research paper about the effect of social media in students

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Social media influence on students’ knowledge sharing and learning: an empirical study.

1. Introduction

• To investigate the extent to which document exchange facilitates knowledge sharing among students.
• To examine the relationship between knowledge formation and knowledge sharing.
• To investigate the impact of student engagement on knowledge sharing in educational settings.
• To explore the relationship between reputation and learning performance among students.

2. Literature Review

2.1. document exchange’s impact on knowledge sharing, 2.2. knowledge formation’s impact on knowledge sharing, 2.3. student engagement impact on knowledge sharing, 2.4. impact of reputation on the performance of learning.

3. Research Methodology

3.1. instrumentation, 3.2. data collection techniques and steps, 3.3. common method bias or variance, 4. results and analysis, 4.1. reliability, 4.2. respondents profile, 4.3. exploratory factor analysis, 4.4. confirmatory factor analysis, 4.5. path diagram, 4.6. structural equation model, 4.7. interpretation for structural equation model, 5. discussion and implications, 6. conclusions, implication for future research, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Sivakumar, A.; Jayasingh, S.; Shaik, S. Social Media Influence on Students’ Knowledge Sharing and Learning: An Empirical Study. Educ. Sci. 2023 , 13 , 745. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13070745

Sivakumar A, Jayasingh S, Shaik S. Social Media Influence on Students’ Knowledge Sharing and Learning: An Empirical Study. Education Sciences . 2023; 13(7):745. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13070745

Sivakumar, Arunkumar, Sudarsan Jayasingh, and Shahenaz Shaik. 2023. "Social Media Influence on Students’ Knowledge Sharing and Learning: An Empirical Study" Education Sciences 13, no. 7: 745. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13070745

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Use of Social Media in Student Learning and Its Effect on Academic Performance

• First Online: 18 May 2021

Cite this chapter

• G. D. T. D. Chandrasiri 3 &
• S. M. Samarasinghe 3  

Part of the book series: Future of Business and Finance ((FBF))

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With the advancement of the Internet, social media have become an integral part of our lives, impacting on every aspect of society, and especially in higher education. Thus, understanding the impact of social media on students’ academic performance is inevitable. Social media in higher education has been researched by many, but the impact on students’ academic performance has not been addressed sufficiently, particularly in Sri Lanka. Hence, the objective of this study is to examine the impact of social media on students’ academic performance. A comprehensive model has been formulated and validated using data collected from 320 undergraduates. The measurement model analysis provides adequate construct validity and reliability, and the structural model provides a good model fit. Of the ten hypotheses, nine are supported. The findings reveal that integrating social media in teaching and learning can assist in enhancing students’ academic performance.

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Chandrasiri, G.D.T.D., Samarasinghe, S.M. (2021). Use of Social Media in Student Learning and Its Effect on Academic Performance. In: Dhiman, S., Samaratunge, R. (eds) New Horizons in Management, Leadership and Sustainability. Future of Business and Finance. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62171-1_17

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Social media usage and students’ social anxiety, loneliness and well-being: does digital mindfulness-based intervention effectively work?

BMC Psychology volume  11 , Article number:  362 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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The increasing integration of digital technologies into daily life has spurred a growing body of research in the field of digital psychology. This research has shed light on the potential benefits and drawbacks of digital technologies for mental health and well-being. However, the intricate relationship between technology and psychology remains largely unexplored.

This study aimed to investigate the impact of mindfulness-based mobile apps on university students' anxiety, loneliness, and well-being. Additionally, it sought to explore participants' perceptions of the addictiveness of these apps.

The research utilized a multi-phase approach, encompassing a correlational research method, a pretest–posttest randomized controlled trial, and a qualitative case study. Participants were segmented into three subsets: correlations ( n  = 300), treatment ( n  = 60), and qualitative ( n  = 20). Data were gathered from various sources, including the social anxiety scale, well-being scale, social media use integration scale, and an interview checklist. Quantitative data was analyzed using Pearson correlation, multiple regression, and t-tests, while qualitative data underwent thematic analysis.

The study uncovered a significant correlation between social media use and the variables under investigation. Moreover, the treatment involving mindfulness-based mobile apps led to a reduction in students' anxiety and an enhancement of their well-being. Notably, participants held various positive perceptions regarding the use of these apps.

Implications

The findings of this research hold both theoretical and practical significance for the field of digital psychology. They provide insight into the potential of mindfulness-based mobile apps to positively impact university students' mental health and well-being. Additionally, the study underscores the need for further exploration of the intricate dynamics between technology and psychology in an increasingly digital world.

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Introduction

The field of digital psychology is undergoing rapid evolution, navigating the intricate intersection of psychology and technology to elucidate the profound impact of digital technologies on human behavior, cognition, and emotions [ 1 , 2 ]. With digital technologies becoming increasingly ingrained in our daily lives, researchers are embarking on a journey to explore the multifaceted implications they bear for mental health and overall well-being. Within the realm of digital psychology, a diverse array of topics has captured the attention of investigators, encompassing the innovative use of technology for psychological interventions like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) [ 1 , 2 ]. Furthermore, scrutiny has extended to the influence of social media on mental health, unveiling the potential for excessive social media use to contribute to feelings of anxiety and loneliness [ 3 , 4 ].

The exploration of digital psychology has also delved into the impact of video games on cognitive and emotional faculties, with some studies suggesting that specific genres of video games have the potential to enhance attention and problem-solving skills [ 5 , 6 ]. However, concerns surrounding video game addiction and the potential influence of violent video games on aggressive behavior have been the subject of extensive investigation [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. The ubiquity of digital technologies in our daily existence has ignited a burgeoning interest in the domain of digital psychology. While research in this domain has yielded valuable insights into the prospective benefits and hazards of digital technologies for mental health and well-being, there remains a vast expanse of knowledge yet to be uncovered regarding the intricate interplay between technology and psychology. Specifically, there is a compelling need for an extensive body of research aimed at comprehending the enduring impacts of digital technologies on cognitive, emotional, and social functionality. Furthermore, it is crucial to decipher how these effects may vary among diverse demographic groups.

One particularly promising avenue of research within digital psychology is the integration of mindfulness-based mobile applications, which has shown considerable potential in alleviating symptoms of anxiety and loneliness. These applications typically offer guided meditation, breathing exercises, and various mindfulness practices that are readily accessible via mobile devices [ 2 ]. Their accessibility and user-friendly nature render them an appealing resource for individuals seeking to enhance their mental well-being without the need for traditional face-to-face therapy [ 3 , 6 ].

In the contemporary landscape of higher education, university students are exposed to the pervasive influence of social media, which has the potential to induce negative psychological consequences such as heightened social anxiety and increased feelings of loneliness. The omnipresence of social media platforms can foster a sense of comparison, social pressure, and disconnection among undergraduate students, amplifying the challenges they already face. Given these circumstances, there is a compelling need to explore interventions that can counteract these adverse impacts, and mindfulness-based interventions emerge as a promising avenue for consideration.

By examining the intersection of these interventions with the digital sphere, this study seeks to illuminate how Digital Mindfulness-based treatments might serve as a potent tool to mitigate the detrimental effects of social media exposure, thereby fostering a healthier psychological landscape among university students [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].

Furthermore, many of these applications provide personalized features such as progress tracking and goal setting, which enhance user engagement and motivation [ 9 ]. As the popularity of these applications continues to soar, it becomes imperative to further investigate their effectiveness across various demographic cohorts and contextual settings, as well as to identify the most potent features and interventions for fostering improvements in mental health [ 10 ].

The rationale for this study is firmly grounded in the contemporary higher education landscape, where undergraduate students navigate a myriad of challenges that may impact their mental well-being. With the pervasive integration of digital technologies into students' lives, the investigation of Digital Mindfulness-based interventions becomes not only relevant but crucial. The novelty of this study lies in its exploration of the intricate relationship between social media usage and the well-being of university students, specifically targeting social anxiety and loneliness. Moreover, it introduces an innovative approach by examining the effectiveness of digital mindfulness-based interventions in ameliorating these psychological challenges. By addressing this uncharted territory, the study not only contributes to the growing field of digital psychology but also offers valuable insights into the potential of technology-driven mindfulness interventions as a means to enhance the mental well-being of the digital-native student population. This unique blend of investigating the impact of technology on psychological well-being while simultaneously assessing the effectiveness of digital interventions positions the study at the forefront of contemporary research in the field. Given the potential benefits of digital mindfulness apps in reducing anxiety and loneliness, coupled with the distinct challenges that emerge during the undergraduate phase, this research seeks to provide invaluable insights into the perceptions and experiences of students. By delving into the perceptions of adults regarding these treatments, this study aspires to shed light on the feasibility, effectiveness, and potential limitations of digital mindfulness-based interventions for enhancing the mental health of undergraduate students in the modern digital age. Therefore, this study endeavors to address the following critical questions:

What is the relationship between social media use and symptoms of social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being among university students?

Does the use of a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention result in significant improvements in social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being in college students?

What are university students’ perspectives on the use of technology for mental health support, including the benefits and challenges of using technology for this purpose?

Review of literature

Theoretical background.

The study investigating the effects of mindfulness-based mobile apps on university students' anxiety, loneliness, and well-being in the context of social media usage draws upon a multifaceted theoretical framework. At its core, it is rooted in mindfulness theory, which emphasizes present-moment awareness and non-judgmental acceptance to alleviate stress and anxiety [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. To understand the influence of social media on students, social cognitive theory is relevant, as it explores how individuals learn from observing others in their social networks. Additionally, social comparison theory informs the study by shedding light on how students may constantly compare themselves to others on social media, potentially leading to feelings of loneliness and social anxiety [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. The study also taps into addiction and compulsive behavior theories to comprehend the perceived addictiveness of mindfulness-based mobile apps. Technology acceptance models (TAM) help in understanding user acceptance and perceptions of these apps. Moreover, the study aligns with principles of positive psychology by aiming to enhance well-being and reduce anxiety and loneliness, which are central concerns in this field. Finally, media effects theories, like cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory, inform the exploration of how social media use affects students' mental health and well-being [ 13 ]. This multifaceted theoretical approach provides a comprehensive foundation for unraveling the intricate relationship between technology, psychology, and well-being in the digital age, offering a well-rounded perspective on the research questions at hand [ 12 , 13 ].

Social media and symptoms of mental health

The use of social media has become increasingly prevalent among university students, and with it comes growing concern about its potential impact on mental health and well-being. Specifically, research has focused on the relationship between social media use and symptoms of social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being among university students. The majority of studies focused on the relationship between social media use and symptoms of social anxiety and/or loneliness. These studies generally found that higher levels of social media use were associated with greater symptoms of social anxiety and loneliness among university students [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. For example, Schønning et al. [ 16 ] found that social media use was positively associated with symptoms of social anxiety among Chinese university students. Similarly, a study by Wang et al. [ 13 ] found that social media use was positively associated with symptoms of loneliness among Chinese university students.

Two studies focused on the relationship between social media use and well-being. One study found that higher levels of social media use were associated with lower levels of well-being among university students [ 17 ] Another study found that social media use had a curvilinear relationship with well-being, such that moderate levels of social media use were associated with higher levels of well-being, while both low and high levels of social media use were associated with lower levels of well-being [ 13 ].

The findings of this literature review suggest that social media use may be associated with greater symptoms of social anxiety and loneliness among university students. However, the relationship between social media use and well-being is less clear, with some studies suggesting a negative relationship and others suggesting a curvilinear relationship. Several additional studies have also examined this relationship. For example, a study by Kose and Dogan [ 18 ] found that social media use was negatively associated with psychological well-being among Turkish university students. Another study by Błachnio, et al., [ 19 ] found that Facebook addiction was negatively associated with self-esteem and life satisfaction among Polish university students. Similarly, Chen et al. [ 20 ] conducted a systematic review of 23 studies examining the relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes among college students. The authors concluded that social media use was generally associated with negative mental health outcomes, including loneliness, anxiety, and stress. However, they noted that the strength of this relationship varied across studies and suggested that more research was needed to better understand the mechanisms underlying this relationship. In another study, Seabrook et al. [ 21 ] conducted a systematic review of 20 studies examining the relationship between social networking sites and loneliness and anxiety. They found that social networking sites were associated with both loneliness and anxiety, but that the strength of this relationship varied across studies and depended on factors such as frequency and intensity of social networking site use and individual differences in vulnerability to mental health problems. Similarly, Tandoc Jr. et al. [ 14 ] conducted a study examining the relationship between Facebook use, envy, and depression among college students in the United States. They found that Facebook use was positively associated with envy, which in turn was positively associated with depression. They suggested that envy may be a mechanism underlying the relationship between social media use and negative mental health outcomes.

Mindfulness-based apps effect mental health

Mindfulness-based mobile apps are becoming increasingly popular as a tool for promoting mental health and wellbeing. These apps include a variety of different mindfulness-based practices, such as guided meditations, breathing exercises, and other techniques aimed at reducing stress and anxiety. While there is growing evidence that mindfulness-based interventions can be effective in promoting mental health, less is known about the effectiveness of these interventions when delivered via mobile apps. This literature review aims to synthesize the existing research on mindfulness-based mobile apps and mental health outcomes.

The majority of studies focused on the effectiveness of mindfulness-based mobile apps in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression. These studies generally found that mindfulness-based mobile apps were effective in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression in a variety of populations, including college students, adults, and individuals with chronic medical conditions [ 2 , 10 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. For example, a study by Strauss et al. [ 23 ] found that a mindfulness-based mobile app was effective in reducing stress and improving coping skills in a sample of healthcare workers. Similarly, a study by Lomas et al. [ 24 ] found that a mindfulness-based mobile app was effective in reducing stress and improving resilience in a sample of university students. In addition to examining the effectiveness of mindfulness-based mobile apps, several studies explored the factors that influence user engagement and adherence to these interventions. For example, a study by Valinskas et al. [ 25 ] that users who were using the app for more than 24 days and had at least 12 active days during that time had 3.463 (95% CI 1.142–11.93) and 2.644 (95% CI 1.024–7.127) times higher chances to reduce their DASS-21 subdomain scores of depression and anxiety, respectively. Another study by Linardon, et al. [ 22 ] found that interventions that were more interactive and personalized were more effective in promoting user engagement and adherence.

Some studies also explored the effectiveness of mindfulness-based mobile apps in addressing other mental health conditions beyond anxiety and depression. For example, a study by Wahbeh et al. [ 10 ] found that a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention was effective in reducing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a sample of veterans. Similarly, a study by Biegel et al. [ 26 ] found that a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention was effective in reducing symptoms of ADHD in a sample of adolescents.

The use of technology for mental health support

The utilization of technology for the provision of mental health support has gained increasing prominence within the context of university students, prompting a burgeoning interest in comprehending their encounters and viewpoints. Related inquiries have been undertaken in diverse geographical regions, including the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom. Predominantly, these investigations have centered on the advantages and obstacles inherent in employing technology for mental health support. Generally, these inquiries have ascertained that technology is perceived as a convenient and readily accessible modality for accessing mental health support services among university students [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. For instance, Birnbaum et al. [ 27 ] conducted a study revealing that college students in the United States exhibited a willingness to engage with mental health applications to manage their stress and anxiety. Nevertheless, certain studies have also discerned impediments associated with the adoption of technology for mental health support, encompassing apprehensions regarding privacy and confidentiality [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ], concerns about the quality and dependability of information [ 29 ], and challenges related to navigating and effectively utilizing mental health applications [ 30 ].

Additionally, two investigations have focused their attention on delineating the determinants influencing the utilization of technology for mental health support among university students. These studies have identified an array of factors exerting an influence over students' engagement with technology for mental health support, encompassing individual attributes (e.g., mental health literacy, technological attitudes) [ 31 ], societal influences (e.g., stigma, peer support) [ 31 ], and environmental considerations (e.g., technology availability, access to mental health services). The cumulative insights garnered from this comprehensive literature review underscore the potential of technology as a convenient and accessible avenue for accessing mental health support among university students. However, it is essential to acknowledge that complexities and multifaceted dynamics underlie the factors influencing its utilization, and an array of challenges remain associated with its application in this context.

Likewise, a study conducted by Kern et al. [ 32 ] documented that 23.8% of users reported experiencing a positive impact on their mental health through the use of mental health applications. Notably, individuals who had received mental health services within the past 12 months exhibited a significantly higher propensity to embrace mental health apps in comparison to those who had not accessed such services. The allure of convenience, immediate availability, and confidentiality emerged as prevalent factors driving interest in Mental Health Apps (MHAs).

Furthermore, a study conducted by Free et al. [ 33 ] unveiled the unsurprising proliferation of numerous mobile applications designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring, and management of health conditions, albeit with varying levels of efficacy. Similarly, research by Brindal et al. [ 34 ] found that participants who had intermittent access to a smartphone app over a 4-week trial period demonstrated notable enhancements in indicators of emotional well-being. This broader observation suggests that uncomplicated and easily accessible solutions can yield substantial improvements in overall well-being. In addition, a study by Karyotaki et al. [ 35 ] reported the effectiveness of web-based interventions in mitigating the symptoms of depression and anxiety among college students.

Methodology

This was a multi-phase research design. In the first phase, a correlational research method was used for exploring the correlation among the research variables. In the second phase, we used a pretest–posttest randomized controlled trial to assess the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention on symptoms of anxiety, loneliness, and well-being. Moreover, in the third phase, a qualitative research method was used for exploring the participants’ perceptions of mindfulness-based intervention.

Participants

Participants for this study were selected from graduate students at Zhoukou Vocational and Technical College in China. Three separate groups were recruited for the study. The first group consisted of 300 participants who were recruited for a correlational study related to question 1. The eligibility criteria for this group were as follows: participants must be graduate students at Fudan University and willing to participate in the study. The sample size was determined based on power analysis and the expected effect size. The second group consisted of 100 participants who were recruited for question 2. The eligibility criteria for this group were the same as for the first group. Participants were randomly assigned to either an intervention group or a control group. The third group consisted of 20 participants who were recruited for question 3. The eligibility criteria for this group were the same as for the first two groups. Participants were selected using purposive sampling based on their responses to the questionnaire in question 2. All participants provided informed consent prior to participating in the study. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Zhoukou Vocational and Technical College. Participants were assured of confidentiality and the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

The following instruments were used to collect data for this study:

Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A)

It is a 22-item self-report questionnaire that measures social anxiety in adolescents [ 36 ]. SAS-A assesses various aspects of social anxiety, including fear of negative evaluation, social avoidance and distress, and physiological symptoms such as sweating and blushing. Each item is measured on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely). The total score on the SAS-A ranges from 22 to 110, with higher scores indicating higher levels of social anxiety.

Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS)

It is a 14-item self-report questionnaire that measures mental well-being in adults and adolescents [ 37 ]. The items on the WEMWBS assess various aspects of mental well-being, including optimism, positive relationships, and a sense of purpose. Participants rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (none of the time) to 5 (all of the time). The total score on the WEMWBS ranges from 14 to 70, with higher scores indicating higher levels of mental well-being. The fourth instrument was social.

Social Media Use Integration Scale (SMUIS)

The SMUIS is a 10-item self-report questionnaire that assesses the frequency, duration and emotional connection to social media use [ 38 ]. The SMUIS includes questions related to the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as questions related to the emotional connection to social media use, such as "How often do you feel happy when using social media?" and "How often do you feel anxious when you are not able to use social media?" Participants are asked to rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The reliability of the instruments was estimated using Cronbach’s alpha. Results revealed that the obtained Cronbach’s alpha for the instrument was above, 0.78 indicating that all used instruments enjoyed an acceptable level of reliability.

Interview checklist

The interview checklist consisted of 8 open-ended questions followed by the interviewer’s prompts. The questions elicited the interviewees’ perceptions of the benefits and challenges of using mobile apps for improving mental health and well-being and reducing social anxiety symptoms and loneliness (See Additional file 1 ). The interview checklist was approved by 4 colleagues and there was a high agreement among the panel of experts regarding the relevance of the interview questions.

Mindfulness-based mobile apps

Mindfulness-based mobile apps are mobile applications designed to help individuals develop mindfulness skills and reduce symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression. These apps typically include guided mindfulness exercises, educational resources, and other features to help individuals practice mindfulness on a regular basis. The specific features of mindfulness-based mobile apps may vary but typically include guided meditations, breathing exercises, and other mindfulness practices. Some apps may also include educational resources, such as articles or videos that provide information about mindfulness and its benefits. Many apps also include features for tracking progress, setting goals, and sharing progress with others. In this study, the participants who participated in the treatment phase were asked to download popular mindfulness-based mobile apps including Headspace, Calm, and Insight Timer. These apps are available for download on mobile devices and offer a range of mindfulness exercises and resources for users to explore.

The study was conducted in multiple steps. Initially, a sample of 300 graduate students from Fudan University was selected to participate in the research. These participants were asked to complete the Social Media Use Integration Scale (SMUIS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) to evaluate their social media use and mental health status. Next, a sample of 60 students from the same university was selected for the intervention study. These participants were randomly assigned to either an intervention group or a control group. The intervention group was given access to a mindfulness-based mobile app for eight weeks, while the control group received no intervention. Both groups completed the SMUIS and the DASS-21 at baseline, post-intervention, and three-month follow-up to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. Lastly, a qualitative study was conducted to gather in-depth information about the participants' experience with the mindfulness-based mobile app intervention. A purposive sample of 20 participants from the intervention group was selected for this study. They underwent semi-structured interviews to provide qualitative data about their perceptions and opinions regarding the intervention.

Data analysis

For the quantitative data, the statistical software was employed. Firstly, descriptive statistics were calculated to determine the mean, and standard deviation of the Social Media Use Integration Scale (SMUIS) and Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) scores, as well as the mean, and standard deviation of the SMUIS and DASS-21 scores at baseline, post-intervention, and three-month follow-up for both the intervention and control groups. Secondly, bivariate correlations were conducted to examine the relationship between social media use and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Thirdly, multiple regression analysis was performed to determine the unique contribution of social media use to symptoms of anxiety and depression while controlling for other relevant variables. Fourthly, repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to examine changes in SMUIS and DASS-21 scores over time and to determine if there were differences between the intervention and control groups. Finally, post hoc tests were conducted to examine differences between groups at each time point. Effect sizes were calculated to determine the magnitude of the intervention's effects. However, for the qualitative data, the qualitative analysis software was employed. Firstly, the transcripts of the semi-structured interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis to identify themes and subthemes related to participants' experiences with the mindfulness-based mobile app intervention. Secondly, quotes were selected to support and illustrate the identified themes and subthemes. Lastly, the themes and subthemes were interpreted and discussed to provide insight into participants' perceptions and opinions regarding the intervention.

Research question1

Pearson correlations between the variables were estimated and results are presented in Table 1 .

This table shows that social media use is negatively correlated with well-being ( r  = -0.21, p  < 0.01) and positively correlated with symptoms of social anxiety ( r  = -0.35, p  < 0.01) and loneliness ( r  = 0.24, p  < 0.01). Additionally, symptoms of social anxiety are positively correlated with loneliness ( r  = 0.47, p  < 0.01) and negatively correlated with well-being ( r  = -0.61, p  < 0.01), while loneliness is negatively correlated with well-being ( r  = -0.50, p  < 0.01). These results suggest that social media use is associated with poorer mental health outcomes, including higher levels of social anxiety and loneliness and lower levels of well-being, among university students.

Table 2 shows the results of a multiple regression analysis that examined the relationship between social media use, social anxiety, and loneliness as predictor variables and well-being as the outcome variable. The regression equation is:

The results indicate that all three predictor variables significantly contributed to the prediction of well-being, with social media use (β = -0.29, p  = 0.001), social anxiety (β = 0.31, p  = 0.001), and loneliness (β = 0.28, p  = 0.001) each having a significant unique effect on well-being, after controlling for the other variables. The constant term (B = 3.10, p  = 0.001) represents the predicted well-being score when all predictor variables are held at zero.

Research question 2

The second research aimed at investigating the effects of the intervention on the students’ social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being. Results are presented in Table 3 .

This table presents the results of a pretest–posttest randomized control-experimental research design investigating the effects of a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention on social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being in college students. The results indicate that the intervention group showed a significant improvement in social anxiety (F (1, 98) = 17.23, p  < 0.001, partial eta squared = 0.15), loneliness (F (1, 98) = 13.70, p  < 0.001, partial eta squared = 0.12), and well-being (F(1, 98) = 21.41, p  < 0.001, partial eta squared = 0.18) from pretest to posttest. The control group did not show significant changes in any of the measures. The effect sizes (partial eta squared) ranged from moderate to large, indicating that the intervention had a meaningful impact. These findings suggest that the use of a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention can be an effective approach for improving mental health outcomes in college students.

Research question 3

The third research question explored the students’ perceptions of the effects of mindfulness-based mobile apps on the students’ social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being. The detailed analysis of the interviews revealed 6 benefits and 4 challenges of using technology for mental health support. The first extracted benefit as mentioned by 10 students was thematically coded "Convenience and Accessibility". Participants reported that technology-based mental health support services are convenient and accessible, allowing them to access support anytime and anywhere. The following quotations exemplify the theme:

"I like using mental health apps because I can access them whenever I need to. I don't have to wait for an appointment or anything like that." (Student 3). Another student stated, "Online support groups are great because I can connect with people who have similar experiences no matter where I am."(student 11).

The second extracted benefit was thematically coded "Anonymity and Privacy". Participants appreciated the ability to access mental health support services online while maintaining anonymity and privacy. For instance, student 5 stated, "I like that I can access support without having to go to an office or talk to someone face-to-face. It feels less intimidating." This finding was also confirmed by student 6, who stated, "I feel more comfortable talking about my mental health online because I know that no one else needs to know about it."

The third extracted benefit was thematically coded "Customizable and Tailored Support". Participants appreciated the range of options available for mental health support online, including customizable and tailored support that they could access at their own pace. For instance, student 11 stated, "I like that I can choose the type of support that works for me. Some days I just need to read something and other days I need to talk to someone”. Similarly, student 6 stated, "The mental health app I use sends me reminders to check in with myself and practice self-care. It's nice to have that kind of tailored support."

The fourth extracted benefit was thematically coded as "Cost-effective". Participants reported that technology-based mental health support services are often more affordable than traditional face-to-face therapy, making them a more accessible option for those with limited financial resources. This finding was supported by student 17 who stated, "I can't afford traditional therapy, so using mental health apps is a great option for me since it's usually free or very affordable." Similarly, one of the students stated, “Online therapy is much cheaper than traditional therapy, so it's more accessible for people who can't afford to pay a lot."

The fifth extracted benefit was thematically coded as "Increased Awareness and Education". Participants reported that technology-based mental health support services helped them to become more aware of their mental health and provided education about mental health issues and coping strategies. For example, student 12 stated, "The mental health app I use has taught me a lot about mindfulness and how to manage my anxiety." Student 14 also stated, "I learned a lot about depression and how to cope with it from an online support group I joined."

The sixth extracted benefit was thematically coded as "Reduced Stigma". Participants reported that accessing mental health support services online helped to reduce the stigma associated with seeking mental health The following quotations exemplify the theme of support. For instance, one of the students stated, “I used to feel ashamed about seeking mental health support, but using mental health apps has helped me realize that it's okay to take care of my mental health." (Student 9). Similarly, another student argued, “Online support groups have helped me realize that I'm not alone in my struggles with mental health. It's nice to know there are others out there who understand."

Despite the above-mentioned benefits, the participants mentioned some challenges. The first extracted challenge was thematically coded "Quality and Accuracy of Information". Participants expressed concerns about the quality and accuracy of mental health information available online, and the potential for misinformation to be spread. For instance, student 11 stated, "There's so much information online, it's hard to know what's trustworthy and what's not." Another student stated, "I worry that some of the mental health information I see online is not based on evidence and could actually be harmful."(student 6).

The second extracted challenge was thematically coded as "Lack of Human Connection". Participants reported missing the human connection they would get from traditional face-to-face therapy and felt that technology-based mental health support services lacked the same level of personal connection. The following quotations from student 12 exemplify the theme:

"Sometimes I just need someone to talk to face-to-face. It's not the same as talking to a computer screen…. I miss the empathetic listening I would get from a therapist in person. It's hard to replicate that online."

The third extracted challenge was thematically coded as "Technical Difficulties". Participants reported experiencing technical difficulties with technology-based mental health support services, which could be frustrating and hinder their ability to access support. For instance, student 8 stated, “Sometimes the mental health app I use glitches or crashes, which can be really frustrating when I'm trying to use it for support…. I don't have the best internet connection, so sometimes it's hard to access online support groups."

The fourth extracted challenge was thematically coded "Privacy and Security Concerns". Participants expressed concerns about the privacy and security of their personal information when using technology-based mental health support services, and whether their information was being shared without their consent. As an example, student 13 stated, "I worry that my personal information could be shared without my consent, which would be a huge breach of trust." Student 9 also stated, “It's hard to know if my information is really secure when I'm using online mental health support services."

The study investigating the effects of mindfulness-based mobile apps on university students' anxiety, loneliness, and well-being in the context of social media usage is anchored in a multifaceted theoretical framework. At its core, the research draws upon mindfulness theory, a foundational framework emphasizing present-moment awareness and non-judgmental acceptance to alleviate stress and anxiety [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. This theory forms the bedrock of the study's understanding, as mindfulness-based mobile apps are designed to foster these very principles, encouraging users to engage with the present, accept their experiences without judgment, and, in doing so, mitigate stress and anxiety.

In parallel, to fathom the intricate influence of social media on university students, the study leverages social cognitive theory, a framework highly pertinent for analyzing how individuals acquire and adapt behaviors, attitudes, and emotional responses through observation and modeling within their social networks [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Given the pervasive role of social media, this theory is essential for comprehending how the behaviors, emotions, and attitudes of students may be shaped by the content and interactions they encounter in the digital realm.

Moreover, the research takes into consideration social comparison theory, which underscores how social media users frequently engage in relentless self-comparisons with others, potentially fostering feelings of loneliness and social anxiety [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. This theory is critical for acknowledging the "highlight reel" effect, wherein users predominantly share their positive experiences and achievements, inadvertently prompting social comparison and potentially engendering negative emotional responses.

In the exploration of the perceived addictiveness of mindfulness-based mobile apps, the study employs addiction and compulsive behavior theories. These theories unearth the underlying factors contributing to the allure and habit-forming nature of certain digital interventions, thereby offering valuable insights into the psychology of user engagement and potential addiction [ 12 , 13 ]. When assessing user acceptance and perceptions of mindfulness-based mobile apps, the study draws from technology acceptance models (TAM). TAM provides a valuable framework for unraveling the intricacies of user adoption and attitudes toward technology-based interventions, elucidating critical factors like perceived usefulness and ease of use, which shed light on participants' acceptance of these apps [ 12 , 13 ].

Furthermore, the research aligns with the principles of positive psychology, a framework that centers on the enhancement of human well-being and strengths. The study's focus on bolstering well-being and mitigating anxiety and loneliness aligns closely with the core tenets of positive psychology, making it a pertinent theoretical perspective [ 12 , 13 ].

Lastly, media effects theories, such as cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory, play a pivotal role in offering insights into how social media usage affects students' mental health and well-being [ 13 ]. Cultivation theory underscores the potential long-term impact of repeated exposure to media content, while uses and gratifications theory delves into how individuals actively use and engage with media to fulfill specific needs and gratifications.

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CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS article

The effect of social media on the development of students’ affective variables.

• 1 Science and Technology Department, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing, China
• 2 School of Marxism, Hohai University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
• 3 Government Enterprise Customer Center, China Mobile Group Jiangsu Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China

The use of social media is incomparably on the rise among students, influenced by the globalized forms of communication and the post-pandemic rush to use multiple social media platforms for education in different fields of study. Though social media has created tremendous chances for sharing ideas and emotions, the kind of social support it provides might fail to meet students’ emotional needs, or the alleged positive effects might be short-lasting. In recent years, several studies have been conducted to explore the potential effects of social media on students’ affective traits, such as stress, anxiety, depression, and so on. The present paper reviews the findings of the exemplary published works of research to shed light on the positive and negative potential effects of the massive use of social media on students’ emotional well-being. This review can be insightful for teachers who tend to take the potential psychological effects of social media for granted. They may want to know more about the actual effects of the over-reliance on and the excessive (and actually obsessive) use of social media on students’ developing certain images of self and certain emotions which are not necessarily positive. There will be implications for pre- and in-service teacher training and professional development programs and all those involved in student affairs.

Introduction

Social media has turned into an essential element of individuals’ lives including students in today’s world of communication. Its use is growing significantly more than ever before especially in the post-pandemic era, marked by a great revolution happening to the educational systems. Recent investigations of using social media show that approximately 3 billion individuals worldwide are now communicating via social media ( Iwamoto and Chun, 2020 ). This growing population of social media users is spending more and more time on social network groupings, as facts and figures show that individuals spend 2 h a day, on average, on a variety of social media applications, exchanging pictures and messages, updating status, tweeting, favoring, and commenting on many updated socially shared information ( Abbott, 2017 ).

Researchers have begun to investigate the psychological effects of using social media on students’ lives. Chukwuere and Chukwuere (2017) maintained that social media platforms can be considered the most important source of changing individuals’ mood, because when someone is passively using a social media platform seemingly with no special purpose, s/he can finally feel that his/her mood has changed as a function of the nature of content overviewed. Therefore, positive and negative moods can easily be transferred among the population using social media networks ( Chukwuere and Chukwuere, 2017 ). This may become increasingly important as students are seen to be using social media platforms more than before and social networking is becoming an integral aspect of their lives. As described by Iwamoto and Chun (2020) , when students are affected by social media posts, especially due to the increasing reliance on social media use in life, they may be encouraged to begin comparing themselves to others or develop great unrealistic expectations of themselves or others, which can have several affective consequences.

Considering the increasing influence of social media on education, the present paper aims to focus on the affective variables such as depression, stress, and anxiety, and how social media can possibly increase or decrease these emotions in student life. The exemplary works of research on this topic in recent years will be reviewed here, hoping to shed light on the positive and negative effects of these ever-growing influential platforms on the psychology of students.

Significance of the study

Though social media, as the name suggests, is expected to keep people connected, probably this social connection is only superficial, and not adequately deep and meaningful to help individuals feel emotionally attached to others. The psychological effects of social media on student life need to be studied in more depth to see whether social media really acts as a social support for students and whether students can use social media to cope with negative emotions and develop positive feelings or not. In other words, knowledge of the potential effects of the growing use of social media on students’ emotional well-being can bridge the gap between the alleged promises of social media and what it actually has to offer to students in terms of self-concept, self-respect, social role, and coping strategies (for stress, anxiety, etc.).

Exemplary general literature on psychological effects of social media

Before getting down to the effects of social media on students’ emotional well-being, some exemplary works of research in recent years on the topic among general populations are reviewed. For one, Aalbers et al. (2018) reported that individuals who spent more time passively working with social media suffered from more intense levels of hopelessness, loneliness, depression, and perceived inferiority. For another, Tang et al. (2013) observed that the procedures of sharing information, commenting, showing likes and dislikes, posting messages, and doing other common activities on social media are correlated with higher stress. Similarly, Ley et al. (2014) described that people who spend 2 h, on average, on social media applications will face many tragic news, posts, and stories which can raise the total intensity of their stress. This stress-provoking effect of social media has been also pinpointed by Weng and Menczer (2015) , who contended that social media becomes a main source of stress because people often share all kinds of posts, comments, and stories ranging from politics and economics, to personal and social affairs. According to Iwamoto and Chun (2020) , anxiety and depression are the negative emotions that an individual may develop when some source of stress is present. In other words, when social media sources become stress-inducing, there are high chances that anxiety and depression also develop.

Charoensukmongkol (2018) reckoned that the mental health and well-being of the global population can be at a great risk through the uncontrolled massive use of social media. These researchers also showed that social media sources can exert negative affective impacts on teenagers, as they can induce more envy and social comparison. According to Fleck and Johnson-Migalski (2015) , though social media, at first, plays the role of a stress-coping strategy, when individuals continue to see stressful conditions (probably experienced and shared by others in media), they begin to develop stress through the passage of time. Chukwuere and Chukwuere (2017) maintained that social media platforms continue to be the major source of changing mood among general populations. For example, someone might be passively using a social media sphere, and s/he may finally find him/herself with a changed mood depending on the nature of the content faced. Then, this good or bad mood is easily shared with others in a flash through the social media. Finally, as Alahmar (2016) described, social media exposes people especially the young generation to new exciting activities and events that may attract them and keep them engaged in different media contexts for hours just passing their time. It usually leads to reduced productivity, reduced academic achievement, and addiction to constant media use ( Alahmar, 2016 ).

The number of studies on the potential psychological effects of social media on people in general is higher than those selectively addressed here. For further insights into this issue, some other suggested works of research include Chang (2012) , Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol (2016) , and Zareen et al. (2016) . Now, we move to the studies that more specifically explored the effects of social media on students’ affective states.

Review of the affective influences of social media on students

Vygotsky’s mediational theory (see Fernyhough, 2008 ) can be regarded as a main theoretical background for the support of social media on learners’ affective states. Based on this theory, social media can play the role of a mediational means between learners and the real environment. Learners’ understanding of this environment can be mediated by the image shaped via social media. This image can be either close to or different from the reality. In the case of the former, learners can develop their self-image and self-esteem. In the case of the latter, learners might develop unrealistic expectations of themselves by comparing themselves to others. As it will be reviewed below among the affective variables increased or decreased in students under the influence of the massive use of social media are anxiety, stress, depression, distress, rumination, and self-esteem. These effects have been explored more among school students in the age range of 13–18 than university students (above 18), but some studies were investigated among college students as well. Exemplary works of research on these affective variables are reviewed here.

In a cross-sectional study, O’Dea and Campbell (2011) explored the impact of online interactions of social networks on the psychological distress of adolescent students. These researchers found a negative correlation between the time spent on social networking and mental distress. Dumitrache et al. (2012) explored the relations between depression and the identity associated with the use of the popular social media, the Facebook. This study showed significant associations between depression and the number of identity-related information pieces shared on this social network. Neira and Barber (2014) explored the relationship between students’ social media use and depressed mood at teenage. No significant correlation was found between these two variables. In the same year, Tsitsika et al. (2014) explored the associations between excessive use of social media and internalizing emotions. These researchers found a positive correlation between more than 2-h a day use of social media and anxiety and depression.

Hanprathet et al. (2015) reported a statistically significant positive correlation between addiction to Facebook and depression among about a thousand high school students in wealthy populations of Thailand and warned against this psychological threat. Sampasa-Kanyinga and Lewis (2015) examined the relationship between social media use and psychological distress. These researchers found that the use of social media for more than 2 h a day was correlated with a higher intensity of psychological distress. Banjanin et al. (2015) tested the relationship between too much use of social networking and depression, yet found no statistically significant correlation between these two variables. Frison and Eggermont (2016) examined the relationships between different forms of Facebook use, perceived social support of social media, and male and female students’ depressed mood. These researchers found a positive association between the passive use of the Facebook and depression and also between the active use of the social media and depression. Furthermore, the perceived social support of the social media was found to mediate this association. Besides, gender was found as the other factor to mediate this relationship.

Vernon et al. (2017) explored change in negative investment in social networking in relation to change in depression and externalizing behavior. These researchers found that increased investment in social media predicted higher depression in adolescent students, which was a function of the effect of higher levels of disrupted sleep. Barry et al. (2017) explored the associations between the use of social media by adolescents and their psychosocial adjustment. Social media activity showed to be positively and moderately associated with depression and anxiety. Another investigation was focused on secondary school students in China conducted by Li et al. (2017) . The findings showed a mediating role of insomnia on the significant correlation between depression and addiction to social media. In the same year, Yan et al. (2017) aimed to explore the time spent on social networks and its correlation with anxiety among middle school students. They found a significant positive correlation between more than 2-h use of social networks and the intensity of anxiety.

Also in China, Wang et al. (2018) showed that addiction to social networking sites was correlated positively with depression, and this correlation was mediated by rumination. These researchers also found that this mediating effect was moderated by self-esteem. It means that the effect of addiction on depression was compounded by low self-esteem through rumination. In another work of research, Drouin et al. (2018) showed that though social media is expected to act as a form of social support for the majority of university students, it can adversely affect students’ mental well-being, especially for those who already have high levels of anxiety and depression. In their research, the social media resources were found to be stress-inducing for half of the participants, all university students. The higher education population was also studied by Iwamoto and Chun (2020) . These researchers investigated the emotional effects of social media in higher education and found that the socially supportive role of social media was overshadowed in the long run in university students’ lives and, instead, fed into their perceived depression, anxiety, and stress.

Keles et al. (2020) provided a systematic review of the effect of social media on young and teenage students’ depression, psychological distress, and anxiety. They found that depression acted as the most frequent affective variable measured. The most salient risk factors of psychological distress, anxiety, and depression based on the systematic review were activities such as repeated checking for messages, personal investment, the time spent on social media, and problematic or addictive use. Similarly, Mathewson (2020) investigated the effect of using social media on college students’ mental health. The participants stated the experience of anxiety, depression, and suicidality (thoughts of suicide or attempts to suicide). The findings showed that the types and frequency of using social media and the students’ perceived mental health were significantly correlated with each other.

The body of research on the effect of social media on students’ affective and emotional states has led to mixed results. The existing literature shows that there are some positive and some negative affective impacts. Yet, it seems that the latter is pre-dominant. Mathewson (2020) attributed these divergent positive and negative effects to the different theoretical frameworks adopted in different studies and also the different contexts (different countries with whole different educational systems). According to Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions ( Fredrickson, 2001 ), the mental repertoires of learners can be built and broadened by how they feel. For instance, some external stimuli might provoke negative emotions such as anxiety and depression in learners. Having experienced these negative emotions, students might repeatedly check their messages on social media or get addicted to them. As a result, their cognitive repertoire and mental capacity might become limited and they might lose their concentration during their learning process. On the other hand, it should be noted that by feeling positive, learners might take full advantage of the affordances of the social media and; thus, be able to follow their learning goals strategically. This point should be highlighted that the link between the use of social media and affective states is bi-directional. Therefore, strategic use of social media or its addictive use by students can direct them toward either positive experiences like enjoyment or negative ones such as anxiety and depression. Also, these mixed positive and negative effects are similar to the findings of several other relevant studies on general populations’ psychological and emotional health. A number of studies (with general research populations not necessarily students) showed that social networks have facilitated the way of staying in touch with family and friends living far away as well as an increased social support ( Zhang, 2017 ). Given the positive and negative emotional effects of social media, social media can either scaffold the emotional repertoire of students, which can develop positive emotions in learners, or induce negative provokers in them, based on which learners might feel negative emotions such as anxiety and depression. However, admittedly, social media has also generated a domain that encourages the act of comparing lives, and striving for approval; therefore, it establishes and internalizes unrealistic perceptions ( Virden et al., 2014 ; Radovic et al., 2017 ).

It should be mentioned that the susceptibility of affective variables to social media should be interpreted from a dynamic lens. This means that the ecology of the social media can make changes in the emotional experiences of learners. More specifically, students’ affective variables might self-organize into different states under the influence of social media. As for the positive correlation found in many studies between the use of social media and such negative effects as anxiety, depression, and stress, it can be hypothesized that this correlation is induced by the continuous comparison the individual makes and the perception that others are doing better than him/her influenced by the posts that appear on social media. Using social media can play a major role in university students’ psychological well-being than expected. Though most of these studies were correlational, and correlation is not the same as causation, as the studies show that the number of participants experiencing these negative emotions under the influence of social media is significantly high, more extensive research is highly suggested to explore causal effects ( Mathewson, 2020 ).

As the review of exemplary studies showed, some believed that social media increased comparisons that students made between themselves and others. This finding ratifies the relevance of the Interpretation Comparison Model ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ; Stapel, 2007 ) and Festinger’s (1954) Social Comparison Theory. Concerning the negative effects of social media on students’ psychology, it can be argued that individuals may fail to understand that the content presented in social media is usually changed to only represent the attractive aspects of people’s lives, showing an unrealistic image of things. We can add that this argument also supports the relevance of the Social Comparison Theory and the Interpretation Comparison Model ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ; Stapel, 2007 ), because social media sets standards that students think they should compare themselves with. A constant observation of how other students or peers are showing their instances of achievement leads to higher self-evaluation ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ). It is conjectured that the ubiquitous role of social media in student life establishes unrealistic expectations and promotes continuous comparison as also pinpointed in the Interpretation Comparison Model ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ; Stapel, 2007 ).

Implications of the study

The use of social media is ever increasing among students, both at school and university, which is partly because of the promises of technological advances in communication services and partly because of the increased use of social networks for educational purposes in recent years after the pandemic. This consistent use of social media is not expected to leave students’ psychological, affective and emotional states untouched. Thus, it is necessary to know how the growing usage of social networks is associated with students’ affective health on different aspects. Therefore, we found it useful to summarize the research findings in recent years in this respect. If those somehow in charge of student affairs in educational settings are aware of the potential positive or negative effects of social media usage on students, they can better understand the complexities of students’ needs and are better capable of meeting them.

Psychological counseling programs can be initiated at schools or universities to check upon the latest state of students’ mental and emotional health influenced by the pervasive use of social media. The counselors can be made aware of the potential adverse effects of social networking and can adapt the content of their inquiries accordingly. Knowledge of the potential reasons for student anxiety, depression, and stress can help school or university counselors to find individualized coping strategies when they diagnose any symptom of distress in students influenced by an excessive use of social networking.

Admittedly, it is neither possible to discard the use of social media in today’s academic life, nor to keep students’ use of social networks fully controlled. Certainly, the educational space in today’s world cannot do without the social media, which has turned into an integral part of everybody’s life. Yet, probably students need to be instructed on how to take advantage of the media and to be the least affected negatively by its occasional superficial and unrepresentative content. Compensatory programs might be needed at schools or universities to encourage students to avoid making unrealistic and impartial comparisons of themselves and the flamboyant images of others displayed on social media. Students can be taught to develop self-appreciation and self-care while continuing to use the media to their benefit.

The teachers’ role as well as the curriculum developers’ role are becoming more important than ever, as they can significantly help to moderate the adverse effects of the pervasive social media use on students’ mental and emotional health. The kind of groupings formed for instructional purposes, for example, in social media can be done with greater care by teachers to make sure that the members of the groups are homogeneous and the tasks and activities shared in the groups are quite relevant and realistic. The teachers cannot always be in a full control of students’ use of social media, and the other fact is that students do not always and only use social media for educational purposes. They spend more time on social media for communicating with friends or strangers or possibly they just passively receive the content produced out of any educational scope just for entertainment. This uncontrolled and unrealistic content may give them a false image of life events and can threaten their mental and emotional health. Thus, teachers can try to make students aware of the potential hazards of investing too much of their time on following pages or people that publish false and misleading information about their personal or social identities. As students, logically expected, spend more time with their teachers than counselors, they may be better and more receptive to the advice given by the former than the latter.

Teachers may not be in full control of their students’ use of social media, but they have always played an active role in motivating or demotivating students to take particular measures in their academic lives. If teachers are informed of the recent research findings about the potential effects of massively using social media on students, they may find ways to reduce students’ distraction or confusion in class due to the excessive or over-reliant use of these networks. Educators may more often be mesmerized by the promises of technology-, computer- and mobile-assisted learning. They may tend to encourage the use of social media hoping to benefit students’ social and interpersonal skills, self-confidence, stress-managing and the like. Yet, they may be unaware of the potential adverse effects on students’ emotional well-being and, thus, may find the review of the recent relevant research findings insightful. Also, teachers can mediate between learners and social media to manipulate the time learners spend on social media. Research has mainly indicated that students’ emotional experiences are mainly dependent on teachers’ pedagogical approach. They should refrain learners from excessive use of, or overreliance on, social media. Raising learners’ awareness of this fact that individuals should develop their own path of development for learning, and not build their development based on unrealistic comparison of their competences with those of others, can help them consider positive values for their activities on social media and, thus, experience positive emotions.

At higher education, students’ needs are more life-like. For example, their employment-seeking spirits might lead them to create accounts in many social networks, hoping for a better future. However, membership in many of these networks may end in the mere waste of the time that could otherwise be spent on actual on-campus cooperative projects. Universities can provide more on-campus resources both for research and work experience purposes from which the students can benefit more than the cyberspace that can be tricky on many occasions. Two main theories underlying some negative emotions like boredom and anxiety are over-stimulation and under-stimulation. Thus, what learners feel out of their involvement in social media might be directed toward negative emotions due to the stimulating environment of social media. This stimulating environment makes learners rely too much, and spend too much time, on social media or use them obsessively. As a result, they might feel anxious or depressed. Given the ubiquity of social media, these negative emotions can be replaced with positive emotions if learners become aware of the psychological effects of social media. Regarding the affordances of social media for learners, they can take advantage of the potential affordances of these media such as improving their literacy, broadening their communication skills, or enhancing their distance learning opportunities.

A review of the research findings on the relationship between social media and students’ affective traits revealed both positive and negative findings. Yet, the instances of the latter were more salient and the negative psychological symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and stress have been far from negligible. These findings were discussed in relation to some more relevant theories such as the social comparison theory, which predicted that most of the potential issues with the young generation’s excessive use of social media were induced by the unfair comparisons they made between their own lives and the unrealistic portrayal of others’ on social media. Teachers, education policymakers, curriculum developers, and all those in charge of the student affairs at schools and universities should be made aware of the psychological effects of the pervasive use of social media on students, and the potential threats.

It should be reminded that the alleged socially supportive and communicative promises of the prevalent use of social networking in student life might not be fully realized in practice. Students may lose self-appreciation and gratitude when they compare their current state of life with the snapshots of others’ or peers’. A depressed or stressed-out mood can follow. Students at schools or universities need to learn self-worth to resist the adverse effects of the superficial support they receive from social media. Along this way, they should be assisted by the family and those in charge at schools or universities, most importantly the teachers. As already suggested, counseling programs might help with raising students’ awareness of the potential psychological threats of social media to their health. Considering the ubiquity of social media in everybody’ life including student life worldwide, it seems that more coping and compensatory strategies should be contrived to moderate the adverse psychological effects of the pervasive use of social media on students. Also, the affective influences of social media should not be generalized but they need to be interpreted from an ecological or contextual perspective. This means that learners might have different emotions at different times or different contexts while being involved in social media. More specifically, given the stative approach to learners’ emotions, what learners emotionally experience in their application of social media can be bound to their intra-personal and interpersonal experiences. This means that the same learner at different time points might go through different emotions Also, learners’ emotional states as a result of their engagement in social media cannot be necessarily generalized to all learners in a class.

As the majority of studies on the psychological effects of social media on student life have been conducted on school students than in higher education, it seems it is too soon to make any conclusive remark on this population exclusively. Probably, in future, further studies of the psychological complexities of students at higher education and a better knowledge of their needs can pave the way for making more insightful conclusions about the effects of social media on their affective states.

Suggestions for further research

The majority of studies on the potential effects of social media usage on students’ psychological well-being are either quantitative or qualitative in type, each with many limitations. Presumably, mixed approaches in near future can better provide a comprehensive assessment of these potential associations. Moreover, most studies on this topic have been cross-sectional in type. There is a significant dearth of longitudinal investigation on the effect of social media on developing positive or negative emotions in students. This seems to be essential as different affective factors such as anxiety, stress, self-esteem, and the like have a developmental nature. Traditional research methods with single-shot designs for data collection fail to capture the nuances of changes in these affective variables. It can be expected that more longitudinal studies in future can show how the continuous use of social media can affect the fluctuations of any of these affective variables during the different academic courses students pass at school or university.

As already raised in some works of research reviewed, the different patterns of impacts of social media on student life depend largely on the educational context. Thus, the same research designs with the same academic grade students and even the same age groups can lead to different findings concerning the effects of social media on student psychology in different countries. In other words, the potential positive and negative effects of popular social media like Facebook, Snapchat, Twitter, etc., on students’ affective conditions can differ across different educational settings in different host countries. Thus, significantly more research is needed in different contexts and cultures to compare the results.

There is also a need for further research on the higher education students and how their affective conditions are positively and negatively affected by the prevalent use of social media. University students’ psychological needs might be different from other academic grades and, thus, the patterns of changes that the overall use of social networking can create in their emotions can be also different. Their main reasons for using social media might be different from school students as well, which need to be investigated more thoroughly. The sorts of interventions needed to moderate the potential negative effects of social networking on them can be different too, all requiring a new line of research in education domain.

Finally, there are hopes that considering the ever-increasing popularity of social networking in education, the potential psychological effects of social media on teachers be explored as well. Though teacher psychology has only recently been considered for research, the literature has provided profound insights into teachers developing stress, motivation, self-esteem, and many other emotions. In today’s world driven by global communications in the cyberspace, teachers like everyone else are affecting and being affected by social networking. The comparison theory can hold true for teachers too. Thus, similar threats (of social media) to self-esteem and self-worth can be there for teachers too besides students, which are worth investigating qualitatively and quantitatively.

Probably a new line of research can be initiated to explore the co-development of teacher and learner psychological traits under the influence of social media use in longitudinal studies. These will certainly entail sophisticated research methods to be capable of unraveling the nuances of variation in these traits and their mutual effects, for example, stress, motivation, and self-esteem. If these are incorporated within mixed-approach works of research, more comprehensive and better insightful findings can be expected to emerge. Correlational studies need to be followed by causal studies in educational settings. As many conditions of the educational settings do not allow for having control groups or randomization, probably, experimental studies do not help with this. Innovative research methods, case studies or else, can be used to further explore the causal relations among the different features of social media use and the development of different affective variables in teachers or learners. Examples of such innovative research methods can be process tracing, qualitative comparative analysis, and longitudinal latent factor modeling (for a more comprehensive view, see Hiver and Al-Hoorie, 2019 ).

Author contributions

Both authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

This study was sponsored by Wuxi Philosophy and Social Sciences bidding project—“Special Project for Safeguarding the Rights and Interests of Workers in the New Form of Employment” (Grant No. WXSK22-GH-13). This study was sponsored by the Key Project of Party Building and Ideological and Political Education Research of Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications—“Research on the Guidance and Countermeasures of Network Public Opinion in Colleges and Universities in the Modern Times” (Grant No. XC 2021002).

Conflict of interest

Author XX was employed by China Mobile Group Jiangsu Co., Ltd.

The remaining author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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“I Have No Friends”: Steps You Can Take As A College Student

Feeling like you have no friends, especially in college, can be disheartening. Many students struggle with making and keeping connections, which can be difficult—particularly in this phase of life. However, you're not alone in this experience. Sometimes, it's about improving your social skills or simply finding the right opportunities to meet new people. In any case, you can often start by doing activities you enjoy to connect with like-minded individuals. Learn more about loneliness and making friends as a college student by reading on.

Loneliness and its effects on mental health

Loneliness can significantly affect mental health. For example, when you are isolated, research suggests that your body may produce more cortisol , a hormone linked to stress. Higher cortisol levels may impair your cognitive functions and make it harder to think clearly.

Depression is another common potential consequence of chronic isolation. It may develop in part because loneliness can disconnect you from life and reduce your sense of purpose. Without new or old friends to talk to, it may be harder to find joy in daily activities.

Anxiety often accompanies loneliness. Social isolation can make you overthink social interactions and worry about not having real friends. This constant worry can make it more difficult to interact with others, creating a cycle of loneliness.

Constantly feeling lonely can also lead to low self-esteem. When you don't have a friend or a support system, you may start to develop the false belief that you're not worthy of friendship. This negative self-image can further alienate you from potential connections.

Why it may be difficult to make new friends in college

Different factors can contribute to trouble making new friends in college or any other time of life. For one, nervousness or diagnosable social anxiety in social settings can make it hard to start conversations or join group activities.

You may also have certain personality traits that might make it more difficult to start conversations and make new friendships, particularly in a college setting. For example, people who are more introverted or shy might struggle more with making connections. This doesn't mean they don’t want friends or can’t make them; it just means they may find the process more intimidating or may not feel naturally equipped for the ways friends are often made in a college setting.

Past experiences can also play a role. If someone has had negative experiences with friendships, they may be hesitant to open up again. In other words, previous hurt or fear of rejection might stop you from trying to meet or get close to new people. In addition, busy schedules can interfere with opportunities for socializing. Many college students juggle classes, work, and other commitments, leaving little time for socializing. 

Ways to be more socially active in college

College often has the potential to be a time for building connections and creating lasting friendships. Here are some practical strategies that may help you be more socially active and make friends on campus.

Join clubs and organizations

Joining clubs and organizations is a potential way to meet other students who share your interests. Many colleges have various clubs, ranging from academic groups to hobby-based organizations. Being part of a club may help you connect with like-minded people and participate in activities that interest you. Clubs often host events and meetings, providing regular opportunities to socialize—which can lead to forming close friends or even finding a best friend who enjoys the same things.

Attend campus events

Attending campus events is another way to meet new people. Colleges often organize events such as concerts, movie nights, and festivals. Participating in these events may allow you to spend time with peers in a relaxed setting, providing a chance to start conversations and build connections. For someone feeling shy or new to the college experience, attending events may be a more approachable way to ease into a more active social life.

Participate in study groups

Study groups can be valuable for both academic success and socializing. Joining or forming a study group can help students meet classmates and develop a sense of teamwork. Study groups provide a structured environment where students work together toward common academic goals. 

Volunteering is another way for students to get involved and meet people. Many colleges offer opportunities to volunteer in the local community. Doing community service can connect you with others who are passionate about making a difference. This shared mission often has the potential to lead to the formation of close bonds.

Take part in intramural sports

Participating in intramural sports can be a fun way to stay active and meet new people. Intramural teams are usually open to all skill levels, making it easy for anyone to join. Playing sports may help students build teamwork and camaraderie. The regular practice and games provide consistent opportunities to interact and form friendships.

Use social media for campus connections

Social media may be a powerful tool for connecting with peers. Joining campus groups on platforms like Facebook or Instagram can allow you to stay updated on events and activities. Participating in these online communities may help you find like-minded people and plan meetups. 

Attend workshops and seminars

Workshops and seminars may offer valuable learning experiences and chances to meet others. Colleges often host sessions on various topics, from career development to personal interests. Attending these events is a potential way to network and have meaningful conversations. These environments are also more intimate in many cases, potentially making it easier to connect with others who share similar interests.

Become a mentor or tutor

Becoming a mentor or tutor allows you to share your knowledge and help others. This role not only lets you help fellow students with their academic success but may also support you in building connections. Mentors and tutors often form close relationships with their mentees. 

Balancing academics and a social life 

Balancing academics and a social life can sometimes be difficult. One approach is to create a schedule that includes both study time and social activities. Using a planner or a digital calendar can help you keep track of deadlines and social events.

Another strategy is to prioritize tasks. For example, you might focus on completing your most important assignments before going out for social activities. That way, you can enjoy your time with friends without worrying about unfinished academic work.

Meal prepping may also help save you time. Instead of cooking every meal from scratch, you might prepare meals in advance when possible. This will free up time for both studying and socializing and can help you stick to healthy habits.

Self-care is also important. Getting enough sleep, eating nutrient-dense meals often, and exercising regularly can boost your energy and focus. Taking care of your physical and mental health may allow you to perform better academically and enjoy your social life. 

When necessary, remember it's okay to say no to social events if you have a pressing academic commitment. True friends will understand and support your need to study.

Resources for student support

It can be difficult to experience loneliness or a sense of isolation in college, and this time of life can come with other mental health challenges too. If you’re looking for mental health support, there are various resources available, including:

• Counseling on campus: Many colleges have a health center on campus, and these centers often offer mental health resources. If counseling or therapy is not available through your school directly, you may still be able to receive a referral or help finding an off-campus provider by contacting your school’s health center.
• Your local community mental health center: Many areas have these types of health centers, which may offer affordable and even free health services for local residents and students. For those who aren’t able to get support through their school, these clinics may be a viable option.
• The Mental Health Coalition College Toolkit : This online toolkit offers a variety of resources designed to help college students care for their mental health. From a regular newsletter to articles to a vast resource library, there’s a wealth of helpful information on the toolkit website.
• Helplines: For students who need more immediate mental health support, it may be helpful to be aware of hotlines like the Crisis Text Line and the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline . 
• Online therapy: With a platform like BetterHelp , you can get matched and then meet with a licensed therapist virtually from anywhere you have an internet connection so you can receive direct, tailored support for the challenges you may be experiencing.

Research suggests the effectiveness of online therapy in treating various mental health challenges in college students, such as depression and anxiety. For example, one study indicates that participants experienced significant improvements in symptoms of generalized and social anxiety after online video counseling .

Online therapy platforms like BetterHelp may provide a more convenient option for students seeking mental health support. BetterHelp allows users to connect with licensed therapists through video calls, phone calls, or messaging. By offering a range of communication methods, it’s possible to accommodate different preferences and schedules, helping students receive the care they may need without the added stress of fitting traditional therapy sessions into their busy lives.

Having no friends can be a challenge, but there are proactive steps you can take that may help you improve your social life. The most common ways to meet new people and build connections in college include volunteering in the community, attending campus events, joining a study group, and finding a sports league or club that interests you. If you’re finding it difficult to make friends, mental health resources are available.

• What Is Life Like As A College Student? Considerations For Your Mental Health Medically reviewed by April Justice , LICSW
• Tips For Creating A Morning Routine As A College Student Medically reviewed by Julie Dodson , MA
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Pioneers Present at Media Literacy Symposium in the Azores

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Students shared their perspectives on media’s impact with 150 conference attendees

A group of Sacred Heart University students and alumni recently presented their research at the International Media Literacy Research Symposium (IMLRS) at the Ponta Delgada Public Library and Regional Archive in the Azores, an archipelago of Portugal.

The conference was an opportunity for attendees to present their findings, engage with international experts and contribute to ongoing conversations about media literacy education. The SHU group’s research highlighted college students’ unique perspectives and experiences and contributed valuable insights to the broader discourse on media literacy.

Founded in 2013 by Belinha De Abreu , adjunct professor in SHU’s communication studies department , the IMLRS brings together new and established researchers from around the world who are studying media literacy education. The biyearly conference fills a research gap with findings from current scholars, graduate students, educators and others interested in moving media literacy forward.

The students selected to present at the conference were enrolled in De Abreu’s media literacy course, where they studied how to be media literate in a world of misinformation and disinformation. Their research explored various aspects of media literacy, such as social media’s impact on political engagement, the media’s role in shaping public opinion and the importance of critical thinking in navigating the digital landscape. The group of students and alumni presenting included Alejandro J. Ramos ’23, Mollie Lewis ’24, Collin Moura ’25, Caitlyn Natosi ’24, Molly Jacob ’24, Julie Dunn ’24 and Jack Walsh ’25. Taciane Batista , an adjunct professor in the School of Communication, Media & the Arts , also presented a roundtable on “AI and Media Literacy.”

“Being a panelist at this conference was very empowering,” said Dunn. “Being among such inspiring and established individuals really opened my eyes to the change we can make in the world.”

“As some of the youngest panelists attending the conference, we had a different perspective,” she added. “While this could have been very belittling, I felt like my insights were valued and held their weight in the conversation.”

The students’ project was a culmination of a year’s worth of work with De Abreu upon receiving the SHU Academics for Creative Teaching (ACT) grant on the topic, “Talking Past Each Other: Relearning Respectful Discourse in a Mediated World.” Students were selected from the media literacy course to enroll in a special research cohort during the fall of 2023. As part of this research group, they had read three books: Never Thought of It That Way: How to Have Fearlessly Curious Conversations in Dangerously Divided Times  by Monica Guzman,  Reclaiming Conversation  by Sherry Turkle and High Conflict: Why We Get Trapped and How We Get Out of It  by Amanda Ripley. Student collaborations resulted in deep discussions and writings as well as the production of a documentary by Dunn called Look Up . This work, including the documentary, was shared at the symposium.

Ramos said the IMLRS was different from other conferences he has attended. “I had three presentations and was excited when they sparked fruitful conversations,” he said. “Experts in the field not only offered me advice, but they also said they had never viewed these issues from my perspective. I felt a sense of community with all the attendees, no matter their level of expertise. I will forever be thankful to Dr. De Abreu for this opportunity.”

De Abreu is grateful her students experienced the conference and that they had a chance to travel internationally. She said it is crucial for students to realize media literacy’s global connections, and attending a gathering abroad added to their understanding.

Walsh agreed that the global perspective was important. “Going to the Azores and learning about media literacy on a global scale was very interesting,” he said. “As college students who consume media on a daily basis, we appreciated the chance to share our perspectives with professionals from all over the world.”

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• v.28(4); 2021 Apr

Effect of social media use on learning, social interactions, and sleep duration among university students ☆

Manjur kolhar.

a Dept. Computer Science, College of Arts and Science, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Wadi Ad Dawser 11990, Saudi Arabia

Raisa Nazir Ahmed Kazi

b College of Applied Medical Science, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Wadi Ad Dawser 11990, Saudi Arabia

c Dept. of Physiology, Al-Ameen Medical College, Bijapur, Karnataka 586108, India

Abdalla Alameen

Associated data.

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Social networking sites are widely used by university students. This study investigated the purposes for which social networking sites are used and their effects on learning, social interaction, and sleep duration.

Material and methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 300, 17–29-year-old female students at Prince Sattam bin Abdul Aziz University. A questionnaire was used to collect data. Chi-squared (Fisher’s exact test) test was used to analyze the data.

The results showed that 97% of the students used social media applications. Only 1% of them used social media for academic purposes. Whereas 35% of them used these platforms to chat with others, 43% of them browsed these sites to pass time. Moreover, 57% of them were addicted to social media. Additionally, 52% of them reported that social media use had affected their learning activities, 66% of them felt more drawn toward social media than toward academic activities, and 74% of them spent their free time on social media platforms. The most popular applications (i.e., based on usage) were Snapchat (45%), Instagram (22%), Twitter (18%), and WhatsApp (7%). Further, 46% and 39% of them reported going to bed between 11 pm and 12 am and between 1 am and 2 am, respectively. Finally, 68% of them attributed their delayed bedtime to social media use, and 59% of them reported that social media had affected their social interactions.

Conclusions

A majority of the participants reported prolonged use of social networking sites for nonacademic purposes. These habitual behaviors can distract students from their academic work, adversely affect their academic performance, social interactions, and sleep duration, and lead to a sedentary lifestyle and physical inactivity, which in turn can render them vulnerable to non-communicable diseases and mental health problems.

1. Introduction

Social networking sites and applications are widely used by students. They spend a lot of their time on these sites as a part of their daily lives. Studies revealed that among the various age groups of students, university students are among the most using social networking ( Azizi et al., 2019 ). Social networking sites play a very important role in education. Indeed, students are afforded multiple opportunities to improve learning and access the latest information by connecting with learning groups and other educational systems ( Greenhow and Robelia, 2009 ). Students can also exchange information by connecting with different individuals. This can have a positive impact on student learning outcomes ( Yu et al., 2010 ). Social media also has an impact on student mental health; which refers to their emotional, psychological, and social well-being. University students spend a lot of their time on social media both during the day and at night, and it can be contended that such technologies play an important role in their daily lives. However, despite their tremendous contributions to knowledge acquisition, there is a need to determine whether such technologies are being used to gain knowledge or for other purposes that may lead to the harmful effects of technology misuse.”

Social media has more adverse effects than positive ones ( Woods and Scott, 2016 ). Since students tend to spend more time on social media other than educational purposes; this tends to cause distraction from the learning environment, affecting their academic progress ( Bekalu et al., 2019 , Hettiarachchi, 2014 ). Further, spending a lot of time on social networking sites can lead to a sedentary lifestyle and a decrease in daily physical activity levels, which in turn can render them vulnerable to noncommunicable diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and hypertension ( Melkevik et al., 2015 , Zou et al., 2019 , Hu et al., 2001 ). Additionally, social media use has negative effects on mental health and can lead to depression and anxiety. Therefore, because of the growing numbers of such sites and high demand for social media among university students, it is important to examine the purposes for which social networking sites are used. This study aimed to examine social media use patterns among students. Specifically, we sought to examine the following aspects in this study:

• 1. Duration of time spent on social media platforms during the day and at night
• 2. Purposes for which social media platforms are used and the percentage of students who use social media
• 3. Bedtime, sleep duration, and the time of departure to college
• 4. Effect of social media use on learning and distraction from learning activities
• 5. Effect of social media use on relationships with family members and friends

2. Material and methods

This study was conducted among 300 women, who were students at Prince Sattam bin Abdul Aziz University in Wadi Ad-dawasir. A questionnaire was used to collect data across 4 months (i.e., September to December 2019). The participants provided consent before responding to the survey. This study was conducted among full time students who were willing to participate in the study and honestly answer all the questions. The questions were simple, easy, and translated in Arabic language for a better understanding of the questions. The objective was to obtain accurate information from non-English speaking students. Students who did not respond to the questions appropriately were excluded from the study. Prior to data collection, they were informed about the objectives and methods of the study. The researcher distributed the questionnaire to the students and requested them to read the questions carefully and answer all the questions accurately and honestly. The collected data were kept confidential. The questionnaire assessed the following variables: age, time spent on the internet to use social media (hours), most frequently used social networking site, sleep duration, purposes for which social media platforms were used (academic purposes, chatting, gaming, or movie viewing), time at which college starts, effect of social media use on relationships with family members and friends, social media preoccupation and distraction from academic or learning activities.

2.1. Statistical analyses

Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were conducted. Continuous variables were examined by computing means, SDs, and ranges, whereas categorical variables were examined by computing frequencies and percentages (%). The significance level was set as 5%. The significance of the difference in categorical variables between two or more groups was examined using the chi-squared test (Fisher’s exact test), which is a nonparametric test for qualitative data analysis. Fisher’s exact test was used when the cell frequencies were very low. Analysis of variance was used to test the significance of the difference in study parameters between three or more groups. SPSS 22.0 and R version 3.2.2 were used for data analysis, and Microsoft Word and Excel were used to generate graphs and tables.

Among 300, a total of 290 students (97%; Fig. 1 ) reported that they used social media applications. Participant ages ranged from 17 to 29 years. Moreover, 30% (n = 90) of them were aged 17–19 years, and 5% (n = 16) of them were aged 25–29 years. A majority of them were aged 20–24 years (65%, n = 194) ( Fig. 2 ).

Percentage of students who reported using social media.

Age distribution of the sample.

With regard to the purposes for which social media platforms were used, only 1% (n = 3, Fig. 3 ) of the students used social media for academic purposes. In contrast, 35% (n = 105, Fig. 3 ) of them used social media to chat with others (i.e., WhatsApp, Facebook, Snapchat), and 43% (n = 129, Fig. 3 ) of them browsed social networking sites to pass time. The other activities in which the students engaged are presented in Fig. 3 .

Purposes for which social media platforms were used by the students.

57% (n = 173) ( Table 1 ) of the students reported that they were addicted to social media. They were more likely to use such technologies to have fun and pass time than for learning purposes. These habits substantially affect academic performance, learning, and knowledge acquisition ( Abbas et al., 2019 ). Moreover, 52% (n = 157) ( Table 1 ) of the students reported that social media use had affected their learning activities significantly (p = 0.035), and 66% (n = 198) ( Table 1 ) of them felt more drawn toward social media than toward studies.

Effect of social media on study time and attraction towards social media than studies.

59% (n-176, Fig. 4 ) of the students reported that excessive social media use had exerted a negative effect on their relationships with their family members and friends and rendered face-to-face communication more challenging. Specifically, 74% (n = 222) ( Table 2 ) of them reported that they spent their free time on social media. In this study, the most widely used application was Snapchat (45%), followed by Instagram (22%), Twitter (18%), and WhatsApp (7%) (p = 0.016*) ( Fig. 7 ). Further, during the day, many students spent more than three hours on social media (57%) Fig. 5 . Similarly, at night, many students spent more than three hours on social media (34%) Fig. 6 .

Percentage of students who reported that social media use had affected their relationships with their family members and friends.

The time spent by students on social media.

Time spent on social media during the day.

Time spent on social media at night.

Most popular social media platforms among the students.

In this study, 46% (n = 139) ( Fig. 10 ) of the students reported going to bed between 11 pm and 12 am, and 39% (n = 118) ( Fig. 10 ) of them reported going to bed between 1 am to 2 am (p = 0.028). Moreover, 93% (n = 279) ( Fig. 9 ) of them left for college at 8 am in the morning, and 68% (n = 205) ( Fig. 8 ) of them attributed their delayed bed time to social media use.

Student perceptions of the effects of social media use on bedtime.

Student responses regarding the time at which their college starts.

Student responses regarding their bedtime.

4. Discussion

4.1. use of social media for academic purposes, addiction, preoccupation with social media use for nonacademic purposes.”, and distraction from learning or academic activities.

Social networking site use is prevalent among university students because of the availability of smartphones and easy access to such sites through home computers. Social media use reduces the amount of time that students spend on academic activities. In this study, only 1% ( Fig. 3 ) of the students used social media for academic purposes, and a majority of them (35–43%) used social media for nonacademic purposes to chat with others (i.e., WhatsApp, Facebook, Snapchat) and browsed social networking sites to pass time Fig. 3 . At present, social media platforms can be used to retrieve necessary information that serves educational purposes. However, social media use negatively affected the academic progress, and studies have shown a strong positive relationship between social media use and academic performance. Most participants used social media platforms to chat rather than for academic purposes. Past studies have found that students who spend more time on social media sites are likely to demonstrate poor academic performance. This is because they spend time chatting online and making friends on social media sites instead of reading books. This has a negative effect on their academic performance ( Owusu-Acheaw and Larson, 2015 , Abbas et al., 2019 ). Therefore, it is important to determine the duration of time that they spend on social media sites and the proportion of time that is spent on social media sites for academic purposes. 57% and 52% of the students reported that they were addicted to social media, and has significantly affected there learning activities (p = 0.035), and 66% of them are more attracted towards social media than studies ( Table 1 ). University students, especially those who feel addicted to social networking sites, access these platforms through their smartphones not only at home but also on campus. Social media plays an important role in education. However, because several social networking sites exist, students spend more time chatting, watching movies, shopping, and playing games rather than on educational activities ( Abbas et al., 2019 ). Because they felt drawn toward new social media platforms, they felt compelled to quickly complete their academic assignments and spend their remaining time playing games or chatting with others through social media platforms. Instead of spending their free time on fun in social media activities, students should use social media platforms for academic purposes or to search for new information and gain more knowledge to improve their academic performance. Failure to do so can have adverse effects on knowledge assimilation and lead to poor performance in competitive examinations. Social media use has increased substantially among university students. Social media use has both positive and negative effects. However, the negative effects are more pronounced because students tend to use such platforms to have fun and pass time rather than for academic purposes. This may distract them from learning and academic activities. This study determined the percentage of students who felt more drawn toward social media than toward academic activities and prioritizing of using social media for fun than academic purposes. The findings underscore the importance of creating awareness about the negative effects of such habits on academic performance among students. This will help students excel in academics and gain adequate knowledge, which in turn will enhance their performance in competitive examinations.

4.2. Effect of social media use (duration of use) on relationships with family members and friends.

In the present study 57% and 34% of the students spend more than three hours on social media during day and night ( Fig. 5 , Fig. 6 ), thus majority of the students spent a total of six hours on social media every day. Although spending a lot of time on one’s mobile phone is not considered to be an abnormal behavior pattern. However, prolonged social media use has mental health effects and young adults are the most vulnerable one.

Studies have shown that social media use is associated with mental disorders, including depression and anxiety ( Hu et al., 2001 ). Although. Social media helps individuals connect with others and develop new relationships. However, such relationships tend to be more formal and transient. Social media users tend to not share close and trusting relationships with their online friends. Moreover, these relationships cannot be compared to the relationships that are developed with friends and family members through face-to-face interactions. 59% of the students reported that excessive time spending on social media has negative impact on their relationship with family and friends. Relying solely on social media (i.e., without physical proximity) to build and maintain relationships can lead to loneliness, alienation, and depression ( Owusu-Acheaw and Larson, 2015 ). Smartphones create a psychological distance between individuals by decreasing face-to-face interactions between family members and friends; and this can negatively affect the quality of time spent on these relationships. This can have a significant effect on social well-being and satisfaction among friends ( Abbas et al., 2019 ). These changes have important behavioral and social implications. Face-to-face interpersonal communication is an important determinant of well-being. Therefore, individuals should spend their free time with their friends and families in person rather than through social media. This may have a more positive impact on mood, enhance psychological satisfaction, and prevent loneliness and depression. 74% (n = 222) ( Table 2 ) of them reported that they spent their free time on social media. In this study, the most widely used application was Snapchat (45%), followed by Instagram (22%), Twitter (18%), and WhatsApp (7%) (p = 0.016*) Figure −7. Further, extensive smartphone use can cause addiction and hamper one’s ability to enjoy his or her free time with family members and friends ( https://www.nationalelfservice.net/mental-health/depression/social-media-good-bad-experiences-impact-depression/ ). In addition, the continuous flow of information through nonstop use of social media can alter sensory perception because constant sensory overload affects learning and memory ( Rotondi et al., 2017 ). Spending one’s free time on social media is not only related to mental health problems but also decreases physical activity levels. This can lead to a sedentary lifestyle and increase one’s risk of developing non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and hypertension ( Melkevik et al., 2015 , Zou et al., 2019 , Hu et al., 2001 ).

Among adults, social media use leads to reduced physical activity and increased sitting durations. These changes in turn have a greater impact on the physiological mechanism. This is associated with impaired lipid profiles and glucose uptake, greater energy intake, higher waist circumferences, and greater mortality risk ( Sobaihy, 2017 , Healy et al., 2008b , Healy et al., 2007 ). Social media use increases sitting durations. As a result, sedentary behaviors are commonly observed. Past studies have found that such behaviors lead to increased caloric intake, reduced energy expenditure, and increased adiposity ( Bowman, 2006 ). This leads to the development of the biomarkers associated with cardiometabolic risk factors and an increase in the cardiovascular disease mortality rate. Additionally, weight gain, type 2 diabetes mellitus, some types of cancers, abnormal glucose metabolism, metabolic syndrome, and other cardiovascular risk factors are also associated with physical inactivity among adults. Moreover, it has been reported that there is a progressive increase in mortality rate for each 1-hour increment in sedentary time, and [this] is related to lipoprotein lipase activity ( Howard et al., 2008 , Hu et al., 2003 , Dunstan et al., 2005 , Dunstan et al., 2010 , Jakes et al., 2003 , Healy et al., 2008c , Hamilton et al., 2007 ). Physical inactivity and sedentary behaviors caused by prolonged sitting are associated with decreased skeletal muscle contractility, lipoprotein lipase activity, high-density lipoprotein levels, and reduced glucose uptake. Lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes plasma triglycerides in lipoproteins and is involved in promoting triglyceride cellular uptake. Reduced plasma lipoprotein lipase leads to decreased peripheral utilization of plasma triglycerides by adipose tissues, skeletal muscle tissues, and lactating mammary glands, which in turn leads to metabolic consequences because of increased plasma triglyceride levels and decreased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations ( Healy et al., 2008a , Healy et al., 2008c , Hamilton et al., 2007 ). Further, prolonged sitting halts the contractile actions of the large skeletal muscles in the legs, back, and trunk, which are involved in body movement. Thus, physical inactivity leads to low levels of skeletal muscle contraction and decreased calorie spending ( Hamilton et al., 2004 , Bey and Hamilton, 2003 ).

4.3. Effect of social media on sleep duration

According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, a minimum of 7 to 9 h of sleep (on a regular basis) is recommended. Sound sleep is associated with improved attention, behavior, learning, memory, emotional regulation, quality of life, and mental and physical health ( Bey and Hamilton, 2003 , Paruthi et al., 2016 ). Sleeping for fewer hours than the recommended duration on a regular basis is associated with attention, behavior, and learning problems. Late-night social media use is prevalent among adults. As a result, they do not get adequate sleep. Past studies have found that sleep disturbances caused by excessive social media use at night adversely affect daytime learning on campus and lead to poor concentration during lectures. Social media use confers many benefits by providing access to a wide range of information sources, which facilitate learning ( Greenhow and Robelia, 2009 ). However, instead of using social networking sites for academic purposes, students tend to be actively involved in online shopping, gaming, and entertainment during the day and at night. These habits distract them from academic activities, minimize their opportunities to gain knowledge, and result in poor academic performance among some students ( Yu et al., 2010 ). Because many students are addicted to social media and use such platforms for nonacademic purposes, it is important to determine the negative effects of social media use. In the present study it was observed that student go to late night sleep, they are deprived of good sleep duration as the college starts at 8 for about 93% of the students, and 68% of the students has reason social media for late night sleep. Sleep deprivation is rapidly becoming prevalent, and it has frequently been linked to late-night use of social networking sites, television viewing, and gaming. Mobile phone use before bedtime is a common habit among many young adults. In this study, 39% to 45% of the students slept for fewer hours than the recommended sleep duration because of late-night social media site use. This can lead to a delayed bedtime, sleep loss, and irregular sleep-wake patterns. Poor sleep quality results in increased tiredness during the day. Sleep has a significant effect on mood, and increasing sleep duration may enhance cognitive performance ( Unhealthy, 2009 ). Sleep restriction may have a negative effect on mood and cognitive function. In addition, social media contents and games may induce pre sleep hyperarousal. Limiting mobile phone use before bedtime may effectively improve sleep by reducing the impact of the light emitted by mobile phones on sleep and reducing the arousal induced by contents browsed on a mobile phone. Past studies have found that restricting mobile phone use at bedtime for four weeks can reduce sleep latency, pre-sleep arousal, and negative affect, increase sleep duration, enhance positive affect, and improve working memory. Sleep is a restorative process that is important for overall health. Sleep deprivation has a negative impact on health, including mental health, and it affects cognitive functioning, motor processes, and emotional stability. Sleep disturbance is also associated with an increased risk of metabolic disturbances such as obesity, hypertension, and diabetes ( Levenson et al., 2016 , Hanson and Huecker, 2019 , Hershner and Chervin, 2014 , Knutson and Van Cauter, 2008 ). Past studies have found that, in both normotensive and hypertensive individuals, sleep deprivation leads to a significant increase in blood pressure and elevated sympathetic nervous system activity ( Gangwisch et al., 2006 , Gangwisch, 2009 ). Elevated sympathetic nervous system activity is related to increased exposure to stress and shorter sleep durations, which in turn can increase salt appetite and suppress renal salt-fluid excretion. This can result in vascular and cardiac complications ( Folkow, 2001 , Bonnet and Arand, 1998 ). Other studies have found that elevated sympathetic nervous system activity associated with sleep disturbance causes glucose intolerance and increases the risk of type 2 diabetes ( Knutson and Van Cauter, 2008 ). Long-term treatment with melatonin (i.e., a night hormone that promotes sleep) can reduce blood pressure in hypertensive individuals ( Gonzalez-Ortiz et al., 2000 , Kawakami et al., 2004 , Scheer et al., 2004 , Beccuti and Pannain, 2011 ). Further, a growing body of empirical evidence yielded by laboratory and epidemiological studies suggests that poor sleep also increases the risk of obesity and associated complications ( Huang et al., 2003 ). Physiologic evidence suggests that short sleep durations contribute to weight gain by influencing appetite, physical activity levels, and thermoregulation. Sleep is an important modulator of neuroendocrine function, and sleep loss can result in endocrine alterations such as increased evening concentrations of cortisol, increased levels of ghrelin, and decreased levels of leptin. A decrease in leptin stimulates appetite and decreases energy expenditure, which in turn can contribute to the development of obesity ( Jean-Louis et al., 2014 ). Past studies have found that there is a strong greater relationship between obesity, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular diseases ( Vorona et al., 2005 , Abbasi et al., 2002 , Scheer et al., 2009 , Knutson et al., 2006 ). When circadian misalignment occurs, this combined effect may serve as a mechanism that underlies an increased risk for obesity, hypertension, and diabetes ( Kohatsu et al., 2006 ). Sleep deprivation has a negative effect on health and predisposes individuals to cardiovascular diseases, obesity, and diabetes at an early age. These habitual factors can be avoided or minimized by creating awareness and disseminating information. Adequate sleep can mitigate the health-related risk factors that are associated with sleep deprivation. The habits that contribute to sleep deprivation should be addressed by conducting awareness programs and implementing coordinated strategies in educational institutions. These efforts should be undertaken by healthcare professionals and academicians as well as within the family.

5. Conclusions

A majority of the students used social networking sites. Excessive social media use for non-academic purpose distracted them from their learning and academic activities and delayed their bed time, which in turn reduced their sleep duration. Further our study reported that, excessive social media use decreases social face to face interaction. This has a negative impact on social well-being and can lead to depression, anxiety, and mood swings. Additionally, late-night social media use reported in the present study can lead to chronic sleep restriction, which plays a significant role in the etiology of diseases associated with metabolic syndrome. Modern lifestyle habits are incompatible with the intrinsic attributes that we inherit. Therefore, interventions should educate individuals about healthier sleep-hygiene practices and help them modify their maladaptive sleep habits. Furthermore, spending a lot of time on social media can increase sitting durations and lower physical activity levels, which in turn can lead to a sedentary lifestyle. This can increase one’s risk of developing metabolic syndrome and chronic non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and obesity.

6. Adverse effects of social media during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic

Prolonged social media use for non-academic purposes, addiction of social media, distraction from learning, a lack of sleep, and decreased social interactions were reported by the participants of this study. These findings are more concerning at present because of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Because educational institutions have been closed to curb the spread of COVID-19, colleges and universities have adopted new teaching methods. Traditional teaching methods have been replaced with collaborative multimedia distance learning techniques. Consequently, universities have adopted distance learning strategies.

Traditional teaching methods (i.e., those adopted prior to the COVID-19 outbreak) require students to attend lectures in college. As a result, they spend lesser time on social networking sites, have shorter sitting durations, and engage in some level of physical activity. However, since the outbreak of COVID-19, online learning methods have been adopted. This has prolonged the duration of use of mobile devices and computers, which in turn have increased sitting durations and decreased physical activity levels. These changes may increase one’s risk of developing metabolic syndrome and non-communicable diseases. Additionally, the outbreak of COVID-19 precluded them from engaging in social interactions with their friends in college. This has also could have a negative effect on their mental health and resulting in loneliness and depression. Thus, the COVID-19 pandemic has a major impact on physical activity, face-to-face social interactions, and mental health and resulted in tremendous stress and anxiety. Excessive social media use, caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, could have a negative effects on learning. These changes can adversely affect the psychological health of students. Therefore, communities and families should pay more attention to mental health problems, physical inactivity, and social interactions among students to prevent depression and sedentary lifestyle and lower their risk of developing non-communicable diseases such as obesity, hypertension, and diabetes. These health problems can further strain the medical system, which is already combating a public health emergency. Therefore, to prevent non-communicable diseases and psychosocial stress, individuals should engage in home-based physical activities to ensure that they do not lead a sedentary lifestyle. During this pandemic period, staying active and engaging in routine physical exercise will play an essential role in maintaining mental and physical health. Thus, it is recommended to prevent the COVID-19 pandemic from generating unfavorable mental health issues and cardiovascular consequences due to acute cessation of physical activity.

7. Data availability

Declaration of competing interest.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

We appreciate the Research Deanship of Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, for providing research resources and equipment and various research programs to encourage research among faculty members.

This research is not funded by any resource.

☆ This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

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Britain’s Violent Riots: What We Know

Officials had braced for more unrest on Wednesday, but the night’s anti-immigration protests were smaller, with counterprotesters dominating the streets instead.

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By Lynsey Chutel

After days of violent rioting set off by disinformation around a deadly stabbing rampage, the authorities in Britain had been bracing for more unrest on Wednesday. But by nightfall, large-scale anti-immigration demonstrations had not materialized, and only a few arrests had been made nationwide.

Instead, streets in cities across the country were filled with thousands of antiracism protesters, including in Liverpool, where by late evening, the counterdemonstration had taken on an almost celebratory tone.

Over the weekend, the anti-immigration protests, organized by far-right groups, had devolved into violence in more than a dozen towns and cities. And with messages on social media calling for wider protests and counterprotests on Wednesday, the British authorities were on high alert.

With tensions running high, Prime Minister Keir Starmer’s cabinet held emergency meetings to discuss what has become the first crisis of his recently elected government. Some 6,000 specialist public-order police officers were mobilized nationwide to respond to any disorder, and the authorities in several cities and towns stepped up patrols.

Wednesday was not trouble-free, however.

In Bristol, the police said there was one arrest after a brick was thrown at a police vehicle and a bottle was thrown. In the southern city of Portsmouth, police officers dispersed a small group of anti-immigration protesters who had blocked a roadway. And in Belfast, Northern Ireland, where there have been at least four nights of unrest, disorder continued, and the police service said it would bring in additional officers.

But overall, many expressed relief that the fears of wide-scale violence had not been realized.

Here’s what we know about the turmoil in Britain.

Where arrests have been reported

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