophomore, 26.61% identifying as a senior, 22.94% identifying as a freshman, and the remaining 22.02% identifying as a junior. The majority of the sample (61.11%) identified as female; no respondents identified as transgender. Nearly 60% of the sample were involved in an in-season sport at the time of data collection. Specific sports were classified as either a team or an individual sport; 63.89% of the sample played a team sport (baseball, basketball, beach volleyball, soccer, softball, volleyball), while the remaining 36.11% engaged in an individual sport (golf, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field). The number and percentage of respondents engaging in each sport is also provided in Table 1. Lastly, respondents reported a generally high level of subjective happiness, with an average score of 5.19, and scores ranging from 2.5 to 7.0.

TABLE 1 : Descriptive statistics (n = 109).

T-tests were used to examine differences in perceived subjective happiness by gender, in- or out-of-season sport, and individual or team sport. While no significant differences were found in subjective happiness between males and females and between individual- or team-based sports, there were statistically significant differences in the subjective happiness of participants engaged in out-of-season versus in-season sports. In-season sports participants reported a higher level of subjective happiness than those engaged in out-of-season sports at the time of data collection ( M = 5.37 vs. M = 4.96, respectively). Table 2 presents the results of these t -tests.

While males reported a slightly higher level of subjective happiness than females ( M = 5.37 vs. M  = 5.10, respectively), and participants of team sports reported a higher level of subjective happiness than those participating in individual sports ( M = 5.25 vs. M  = 5.11, respectively), these differences were not statistically significant.

TABLE 2 : Differences in subjective happiness among student athletes by gender, in-or-out-of-season sport, and team-or-individual sport (n = 108).

†p < .1.  *p < .05.  **p < .01.  ***p < .001.

Additionally, an ANOVA was used to examine differences in subjective happiness by class standing. No statistically significant differences were found. Results of this analysis are presented in Table 3.

TABLE 3: Subjective happiness scores, by class standing (n = 109).

Finally, while no statistical comparisons were made due to the small number of respondents in each sport, mean subjective happiness scores are presented by specific type of sport in Table 4.

TABLE 4: Subjective happiness scores, by sport (n = 108).

Participants reported a generally high level of subjective happiness, with an average score of 5.19, and scores ranging from 2.5 to 7.0. Other research using the SHS (12) revealed an average college student score of approximately 4.88 (moderate to high happiness).

The goal of this study was to explore subjective happiness levels of student-athletes at a mid-sized Southeastern university in an effort to build upon knowledge relevant to mental health and wellbeing of this population.

Gender and Happiness

The majority of the literature (18, 20, 21, 25, 26), indicates that female athletes are more likely to be depressed. Our findings support existing literature, with males reporting a slightly higher level of subjective happiness than females. Gender seems to play some role in subjective happiness and mental health. Wolanin et al. (24) found female athletes had significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms than male athletes, especially when their sport of choice was track and field. Schaal et al. (18) also found that elite female athletes were more likely to be diagnosed with a psychological problem than male athletes.

In-Season vs. Out-of-Season

Participants of in-season sports reported a higher level of subjective happiness than participants of out-of-season sports at the time of data collection. The literature is very limited regarding in-season versus out-of-season experience and their impact on mental health. Results from this study are somewhat surprising and need further inquiry. It was hypothesized that in-season student-athletes would score lower than out-of-season because of the additional stress of the season, time constraints, travel schedules, and playing status. The results contradicted existing literature and failed to reject the null hypothesis.

Team vs. Individual Sport

Participants of team sports reported a higher level of subjective happiness than those of individual sports. This finding supported the existing literature. Previous research has shown that athletes competing in individual sports were more prone to depressive symptoms than athletes competing in team sports (15, 21). Nixdorf et al. (15) found the internalization of success and failure related to individual sport athletes may play a role in depressive symptoms. In addition, research has shown that having a social network and team support are two factors that protect college athletes from developing depression (2).

Limitations

There are limitations related to this study. This is a relatively small sample at one NCAA Division I university. The study relies on self-evaluation and self-reported data, thus reporting bias could affect responses. Moreover, this data was a snapshot from one moment in time, while happiness is fluid and can change based on circumstances. Finally, the institution studied does not play football and is not in a Power 5 conference. Football has the highest suicide rate in college athletics (5). These factors could impact findings at other institutions.

CONCLUSIONS

There has been a renewed focus on athlete-mental health at the NCAA and higher education institutions across the country. Many once thought student-athletes may be insulated from mental health problems, but recent studies have shown otherwise.

Overall, results from this study are encouraging. Student-athletes at this institution self-rated their happiness as high. Additional research with a larger sample at a Division I, Power 5 institution with football is warranted. A longitudinal study related to happiness and student-athletes may also be advantageous. At the same time, the present results add to the body of knowledge related to the wellbeing of student-athletes. In light of these findings, stakeholders may want to focus additional resources and programming on those in groups identified as potentially having higher risk factors for depression. Ideally, institutions can focus on programming that maximizes support for student-athlete wellness. This can take many forms, and may include establishing an interdisciplinary team to support student-athlete mental health, and promote self-care, personal health, personal growth, and stress management techniques (14).

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Collegiate athletes' mental health services utilization: A systematic review of conceptualizations, operationalizations, facilitators, and barriers

Jennifer j. moreland.

a The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA

Kathryn A. Coxe

b Ohio Department of Mental Health & Addiction Services Office of Quality, Planning & Research, Columbus, OH 43215, USA

Jingzhen Yang

c Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA

While mental health among collegiate athletes is receiving increased attention, research on factors surrounding collegiate athletes' decision to seek mental health services is limited. The goal of the present review was to analyze and synthesize the current literature concerning collegiate athletes' utilization of mental health services, including the facilitators of and barriers to use of these services.

The analysis was guided and organized using a socio-ecological framework, which considered the unique context in which collegiate athletes study and perform. A total of 21 articles, published between 2005 and 2016, which concern U.S. collegiate athletes' mental health services utilization (MHSU) were selected and included for the final analysis. Conceptualizations and operationalizations of MHSU were compared and contrasted. Facilitators of and barriers to athletes MHSU were examined and summarized while appropriately considering the proximity of each factor (facilitator or barrier) to the athletes.

Results showed variations in conceptualizations and operationalizations of MHSU in the articles analyzed, which made interpretation and cross comparison difficult. Collegiate athletes are willing to utilize mental health services, but gender, perceived stigma, peer norms—for athletes and coaches—plus service availability impact their MHSU.

Key stakeholders, administrators, and public health officials should partner to eliminate MHSU barriers, support facilitators, and generally empower collegiate athletes to actively manage their mental health.

1. Introduction

Collegiate student-athletes represent a unique population of young adults. Distinct from their non-athlete peers, collegiate student athletes must manage the challenges of college academics while maintaining a peak physical fitness level and the responsibilities associated with sports team membership. 1 Such strenuous demands put male and female collegiate student-athletes at potential risk for various mental health concerns. 2 According to data from the National College Health Assessment surveys, about 31% of male and 48% of female National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) student-athletes reported either depression or anxiety symptoms each year of the 2008 and 2012 academic years. 3 Evidence also shows that collegiate athletes are at risk for clinical or subclinical eating disorders, 4 , 5 substance abuse, 6 gambling addictions, 7 sleep disturbances, mood disorders, and even suicide. 3 To address increasing concern regarding athletes' mental health, the Association for Applied Sports Psychology (AASP) and the NCAA Sports Science Institute both called for more research studies focused on improving collegiate athletes' mental health and overall well-being. In March 2016, the NCAA outlined Mental Health Best Practices that athletic departments must enact to raise awareness of mental health services availability, employ various types of mental health care providers, create referral systems, and utilize “pre-participation mental health screening”. 8

Prior research demonstrates the utility of examining athletics participation and athletes' health through a socio-ecological lens. 9 , 10 Per the socio-ecological framework, individuals make health decisions and enact health behaviors inside a complex social environment; the social environment influences these individuals and they, in turn, affect their social environment. 11 Athletes hold and act on their own attitudes, beliefs, and opinions regarding mental health. Additionally, the attitudes and perceptions of people close to these athletes impact their health-oriented opinions and actions. Those affecting the athletes' health decision-making are considered stakeholders and include the athletes' social groups and the cultural environment around the athlete. 12 , 13 In the case of the collegiate student athlete, the sociocultural views on mental health held by teammates, friends, family members, athletic trainers, coaches, as well as the local, regional, and national athletics administrative environment, impact how the athlete will respond to mental health-related challenges. 2 , 3 Likewise, more athletes utilizing mental health services, in turn, should impact the stakeholders' cultural views and responses to collegiate athletes' mental health service needs.

Student athletes, unlike their non-athlete collegiate peers, must balance the simultaneous rigors of academic and athletic life and transition to the independence of adulthood while maintaining family, friend, and peer networks. The pressure to perform well in all facets of life impacts collegiate athletes academic and on-field performances. 14 , 15 Research demonstrates college students often do not recognize or admit personal mental illness symptoms or are unaware of available mental health services (i.e., counseling, psychotherapy, comprehensive treatment plans). 16 , 17 The social stigma associated with seeking mental health treatment can be an overwhelming barrier. 18 While collegiate athletes did report being more willing to seek help for a future mental health concern than their non-athlete counterparts, collegiate athletes were less likely to report receipt of mental health care. 3 The perceptions and norms of the athletic team (e.g., teammates, coaches, and athletic trainers), and the social and cultural environment (e.g., athletic department, university) around the athletes impact how athletes view mental health care and those who seek mental health services. 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 Institutionally and environmentally, some college athletic facilities may lack appropriate resources tailored to the student athlete in terms of confidentiality, convenience, and cultural sensitivity. Likewise, even if an athletic department or student services center provides student athletes mental healthcare resources, the care provider charged with caring for the athletes may be underqualified 24 or stretched too thin.

Researchers, university officials, athletics programs, and policy makers are dedicating more time and resources to addressing the prevalence and care of collegiate athletes' mental health concerns. 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 Recent research showed athletic administrators were willing to hire sport psychology professionals to aide collegiate athletes enhance on-field performance, as well as career and personal development. 29 Athletic administrators' knowledge and personal preferences can directly impact the type of mental health professional hired or contracted to counsel athletes. 30 , 31 It is important to note that mental health services offered to collegiate athletes may be performed by a variety of professionals including sport psychologists, sport psychology consultants, licensed clinical social workers, psychiatrists, psychiatric mental health nurses, licensed mental health counselors, mental skills trainers, mental resilience specialists, and even primary care physicians trained specifically to manage mental health disorders. Such professionals possess varied educational and training backgrounds and may provide highly individualized support and treatment or more generalized team support. For instance, sport psychologists usually hold a doctoral degree accredited by the American Psychological Association and are trained to work with collegiate athletes on mental health related issues, including depression, anxiety, or substance abuse. On the other hand, sport psychology consultants often hold a master's degree, are certified in sport psychology, and are trained to work with collegiate athletes on athletic performance related issues (AASP). 8 , 32 , 33

A systematic look at how key stakeholders in athletes' lives affect mental health services utilization (MHSU) is missing from this area of research. Likewise, the literature is incomplete regarding the beliefs collegiate student-athletes hold regarding using mental health services and how these views shape their behaviors. Together, the personal characteristics, attitudes, and beliefs of the athletes and stakeholders may ultimately influence mental health service utilization and, subsequently, improved mental health outcomes in the collegiate athlete population. The aims of this systematic review were to (1) analyze existing literature concerning collegiate athletes' use of mental health services by summarizing conceptualizations and operationalizations of mental health services in current literature and (2) understand the facilitators of and barriers to use of mental health services by collegiate athletes through a socio-ecological lens.

2.1. Search strategy

The current systematic review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Studies were identified through the use of 5 databases: Academic Search Complete; ERIC; Health Source: Nursing/Academic Addition; PubMed; and PsychINFO. 34 , 35 The literature search was limited to English-language, peer-reviewed journal articles published between January 2005 and December 2016 concerning U.S. collegiate athletes. The 11-year timeframe studied was selected because a historical picture of athletes' MHSU was not the focus of current study and not until 2013 did the NCAA host its first-ever Mental Health Task Force. 36 Non-U.S. collegiate and university athletes may interpret mental health treatment differently compared to U.S. collegiate and university athletes. World Health Organization statistics demonstrate the U.S. carries a higher depression burden than Australia, the UK, and parts of Asia 37 and, not until 2012 were private U.S. health insurers required to cover patients' mental health services. 38 Searches were constrained to the following key terms: college athlete , collegiate athlete , college student athlete , and collegiate student athlete paired (using the Boolean “AND” function) with counseling , counseling assistance , counseling services , counselor treatment , mental health assistance , mental health care , mental health services , mental health treatment , psychological health assistance , psychological care , psychological health services , and psychological treatment . Searching the 5 databases rendered 538 articles and 142 duplicates were removed.

2.2. Selection process

The following inclusion criterion were used for article selection: (a) published between January 2005 and December 2016, (b) contained an analysis of original data (i.e., did not pertain to a systematic review, meta-analysis, or secondary data analysis), (c) included the study population of interest (i.e., U.S. collegiate athletes and key stakeholders in the athletes' lives), and (d) addressed some form of a conceptualization and operationalization of MHSU (e.g., use of or a referral made to a mental health services provider). The authors chose to include studies with samples of individuals who work with or support the collegiate athletes and are known to influence the health decision-making of collegiate athletes, such as coaches, parents, athletic trainers, and sports administrators to reflect components of the socio-ecological framework. 23 , 39 Following the elimination of duplicates, 396 articles were first screened to ensure they contained original data; 135 were eliminated. Studies not pertaining to U.S. collegiate athletes were excluded ( n  = 105). Next, 126 articles without a conceptualization or operationalization of collegiate athletes' MHSU and 3 single case studies were eliminated, which resulted in 27 articles for consideration for the final sample.

Next, a “hand search” was conducted on the references of the 27 articles pulled to ensure thorough coverage. Sixty-seven articles were obtained through the hand literature search and were reviewed. Subsequently, 94 articles were reviewed by the authors and 73 were eliminated using the same criterion mentioned above ( Fig. 1 ). Thus, 21 articles were included for the final analysis, as agreed upon by all authors.

Flow of article assessment from initial selection to final inclusion.

3.1. Article analysis

The first and second authors analyzed 5 randomly selected articles from the final pool of 21 articles to obtain agreement on the manner in which articles were categorized and analyzed. The remaining articles were divided between the first and second authors for initial analysis. All authors reviewed and agreed upon the contents included in the 2 extraction tables. As recorded in Table 1 , the authors reviewed and discussed each study's objectives, methods, results, and discussion points, as well as each study's conceptualization and operationalization of MHSU. For the purpose of this systematic review, past, current, or intended use of MHSU; referrals made to mental health and/or sport psychology services; and any use of measurement tools were analyzed and recorded.

Table 1

Description of studies included in the review.

Note: Table 1 was arranged alphabetically by author clustered within each stakeholder (see Table 2 ) per the socio-ecological framework.

Abbreviations: D-I = Division 1; D-II = Division 2; D-III = Division 3; MHSU = mental health services utilization; NAIA = National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics; NCAA = National Collegiate Athletic Association; NJCAA = National Junior College Athletic Association; NSCAA = National Soccer Coaches Association of America.

To mirror the socio-ecological framework, facilitators and barriers to athletes' MHSU were assessed ( Table 2 ). Factors that promoted collegiate athletes' positive attitudes toward, willingness to seek, and willingness to utilize mental health services were considered facilitators to MHSU. Likewise, factors that impeded collegiate athletes' MHSU by discouraging the athlete, for instance, through negative attitudes or beliefs by coaches that athletes should remain “tough”, were considered barriers. Facilitators and barriers were arranged in order of the stakeholders' proximity to the athlete. 40 In other words, individuals and groups who directly affect the athlete were placed closer to the athlete and those with more diffuse influence placed further from the athlete. Parents, teammates, and coaches were conceptually placed nearer the athlete, as they interact with the athlete regularly. Subsequently, athletes' facilitators of and barriers to MHSU were analyzed followed by the parents', team(mates)', coaches', athletic trainers', and administrators' influence and organizational or environmental factors ( Table 2 ).

Table 2

Stakeholders assessed as facilitators of or barriers to athletes' mental health services utilization, or both.

Note: “✓” and “–” indicate presence and non-presence of the barrier or facilitator, respectively.

Abbreviations: D-I = Division 1; NCAA = National Collegiate Athletic Association.

Contrastingly, athletic administrators influence the collegiate athlete through policy, but less so via interpersonal interaction. Facilitators and barriers were further sorted per stakeholders' personal characteristics; attitudes and opinions; and past behaviors. Characteristics of the organization environment surrounding the athlete were also analyzed and listed either as a facilitator or barrier. Analyses and creation of tables were completed through an iterative process with all authors engaged in multiple rounds of analysis through discussion, refining, and critiquing, before consensus was reached.

3.2. Study characteristics

A total of 21 published manuscripts describing results of 19 unique studies were originally published in 12 different journals. All 19 studies were cross-sectional in nature. Fifteen studies were conducted using quantitative survey methodology, 2 studies involved qualitative interview analysis, and 4 studies employed mixed methods ( Table 1 ).

The populations of primary interest in these studies were collegiate athletes ( n  = 11); coaches at all levels (i.e., head, associate, assistant) ( n  = 4); athletic trainers ( n  = 3); and athletic administrators at all levels (i.e., director, associate, assistant) ( n  = 3). Eight studies included NCAA D-I athlete participants, 2 included NCAA D-II athlete participants, 2 included D-III athletes (where D-I, D-II, and D-III indicate Division 1, 2, and 3 respectively), and only 1 study included National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) athlete participants. Four studies examined athlete participants from a combination of NCAA or NAIA programs and authors of just 1 study did not further classify athlete participants beyond “former or current” NCAA female athletes. 41 Authors of 1 paper did not provide more information on their athlete participants other than general NCAA athletics participation. 41 One study included high school athletes as a comparison group 42 and another compared collegiate athletes with non-athlete college students. 43 Athlete and coach participants represented a wide array of sports including basketball, crew, football, soccer, tennis, track and field, etc . Athletic trainers were the subjects of 3 studies in this review and primarily represented NCAA D-I athletic program athletic trainers. 44 , 45 , 46 Importantly, none of the studies included simultaneously examined collegiate athletes and members of a related population (e.g., coaches or athletic trainers) ( Table 1 ).

3.3. Conceptualization and operationalization of MHSU

Authors of the 21 papers included in this review conceptualized collegiate athlete MHSU with considerable variability ( Table 1 ). Most articles conceptualized athletes' MHSU as the athlete receiving services from a sport psychology professional or consultant. 29 , 30 , 31 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 Four of this subgroup of papers clearly delineated sport psychologists from other sport psychology professionals in conceptualizing MHSU. 42 , 45 , 46 , 47 However, authors of other articles conceptualized collegiate athlete MHSU as services received from wide range of providers including a general counseling services provider or a professional other than a traditional mental health services provider, such as an athletic trainer, physician, sports medicine personnel, nutritionist and dietician, or eating disorder specialist. 53 , 54 , 55 Three research papers viewed athletes' MHSU very generally as counseling and/or professional psychological assistance. 55 , 56 , 57 Four papers further specified sport psychology consulting or care as “mental skills training” or “mental training”. 29 , 30 , 31 , 50 The author of only 1 study in this review chose to explore how athlete participants themselves “conceptualize mental illness when not given any cues” (p. 164). 58

Of 21 articles reviewed, MHSU was operationalized as (1) athletes' and stakeholders' past, current, or intended MHSU and (2) stakeholders' referral of athletes to mental health services. For example, some authors asked athlete respondents if they used sports psychology services in the past and if so, whether or not they found services to be helpful 42 or intended to use these services in the future. 48 O'Connor and colleagues 53 reported on athletes' comfort with seeking mental health assistance from athletic trainers. Seven studies operationalized MHSU as a coach or athletic trainer encouraging use of or referring symptomatic athletes to mental health care providers in the past. 44 , 45 , 46 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 54 Zakrajsek and colleagues' studies 51 , 52 explored whether or not coaches would be willing to refer one of their athletes to a mental health services provider. Athletic administrators and directors were not asked to report on their referral of athletes to mental health services, likely due to the distal nature of administrators and directors to athletes. 29 , 30 , 31

Over half ( n  = 11) of the studies reviewed employed previously validated measurement tools to assess athletes' perceptions of, attitudes toward, and preferences concerning MHSU, as well as relevant psychosocial phenomenon. To examine athletes' and stakeholders' views of counseling or sport psychology, the Sport Psychology Attitudes–Revised Form, 59 Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale, 58 , 60 or the Expectations About Counseling–Brief Form were used. 61 Some researchers also examined the concepts related to MHSU and their associations with actual behaviors of MHSU, such as personality identity, athletic identity, or gender role conflict ( Table 1 ).

3.4. Facilitators of and barriers to mental health services

A number of attributes emerged as facilitators of and barriers to collegiate athletes' MHSU at the individual level ( Table 2 ). Athletes possess personal characteristics, attitudes, and opinions toward MHSU, and have enacted past behaviors that further describe the facilitator and barriers. Overall, athletes reported a number of attitudes toward and opinions potentially facilitating or barring their MHSU, but only a few personal characteristics (i.e., gender, gender role or identity adherence, and sport type) and 1 behavior (i.e., prior experience with mental health services 49 ) that could influence MHSU intentions. More specifically, males over females, 42 , 47 , 49 , 56 and males with a strong adherence to masculine ideas, 55 , 56 were less likely to report a willingness to seek mental health or sports psychology services. Collegiate athletes' desire to work with a sport psychologist or mental health services provider with particular personal characteristics; 47 , 48 perceptions of personal need for and expectations around receiving mental health services; 26 , 51 and (un)willingness to seek services 49 , 57 were examined.

Study results showed stakeholders such as athletes' parents, coaches, teammates, athletic trainers, administrators, and the collegiate sporting environment facilitate or inhibit these athletes' attitudes and opinions and behavior toward MHSU ( Table 2 ). For example, coaches and administrators hold expectations of what mental health or sport psychology consulting can do for athletes and some reported negative perceptions of athletes who utilized mental health services. Two studies found coaches' desire to maintain control over team dynamics seemed to override their willingness to employ sport psychology or mental health services with their team. 51 , 54 However, a few studies demonstrated a lack of stigma or supportive attitude toward team or individual athletes' MHSU could facilitate MHSU. Some coaches discussed in these studies reported utilizing mental health services for their team, which likely exposed athletes to the practice and benefits of MHSU.

The influence of parents and teammates and how their role can influence the athlete by referring him or her to the appropriate mental health service provider was mentioned in only 1 article. 41 Likewise, athletic trainers, the focus of 3 studies in this review, 44 , 45 , 46 were willing overall to refer athletes to sport psychology services, made service referrals, and many believed the presence of a sport psychology consultant on staff in an athletic department to be helpful to the athletes. Unfortunately, some athletic trainers surveyed in the study by Clement et al. 44 reported they lacked a formal referral process inside their athletic department. Athletic administrators and directors wield considerable control over access to and type of mental health services provided to their student athletes. Yet, some administrators report an inability—whether real or imagined—to provide collegiate athletes with dedicated mental health services geared toward the athlete. Some administrators believe community or general counseling, already offered at the university, is sufficient for sport-related mental health concerns. However, some administrators report support for and a willingness to refer athletes to a sport psychology professional. Overall, the organizational structure of the athletic program and the characteristics, attitudes, opinions, and behaviors of those close to the athlete will impact whether an athlete chooses to utilize mental health services.

Analyses demonstrate a number of facilitators and barriers (1) crosscut athlete status and stakeholder type and (2) functioned as facilitators in some cases, but as barriers in others. Females were, overall, more in favor of and acted positively toward use of mental health services. Specifically, female athletes were found to be more willing to seek help from a mental health services professional and female coaches and athletic trainers were more likely to refer the athlete for assistance. Male gender and stronger male gender identity was associated with less willingness to seek or refer mental health care assistance. Interestingly, however, Barnard's recent research showed collegiate athletes were more accepting of others with mental illness compared to their non-athlete counterparts. 58 Athletes' and coaches' past experience with mental health or sport psychology consulting facilitated their willingness to use such services in the future, granted the experience was positive; negative past experiences functioned as barriers. Attitudes toward referring athletes to mental health or sports psychology services emerged as a prominent facilitator and barrier for coaches, athletic trainers, and administrators. While some athletes and stakeholders were less favorable toward sports psychology or mental health counseling, several papers described parents', teammates', coaches', and athletic trainers' past referral to a mental health professional. Such referrals facilitated the athletes' MHSU.

4. Discussion

For as much as is known regarding the existence of mental health issues among collegiate student athletes, the literature currently lacks a complete picture of collegiate athletes' utilization of mental health services. The goals of the present review were to document the literature in the over the past 11 years concerning collegiate athletes' utilization of mental health services and to summarize the facilitators and barriers associated with the use of mental health services by members of this population. Assessments were situated within a socio-ecological framework to consider the unique context in which collegiate athletes study and perform and to obtain a comprehensive view of how individuals' attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors influence and are influenced by external circumstances. 19 , 62 The findings from this systematic review show athletes are at least somewhat willing to seek professional counseling or therapeutic care for mental health concerns, but face numerous personal barriers, as well as interpersonal and environmental barriers in doing so.

Articles in this study demonstrate the variability of conceptualizations and operationalizations of MHSU, which makes comparing the results across studies difficult. Some authors conceptualized MHSU as athletes seeking and then choosing care primarily from mental health counselors or sport psychology consultants. 41 , 43 , 47 , 48 , 55 , 57 However, other authors defined athletes' MHSU as a stakeholders' referral or willingness to make a mental health services referral. 44 , 45 , 46 , 54 Such variability demonstrates a lack of conceptual clarity regarding the definition of athletes' MHSU, which should include the type of service provider, format, and financer (e.g., student health insurance, athletic department, etc .). Operationalizing athletes' MHSU is likely difficult due to the diversity and lack of knowledge of the fields of counseling and psychology with regard to professionals' educational backgrounds and expertise. As mentioned, members of several professions can and do treat or support collegiate athletes for mental health-related concerns, but their services should not be considered equal. Extant literature demonstrates that athletic administrators may be aware that their athletes need deepened sport psychology-type services, but be unclear as to which sport psychology professionals to hire to fulfill the needs of their collegiate athletes. Unfortunately, some administrators continue to hire and create earning structures for sport psychologists based on their personal philosophies surrounding MHSU. 3 , 18

Measurement of MHSU in recent literature is also inconsistent with authors utilizing previously validated tools, creating their own tools (either not validated or validated inside their article), or using a combination of both. Subsequently, it is simultaneously challenging to assess when, where, how, and why collegiate athletes seek and use mental health services and compare advances in this research area. Future studies should seek to create and validate more measurement tools to study college athletes' MHSU. Likewise, more research is needed into the strength of a potential relationship between willingness to use and actual use of sports psychology or mental health consulting services. Use willingness or intentions are not measurement proxies for athletes' actual MHSU.

While athletes could potentially alter their own attitudes toward and expectations of seeking and receiving sports psychology or mental health services counseling, some facilitators and barriers are beyond the student athletes' control. First, a large body of research demonstrates the attitudes and opinions of leaders often become cultural norms influencing the actions of those within their sphere of influence. Subsequently, to further encourage athletes to seek the assistance of sports psychologists or counselors, the norms surrounding MHSU need to be changed. Second, institutionally, athletic administrators should seek to (re)allocate funds to support the development or furthering of sports psychology consulting programs and staffing. While athletic administrators are more distal stakeholders in the lives of athletes, they assert profound influence over athletic programmatic structure. Athletic administrators should reassess metrics of success for the sport psychologist beyond athletes performing better on the field. On-field performance improvement is certainly key, but the overall betterment of athletes' mental health status and well-being is of utmost importance.

Lopez and Levy 47 and Lubker et al. 48 both found collegiate athletes prefer counselors with a sports background and report being more likely to utilize mental health services when their preference can be or is met. While it is important to aim for patient–counselor concordance (i.e., with regard to gender, race, background, etc .) on as many dimensions as possible, perhaps stakeholders should more often consider the acuity of an athlete's mental health concern. Likewise, stakeholders surrounding the athlete should encourage the athlete willing to utilize mental health service to be open to various counseling approaches and formats, given availability of athletic department or team resources.

Review of the current literature on collegiate athletes and MHSU suggests the need for further analysis concerning the influence various stakeholders have—formally or informally—on collegiate athletes. None of the studies included in this systematic review examined sport psychologists' or mental health counselors' perspectives on their encounters with collegiate athletes and what specific practices enable successful treatment of their clients. Only 3 studies in the current review specifically studied the perceptions of athletic trainers who care for only college athletes. 44 , 45 , 46 Athletic trainers are known to influence athletes with regard to health behavior decision-making 63 and thus warrant further research attention. Likewise, recent research shows teammates can provide social support to injured teammates and aid them in their recovery process. 64

Subsequently, future research should seek to examine facilitators of and barriers to collegiate athletes' MHSU using a more dyadic approach, such that athletes and stakeholder perceptions and behaviors are measured in tandem. In other words, while it is helpful to explore stakeholders' opinions on various mental health services useful for athletes, athletes may be better served by understanding how various implicit and explicit messages communicated by stakeholders impact athletes actual MHSU. Future studies may also consider developing and evaluating effective intervention strategies to increase MHSU among college athletes.

The systematic review presented here poses a few noteworthy limitations. First, the literature search was limited mostly to published articles pertaining to U.S. collegiate athletes and approaches to mental health care vary widely from country to country. Secondly, this systematic review, while conducted in a rigorous manner, is not a meta-analysis. A relatively small number of studies were assessed and, due to the variant nature of how study researchers defined and measured MHSU, the effect of an individual facilitator or barrier in predicting MHSU could not be quantified. The studies included in this systematic review were all cross-sectional in nature, further limiting causal analysis related to MHSU. Finally, only studies concerning collegiate athletes, as well as key stakeholders who influence these athletes were included in this review. A more liberal inclusion criterion concerning study sample characteristics was employed: studies pertaining to all levels of collegiate athletics play, from D-I to junior college were included. However, comparisons across these various NCAA groups with regard to MHSU could not be made due to a small number of studies in each group.

5. Conclusion

Twenty-one articles concerning 19 unique studies on collegiate athletes' MHSU were systematically reviewed and analyzed. Study findings shed light on the need for further resources dedicated to awareness and expansion of mental health services geared toward serving the collegiate athlete. NCAA athletes not only face difficulties surrounding the transition to adulthood and college studies, but the pressure to remain in peak physical and mental condition to their athletic performance. This review demonstrates the necessity for further, more rigorous research into collegiate athletes' MHSU that employs consistent conceptualizations of mental health services utilization, valid and reliable measurement tools, and improved sample quality. Both the athlete and the culture surrounding the athlete could facilitate or hamper an athlete's use of sport psychology and related mental health services. Socio-ecologically, the norms surrounding MHSU must evolve and stakeholders, specifically coaches and administrators called on to view “success” of sport psychology more dynamically. Continued research efforts are needed through deepened partnerships with the NCAA, athletic administrators, coaches, and other stakeholders to further change the norms surrounding collegiate athletes' MHSU, and ultimately, to improve mental health and well-being of the 460,000+ athletes engaged in NCAA athletics.

Authors' contributions

JY conceived of the study; JJM derived article summary tables, collected and analyzed the articles, and drafted the initial manuscript; KAC collected and analyzed the articles. All authors provided manuscript draft content and completed numerous revisions. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript, and agree with the order of presentation of the authors.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Peer review under responsibility of Shanghai University of Sport.

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A Study between Sports Participation and Academic Performance

The purpose of this study was to analyse the effect that participating in extracurricular sporting activities has on academic performance among students in higher education. Prior research on this topic has yielded contradictory results: while some authors find a positive effect of sports participation on academic outcomes, others report a negative impact. Accordingly, the authors seek to provide a more rounded understanding of these mixed findings. There was a positive significant relationship between sports participation and academic performance. Implications and recommendations on how to improve academic performance of athletes were discussed in the study.

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The purpose of this study was to address the gap in research related to whether measures of participation (intensity and breadth) demonstrated a relationship with academic achievement for 11th grade student athletes (N=128) in a rural Midwestern high school. Anonymous athletic participation and achievement data from 2015-2017 was obtained from the school’s archive and analyzed by correlation, hierarchical regression, and one-way ANOVA. Data derived from statistical analyses demonstrated two outcomes regarding sport participation, ACT, and GPA: (a) Intensity demonstrated no statistical significance to student achievement measured by ACT, however intensity demonstrated a statistically significant relationship to cumulative GPA (p &lt; .05), and (b) ANOVA analysis demonstrated statistically significant differences in breadth and GPA (p &lt; .01) between one sport athletes and three sport athletes. Three sport athletes had statistically significantly higher GPAs than one sport athletes ...

Sports have become a major business and attraction for the Ghanaian public and it is not surprising, therefore, that the popularity of professionals has been reflected in the sports programme of senior high schools. The pressure to win is felt by most senior high school coaches and heads of schools. It is therefore not surprising that a conflict has developed between the academic and sports communities on many of the nation’s school. While a number of researchers studied sports participation and academic performance in college (Ferris & Finster, 2004; Gaston-Gayles, 2005), few studies addressed the relationship between academics and sports participation at the high school level. Similarly, these studies have focused on the comparison of non-athletes to athletes; with respect to a variety of dependent variables (Yiannakis and Melnick, 2001). The effect of participation on athletics, with respect to its direct effect on the participants themselves, has not been investigated in the literature. Taras (2005) conducted a review of studies on younger students and the effect that physical activity had on school performance.

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Research aims to help secondary school athletic trainers manage conflict

by Casey Kelly, University of Maine

When a youth athlete suffers an injury in a game or practice, the decision about when they're ready to return to their workout routine and ultimately to the field or court should be a collaborative decision between medical professionals, the athlete themselves and their family.

For high school athletes, and increasingly those who play middle school sports, the first opinion after an injury frequently comes from an athletic trainer, who also will be involved in the decision about when the young person is ready to resume physical activity. But athletic trainers often face pressure from coaches or others involved in youth sports to get kids back in the game before their body has fully healed.

Alicia Lacy knows this from experience. An assistant professor of athletic training at the University of Maine, Lacy's research focuses on organizational-professional conflict in the secondary school athletic training setting. She also has firsthand knowledge of the pressure these health care providers face from coaches or other youth sports officials, since before becoming a researcher and professor, she worked as a high school athletic trainer while pursuing her master's degree at the University of Connecticut.

"I remember one situation in particular, where there was a star quarterback injured in a game, and the coach, in the heat of the moment on the sidelines, just berated me: 'You don't know anything! You're not a doctor! He needs to go back in!'" Lacy said. "It was this pivotal moment in my career, where I thought, 'Wow, this shouldn't be happening.'"

Since coming to UMaine in 2021 after earning her Ph.D. at UConn and completing a postdoctoral research fellowship at A.T. Still University, Lacy has published several journal articles based on her dissertation research.

One study in the Journal of Athletic Training examined how athletic trainers manage conflict when it comes to return-to-sport decisions.

Based on 16 interviews with current secondary school athletic trainers, the research found that effective communication, professional relationships, stakeholder education and professional experience are all important strategies and factors that athletic trainers rely upon when facing difficult decisions in working with patients or athletes.

"The field is moving in a really positive direction, but there are still people out there who don't know the role of an athletic trainer. It's not the same as personal training or strength and conditioning. So part of it is just educating stakeholders about the fact that athletic trainers are health care professionals," Lacy said.

She adds that several of the athletic trainers interviewed for the study talked about educating coaches and others about prognosis and return-to-play timelines as well.

"Is it a week? Two weeks? A month? A lot of our participants talked about the importance of communicating effectively and transparently with coaches, 'This is where the athlete is at now. This is what we're doing with them. We're going to keep doing this.' And just continuing to update," Lacy said.

"That helps coaches and other stakeholders understand the athletic training profession and what athletic trainers can and can't do."

Lacy's research fills a critical gap in the literature on the professional concerns of athletic trainers. Most previous studies and anecdotal information about workplace conflicts in the field have focused on the collegiate level.

However, as Lacy notes, athletic trainers working in K-12 settings have fewer resources and by and large have to manage conflict without support from other medical professionals .

"You really are on an island. Most of the time you're the only athletic trainer if not the only person with medical training," she said.

"And in many situations, secondary school athletic trainers are hired by, work closely with, and report to athletic directors and coaches, which inherently creates tension due to competing interests."

In addition, several states face shortages of certified athletic trainers. In Maine, for example, just 37% of high schools have a full-time athletic trainer, while the rest have only part-time coverage or no coverage at all.

"It's a big problem in a state like Maine, where we only have three hospitals designated as trauma centers and none north of Bangor," Lacy said.

"If a student athlete suffers a serious injury or medical event in a rural area, and there's no athletic trainer on site, the response time is going to be slower and the ability to get them the treatment they need is going to be delayed."

Lacy said the coach who yelled at her on the sideline later apologized and they patched things up. Still, she's hopeful that her research will help future secondary school athletic trainers when they face conflict in the workplace.

"I think helping athletic trainers feel supported is an important step in filling these critical positions in our communities and schools," she said.

Journal information: Journal of Athletic Training

Provided by University of Maine

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