essay about communication networks

What is Communication Network: Examples, Types, & Importance

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Definition of communication network

“Communication networks are the structures or patterns of connections among individuals or groups that facilitate the exchange of information, ideas, and resources within an organization.” – Dorothy Marcic , Richard L. Daft

What is a communication network?

A communication network refers to an interconnected system that enables the exchange and flow of information among individuals, teams, and departments. The communication network within an organization consists of various components such as hierarchies, departments, teams, and individuals, each with specific roles and responsibilities.

It may include both formal channels, such as official memos, emails, and hierarchical reporting lines, as well as informal channels, such as casual conversations, social networks, and grapevine communication.

The communication network within an organization plays a crucial role in promoting information sharing, fostering teamwork, sharing organizational goals, and ensuring smooth operations across departments and teams.

Diagram of communication network

Illutration-for-5-different-communication-networks

What are the 5 types of communication networks?

Communication networks play a crucial role in facilitating the flow of information within organizations. By understanding the different types of communication networks, organizations can optimize their internal communication and enhance collaboration among team members. Let’s explore five common types of communication networks:

1/ Wheel Network:

The Wheel Network is a communication network characterized by a central individual or hub that acts as the primary point of contact for all other members within the network. In this network, all communication channels flow through the central hub, and there are limited direct connections between other members. The central hub holds a position of authority or expertise, serving as a main point for information exchange.

Key Components and Structure:

Central Hub : The central hub is the main individual who holds a central position within the network. They are connected to all other members and serve as the primary point for communication and coordination.
Spoke Members : The spoke members are the individuals within the network who are connected directly to the central hub. They communicate with the hub to exchange information and may have limited direct communication with other spoke members.
Communication Channels : The communication channels in a wheel network primarily involve the hub sharing information with the spoke members and receiving inputs or feedback from them. The spoke members typically do not communicate directly with each other.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:

Centralized Communication : The central hub ensures that information flows efficiently as it is directly conveyed to all members.
Quick Decision-making : With a central point of contact, decision-making processes can be streamlined, leading to faster responses and actions.
Clear Chain of Command : The hierarchical structure of the wheel network provides clarity in terms of authority and reporting relationships.

Disadvantages:

Single Point of Failure : The wheel network is highly dependent on the central hub, and if the hub is unavailable or ineffective, communication and decision-making can be drastically hampered.
Limited Member Interaction : Direct communication between members is restricted, leading to potential information gaps and reduced collaboration.
Overburdened Hub : The central hub may become overwhelmed with information overload, as all communication flows through them.

Examples of Wheel Network:

CEO and Department Heads: In large organizations, the CEO often acts as the central hub, communicating with department heads who act as the spoke members. The CEO pass on information, receives updates and makes decisions based on inputs from the department heads.
Project Manager and Team Members : In project management, the project manager serves as the hub, coordinating and communicating with team members. The project manager conveys information, sets goals, and receives updates, while team members have limited direct communication with each other.

The wheel network is suitable for situations where clear direction and control are necessary, such as in hierarchical organizations or when a central authority figure is required. However, it may not be ideal when the central hub’s absence can significantly disrupt communication .

2/ Star Network:

The Star Network refers to a communication network structure where a central individual, typically a manager or supervisor, acts as the hub for information exchange within an organization. In this network, all communication channels flow through the central hub, and other members communicate directly with the hub rather than with each other. The hub serves as a primary point of contact, coordination, and decision-making.

Central Hub : The central hub is usually a manager, team leader, or supervisor who holds a position of authority or expertise. They serve as the primary point of communication and coordination for the team or department.
Team Members : The team members are connected directly to the central hub. They communicate with the hub to share information, seek guidance, provide updates, and receive instructions.
Communication Channels : Communication channels within a star network involve the hub sharing information, assigning tasks, providing feedback, and addressing inquiries or concerns raised by team members. Direct communication between team members is limited, and most communication flows through the hub.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Clear Reporting Structure : The star network establishes a clear reporting structure within the organization. Team members know who to communicate with, seek guidance from, and receive instructions.
Efficient Information Exchange : Communication flows directly between team members and the hub, ensuring that information is passed on accurately and promptly.
Limited Peer-to-Peer Interaction : Direct communication between team members is restricted in a star network, potentially limiting collaboration and problem-solving among team members.
Dependency on the Hub : If the central hub is unavailable or inaccessible, communication within the network may be prevented, causing delays and disruptions.

Examples of Start Network:

Department Managers: In an organization, department managers often act as central hubs within a star network. They communicate with their team members, provide guidance, allocate tasks, and ensure smooth coordination within the department.
Executive Leadership: In larger organizations, executive leaders can serve as central hubs, sharing important company-wide announcements, communicating strategic objectives, and receiving feedback from department heads.

In organizational communication, the star network facilitates a clear chain of command, efficient information flow, and centralized control. However, Organizations should consider the nature of their communication needs and the potential trade-offs when implementing a star network structure.

3/ Vertical Network:

The Vertical Network refers to a network structure where communication channels predominantly flow vertically up and down the hierarchical levels of an organization. It emphasizes the formal chain of command and follows the reporting relationships within the organization’s structure. Information primarily flows from superiors to subordinates or from subordinates to superiors, aligning with the hierarchical structure of the organization.

Key Components and Structure :

Higher-Level Management : This refers to the individuals occupying senior positions in the organizational hierarchy, such as executives, directors, or managers at the top level.
Lower-Level Employees : These are the individuals positioned at lower levels of the organizational hierarchy, including employees, team members, or workers.
Communication Channels : Communication channels in a vertical network mainly involve formal channels such as meetings, performance reviews, email exchanges, memos, and official reports. Communication flows vertically , from superiors to subordinates (downward communication) and from subordinates to superiors (upward communication).
Clear Direction : The vertical network ensures clear communication channels and established reporting relationships, providing subordinates with clear direction and instructions from their superiors.
Efficient Decision-making : When communication flows vertically, it allows superiors to make decisions based on information received from subordinates. This enables efficient decision-making processes aligned with organizational goals.
Delayed Communication : Communication may take longer to reach higher levels or receive responses from superiors, as it follows the formal chain of command. This can slow down decision-making processes and responsiveness.
Information Filtering : Communication within a vertical network may be subject to filtering or distortion as it passes through multiple levels of hierarchy. Important information may be diluted or altered, leading to miscommunication or incomplete understanding.

Examples of Vertical Networks:

Government Bureaucracies : Government organizations and bureaucracies typically operate using a vertical network structure. Information and directives flow down the hierarchical levels, ensuring adherence to established policies and procedures.

Organization-Structure-Ministry-OF-Parliamentary-Affairs-Government-of-India

Traditional Corporate Structures : Traditional hierarchical organizations, such as multinational corporations, often adopt a vertical network structure. Communication flows from executives to middle managers, who then pass it down to their respective teams and employees.

4/ Circuit Network:

The Circuit Network refers to a network structure where communication flows through predefined paths or circuits. In this network, messages are passed sequentially from one individual or department to the next until they reach the intended recipient. The circuit network operates on the principle of fixed routes and sequential transmission of information.

Circuit Paths : Circuit networks have predetermined paths or circuits through which information flows. Each path specifies the sequence of individuals or departments through which the message is transmitted.
Message Routing: Messages are routed through the established circuit paths, following the predetermined order of recipients. Each recipient receives the message, processes it, and forwards it to the next recipient in the circuit.
Sequential Transmission : Circuit networks ensure that messages are transmitted in a predetermined sequence, ensuring that each recipient receives the message in a specific order.
Reduced Miscommunication : By following fixed paths, circuit networks can minimize the potential for miscommunication or information distortion that may occur in networks with more open communication channels.
Control and Tracking : Circuit networks allow for better control and tracking of message flow, as each step of the circuit can be monitored and managed.
Delayed Communication : Circuit networks may introduce delays in communication as messages need to follow a predefined path. If any recipient is unavailable or slow in forwarding the message, it can impact the overall speed of information shared.
Lack of Flexibility: Circuit networks can be inflexible, as they follow predetermined paths. If there is a need to deviate from the established circuit, it may require additional effort or may not be possible within the network structure.

Examples of Circuit Networks:

Approval Processes: Circuit networks are commonly used for approval processes within organizations. For instance, in a document approval process, the document passes through predetermined circuits, such as managers or department heads, for review and approval before reaching the final recipient.
Sequential Workflows : Certain workflow processes, such as quality control in manufacturing, follow circuit networks. Each step or station in the process has a specific role and passes the product to the next step until it is completed.

5/ Chain Network:

The Chain Network refers to a linear communication structure where messages flow sequentially from one individual to the next in a chain-like fashion. In this network, communication typically starts from a sender and is passed along through a series of individuals until it reaches the final recipient. Each individual in the chain network communicates directly with only two other individuals – the one who sent the message and the one to whom the message is passed.

Sender : The sender is the individual who initiates the cycle of communication by transmitting a message to the first recipient in the chain.
Recipients : Recipients are the individuals who receive the message from the previous sender and pass it along to the next recipient in the chain.
Sequential Communication : Messages flow sequentially from one recipient to the next, following a linear pattern until reaching the final recipient.
Clear Communication Path : The chain network establishes a clear communication path, ensuring that each individual knows who they receive the message from and who they pass it to.
Simplicity : The chain network is straightforward, with communication moving in a linear fashion, reducing complexity and potential confusion.
Direct Feedback : The chain network allows for direct feedback as the final recipient can respond back to the sender, fostering a more immediate reception in the communication process .
Message Distortion : As messages pass through multiple individuals in the chain, there is a higher likelihood of message distortion, especially if the message is not accurately conveyed at each step.
Slow Transmission : Messages in a chain network may take longer to reach the final recipient, especially if there are delays in the communication flow. This can result in slower decision-making and response times.
Lack of Flexibility : The linear nature of the chain network limits lateral communication and collaboration, as individuals typically interact only with the sender and the immediate recipient.

Examples of Chain Networks:

Rumor Mill: Informal communication networks, often referred to as the “grapevine” or “rumor mill,” can resemble a chain network. In such networks, information spreads from one person to another sequentially, without the involvement of formal channels.

Related Reading : What is the grapevine in communication

Message Relay : Chain networks can be seen in situations where messages need to be conveyed from one department or team to another within an organization. Each department passes the message along to the next department until it reaches the final recipient.

Types of Communication Networks in Organizations by different directions

Understanding the following communication networks and directions helps organizations establish effective channels for information exchange, collaboration, and decision-making. The most common communication direction in organizations are:

1/ Upward Communication : Upward communication flows from lower levels to higher levels of the hierarchy. Such as employees providing feedback, suggestions, reports, or seeking guidance from their superiors.

2/ Downward Communication : Downward communication flows from upper hierarchies to lower hierarchies. Such as, superiors transmit instructions, goals, policies, performance feedback, and organizational announcements to subordinates.

3/ Horizontal Communication : Also known as lateral communication , it occurs between peers or colleagues at the same hierarchical level, facilitating collaboration, coordination, and the exchange of information or ideas across different departments or teams.

4/ Diagonal Communication : Communication cuts across hierarchical levels and departments, enabling collaboration and information sharing to achieve specific goals or solve problems. The importance of diagonal communication is that It bridges gaps and enhances coordination across the organization.

Importance of a communication network in an organization

The importance of a communication network in an organization cannot be overstated. Here are some key reasons why communication networks are crucial:

1/ Conflict Resolution : Communication networks play a vital role in resolving conflicts within an organization. They provide platforms for open and constructive dialogue, allowing individuals or teams to address issues, clarify misunderstandings, and find mutually beneficial solutions.

2/ Employee Engagement and Morale : Effective communication networks contribute to high employee engagement and morale. When employees feel informed and valued, they are more likely to be motivated and productive in their work .

3/ Organizational Alignment : A communication network helps align individuals and departments within an organization. It ensures that everyone is aware of the organization’s objectives, strategies, and changes. This alignment promotes consistency and a shared understanding of organizational goals.

4/ Efficient Information Flow: An effectively structured communication network guarantees the seamless and efficient circulation of information across the entire organization. It enables the sharing of important messages, instructions, goals, and updates, facilitating effective coordination and decision-making.

5/ Collaboration and Teamwork: Communication networks foster collaboration and teamwork by providing channels for individuals and teams to exchange ideas and work together towards common goals. It encourages cooperation and problem-solving among employees.

Communication networks in business communication

Communication networks in business communication refer to the structures or patterns through which information is exchanged among individuals or departments within a business or organization. These networks determine how communication flows, who interacts with whom, and the channels used for sharing information.

Communication networks help establish effective channels, and connections among employees, facilitating the exchange of ideas within the process of business communication . A well-designed communication network promotes efficient information sharing, enhances teamwork, and plays a vital role in driving the overall success and productivity of the organization.

Comparison of communication network

In comparing different communication networks, there are both similarities and differences to consider.

Similarities:

All communication networks aim to facilitate the exchange of information within an organization.
They provide channels for communication, enabling individuals or departments to connect and share information.
Communication networks help establish structure and patterns for information flow and collaboration.

Differences:

The structure and flow of communication differ among network types. For example, the wheel network revolves around a central hub, while the chain network follows a sequential path.
The level of direct interaction between network members varies. Some networks promote direct peer-to-peer communication (e.g., star network), while others emphasize communication through a central hub (e.g., wheel network).
Communication networks have varying degrees of flexibility, scalability, and adaptability to different organizational needs.

Factors Influencing the Choice of Network:

Several factors influence the choice of a communication network in an organization:

1/ Organizational Structure : The hierarchical structure and reporting relationships within the organization play a role in determining the most suitable network. For example, a vertical network may align well with a highly formal organization.

Related Reading : Difference between a formal and informal organization structure

2/ Collaboration Requirements : The extent of collaboration and teamwork required within the organization influences the choice of network. Networks that promote direct interaction between members (e.g., star network) may be favored for fostering collaboration.

3/ Organizational Culture : The organization’s values, norms, and communication preferences may impact the choice of network. Some cultures may emphasize centralized communication and decision-making (e.g., wheel network), while others prioritize decentralized and inclusive communication (e.g., horizontal network).

What is the role of a communication network in information exchange

Communication networks play a crucial role in facilitating the exchange of information within organizations. They provide a framework for people to share opinions, and important messages with one another. Here are some key roles that communication networks fulfill in information exchange:

1/ Sharing Information: Communication networks allow individuals and departments to share relevant information with each other. It enables the sharing of updates, announcements, policies, and procedures across the organization. This ensures that every individual has the necessary access to information required for optimal performance in their respective roles.

2/ Coordination and Collaboration: Communication networks facilitate coordination and collaboration among individuals and teams. They enable employees to communicate, share ideas, and work together on projects and tasks. Through these networks, employees can exchange thoughts, seek clarifications, and coordinate their efforts, fostering a sense of teamwork and synergy within the organization.

3/ Decision-Making Support: Communication networks play a crucial role in supporting decision-making processes. They allow relevant information to be conveyed to decision-makers, enabling them to gather insights, consider different perspectives, and make informed choices. By providing a platform for information exchange, networks contribute to well-informed decision-making that aligns with organizational goals.

4/ Feedback and Evaluation: Communication networks enable the exchange of feedback, both positive and constructive, among team members and between employees and managers. This feedback loop facilitates individual performance improvement and enables the identification of areas for growth. It also provides a mechanism for evaluating progress and making necessary adjustments.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1) what is an example of a communication network.

Ans: One example of a communication network is the “Wheel Network.” In this network, communication flows through a central individual or hub that acts as the primary point of contact and coordination. All members of the network communicate with the central hub, while direct communication between members is limited.

Q2) What are the 5 different communication networks?

Ans: There are five different communication networks commonly observed in organizations: Wheel, Star, Vertical, Circuit, and Chain networks. Each network offers unique advantages and considerations for successful communication and collaboration within organizations.

Q3) What is a communication network and its types?

Ans: A communication network refers to the framework through which information circulates within an organization. There are different types of communication networks, including the Wheel, Star, Vertical, Circuit, and Chain networks. Each network type has its own characteristics and implications for communication and collaboration within organizations.

Q4) Which communication network is best?

Ans: The Star network is considered to be a commonly preferred communication network for its efficient information exchange and direct communication channels with the central hub.

Q5) What are the three communication networks?

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Communication Networks

Communication networks within a firm include wheel network, chain network, circle network, and all-channel network. Wheel network is a form of communication network where information is acquired from one central point to the rest of the employees. There is minimal involvement of employees in the decision-making process as the source is the final decision maker.

Chain Network involves a sequential system where members communicate with each other. Here, employees communicate in an already planned series; therefore, this type does not encourage team involvement. Circle Network is a form that calls for commonality in issues like background, beliefs, and areas of specialization. Information flows among a group of people with the same characteristics in a firm as described above.

All-Channel Network involves the engagement of all team members in information transfer. In this network, information flows in all directions, as an employee can communicate with other fellow team members. Task interdependence is the degree of dependence of one activity to another or the extent to which actions are related.

In the manufacturing field, it involves a description of how different businesses rely on one another at the production phase. There are three types of task interdependence namely, pooled interdependence, sequential interdependence, and reciprocal interdependence.

Formal working groups that one is likely to find in an organization are virtual teams, self-managed teams, problem-solving teams, and cross-functional teams. Virtual teams are those that apply computer technology to make members who are not close to each other feel part of the organization thus encouraging them to work towards achieving the organization’s strategic objectives.

Self-managed teams are those that tasked with the role of their former supervisors such as determining work assignments, organizing breaks, and exercising collective control over the tempo of work. They are mostly made up of 10 to 15 individuals.

On the other hand, problem-solving teams are workers from the same department who meet to forecast on the future of their business by discussing how to improve efficiency, work environment, and quality. Lastly, cross-functional teams comprise of employees of the same capacity or hierarchical level but are from different departments, who work together to complete a given activity.

The five stages of Tuckman’s model of group development include forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Under the forming stage, group members meet for the first time to discuss the goals and objectives of the project and even their roles in the project team. Notably, the team leader clarifies the team goals and the direction the project will take.

It is the orientation stage. At the storming stage, each member comes up with his/her opinion on how the project should run. This causes conflict on a possible way forward, but under the guidance of the group leader, the members learn to solve the challenges together. The norming stage involves the establishment of the rules of engagement after arguing with each other at the earlier stage.

This makes them understand each other better than before. Performing stage is where team members settle down to work independently with high flexibility. The members understand each other well; therefore, they remain focused to achieve the goals at hand. The adjourning stage involves the disengagement stage. It comes when the members have completed the task that was beforehand.

Organizations should always have transformational leaders. The current dynamic market and organizational instability require a leader who can motivate or inspire their workforce to work beyond the set targets. These types of leaders should be in all the departments of an organization, as they are visionary, risk-takers, and entrepreneurial. The employees will experience job satisfaction thus increasing the profitability.

It is sensible for a manager to develop an individualized relationship with each follower. Since people have individual differences, the manager will be able to understand and handle the issues of an individual separately. This approach also makes an employee feel recognized by the top management thereby increasing loyalty.

However, in a large firm, an attempt by the manager to develop an individualized relationship will be time-consuming. Also, other employees will feel neglected and view this approach are encouraging favoritism thus lowering their moral in the work environment.

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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Social Networking — Importance of Networking

Importance of Networking

Categories: Social Networking

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Understanding networking, benefits of networking, strategies for effective networking, 1. career opportunities, 2. knowledge and skill enhancement, 3. business growth and collaboration, 4. personal development, 1. be genuine and authentic, 2. attend networking events, 3. leverage digital platforms, 4. follow up and stay connected, 5. offer value.

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11.2 The Evolution of the Internet

Learning objectives.

Define protocol and decentralization as they relate to the early Internet.
Identify technologies that made the Internet accessible.
Explain the causes and effects of the dot-com boom and crash.

From its early days as a military-only network to its current status as one of the developed world’s primary sources of information and communication, the Internet has come a long way in a short period of time. Yet there are a few elements that have stayed constant and that provide a coherent thread for examining the origins of the now-pervasive medium. The first is the persistence of the Internet—its Cold War beginnings necessarily influencing its design as a decentralized, indestructible communication network.

The second element is the development of rules of communication for computers that enable the machines to turn raw data into useful information. These rules, or protocols , have been developed through consensus by computer scientists to facilitate and control online communication and have shaped the way the Internet works. Facebook is a simple example of a protocol: Users can easily communicate with one another, but only through acceptance of protocols that include wall posts, comments, and messages. Facebook’s protocols make communication possible and control that communication.

These two elements connect the Internet’s origins to its present-day incarnation. Keeping them in mind as you read will help you comprehend the history of the Internet, from the Cold War to the Facebook era.

The History of the Internet

The near indestructibility of information on the Internet derives from a military principle used in secure voice transmission: decentralization . In the early 1970s, the RAND Corporation developed a technology (later called “packet switching”) that allowed users to send secure voice messages. In contrast to a system known as the hub-and-spoke model, where the telephone operator (the “hub”) would patch two people (the “spokes”) through directly, this new system allowed for a voice message to be sent through an entire network, or web, of carrier lines, without the need to travel through a central hub, allowing for many different possible paths to the destination.

During the Cold War, the U.S. military was concerned about a nuclear attack destroying the hub in its hub-and-spoke model; with this new web-like model, a secure voice transmission would be more likely to endure a large-scale attack. A web of data pathways would still be able to transmit secure voice “packets,” even if a few of the nodes—places where the web of connections intersected—were destroyed. Only through the destruction of all the nodes in the web could the data traveling along it be completely wiped out—an unlikely event in the case of a highly decentralized network.

This decentralized network could only function through common communication protocols. Just as we use certain protocols when communicating over a telephone—“hello,” “goodbye,” and “hold on for a minute” are three examples—any sort of machine-to-machine communication must also use protocols. These protocols constitute a shared language enabling computers to understand each other clearly and easily.

The Building Blocks of the Internet

In 1973, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) began research on protocols to allow computers to communicate over a distributed network . This work paralleled work done by the RAND Corporation, particularly in the realm of a web-based network model of communication. Instead of using electronic signals to send an unending stream of ones and zeros over a line (the equivalent of a direct voice connection), DARPA used this new packet-switching technology to send small bundles of data. This way, a message that would have been an unbroken stream of binary data—extremely vulnerable to errors and corruption—could be packaged as only a few hundred numbers.

Figure 11.2

Centralized versus distributed communication networks

Imagine a telephone conversation in which any static in the signal would make the message incomprehensible. Whereas humans can infer meaning from “Meet me [static] the restaurant at 8:30” (we replace the static with the word at ), computers do not necessarily have that logical linguistic capability. To a computer, this constant stream of data is incomplete—or “corrupted,” in technological terminology—and confusing. Considering the susceptibility of electronic communication to noise or other forms of disruption, it would seem like computer-to-computer transmission would be nearly impossible.

However, the packets in this packet-switching technology have something that allows the receiving computer to make sure the packet has arrived uncorrupted. Because of this new technology and the shared protocols that made computer-to-computer transmission possible, a single large message could be broken into many pieces and sent through an entire web of connections, speeding up transmission and making that transmission more secure.

One of the necessary parts of a network is a host. A host is a physical node that is directly connected to the Internet and “directs traffic” by routing packets of data to and from other computers connected to it. In a normal network, a specific computer is usually not directly connected to the Internet; it is connected through a host. A host in this case is identified by an Internet protocol, or IP, address (a concept that is explained in greater detail later). Each unique IP address refers to a single location on the global Internet, but that IP address can serve as a gateway for many different computers. For example, a college campus may have one global IP address for all of its students’ computers, and each student’s computer might then have its own local IP address on the school’s network. This nested structure allows billions of different global hosts, each with any number of computers connected within their internal networks. Think of a campus postal system: All students share the same global address (1000 College Drive, Anywhere, VT 08759, for example), but they each have an internal mailbox within that system.

The early Internet was called ARPANET, after the U.S. Advanced Research Projects Agency (which added “Defense” to its name and became DARPA in 1973), and consisted of just four hosts: UCLA, Stanford, UC Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. Now there are over half a million hosts, and each of those hosts likely serves thousands of people (Central Intelligence Agency). Each host uses protocols to connect to an ever-growing network of computers. Because of this, the Internet does not exist in any one place in particular; rather, it is the name we give to the huge network of interconnected computers that collectively form the entity that we think of as the Internet. The Internet is not a physical structure; it is the protocols that make this communication possible.

Figure 11.3

A TCP gateway is like a post office because of the way that it directs information to the correct location.

One of the other core components of the Internet is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) gateway. Proposed in a 1974 paper, the TCP gateway acts “like a postal service (Cerf, et. al., 1974).” Without knowing a specific physical address, any computer on the network can ask for the owner of any IP address, and the TCP gateway will consult its directory of IP address listings to determine exactly which computer the requester is trying to contact. The development of this technology was an essential building block in the interlinking of networks, as computers could now communicate with each other without knowing the specific address of a recipient; the TCP gateway would figure it all out. In addition, the TCP gateway checks for errors and ensures that data reaches its destination uncorrupted. Today, this combination of TCP gateways and IP addresses is called TCP/IP and is essentially a worldwide phone book for every host on the Internet.

You’ve Got Mail: The Beginnings of the Electronic Mailbox

E-mail has, in one sense or another, been around for quite a while. Originally, electronic messages were recorded within a single mainframe computer system. Each person working on the computer would have a personal folder, so sending that person a message required nothing more than creating a new document in that person’s folder. It was just like leaving a note on someone’s desk (Peter, 2004), so that the person would see it when he or she logged onto the computer.

However, once networks began to develop, things became slightly more complicated. Computer programmer Ray Tomlinson is credited with inventing the naming system we have today, using the @ symbol to denote the server (or host, from the previous section). In other words, [email protected] tells the host “gmail.com” (Google’s e-mail server) to drop the message into the folder belonging to “name.” Tomlinson is credited with writing the first network e-mail using his program SNDMSG in 1971. This invention of a simple standard for e-mail is often cited as one of the most important factors in the rapid spread of the Internet, and is still one of the most widely used Internet services.

The use of e-mail grew in large part because of later commercial developments, especially America Online, that made connecting to e-mail much easier than it had been at its inception. Internet service providers (ISPs) packaged e-mail accounts with Internet access, and almost all web browsers (such as Netscape, discussed later in the section) included a form of e-mail service. In addition to the ISPs, e-mail services like Hotmail and Yahoo! Mail provided free e-mail addresses paid for by small text ads at the bottom of every e-mail message sent. These free “webmail” services soon expanded to comprise a large part of the e-mail services that are available today. Far from the original maximum inbox sizes of a few megabytes, today’s e-mail services, like Google’s Gmail service, generally provide gigabytes of free storage space.

E-mail has revolutionized written communication. The speed and relatively inexpensive nature of e-mail makes it a prime competitor of postal services—including FedEx and UPS—that pride themselves on speed. Communicating via e-mail with someone on the other end of the world is just as quick and inexpensive as communicating with a next-door neighbor. However, the growth of Internet shopping and online companies such as Amazon.com has in many ways made the postal service and shipping companies more prominent—not necessarily for communication, but for delivery and remote business operations.

Hypertext: Web 1.0

In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, a graduate of Oxford University and software engineer at CERN (the European particle physics laboratory), had the idea of using a new kind of protocol to share documents and information throughout the local CERN network. Instead of transferring regular text-based documents, he created a new language called hypertext markup language (HTML). Hypertext was a new word for text that goes beyond the boundaries of a single document. Hypertext can include links to other documents (hyperlinks), text-style formatting, images, and a wide variety of other components. The basic idea is that documents can be constructed out of a variety of links and can be viewed just as if they are on the user’s computer.

This new language required a new communication protocol so that computers could interpret it, and Berners-Lee decided on the name hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). Through HTTP, hypertext documents can be sent from computer to computer and can then be interpreted by a browser, which turns the HTML files into readable web pages. The browser that Berners-Lee created, called World Wide Web, was a combination browser-editor, allowing users to view other HTML documents and create their own (Berners-Lee, 2009).

Figure 11.4

Tim Berners-Lee’s first web browser was also a web page editor.

Modern browsers, like Microsoft Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox, only allow for the viewing of web pages; other increasingly complicated tools are now marketed for creating web pages, although even the most complicated page can be written entirely from a program like Windows Notepad. The reason web pages can be created with the simplest tools is the adoption of certain protocols by the most common browsers. Because Internet Explorer, Firefox, Apple Safari, Google Chrome, and other browsers all interpret the same code in more or less the same way, creating web pages is as simple as learning how to speak the language of these browsers.

In 1991, the same year that Berners-Lee created his web browser, the Internet connection service Q-Link was renamed America Online, or AOL for short. This service would eventually grow to employ over 20,000 people, on the basis of making Internet access available (and, critically, simple) for anyone with a telephone line. Although the web in 1991 was not what it is today, AOL’s software allowed its users to create communities based on just about any subject, and it only required a dial-up modem—a device that connects any computer to the Internet via a telephone line—and the telephone line itself.

In addition, AOL incorporated two technologies—chat rooms and Instant Messenger—into a single program (along with a web browser). Chat rooms allowed many users to type live messages to a “room” full of people, while Instant Messenger allowed two users to communicate privately via text-based messages. The most important aspect of AOL was its encapsulation of all these once-disparate programs into a single user-friendly bundle. Although AOL was later disparaged for customer service issues like its users’ inability to deactivate their service, its role in bringing the Internet to mainstream users was instrumental (Zeller Jr., 2005).

In contrast to AOL’s proprietary services, the World Wide Web had to be viewed through a standalone web browser. The first of these browsers to make its mark was the program Mosaic, released by the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois. Mosaic was offered for free and grew very quickly in popularity due to features that now seem integral to the web. Things like bookmarks, which allow users to save the location of particular pages without having to remember them, and images, now an integral part of the web, were all inventions that made the web more usable for many people (National Center for Supercomputing Appliances).

Although the web browser Mosaic has not been updated since 1997, developers who worked on it went on to create Netscape Navigator, an extremely popular browser during the 1990s. AOL later bought the Netscape company, and the Navigator browser was discontinued in 2008, largely because Netscape Navigator had lost the market to Microsoft’s Internet Explorer web browser, which came preloaded on Microsoft’s ubiquitous Windows operating system. However, Netscape had long been converting its Navigator software into an open-source program called Mozilla Firefox, which is now the second-most-used web browser on the Internet (detailed in Table 11.1 “Browser Market Share (as of February 2010)” ) (NetMarketshare). Firefox represents about a quarter of the market—not bad, considering its lack of advertising and Microsoft’s natural advantage of packaging Internet Explorer with the majority of personal computers.

Table 11.1 Browser Market Share (as of February 2010)

Browser	Total Market Share
Microsoft Internet Explorer	62.12%
Firefox	24.43%
Chrome	5.22%
Safari	4.53%
Opera	2.38%
Source:

For Sale: The Web

As web browsers became more available as a less-moderated alternative to AOL’s proprietary service, the web became something like a free-for-all of startup companies. The web of this period, often referred to as Web 1.0, featured many specialty sites that used the Internet’s ability for global, instantaneous communication to create a new type of business. Another name for this free-for-all of the 1990s is the “dot-com boom.” During the boom, it seemed as if almost anyone could build a website and sell it for millions of dollars. However, the “dot-com crash” that occurred later that decade seemed to say otherwise. Quite a few of these Internet startup companies went bankrupt, taking their shareholders down with them. Alan Greenspan, then the chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve, called this phenomenon “irrational exuberance (Greenspan, 1996),” in large part because investors did not necessarily know how to analyze these particular business plans, and companies that had never turned a profit could be sold for millions. The new business models of the Internet may have done well in the stock market, but they were not necessarily sustainable. In many ways, investors collectively failed to analyze the business prospects of these companies, and once they realized their mistakes (and the companies went bankrupt), much of the recent market growth evaporated. The invention of new technologies can bring with it the belief that old business tenets no longer apply, but this dangerous belief—the “irrational exuberance” Greenspan spoke of—is not necessarily conducive to long-term growth.

Some lucky dot-com businesses formed during the boom survived the crash and are still around today. For example, eBay, with its online auctions, turned what seemed like a dangerous practice (sending money to a stranger you met over the Internet) into a daily occurrence. A less-fortunate company, eToys.com , got off to a promising start—its stock quadrupled on the day it went public in 1999—but then filed for Chapter 11 “The Internet and Social Media” bankruptcy in 2001 (Barnes, 2001).

One of these startups, theGlobe.com , provided one of the earliest social networking services that exploded in popularity. When theGlobe.com went public, its stock shot from a target price of $9 to a close of $63.50 a share (Kawamoto, 1998). The site itself was started in 1995, building its business on advertising. As skepticism about the dot-com boom grew and advertisers became increasingly skittish about the value of online ads, theGlobe.com ceased to be profitable and shut its doors as a social networking site (The Globe, 2009). Although advertising is pervasive on the Internet today, the current model—largely based on the highly targeted Google AdSense service—did not come around until much later. In the earlier dot-com years, the same ad might be shown on thousands of different web pages, whereas now advertising is often specifically targeted to the content of an individual page.

However, that did not spell the end of social networking on the Internet. Social networking had been going on since at least the invention of Usenet in 1979 (detailed later in the chapter), but the recurring problem was always the same: profitability. This model of free access to user-generated content departed from almost anything previously seen in media, and revenue streams would have to be just as radical.

The Early Days of Social Media

The shared, generalized protocols of the Internet have allowed it to be easily adapted and extended into many different facets of our lives. The Internet shapes everything, from our day-to-day routine—the ability to read newspapers from around the world, for example—to the way research and collaboration are conducted. There are three important aspects of communication that the Internet has changed, and these have instigated profound changes in the way we connect with one another socially: the speed of information, the volume of information, and the “democratization” of publishing, or the ability of anyone to publish ideas on the web.

One of the Internet’s largest and most revolutionary changes has come about through social networking. Because of Twitter, we can now see what all our friends are doing in real time; because of blogs, we can consider the opinions of complete strangers who may never write in traditional print; and because of Facebook, we can find people we haven’t talked to for decades, all without making a single awkward telephone call.

Recent years have seen an explosion of new content and services; although the phrase “social media” now seems to be synonymous with websites like Facebook and Twitter, it is worthwhile to consider all the ways a social media platform affects the Internet experience.

How Did We Get Here? The Late 1970s, Early 1980s, and Usenet

Almost as soon as TCP stitched the various networks together, a former DARPA scientist named Larry Roberts founded the company Telnet, the first commercial packet-switching company. Two years later, in 1977, the invention of the dial-up modem (in combination with the wider availability of personal computers like the Apple II) made it possible for anyone around the world to access the Internet. With availability extended beyond purely academic and military circles, the Internet quickly became a staple for computer hobbyists.

One of the consequences of the spread of the Internet to hobbyists was the founding of Usenet. In 1979, University of North Carolina graduate students Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis connected three computers in a small network and used a series of programming scripts to post and receive messages. In a very short span of time, this system spread all over the burgeoning Internet. Much like an electronic version of community bulletin boards, anyone with a computer could post a topic or reply on Usenet.

The group was fundamentally and explicitly anarchic, as outlined by the posting “What is Usenet?” This document says, “Usenet is not a democracy…there is no person or group in charge of Usenet …Usenet cannot be a democracy, autocracy, or any other kind of ‘-acy (Moraes, et. al., 1998).’” Usenet was not used only for socializing, however, but also for collaboration. In some ways, the service allowed a new kind of collaboration that seemed like the start of a revolution: “I was able to join rec.kites and collectively people in Australia and New Zealand helped me solve a problem and get a circular two-line kite to fly,” one user told the United Kingdom’s Guardian (Jeffery, et. al., 2009).

GeoCities: Yahoo! Pioneers

Fast-forward to 1995: The president and founder of Beverly Hills Internet, David Bohnett, announces that the name of his company is now “GeoCities.” GeoCities built its business by allowing users (“homesteaders”) to create web pages in “communities” for free, with the stipulation that the company placed a small advertising banner at the top of each page. Anyone could register a GeoCities site and subsequently build a web page about a topic. Almost all of the community names, like Broadway (live theater) and Athens (philosophy and education), were centered on specific topics (Archive, 1996).

This idea of centering communities on specific topics may have come from Usenet. In Usenet, the domain alt.rec.kites refers to a specific topic (kites) within a category (recreation) within a larger community (alternative topics). This hierarchical model allowed users to organize themselves across the vastness of the Internet, even on a large site like GeoCities. The difference with GeoCities was that it allowed users to do much more than post only text (the limitation of Usenet), while constraining them to a relatively small pool of resources. Although each GeoCities user had only a few megabytes of web space, standardized pictures—like mailbox icons and back buttons—were hosted on GeoCities’s main server. GeoCities was such a large part of the Internet, and these standard icons were so ubiquitous, that they have now become a veritable part of the Internet’s cultural history. The Web Elements category of the site Internet Archaeology is a good example of how pervasive GeoCities graphics became (Internet Archaeology, 2010).

GeoCities built its business on a freemium model, where basic services are free but subscribers pay extra for things like commercial pages or shopping carts. Other Internet businesses, like Skype and Flickr, use the same model to keep a vast user base while still profiting from frequent users. Since loss of online advertising revenue was seen as one of the main causes of the dot-com crash, many current web startups are turning toward this freemium model to diversify their income streams (Miller, 2009).

GeoCities’s model was so successful that the company Yahoo! bought it for $3.6 billion at its peak in 1999. At the time, GeoCities was the third-most-visited site on the web (behind Yahoo! and AOL), so it seemed like a sure bet. A decade later, on October 26, 2009, Yahoo! closed GeoCities for good in every country except Japan.

Diversification of revenue has become one of the most crucial elements of Internet businesses; from The Wall Street Journal online to YouTube, almost every website is now looking for multiple income streams to support its services.

Key Takeaways

The two primary characteristics of the original Internet were decentralization and free, open protocols that anyone could use. As a result of its decentralized “web” model of organization, the Internet can store data in many different places at once. This makes it very useful for backing up data and very difficult to destroy data that might be unwanted. Protocols play an important role in this, because they allow some degree of control to exist without a central command structure.
Two of the most important technological developments were the personal computer (such as the Apple II) and the dial-up modem, which allowed anyone with a phone line to access the developing Internet. America Online also played an important role, making it very easy for practically anyone with a computer to use the Internet. Another development, the web browser, allowed for access to and creation of web pages all over the Internet.
With the advent of the web browser, it seemed as if anyone could make a website that people wanted to use. The problem was that these sites were driven largely by venture capital and grossly inflated initial public offerings of their stock. After failing to secure any real revenue stream, their stock plummeted, the market crashed, and many of these companies went out of business. In later years, companies tried to diversify their investments, particularly by using a “freemium” model of revenue, in which a company would both sell premium services and advertise, while offering a free pared-down service to casual users.

Websites have many different ways of paying for themselves, and this can say a lot about both the site and its audience. The business models of today’s websites may also directly reflect the lessons learned during the early days of the Internet. Start this exercise by reviewing a list of common ways that websites pay for themselves, how they arrived at these methods, and what it might say about them:

Advertising: The site probably has many casual viewers and may not necessarily be well established. If there are targeted ads (such as ads directed toward stay-at-home parents with children), then it is possible the site is successful with a small audience.
Subscription option: The site may be a news site that prides itself on accuracy of information or lack of bias, whose regular readers are willing to pay a premium for the guarantee of quality material. Alternately, the site may cater to a small demographic of Internet users by providing them with exclusive, subscription-only content.
Selling services: Online services, such as file hosting, or offline services and products are probably the clearest way to determine a site’s revenue stream. However, these commercial sites often are not prized for their unbiased information, and their bias can greatly affect the content on the site.

Choose a website that you visit often, and list which of these revenue streams the site might have. How might this affect the content on the site? Is there a visible effect, or does the site try to hide it? Consider how events during the early history of the Internet may have affected the way the site operates now. Write down a revenue stream that the site does not currently have and how the site designers might implement such a revenue stream.

Archive, While GeoCities is no longer in business, the Internet Archive maintains the site at http://www.archive.org/web/geocities.php . Information taken from December 21, 1996.

Barnes, Cecily. “eToys files for Chapter 11,” CNET , March 7, 2001, http://news.cnet.com/2100-1017-253706.html .

Berners-Lee, Tim. “The WorldWideWeb Browser,” 2009, https://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/WorldWideWeb .

Central Intelligence Agency, “Country Comparison: Internet Hosts,” World Factbook , https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2184rank.html .

Cerf, Vincton, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, “Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program,” December 1974, http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc675 .

Greenspan, Alan. “The Challenge of Central Banking in a Democratic Society, ” (lecture, American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, Washington, DC, December 5, 1996), http://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/speeches/1996/19961205.htm .

Internet Archaeology, 2010, http://www.internetarchaeology.org/swebelements.htm .

Jeffery, Simon and others, “A People’s History of the Internet: From Arpanet in 1969 to Today,” Guardian (London), October 23, 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/interactive/2009/oct/23/internet-arpanet .

Kawamoto, Dawn. “ TheGlobe.com ’s IPO one for the books,” CNET , November 13, 1998, http://news.cnet.com/2100-1023-217913.html .

Miller, Claire Cain. “Ad Revenue on the Web? No Sure Bet,” New York Times , May 24, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/25/technology/start-ups/25startup.html .

Moraes, Mark, Chip Salzenberg, and Gene Spafford, “What is Usenet?” December 28, 1999, http://www.faqs.org/faqs/usenet/what-is/part1/ .

National Center for Supercomputing Appliances, “About NCSA Mosaic,” 2010, http://www.ncsa.illinois.edu/Projects/mosaic.html .

NetMarketShare, “Browser Market Share,” http://marketshare.hitslink.com/browser-market-share.aspx?qprid=0&qpcal=1&qptimeframe=M&qpsp=132 .

Peter, Ian. “The History of Email,” The Internet History Project, 2004, http://www.nethistory.info/History%20of%20the%20Internet/email.html .

The Globe, theglobe.com, “About Us,” 2009, http://www.theglobe.com/ .

Zeller, Jr., Tom. “Canceling AOL? Just Offer Your Firstborn,” New York Times , August 29, 2005, all http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/29/technology/29link.html .

Understanding Media and Culture Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

From Science to Arts, an Inevitable Decision?

The wonderful world of fungi, openmind books, scientific anniversaries, simultaneous translation technology – ever closer to reality, featured author, latest book, the impact of the internet on society: a global perspective, introduction.

The Internet is the decisive technology of the Information Age, as the electrical engine was the vector of technological transformation of the Industrial Age. This global network of computer networks, largely based nowadays on platforms of wireless communication, provides ubiquitous capacity of multimodal, interactive communication in chosen time, transcending space. The Internet is not really a new technology: its ancestor, the Arpanet, was first deployed in 1969 (Abbate 1999). But it was in the 1990s when it was privatized and released from the control of the U.S. Department of Commerce that it diffused around the world at extraordinary speed: in 1996 the first survey of Internet users counted about 40 million; in 2013 they are over 2.5 billion, with China accounting for the largest number of Internet users. Furthermore, for some time the spread of the Internet was limited by the difficulty to lay out land-based telecommunications infrastructure in the emerging countries. This has changed with the explosion of wireless communication in the early twenty-first century. Indeed, in 1991, there were about 16 million subscribers of wireless devices in the world, in 2013 they are close to 7 billion (in a planet of 7.7 billion human beings). Counting on the family and village uses of mobile phones, and taking into consideration the limited use of these devices among children under five years of age, we can say that humankind is now almost entirely connected, albeit with great levels of inequality in the bandwidth as well as in the efficiency and price of the service.

At the heart of these communication networks the Internet ensures the production, distribution, and use of digitized information in all formats. According to the study published by Martin Hilbert in Science (Hilbert and López 2011), 95 percent of all information existing in the planet is digitized and most of it is accessible on the Internet and other computer networks.

The speed and scope of the transformation of our communication environment by Internet and wireless communication has triggered all kind of utopian and dystopian perceptions around the world.

As in all moments of major technological change, people, companies, and institutions feel the depth of the change, but they are often overwhelmed by it, out of sheer ignorance of its effects.

The media aggravate the distorted perception by dwelling into scary reports on the basis of anecdotal observation and biased commentary. If there is a topic in which social sciences, in their diversity, should contribute to the full understanding of the world in which we live, it is precisely the area that has come to be named in academia as Internet Studies. Because, in fact, academic research knows a great deal on the interaction between Internet and society, on the basis of methodologically rigorous empirical research conducted in a plurality of cultural and institutional contexts. Any process of major technological change generates its own mythology. In part because it comes into practice before scientists can assess its effects and implications, so there is always a gap between social change and its understanding. For instance, media often report that intense use of the Internet increases the risk of alienation, isolation, depression, and withdrawal from society. In fact, available evidence shows that there is either no relationship or a positive cumulative relationship between the Internet use and the intensity of sociability. We observe that, overall, the more sociable people are, the more they use the Internet. And the more they use the Internet, the more they increase their sociability online and offline, their civic engagement, and the intensity of family and friendship relationships, in all cultures—with the exception of a couple of early studies of the Internet in the 1990s, corrected by their authors later (Castells 2001; Castells et al. 2007; Rainie and Wellman 2012; Center for the Digital Future 2012 et al.).

Thus, the purpose of this chapter will be to summarize some of the key research findings on the social effects of the Internet relying on the evidence provided by some of the major institutions specialized in the social study of the Internet. More specifically, I will be using the data from the world at large: the World Internet Survey conducted by the Center for the Digital Future, University of Southern California; the reports of the British Computer Society (BCS), using data from the World Values Survey of the University of Michigan; the Nielsen reports for a variety of countries; and the annual reports from the International Telecommunications Union. For data on the United States, I have used the Pew American Life and Internet Project of the Pew Institute. For the United Kingdom, the Oxford Internet Survey from the Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, as well as the Virtual Society Project from the Economic and Social Science Research Council. For Spain, the Project Internet Catalonia of the Internet Interdisciplinary Institute (IN3) of the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC); the various reports on the information society from Telefónica; and from the Orange Foundation. For Portugal, the Observatório de Sociedade da Informação e do Conhecimento (OSIC) in Lisbon. I would like to emphasize that most of the data in these reports converge toward similar trends. Thus I have selected for my analysis the findings that complement and reinforce each other, offering a consistent picture of the human experience on the Internet in spite of the human diversity.

Given the aim of this publication to reach a broad audience, I will not present in this text the data supporting the analysis presented here. Instead, I am referring the interested reader to the web sources of the research organizations mentioned above, as well as to selected bibliographic references discussing the empirical foundation of the social trends reported here.

Technologies of Freedom, the Network Society, and the Culture of Autonomy

In order to fully understand the effects of the Internet on society, we should remember that technology is material culture. It is produced in a social process in a given institutional environment on the basis of the ideas, values, interests, and knowledge of their producers, both their early producers and their subsequent producers. In this process we must include the users of the technology, who appropriate and adapt the technology rather than adopting it, and by so doing they modify it and produce it in an endless process of interaction between technological production and social use. So, to assess the relevance of Internet in society we must recall the specific characteristics of Internet as a technology. Then we must place it in the context of the transformation of the overall social structure, as well as in relationship to the culture characteristic of this social structure. Indeed, we live in a new social structure, the global network society, characterized by the rise of a new culture, the culture of autonomy.

Internet is a technology of freedom, in the terms coined by Ithiel de Sola Pool in 1973, coming from a libertarian culture, paradoxically financed by the Pentagon for the benefit of scientists, engineers, and their students, with no direct military application in mind (Castells 2001). The expansion of the Internet from the mid-1990s onward resulted from the combination of three main factors:

The technological discovery of the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee and his willingness to distribute the source code to improve it by the open-source contribution of a global community of users, in continuity with the openness of the TCP/IP Internet protocols. The web keeps running under the same principle of open source. And two-thirds of web servers are operated by Apache, an open-source server program.
Institutional change in the management of the Internet, keeping it under the loose management of the global Internet community, privatizing it, and allowing both commercial uses and cooperative uses.
Major changes in social structure, culture, and social behavior: networking as a prevalent organizational form; individuation as the main orientation of social behavior; and the culture of autonomy as the culture of the network society.

I will elaborate on these major trends.

Our society is a network society; that is, a society constructed around personal and organizational networks powered by digital networks and communicated by the Internet. And because networks are global and know no boundaries, the network society is a global network society. This historically specific social structure resulted from the interaction between the emerging technological paradigm based on the digital revolution and some major sociocultural changes. A primary dimension of these changes is what has been labeled the rise of the Me-centered society, or, in sociological terms, the process of individuation, the decline of community understood in terms of space, work, family, and ascription in general. This is not the end of community, and not the end of place-based interaction, but there is a shift toward the reconstruction of social relationships, including strong cultural and personal ties that could be considered a form of community, on the basis of individual interests, values, and projects.

The process of individuation is not just a matter of cultural evolution, it is materially produced by the new forms of organizing economic activities, and social and political life, as I analyzed in my trilogy on the Information Age (Castells 1996–2003). It is based on the transformation of space (metropolitan life), work and economic activity (rise of the networked enterprise and networked work processes), culture and communication (shift from mass communication based on mass media to mass self-communication based on the Internet); on the crisis of the patriarchal family, with increasing autonomy of its individual members; the substitution of media politics for mass party politics; and globalization as the selective networking of places and processes throughout the planet.

But individuation does not mean isolation, or even less the end of community. Sociability is reconstructed as networked individualism and community through a quest for like-minded individuals in a process that combines online interaction with offline interaction, cyberspace and the local space. Individuation is the key process in constituting subjects (individual or collective), networking is the organizational form constructed by these subjects; this is the network society, and the form of sociability is what Rainie and Wellman (2012) conceptualized as networked individualism. Network technologies are of course the medium for this new social structure and this new culture (Papacharissi 2010).

As stated above, academic research has established that the Internet does not isolate people, nor does it reduce their sociability; it actually increases sociability, as shown by myself in my studies in Catalonia (Castells 2007), Rainie and Wellman in the United States (2012), Cardoso in Portugal (2010), and the World Internet Survey for the world at large (Center for the Digital Future 2012 et al.). Furthermore, a major study by Michael Willmott for the British Computer Society (Trajectory Partnership 2010) has shown a positive correlation, for individuals and for countries, between the frequency and intensity of the use of the Internet and the psychological indicators of personal happiness. He used global data for 35,000 people obtained from the World Wide Survey of the University of Michigan from 2005 to 2007. Controlling for other factors, the study showed that Internet use empowers people by increasing their feelings of security, personal freedom, and influence, all feelings that have a positive effect on happiness and personal well-being. The effect is particularly positive for people with lower income and who are less qualified, for people in the developing world, and for women. Age does not affect the positive relationship; it is significant for all ages. Why women? Because they are at the center of the network of their families, Internet helps them to organize their lives. Also, it helps them to overcome their isolation, particularly in patriarchal societies. The Internet also contributes to the rise of the culture of autonomy.

The key for the process of individuation is the construction of autonomy by social actors, who become subjects in the process. They do so by defining their specific projects in interaction with, but not submission to, the institutions of society. This is the case for a minority of individuals, but because of their capacity to lead and mobilize they introduce a new culture in every domain of social life: in work (entrepreneurship), in the media (the active audience), in the Internet (the creative user), in the market (the informed and proactive consumer), in education (students as informed critical thinkers, making possible the new frontier of e-learning and m-learning pedagogy), in health (the patient-centered health management system) in e-government (the informed, participatory citizen), in social movements (cultural change from the grassroots, as in feminism or environmentalism), and in politics (the independent-minded citizen able to participate in self-generated political networks).

There is increasing evidence of the direct relationship between the Internet and the rise of social autonomy. From 2002 to 2007 I directed in Catalonia one of the largest studies ever conducted in Europe on the Internet and society, based on 55,000 interviews, one-third of them face to face (IN3 2002–07). As part of this study, my collaborators and I compared the behavior of Internet users to non-Internet users in a sample of 3,000 people, representative of the population of Catalonia. Because in 2003 only about 40 percent of people were Internet users we could really compare the differences in social behavior for users and non-users, something that nowadays would be more difficult given the 79 percent penetration rate of the Internet in Catalonia. Although the data are relatively old, the findings are not, as more recent studies in other countries (particularly in Portugal) appear to confirm the observed trends. We constructed scales of autonomy in different dimensions. Only between 10 and 20 percent of the population, depending on dimensions, were in the high level of autonomy. But we focused on this active segment of the population to explore the role of the Internet in the construction of autonomy. Using factor analysis we identified six major types of autonomy based on projects of individuals according to their practices:

a) professional development b) communicative autonomy c) entrepreneurship d) autonomy of the body e) sociopolitical participation f) personal, individual autonomy

These six types of autonomous practices were statistically independent among themselves. But each one of them correlated positively with Internet use in statistically significant terms, in a self-reinforcing loop (time sequence): the more one person was autonomous, the more she/he used the web, and the more she/he used the web, the more autonomous she/he became (Castells et al. 2007). This is a major empirical finding. Because if the dominant cultural trend in our society is the search for autonomy, and if the Internet powers this search, then we are moving toward a society of assertive individuals and cultural freedom, regardless of the barriers of rigid social organizations inherited from the Industrial Age. From this Internet-based culture of autonomy have emerged a new kind of sociability, networked sociability, and a new kind of sociopolitical practice, networked social movements and networked democracy. I will now turn to the analysis of these two fundamental trends at the source of current processes of social change worldwide.

The Rise of Social Network Sites on the Internet

Since 2002 (creation of Friendster, prior to Facebook) a new socio-technical revolution has taken place on the Internet: the rise of social network sites where now all human activities are present, from personal interaction to business, to work, to culture, to communication, to social movements, and to politics.

Social Network Sites are web-based services that allow individuals to (1) construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system.

(Boyd and Ellison 2007, 2)

Social networking uses, in time globally spent, surpassed e-mail in November 2007. It surpassed e-mail in number of users in July 2009. In terms of users it reached 1 billion by September 2010, with Facebook accounting for about half of it. In 2013 it has almost doubled, particularly because of increasing use in China, India, and Latin America. There is indeed a great diversity of social networking sites (SNS) by countries and cultures. Facebook, started for Harvard-only members in 2004, is present in most of the world, but QQ, Cyworld, and Baidu dominate in China; Orkut in Brazil; Mixi in Japan; etc. In terms of demographics, age is the main differential factor in the use of SNS, with a drop of frequency of use after 50 years of age, and particularly 65. But this is not just a teenager’s activity. The main Facebook U.S. category is in the age group 35–44, whose frequency of use of the site is higher than for younger people. Nearly 60 percent of adults in the U.S. have at least one SNS profile, 30 percent two, and 15 percent three or more. Females are as present as males, except when in a society there is a general gender gap. We observe no differences in education and class, but there is some class specialization of SNS, such as Myspace being lower than FB; LinkedIn is for professionals.

Thus, the most important activity on the Internet at this point in time goes through social networking, and SNS have become the chosen platforms for all kind of activities, not just personal friendships or chatting, but for marketing, e-commerce, education, cultural creativity, media and entertainment distribution, health applications, and sociopolitical activism. This is a significant trend for society at large. Let me explore the meaning of this trend on the basis of the still scant evidence.

Social networking sites are constructed by users themselves building on specific criteria of grouping. There is entrepreneurship in the process of creating sites, then people choose according to their interests and projects. Networks are tailored by people themselves with different levels of profiling and privacy. The key to success is not anonymity, but on the contrary, self-presentation of a real person connecting to real people (in some cases people are excluded from the SNS when they fake their identity). So, it is a self-constructed society by networking connecting to other networks. But this is not a virtual society. There is a close connection between virtual networks and networks in life at large. This is a hybrid world, a real world, not a virtual world or a segregated world.

People build networks to be with others, and to be with others they want to be with on the basis of criteria that include those people who they already know (a selected sub-segment). Most users go on the site every day. It is permanent connectivity. If we needed an answer to what happened to sociability in the Internet world, here it is:

There is a dramatic increase in sociability, but a different kind of sociability, facilitated and dynamized by permanent connectivity and social networking on the web.

Based on the time when Facebook was still releasing data (this time is now gone) we know that in 2009 users spent 500 billion minutes per month. This is not just about friendship or interpersonal communication. People do things together, share, act, exactly as in society, although the personal dimension is always there. Thus, in the U.S. 38 percent of adults share content, 21 percent remix, 14 percent blog, and this is growing exponentially, with development of technology, software, and SNS entrepreneurial initiatives. On Facebook, in 2009 the average user was connected to 60 pages, groups, and events, people interacted per month to 160 million objects (pages, groups, events), the average user created 70 pieces of content per month, and there were 25 billion pieces of content shared per month (web links, news stories, blogs posts, notes, photos). SNS are living spaces connecting all dimensions of people’s experience. This transforms culture because people share experience with a low emotional cost, while saving energy and effort. They transcend time and space, yet they produce content, set up links, and connect practices. It is a constantly networked world in every dimension of human experience. They co-evolve in permanent, multiple interaction. But they choose the terms of their co-evolution.

Thus, people live their physical lives but increasingly connect on multiple dimensions in SNS.

Paradoxically, the virtual life is more social than the physical life, now individualized by the organization of work and urban living.

But people do not live a virtual reality, indeed it is a real virtuality, since social practices, sharing, mixing, and living in society is facilitated in the virtuality, in what I called time ago the “space of flows” (Castells 1996).

Because people are increasingly at ease in the multi-textuality and multidimensionality of the web, marketers, work organizations, service agencies, government, and civil society are migrating massively to the Internet, less and less setting up alternative sites, more and more being present in the networks that people construct by themselves and for themselves, with the help of Internet social networking entrepreneurs, some of whom become billionaires in the process, actually selling freedom and the possibility of the autonomous construction of lives. This is the liberating potential of the Internet made material practice by these social networking sites. The largest of these social networking sites are usually bounded social spaces managed by a company. However, if the company tries to impede free communication it may lose many of its users, because the entry barriers in this industry are very low. A couple of technologically savvy youngsters with little capital can set up a site on the Internet and attract escapees from a more restricted Internet space, as happened to AOL and other networking sites of the first generation, and as could happen to Facebook or any other SNS if they are tempted to tinker with the rules of openness (Facebook tried to make users pay and retracted within days). So, SNS are often a business, but they are in the business of selling freedom, free expression, chosen sociability. When they tinker with this promise they risk their hollowing by net citizens migrating with their friends to more friendly virtual lands.

Perhaps the most telling expression of this new freedom is the transformation of sociopolitical practices on the Internet.

Communication Power: Mass-Self Communication and the Transformation of Politics

Power and counterpower, the foundational relationships of society, are constructed in the human mind, through the construction of meaning and the processing of information according to certain sets of values and interests (Castells 2009).

Ideological apparatuses and the mass media have been key tools of mediating communication and asserting power, and still are. But the rise of a new culture, the culture of autonomy, has found in Internet and mobile communication networks a major medium of mass self-communication and self-organization.

The key source for the social production of meaning is the process of socialized communication. I define communication as the process of sharing meaning through the exchange of information. Socialized communication is the one that exists in the public realm, that has the potential of reaching society at large. Therefore, the battle over the human mind is largely played out in the process of socialized communication. And this is particularly so in the network society, the social structure of the Information Age, which is characterized by the pervasiveness of communication networks in a multimodal hypertext.

The ongoing transformation of communication technology in the digital age extends the reach of communication media to all domains of social life in a network that is at the same time global and local, generic and customized, in an ever-changing pattern.

As a result, power relations, that is the relations that constitute the foundation of all societies, as well as the processes challenging institutionalized power relations, are increasingly shaped and decided in the communication field. Meaningful, conscious communication is what makes humans human. Thus, any major transformation in the technology and organization of communication is of utmost relevance for social change. Over the last four decades the advent of the Internet and of wireless communication has shifted the communication process in society at large from mass communication to mass self-communication. This is from a message sent from one to many with little interactivity to a system based on messages from many to many, multimodal, in chosen time, and with interactivity, so that senders are receivers and receivers are senders. And both have access to a multimodal hypertext in the web that constitutes the endlessly changing backbone of communication processes.

The transformation of communication from mass communication to mass self-communication has contributed decisively to alter the process of social change. As power relationships have always been based on the control of communication and information that feed the neural networks constitutive of the human mind, the rise of horizontal networks of communication has created a new landscape of social and political change by the process of disintermediation of the government and corporate controls over communication. This is the power of the network, as social actors build their own networks on the basis of their projects, values, and interests. The outcome of these processes is open ended and dependent on specific contexts. Freedom, in this case freedom of communicate, does not say anything on the uses of freedom in society. This is to be established by scholarly research. But we need to start from this major historical phenomenon: the building of a global communication network based on the Internet, a technology that embodies the culture of freedom that was at its source.

In the first decade of the twenty-first century there have been multiple social movements around the world that have used the Internet as their space of formation and permanent connectivity, among the movements and with society at large. These networked social movements, formed in the social networking sites on the Internet, have mobilized in the urban space and in the institutional space, inducing new forms of social movements that are the main actors of social change in the network society. Networked social movements have been particularly active since 2010, and especially in the Arab revolutions against dictatorships; in Europe and the U.S. as forms of protest against the management of the financial crisis; in Brazil; in Turkey; in Mexico; and in highly diverse institutional contexts and economic conditions. It is precisely the similarity of the movements in extremely different contexts that allows the formulation of the hypothesis that this is the pattern of social movements characteristic of the global network society. In all cases we observe the capacity of these movements for self-organization, without a central leadership, on the basis of a spontaneous emotional movement. In all cases there is a connection between Internet-based communication, mobile networks, and the mass media in different forms, feeding into each other and amplifying the movement locally and globally.

These movements take place in the context of exploitation and oppression, social tensions and social struggles; but struggles that were not able to successfully challenge the state in other instances of revolt are now powered by the tools of mass self-communication. It is not the technology that induces the movements, but without the technology (Internet and wireless communication) social movements would not take the present form of being a challenge to state power. The fact is that technology is material culture (ideas brought into the design) and the Internet materialized the culture of freedom that, as it has been documented, emerged on American campuses in the 1960s. This culture-made technology is at the source of the new wave of social movements that exemplify the depth of the global impact of the Internet in all spheres of social organization, affecting particularly power relationships, the foundation of the institutions of society. (See case studies and an analytical perspective on the interaction between Internet and networked social movements in Castells 2012.)

The Internet, as all technologies, does not produce effects by itself. Yet, it has specific effects in altering the capacity of the communication system to be organized around flows that are interactive, multimodal, asynchronous or synchronous, global or local, and from many to many, from people to people, from people to objects, and from objects to objects, increasingly relying on the semantic web. How these characteristics affect specific systems of social relationships has to be established by research, and this is what I tried to present in this text. What is clear is that without the Internet we would not have seen the large-scale development of networking as the fundamental mechanism of social structuring and social change in every domain of social life. The Internet, the World Wide Web, and a variety of networks increasingly based on wireless platforms constitute the technological infrastructure of the network society, as the electrical grid and the electrical engine were the support system for the form of social organization that we conceptualized as the industrial society. Thus, as a social construction, this technological system is open ended, as the network society is an open-ended form of social organization that conveys the best and the worse in humankind. Yet, the global network society is our society, and the understanding of its logic on the basis of the interaction between culture, organization, and technology in the formation and development of social and technological networks is a key field of research in the twenty-first century.

We can only make progress in our understanding through the cumulative effort of scholarly research. Only then we will be able to cut through the myths surrounding the key technology of our time. A digital communication technology that is already a second skin for young people, yet it continues to feed the fears and the fantasies of those who are still in charge of a society that they barely understand.

These references are in fact sources of more detailed references specific to each one of the topics analyzed in this text.

Abbate, Janet. A Social History of the Internet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.

Boyd, Danah M., and Nicole B. Ellison. “Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 13, no. 1 (2007).

Cardoso, Gustavo, Angus Cheong, and Jeffrey Cole (eds). World Wide Internet: Changing Societies, Economies and Cultures. Macau: University of Macau Press, 2009.

Castells, Manuel. The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture. 3 vols. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996–2003.

———. The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business, and Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

———. Communication Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.

———. Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2012.

Castells, Manuel, Imma Tubella, Teresa Sancho, and Meritxell Roca.

La transición a la sociedad red. Barcelona: Ariel, 2007.

Hilbert, Martin, and Priscilla López. “The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information.” Science 332, no. 6025 (April 1, 2011): pp. 60–65.

Papacharissi, Zizi, ed. The Networked Self: Identity, Community, and Culture on Social Networking Sites. Routledge, 2010.

Rainie. Lee, and Barry Wellman. Networked: The New Social Operating System. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012.

Trajectory Partnership (Michael Willmott and Paul Flatters). The Information Dividend: Why IT Makes You “Happier.” Swindon: British Informatics Society Limited, 2010. http://www.bcs.org/upload/pdf/info-dividend-full-report.pdf

Selected Web References. Used as sources for analysis in the chapter

Agência para a Sociedade do Conhecimento. “Observatório de Sociedade da Informação e do Conhecimento (OSIC).” http://www.umic.pt/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3026&Itemid=167

BCS, The Chartered Institute for IT. “Features, Press and Policy.” http://www.bcs.org/category/7307

Center for the Digital Future. The World Internet Project International Report. 4th ed. Los Angeles: USC Annenberg School, Center for the Digital Future, 2012. http://www.worldinternetproject.net/_files/_Published/_oldis/770_2012wip_report4th_ed.pdf

ESRC (Economic & Social Research Council). “Papers and Reports.” Virtual Society. http://virtualsociety.sbs.ox.ac.uk/reports.htm

Fundación Orange. “Análisis y Prospectiva: Informe eEspaña.” Fundación Orange. http://fundacionorange.es/fundacionorange/analisisprospectiva.html

Fundación Telefónica. “Informes SI.” Fundación Telefónica. http://sociedadinformacion.fundacion.telefonica.com/DYC/SHI/InformesSI/seccion=1190&idioma=es_ES.do

IN3 (Internet Interdisciplinary Institute). UOC. “Project Internet Catalonia (PIC): An Overview.” Internet Interdisciplinary Institute, 2002–07. http://www.uoc.edu/in3/pic/eng/

International Telecommunication Union. “Annual Reports.” http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/sfo/annual_reports/index.html

Nielsen Company. “Reports.” 2013. http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/reports/2013.html?tag=Category:Media+ and+Entertainment

Oxford Internet Surveys. “Publications.” http://microsites.oii.ox.ac.uk/oxis/publications

Pew Internet & American Life Project. “Social Networking.” Pew Internet. http://www.pewinternet.org/Topics/Activities-and-Pursuits/Social-Networking.aspx?typeFilter=5

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Table Of Contents

Block diagram of a digital telecommunications system.

telecommunication , science and practice of transmitting information by electromagnetic means. Modern telecommunication centres on the problems involved in transmitting large volumes of information over long distances without damaging loss due to noise and interference. The basic components of a modern digital telecommunications system must be capable of transmitting voice, data, radio, and television signals. Digital transmission is employed in order to achieve high reliability and because the cost of digital switching systems is much lower than the cost of analog systems. In order to use digital transmission, however, the analog signals that make up most voice, radio, and television communication must be subjected to a process of analog-to-digital conversion. (In data transmission this step is bypassed because the signals are already in digital form; most television, radio, and voice communication, however, use the analog system and must be digitized.) In many cases, the digitized signal is passed through a source encoder, which employs a number of formulas to reduce redundant binary information. After source encoding, the digitized signal is processed in a channel encoder, which introduces redundant information that allows errors to be detected and corrected. The encoded signal is made suitable for transmission by modulation onto a carrier wave and may be made part of a larger signal in a process known as multiplexing . The multiplexed signal is then sent into a multiple-access transmission channel. After transmission, the above process is reversed at the receiving end, and the information is extracted.

This article describes the components of a digital telecommunications system as outlined above. For details on specific applications that utilize telecommunications systems, see the articles telephone , telegraph , fax , radio , and television . Transmission over electric wire , radio wave , and optical fibre is discussed in telecommunications media . For an overview of the types of networks used in information transmission, see telecommunications network .

Analog-to-digital conversion

In transmission of speech , audio, or video information, the object is high fidelity—that is, the best possible reproduction of the original message without the degradations imposed by signal distortion and noise . The basis of relatively noise-free and distortion-free telecommunication is the binary signal. The simplest possible signal of any kind that can be employed to transmit messages, the binary signal consists of only two possible values. These values are represented by the binary digits, or bits , 1 and 0. Unless the noise and distortion picked up during transmission are great enough to change the binary signal from one value to another, the correct value can be determined by the receiver so that perfect reception can occur.

If the information to be transmitted is already in binary form (as in data communication), there is no need for the signal to be digitally encoded. But ordinary voice communications taking place by way of a telephone are not in binary form; neither is much of the information gathered for transmission from a space probe, nor are the television or radio signals gathered for transmission through a satellite link. Such signals, which continually vary among a range of values, are said to be analog, and in digital communications systems analog signals must be converted to digital form. The process of making this signal conversion is called analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion.

Analog-to-digital conversion begins with sampling, or measuring the amplitude of the analog waveform at equally spaced discrete instants of time. The fact that samples of a continually varying wave may be used to represent that wave relies on the assumption that the wave is constrained in its rate of variation. Because a communications signal is actually a complex wave—essentially the sum of a number of component sine waves, all of which have their own precise amplitudes and phases—the rate of variation of the complex wave can be measured by the frequencies of oscillation of all its components. The difference between the maximum rate of oscillation (or highest frequency) and the minimum rate of oscillation (or lowest frequency) of the sine waves making up the signal is known as the bandwidth ( B ) of the signal. Bandwidth thus represents the maximum frequency range occupied by a signal. In the case of a voice signal having a minimum frequency of 300 hertz and a maximum frequency of 3,300 hertz, the bandwidth is 3,000 hertz, or 3 kilohertz. Audio signals generally occupy about 20 kilohertz of bandwidth, and standard video signals occupy approximately 6 million hertz, or 6 megahertz.

The concept of bandwidth is central to all telecommunication. In analog-to-digital conversion, there is a fundamental theorem that the analog signal may be uniquely represented by discrete samples spaced no more than one over twice the bandwidth (1/2 B ) apart. This theorem is commonly referred to as the sampling theorem , and the sampling interval (1/2 B seconds) is referred to as the Nyquist interval (after the Swedish-born American electrical engineer Harry Nyquist ). As an example of the Nyquist interval, in past telephone practice the bandwidth, commonly fixed at 3,000 hertz, was sampled at least every 1/6,000 second. In current practice 8,000 samples are taken per second, in order to increase the frequency range and the fidelity of the speech representation.

In order for a sampled signal to be stored or transmitted in digital form, each sampled amplitude must be converted to one of a finite number of possible values, or levels. For ease in conversion to binary form, the number of levels is usually a power of 2—that is, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, and so on, depending on the degree of precision required. In digital transmission of voice, 256 levels are commonly used because tests have shown that this provides adequate fidelity for the average telephone listener.

The input to the quantizer is a sequence of sampled amplitudes for which there are an infinite number of possible values. The output of the quantizer, on the other hand, must be restricted to a finite number of levels. Assigning infinitely variable amplitudes to a limited number of levels inevitably introduces inaccuracy, and inaccuracy results in a corresponding amount of signal distortion. (For this reason quantization is often called a “lossy” system.) The degree of inaccuracy depends on the number of output levels used by the quantizer. More quantization levels increase the accuracy of the representation, but they also increase the storage capacity or transmission speed required. Better performance with the same number of output levels can be achieved by judicious placement of the output levels and the amplitude thresholds needed for assigning those levels. This placement in turn depends on the nature of the waveform that is being quantized. Generally, an optimal quantizer places more levels in amplitude ranges where the signal is more likely to occur and fewer levels where the signal is less likely. This technique is known as nonlinear quantization. Nonlinear quantization can also be accomplished by passing the signal through a compressor circuit, which amplifies the signal’s weak components and attenuates its strong components. The compressed signal, now occupying a narrower dynamic range, can be quantized with a uniform, or linear, spacing of thresholds and output levels. In the case of the telephone signal, the compressed signal is uniformly quantized at 256 levels, each level being represented by a sequence of eight bits. At the receiving end, the reconstituted signal is expanded to its original range of amplitudes. This sequence of compression and expansion, known as companding, can yield an effective dynamic range equivalent to 13 bits.

Social Network Communication Essay

To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
As a template for you assignment

Social media platform

Circulation vs. distribution, works cited.

With the current developments in scientific innovations and inventions, there are new ways of communicating, interacting and passing information. Social networks have been used by companies, individuals and in some place the government to share and pass information.

The main reason that has lead to the growth in social media networks is the cost associated and their effectiveness. When something has been posted over the social media, it can easily spread to the intended people. According to Dasf, in modern computerized world, people seem to be more connected to their electronic gadgets that they interact face to face.

I have an account with Facebook; this is the account that I use to communicate with my friend, pass information to the world and meet new friends. Regularly, I update my account with what I feel should be discussed or I should get views of different people; sometimes it may be a joke and others some serious stuffs.

Dasf is of the opinion that new relationships and friendships are developing and growing into new heights through social networks. When I am updating the site and commenting on other peoples posts, I am balancing my online life and offline life; it is worth noting that the site can be “addictive,” thus I have to ensure that I have budgeted my time wisely that it does not spend my working and reading time (Danah, “ White Flight in Networked Public”) .

Facebook comments and updates can be accessed to a number of people; the site offers some linkage from one person to another; however to maintain my privacy and shape my public image, I ensure that I post things that are ethically and morally acceptable.

They are things that might be happening in the social networks but the way I put the matter in the form of language and tone of the posting is to ensure that I give my opinion and it portrays my high values and respect to other peoples opinions’.

On the other hand, my social network site has offered security platform adjustments. A link that allows me to limit the number of people who can see my profile; for example, I have ensured that only my friends have an access to my private information. I also vet my friends before upgrading them to the level of friends who can see my profile.

Dana Boyd is of the opinion that despite the invention of social networks across space, time and geographical areas, then, “Privacy Is Not Dead,” people can still initiate policies that facilitate privacy and limit the access of private information.

The approach that Facebook has taken is one that caters for the needs of all people in the community as well as companies are using the site to advertise their products and promote their works through the sites.

However, the community that I interact with are the young people who include my classmates, friends both domestics and those living in the Diaspora, and I am a member of some social groups formed within the social network.

The people and the kind of posts that are present in my site can be referred to as college-centered nature; this are mostly on the current situation in the world and what is happening in the college environment. In the words of Dasf, social sites assist people to share updates and information; this is the main role played by my Facebook page.

According to Dana Boyd ‘Tastes and aesthetics are not universal but deeply linked to identity and values”, this means that as people interact, they exchange their believes, values, cultures and viewpoints. When this happens, they are likely to create different reaction and help in shaping the users believes.

The behavior and character of human beings is shaped by the materials they are exposed to; if they get exposed to materials that is not favorable, then they are likely to develop a deviant behavior. The post over Facebook shapes the users behavior, attitude, and perception.

For example, when the site is used to advertise for commodities, then buyers are more likely to be persuaded especially when they see other people comment positively about how the product has changed their lives. On the other hand, if the comments are negatives, a user of the product is more likely to be convinced that the commodity is not good thus stop using the products.

Among the young, some posts that can initiate some positive values as well as negative ones; for example, a post that shows people rejoicing as they praise God and confession by person on how another person has seen miracles when they follow teaching of God.

A youth who has seen life to be hopeless is likely to respond positively to such a post and assist in shaping his attitude and perception in life. On the other hand, there may be a post that seems to promote premarital sex; such posts can persuade a morally upright youth to involve in such practices (Danah, “Making Sense of Privacy and Publicity”).

In communication and technology, circulation means the flow of intended information or enriched information from the intended source of the information and then after the flow, the information gets back to the source of information to be enriched or as a feedback. The process is continuous and follows the all processes of effective communication.

Distribution on the other hand, means how circulated information gets to the larger community; the large communities are the people who are consume the information after it has been upgraded and considered fit for public consumption.

The main difference between circulation and distribution is the number of people involved and the stage at which they get the information. In the case of circulation, the information gets to specific people who are expected to vet the quality of the information and give feedback on areas that it needs to be improved and whether the information is fit for public consumption.

On the other hand, distribution goes to the larger community, they are expected to consumer the information as it has been given and only offer feedback by response they give to the communication.

For an effective communication, there must be effective methods of circulation and distribution; the effective of the methods determine the degree of success of a certain communication. Both circulation and communication are two-way systems; in circulation, a limited number of people consume the information and gets back to the source for improvement of the information before it gets to the public. In distribution, the response of the target members of the public is the feedback that completes the two-way system.

Danah, Boyd. Making Sense of Privacy and Publicity. South by Southwest, March 13 2010. Web.

White Flight in Networked Publics? How Race and Class Shaped American Teen Engagement with MySpace and Facebook. Digital Race Anthology, 2009. Web.

Modern Day Communication
Public Relations and Ethical Decisions
Web 2.0 Platform: Facebook
Facebook and Privacy
The Anatomy of Blood Circulation of the Head and Neck
Four Models of Public Relations
Thailand ‘Interested’ in Refugee Swap Deal With Australia
Communication Issues
The negative effects of mobile phones on social interaction and personal wellbeing
Language Management Relative to Gender, Cultural Background, and Goals of Interaction
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, March 26). Social Network Communication. https://ivypanda.com/essays/social-network-communication/

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IvyPanda . 2019. "Social Network Communication." March 26, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/social-network-communication/.

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IvyPanda . "Social Network Communication." March 26, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/social-network-communication/.

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An Overview Research on Wireless Communication Network

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134. Vishrant Tripathi, Nick Jones, Eytan Modiano, Fresh-CSMA: A Distributed Protocol for Minimizing Age of Information, IEEE Journal on Communications and Networks, 2024.

133. Bai Liu, Quang Nguyen, Qingkai Liang, Eytan Modiano, Tracking Drift-Plus-Penalty: Utility Maximization for Partially Observable and Controllable Networks, IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2024.

132. Xinzhe Fu, Eytan Modiano, Optimal Routing to Parallel Servers with Unknown Utilities – Multi-armed Bandit With Queues, IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, January 2022.

131. Bai Liu, Qingkai Liang, Eytan Modiano, Tracking MaxWeight: Optimal Control for Partially Observable and Controllable Networks, IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, August 2023.

130. Xinzhe Fu, Eytan Modiano, Joint Learning and Control in Stochastic Queueing Networks with unknown Utilities, Proceedings of the ACM on Measurement and Analysis of Computing Systems, 2023.

129. Vishrant Tripathi, Rajat Talak, Eytan Modiano, Information Freshness in Multi-Hop Wireless Networks, IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking,” April 2023.

128. Xinzhe Fu, Eytan Modiano, “ Learning-NUM: Network Utility Maximization with Unknown Utility Functions and Queueing Delay ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking,” 2022.

127. Bai Liu, Qiaomin Xie, Eytan Modiano, “ RL-QN: A Reinforcement Learning Framework for Optimal Control of Queueing Systems ,” ACM Transactions on Modeling and Performance Evaluation of Computing Systems (TOMPECS), 2022.

126. Xinzhe Fu and E. Modiano, “ Elastic Job Scheduling with Unknown Utility Functions ,” Performance Evaluation, 2021.

125. Bai Liu and E. Modiano, “ Optimal Control for Networks with Unobservable Malicious Nodes ,” Performance Evaluation, 2021.

124. Vishrant Tripathi, Rajat Talak, Eytan Modiano, “ Age Optimal Information Gathering and Dissemination on Graphs ,” Transactions on Mobile Computing, April 2021.

123. Xinyu Wu, Dan Wu, Eytan Modiano, “ Predicting Failure Cascades in Large Scale Power Systems via the Influence Model Framework, ” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2021.

122. Roy D. Yates, Yin Sun, D. Richard Brown III, Sanjit K. Kaul, Eytan Modiano and Sennur Ulukus, “ Age of Information: An Introduction and Survey, ” Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, February 2021.

121. Jianan Zhang, Abhishek Sinha, Jaime Llorca, Anonia Tulino, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Control of Distributed Computing Networks with Mixed-Cast Traffic Flows ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2021.

120. Thomas Stahlbuhk, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ Learning Algorithms for Minimizing Queue Length Regret ,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 2021.

119. Thomas Stahlbuhk, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ Throughput Maximization in Uncooperative Spectrum Sharing Networks ,” IEEE/ACM IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 28, No. 6, December 2020.

118. Thomas Stahlbuhk, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ Learning algorithms for scheduling in wireless networks with unknown channel statistics ,” Ad Hoc Networks, Vol. 85, pp. 131-144, 2019.

117. Rajat Talak, Eytan Modiano, “ Age-Delay Tradeoffs in Queueing Systems ,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 2021.

116. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ Improving Age of Information in Wireless Networks with Perfect Channel State Information ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 28, No. 4, August 2020.

115. Igor Kadota and Eytan Modiano, “ Minimizing the Age of Information in Wireless Networks with Stochastic Arrivals ,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 2020.

114. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimizing Information Freshness in Wireless Networks under General Interference Constraints ,” IEEE/ACM transactions on Networking, Vol. 28, No. 1, February 2020.

113. X. Fu and E. Modiano, “ Fundamental Limits of Volume-based Network DoS Attacks ,” Proceedings of the ACM on Measurement and Analysis of Computing Systems, Vol. 3, No. 3, December 2019.

112. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ Capacity and Delay Scaling for Broadcast Transmission in Highly Mobile Wireless Networks ,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 2019.

111. Abhishek Sinha and Eytan Modiano, “ Throughput-Optimal Broadcast in Wireless Networks with Point-to-Multipoint Transmissions , IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, Vol. 19, No. 9, September 2020.

110. Yu-Pin Hsu, Eytan Modiano, Lingjie Duan, “ Scheduling Algorithms for Minimizing Age of Information in Wireless Broadcast Networks with Random Arrivals ,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, Vol. 19, No. 12, December 2020.

109. Xiaolin Jiang, Hossein S. Ghadikolaei, Gabor Fodor, Eytan Modiano, Zhibo Pang, Michele Zorzi, Carlo Fischione, “ Low-latency Networking: Where Latency Lurks and How to Tame It ,” Proceedings of the IEEE, 2019.

108. Jianan Zhang, Edmund Yeh, Eytan Modiano, “ Robustness of Interdependent Random Geometric Networks ,” IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering, Vol. 6, No. 3, July-September 2019.

107. Qingkai Liang, Hyang-Won Lee, Eytan Modiano, “ Robust Design of Spectrum-Sharing Networks ,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, Vol. 18, No. 8, August 2019.

106. A. Sinha, L. Tassiulas, E. Modiano, “ Throughput-Optimal Broadcast in Wireless Networks with Dynamic Topology ,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, Vol. 18, No. 5, May 2019.

105. Igor Kadota, Abhishek Sinha, Eytan Modiano, “ Scheduling Algorithms for Optimizing Age of Information in Wireless Networks With Throughput Constraints ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, August 2019.

104. Igor Kadota, Abhishek Sinha, Rahul Singh, Elif Uysal-Biyikoglu, Eytan Modjano, “ Scheduling Policies for Minimizing Age of Information in Broadcast Wireless Networks ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 26, No. 5, October 2018.

103. Jianan Zhang and Eytan Modiano, “ Connectivity in Interdependent Networks ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2018.

102. Qingkai Liang, Eytan Modiano, “ Minimizing Queue Length Regret Under Adversarial Network Models ,” Proceedings of the ACM on Measurement and Analysis of Computing Systems, Volume 2, Issue 1, April 2018, Article No.: 11, pp 1-32. (same as Sigmetrics 2018).

101. A. Sinha and E. Modiano, “ Optimal Control for Generalized Network Flow Problems ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2018.

100. Hossein Shokri-Ghadikolaei, Carlo Fischione, Eytan Modiano “ Interference Model Similarity Index and Its Applications to mmWave Networks ,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 2018.

99. Matt Johnston, Eytan Modiano, “ Wireless Scheduling with Delayed CSI: When Distributed Outperforms Centralized, ’ IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 2018.

98. A. Sinha, G. Paschos, E. Modiano, “ Throughput-Optimal Multi-hop Broadcast Algorithms ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2017.

97. Nathan Jones, Georgios Paschos, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ An Overlay Architecture for Throughput Optimal Multipath Routing ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2017.

96. Greg Kuperman, Eytan Modiano, “ Providing Guaranteed Protection in Multi-Hop Wireless Networks with Interference Constraints ,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 2017.

95. Matt Johnston, Eytan Modiano, Isaac Kesslassy, “ Channel Probing in Opportunistic Communications Systems ,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, November, 2017.

94. Anurag Rai, Georgios Paschos, Chih-Ping Lee, Eytan Modiano, “ Loop-Free Backpressure Routing Using Link-Reversal Algorithms “, IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, October, 2017.

93. Matt Johnston and Eytan Modiano, “” Controller Placement in Wireless Networks with Delayed CSI ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2017.

92. Jianan Zheng, E. Modiano, D. Hay, “ Enhancing Network Robustness via Shielding ,” IEEE Transactions on Networking, 2017.

91. M. Markakis, E. Modiano, J.N. Tsitsiklis, “ Delay Analysis of the Max-Weight Policy under Heavy-Tailed Traffic via Fluid Approximations ,” Mathematics of Operations Research, October, 2017.

90. Qingkai Liang and E. Modiano, “ Survivability in Time-Varying Graphs ,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 2017.

89. A. Sinha, G. Paschos, C. P. Li, and E. Modiano, “ Throughput-Optimal Multihop Broadcast on Directed Acyclic Wireless Networks ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 25, No. 1, Feb. 2017.

88. G. Celik, S. Borst, , P. Whiting , E. Modiano, “ Dynamic Scheduling with Reconfiguration Delays ,” Queueing Systems, 2016.

87. G. Paschos, C. P. Li, E. Modiano, K. Choumas, T. Korakis, “ In-network Congestion Control for Multirate Multicast ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2016.

86. H. Seferoglu and E. Modiano, “ TCP-Aware Backpressure Routing and Scheduling ,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 2016.

85. H. Seferoglu and E. Modiano, “ Separation of Routing and Scheduling in Backpressure-Based Wireless Networks ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 24, No. 3, 2016.

84. M. Markakis, E. Modiano, J.N. Tsitsiklis, “ Delay Stability of Back-Pressure Policies in the presence of Heavy-Tailed Traffic ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2015.

83. S. Neumayer, E. Modiano, “ Network Reliability Under Geographically Correlated Line and Disk Failure Models ,” Computer Networks, to appear, 2016.

82. S. Neumayer, E. Modiano, A. Efrat, “ Geographic Max-Flow and Min-Cut Under a Circular Disk Failure Model ,” Computer Networks, 2015.

81. Marzieh Parandehgheibi, Hyang-Won Lee, Eytan Modiano, Survivable Path Sets: A new approach to survivability in multi-layer networks ,” IEEE Journal on Lightwave Technology, 2015.

80. G. Kuperman, E. Modiano, A. Narula-Tam, “ Network Protection with Multiple Availability Guarantees ,” Computer Networks, 2015.

79. G. Kuperman, E. Modiano, A. Narula-Tam, “ Analysis and Algorithms for Partial Protection in Mesh Networks ,” IEEE/OSA Journal of Optical Communications and Networks, 2014.

78. Krishna Jagannathan, Mihalis Markakis, Eytan Modiano, John Tsitsiklis, “ Throughput Optimal Scheduling over Time-Varying Channels in the presence of Heavy-Tailed Traffic ,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 2014.

77. Chih-Ping Li and Eytan Modiano, “ Receiver-Based Flow Control for Networks in Overload ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 23, No. 2, 2015.

76. Matthew Johnston, Hyang-Won Lee, Eytan Modiano, “ A Robust Optimization Approach to Backup Network Design with Random Failures ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 23, No. 4, 2015.

75. Guner Celik and Eytan Modiano, “ Scheduling in Networks with Time-Varying Channels and Reconfiguration Delay ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 23, No. 1, 2015.

74. Matt Johnston, H.W. Lee, E. Modiano, “ Robust Network Design for Stochastic Traffic Demands ,” IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology, 2013.

73. Mihalis Markakis, Eytan Modiano, John Tsitsiklis, “ Max-Weight Scheduling in Queueing Networks With Heavy-Tailed Traffic, ” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2014.

72. Kayi Lee, Hyang-Won Lee, Eytan Modiano, “ Maximizing Reliability in WDM Networks through Lightpath Routing ,” IEEE ACM Transactions on Networking, 2014.

71. Krishna Jaggannathan and Eytan Modiano, “ The Impact of Queue Length Information on Buffer Overflow in Parallel Queues ,” IEEE transactions on Information Theory, 2013.

70. Krishna Jagannathan, Ishai Menashe, Gil Zussman, Eytan Modiano, “ Non-cooperative Spectrum Access – The Dedicated vs. Free Spectrum Choice ,” IEEE JSAC, special issue on Economics of Communication Networks & Systems, to appear, 2012.

69. Guner Celik and Eytan Modiano, “ Dynamic Server Allocation over Time Varying Channels with Switchover Delay ,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, to appear, 2012.

68. Anand Srinivas and Eytan Modiano, “ Joint Node Placement and Assignment for Throughput Optimization in Mobile Backbone Networks ,” IEEE JSAC, special issue on Communications Challenges and Dynamics for Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles, June, 2012.

67. Guner Celik and Eytan Modiano, “ Controlled Mobility in Stochastic and Dynamic Wireless Networks ,” Queueing Systems, 2012.

66. Krishna Jagannathan, Shie Mannor, Ishai Menache, Eytan Modiano, “ A State Action Frequency Approach to Throughput Maximization over Uncertain Wireless Channels ,” Internet Mathematics, Vol. 9, Nos. 2–3: 136–160.

65. Long Le, E. Modiano, N. Shroff, “Optimal Control of Wireless Networks with Finite Buffers ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, to appear, 2012.

64. K. Jagannathan, M. Markakis, E. Modiano, J. Tsitsiklis, “Queue Length Asymptotics for Generalized Max-Weight Scheduling in the presence of Heavy-Tailed Traffic,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, Vol. 20, No. 4, August 2012.

63. Kayi Lee, Hyang-Won Lee, Eytan Modiano, “ Reliability in Layered Networks with Random Link Failures, ” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, December 2011.

62. Krishna Jagannathan, Eytan Modiano, Lizhong Zheng, “ On the Role of Queue Length Information in Network Control ,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, September 2011.

61. Hyang-Won Lee, Long Le, Eytan Modiano, “ Distributed Throughput Maximization in Wireless Networks via Random Power Allocation, ” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 2011.

60. Sebastian Neumayer, Gil Zussman, Rueven Cohen, Eytan Modiano, “ Assessing the Vulnerability of the Fiber Infrastructure to Disasters, ” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, December 2011.

59. Kayi Lee, Eytan Modiano, Hyang-Won Lee, “ Cross Layer Survivability in WDM-based Networks ,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, August 2011.

58. Emily Craparo, Jon How, and Eytan Modiano, “Throughput Optimization in Mobile Backbone Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, April, 2011.

57. Hyang-Won Lee, Kayi Lee, and Eytan Modiano, “Diverse Routing in Networks with Probabilistic Failures,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, December, 2010.

56. Guner Celik, Gil Zussman, Wajahat Khan and Eytan Modiano, “MAC Protocols For Wireless Networks With Multi-packet Reception Cabaility ,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, February, 2010.

55. Atilla Eryilmaz, Asuman Ozdaglar, Devavrat Shah, and Eytan Modiano, “Distributed Cross-Layer Algorithms for the Optimal Control of Multi-hop Wireless Networks,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, April 2010.

54. Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “Minimum Energy Transmission over a Wireless Channel With Deadline and Power Constraints ,” IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, pp. 2841-2852, December, 2009.

53. Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “A Calculus Approach to Energy-Efficient Data Transmission with Quality of Service Constraints,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2009.

52. Anand Srinivas, Gil Zussman, and Eytan Modiano, “Construction and Maintenance of Wireless Mobile Backbone Networks,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2009.

51. Andrew Brzezinski, Gil Zussman, and Eytan Modiano, “Distributed Throughput Maximization in Wireless Mesh Networks Via Pre-Partitioning,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, December, 2008.

50. Amir Khandani, Eytan Modiano, Jinane Abounadi, Lizhong Zheng, “Reliability and Route Diversity in Wireless Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, December, 2008.

49. Alessandro Tarello, Jun Sun, Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “Minimum Energy Transmission Scheduling Subject to Deadline Constraints,” ACM Wireless Networks, October, 2008.

48. Murtaza Zafer, Eytan Modiano, “Optimal Rate Control for Delay-Constrained Data Transmission over a Wireless Channel,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, September, 2008.

47. Andrew Brzezinski and Eytan Modiano, “Achieving 100% Throughput In Reconfigurable IP/WDM Networks,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, August, 2008.

46. Michael Neely, Eytan Modiano and C. Li, “Fairness and Optimal Stochastic Control for Heterogeneous Networks,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, September, 2008.

45. Amir Khandani, Jinane Abounadi, Eytan Modiano, Lizhong Zheng, “Cooperative Routing in Static Wireless Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Communications, November 2007.

44. Murtaza Zafer, Eytan Modiano, “Joint Scheduling of Rate-guaranteed and Best-effort Users over a Wireless Fading Channel,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, October, 2007.

43. Krishna Jagannathan, Sem Borst, Phil Whiting and Eytan Modiano, “Scheduling of Multi-Antenna Broadcast Systems with Heterogeneous Users,” IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Communications, September, 2007.Amir Khandani, Jinane

42. Anand Ganti, Eytan Modiano, and John Tsitsiklis, “Optimal Transmission Scheduling in Symmetric Communication Models with Intermittent Connectivity, ” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, March, 2007.

41. Michael Neely and Eytan Modiano, “Logarithmic Delay for NxN Packet Switches Under Crossbar Constraints,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, November, 2007.

40. Jun Sun, Jay Gao, Shervin Shambayati and Eytan Modiano, “Ka-Band Link Optimization with Rate Adaptation for Mars and Lunar Communications,” International Journal of Satellite Communications and Networks, March, 2007.

39. Jun Sun and Eytan Modiano, “Fair Allocation of A Wireless Fading Channel: An Auction Approach” Institute for Mathematics and its Applications, Volume 143: Wireless Communications, 2006.

38. Jun Sun, Eytan Modiano and Lizhong Zhang, “Wireless Channel Allocation Using An Auction Algorithm,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, May, 2006.

37. Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “Blocking Probability and Channel Assignment for Connection Oriented Traffic in Wireless Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, April, 2006.

36. Alvin Fu, Eytan Modiano, and John Tsitsiklis, “Optimal Transmission Scheduling over a fading channel with Energy and Deadline Constraints” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, March,2006.

35. Poompat Saengudomlert, Eytan Modiano and Rober Gallager, “On-line Routing and Wavelength Assignment for Dynamic Traffic in WDM Ring and Torus Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Networking, April, 2006.

34. Li-Wei Chen, Eytan Modiano and Poompat Saengudomlert, “Uniform vs. Non-Uniform band Switching in WDM Networks,” Computer Networks (special issue on optical networks), January, 2006.

33. Andrew Brzezinski and Eytan Modiano, “Dynamic Reconfiguration and Routing Algorithms for IP-over-WDM networks with Stochastic Traffic,” IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology, November, 2005

32. Randall Berry and Eytan Modiano, “Optimal Transceiver Scheduling in WDM/TDM Networks,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, August, 2005.

31. Poompat Saengudomlert, Eytan Modiano, and Robert G. Gallager, “Dynamic Wavelength Assignment for WDM All-Optical Tree Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Networking, August, 2005.

30. Ashwinder Ahluwalia and Eytan Modiano, “On the Complexity and Distributed Construction of Energy Efficient Broadcast Trees in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, October, 2005.

29. Michael Neely, Charlie Rohrs and Eytan Modiano, “Equivalent Models for Analysis of Deterministic Service Time Tree Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, October, 2005.

28. Michael Neely and Eytan Modiano, “Capacity and Delay Tradeoffs for Ad Hoc Mobile Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, May, 2005.

27. Li-Wei Chen and Eytan Modiano, “Efficient Routing and Wavelength Assignment for Reconfigurable WDM Networks with Wavelength Converters,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, February, 2005. Selected as one of the best papers from Infocom 2003 for fast-track publication in IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking.

26. Michael Neely and Eytan Modiano, “Convexity in Queues with General Inputs,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, May, 2005.

25. Anand Srinivas and Eytan Modiano, “Finding Minimum Energy Disjoint Paths in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks,” ACM Wireless Networks, November, 2005. Selected to appear in a special issue dedicated to best papers from Mobicom 2003.

24. Michael Neely, Eytan Modiano and Charlie Rohrs, “Dynamic Power Allocation and Routing for Time-Varying Wireless Networks,” IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Communication, January, 2005.

23. Chunmei Liu and Eytan Modiano, “On the performance of additive increase multiplicative decrease (AIMD) protocols in hybrid space-terrestrial networks,” Computer Networks, September, 2004.

22. Li-Wei Chen and Eytan Modiano, “Dynamic Routing and Wavelength Assignment with Optical Bypass using Ring Embeddings,” Optical Switching and Networking (Elsevier), December, 2004.

21. Aradhana Narula-Tam, Eytan Modiano and Andrew Brzezinski, “Physical Topology Design for Survivable Routing of Logical Rings in WDM-Based Networks,” IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Communication, October, 2004.

20. Randall Berry and Eytan Modiano, “‘The Role of Switching in Reducing the Number of Electronic Ports in WDM Networks,” IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Communication, October, 2004.

19. Jun Sun and Eytan Modiano, “Routing Strategies for Maximizing Throughput in LEO Satellite Networks,,” IEEE JSAC, February, 2004.

18. Jun Sun and Eytan Modiano, “Capacity Provisioning and Failure Recovery for Low Earth Orbit Satellite Networks,” International Journal on Satellite Communications, June, 2003.

17. Alvin Fu, Eytan Modiano, and John Tsitsiklis, “Optimal Energy Allocation and Admission Control for Communications Satellites,” IEEE Transactions on Networking, June, 2003.

16. Michael Neely, Eytan Modiano and Charles Rohrs, “Power Allocation and Routing in Multi-Beam Satellites with Time Varying Channels,” IEEE Transactions on Networking, February, 2003.

15. Eytan Modiano and Aradhana Narula-Tam, “Survivable lightpath routing: a new approach to the design of WDM-based networks,” IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Communication, May 2002.

14. Aradhana Narula-Tam, Phil Lin and Eytan Modiano, “Efficient Routing and Wavelength Assignment for Reconfigurable WDM Networks,” IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Communication, January, 2002.

13. Brett Schein and Eytan Modiano, “Quantifying the benefits of configurability in circuit-switched WDM ring networks with limited ports per node,” IEEE Journal on Lightwave Technology, June, 2001.

12. Aradhana Narula-Tam and Eytan Modiano, “Dynamic Load Balancing in WDM Packet Networks with and without Wavelength Constraints,” IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Communications, October 2000.

11. Randy Berry and Eytan Modiano, “Reducing Electronic Multiplexing Costs in SONET/WDM Rings with Dynamically Changing Traffic,” IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Communications, October 2000.

10. Eytan Modiano and Richard Barry, “A Novel Medium Access Control Protocol for WDM-Based LANs and Access Networks Using a Master-Slave Scheduler,” IEEE Journal on Lightwave Technology, April 2000.

9. Eytan Modiano and Anthony Ephremides, “Communication Protocols for Secure Distributed Computation of Binary Functions,” Information and Computation, April 2000.

8. Angela Chiu and Eytan Modiano, “Traffic Grooming Algorithms for Reducing Electronic Multiplexing Costs in WDM Ring Networks,” IEEE Journal on Lightwave Technology, January 2000.

7. Eytan Modiano, “An Adaptive Algorithm for Optimizing the Packet Size Used in Wireless ARQ Protocols,” Wireless Networks, August 1999.

6. Eytan Modiano, “Random Algorithms for Scheduling Multicast Traffic in WDM Broadcast-and-Select Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Networking, July, 1999.

5. Eytan Modiano and Richard Barry, “Architectural Considerations in the Design of WDM-based Optical Access Networks,” Computer Networks, February 1999.

4. V.W.S. Chan, K. Hall, E. Modiano and K. Rauschenbach, “Architectures and Technologies for High-Speed Optical Data Networks,” IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology, December 1998.

3. Eytan Modiano and Anthony Ephremides, “Efficient Algorithms for Performing Packet Broadcasts in a Mesh Network,” IEEE Transactions on Networking, May 1996.

2. Eytan Modiano, Jeffrey Wieselthier and Anthony Ephremides, “A Simple Analysis of Queueing Delay in a Tree Network of Discrete-Time Queues with Constant Service Times,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, February 1996.

1. Eytan Modiano and Anthony Ephremides, “Communication Complexity of Secure Distributed Computation in the Presence of Noise,” IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, July 1992.

Other Papers

5. Eytan Modiano, “Satellite Data Networks,” AIAA Journal on Aerospace Computing, Information and Communication, September, 2004.

4. Eytan Modiano and Phil Lin, “Traffic Grooming in WDM networks,” IEEE Communications Magazine, July, 2001.

3. Eytan Modiano and Aradhana Narula, “Mechanisms for Providing Optical Bypass in WDM-based Networks,” SPIE Optical Networks, January 2000.

2. K. Kuznetsov, N. M. Froberg, Eytan Modiano, et. al., “A Next Generation Optical Regional Access Networks,” IEEE Communications Magazine, January, 2000.

1. Eytan Modiano, “WDM-based Packet Networks,” (Invited Paper) IEEE Communications Magazine, March 1999.

Conference Papers

246. Xinyu Wu, Dan Wu, Eytan Modiano, “ Overload Balancing in Single-Hop Networks With Bounded Buffers ,” IFIP Networking, 2022.

245. Xinzhe Fu, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Routing for Stream Learning Systems ,” IEEE Infocom, April 2022.

244. Vishrant Tripathi, Luca Ballotta, Luca Carlone, E. Modiano, “ Computation and Communication Co-Design for Real-Time Monitoring and Control in Multi-Agent Systems ,” IEEE Wiopt, 2021.

243. Eray Atay, Igor Kadota, E. Modiano, “ Aging Wireless Bandits: Regret Analysis and Order-Optimal Learning Algorithm ,” IEEE Wiopt 2021.

242. Xinzhe Fu and E. Modiano, “ Elastic Job Scheduling with Unknown Utility Functions ,” IFIP Performance, Milan, 2021.

241. Bai Liu and E. Modiano, “ Optimal Control for Networks with Unobservable Malicious Nodes ,” IFIP Performance, Milan, 2021.

240. Bai Liu, Qiaomin Xie, Eytan Modiano, “ RL-QN: A Reinforcement Learning Framework for Optimal Control of Queueing Systems ,” ACM Sigmetrics Workshop on Reinforcement Learning in Networks and Queues (RLNQ), 2021.

239. Xinzhe Fu and E. Modiano, “ Learning-NUM: Network Utility Maximization with Unknown Utility Functions and Queueing Delay , ACM MobiHoc 2021.

238. Vishrant Tripathi and Eytan Modiano, “ An Online Learning Approach to Optimizing Time-Varying Costs of AoI ,” ACM MobiHoc 2021.

237. Igor Kadota, Muhammad Shahir Rahman, and Eytan Modiano, “ WiFresh: Age-of-Information from Theory to Implementation ,” International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks (ICCCN), 2021.

236. Vishrant Tripathi and Eytan Modiano, “ Age Debt: A General Framework For Minimizing Age of Information ,” IEEE Infocom Workshop on Age-of-Information, 2021.

235. Igor Kadota, Eytan Modiano, “ Age of Information in Random Access Networks with Stochastic Arrivals ,” IEEE Infocom, 2020.

234. Igor Kadota, M. Shahir Rahman, Eytan Modiano, Poster: Age of Information in Wireless Networks: from Theory to Implementation , ACM Mobicom, 2020.

233. Xinyu Wu, Dan Wu, Eytan Modiano, “ An Influence Model Approach to Failure Cascade Prediction in Large Scale Power Systems ,” IEEE American Control Conference, July, 2020.

232. X. Fu and E. Modiano, “ Fundamental Limits of Volume-based Network DoS Attacks ,” Proc. ACM Sigmetrics, Boston, MA, June 2020.

231. Vishrant Tripathi, Eytan Modiano, “ A Whittle Index Approach to Minimizing Functions of Age of Information ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2019.

230. Bai Liu, Xiaomin Xie, Eytan Modiano, “ Reinforcement Learning for Optimal Control of Queueing Systems ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2019.

229. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ A Theory of Uncertainty Variables for State Estimation and Inference ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2019.

228. Rajat Talak, Eytan Modiano, “ Age-Delay Tradeoffs in Single Server Systems ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, Paris, France, July, 2019.

227. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ When a Heavy Tailed Service Minimizes Age of Information ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, Paris, France, July, 2019.

226. Qingkai Liang, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Network Control with Adversarial Uncontrollable Nodes ,” ACM MobiHoc, Catania, Italy, June 2019.

225. Igor Kadota, Eytan Modiano, “ Minimizing the Age of Information in Wireless Networks with Stochastic Arrivals ,” ACM MobiHoc, June 2019.

224. Maotong Xu, Jelena Diakonikolas, Suresh Subramaniam, Eytan Modiano, “ A Hierarchical WDM-based Scalable Data Center Network Architecture ,” IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Shanghai, China, June 2019.

223. Maotong Xu, Min Tian, Eytan Modiano, Suresh Subramaniam, “ RHODA Topology Configuration Using Bayesian Optimization

222. Anurag Rai, Rahul Singh and Eytan Modiano, “ A Distributed Algorithm for Throughput Optimal Routing in Overlay Networks ,” IFIP Networking 2019, Warsaw, Poland, May 2019.

221. Qingkai Liang and Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Network Control in Partially-Controllable Networks ,” IEEE Infocom, Paris, April 2019.

220. Xinzhe Fu and Eytan Modiano, “ Network Interdiction Using Adversarial Traffic Flows ,” IEEE Infocom, Paris, April 2019.

219. Vishrant Tripathi, Rajat Talak, Eytan Modiano, “ Age Optimal Information Gathering and Dissemination on Graphs ,” IEEE Infocom, Paris, April 2019.

218. Jianan Zhang, Hyang-Won Lee, Eytan Modiano, “ On the Robustness of Distributed Computing Networks ,” DRCN 2019, Coimbra, Portugal, March, 2019.

217. Hyang-Won Lee, Jianan Zhang and Eytan Modiano, “ Data-driven Localization and Estimation of Disturbance in the Interconnected Power System ,” IEEE Smartgridcomm, October, 2018.

216. Jianan Zhang and Eytan Modiano, “ Joint Frequency Regulation and Economic Dispatch Using Limited Communication ,” IEEE Smartgridcomm, October, 2018.

215. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ Scheduling Policies for Age Minimization in Wireless Networks with Unknown Channel State ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, July 2018.

214. Thomas Stahlbuhk, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ Online Learning Algorithms for Minimizing Queue Length Regret ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, July 2018.

213. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ Distributed Scheduling Algorithms for Optimizing Information Freshness in Wireless Networks ,” IEEE SPAWC, Kalamata, Greece, June, 2018.

212. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimizing Information Freshness in Wireless Networks under General Interference Constraints ,” ACM MobiHoc 2018, Los Angeles, CA, June 2018.

211. Thomas Stahlbuhk, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ Learning Algorithms for Scheduling in Wireless Networks with Unknown Channel Statistics ,” ACM MobiHoc, June 2018.

210. Khashayar Kamran, Jianan Zhang, Edmund Yeh, Eytan Modiano, “ Robustness of Interdependent Geometric Networks Under Inhomogeneous Failures ,” Workshop on Spatial Stochastic Models for Wireless Networks (SpaSWiN), Shanghai, China, May 2018.

209. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimizing Age of Information in Wireless Networks with Perfect Channel State Information ,” Wiopt 2018, Shanghai, China, May 2018.

208. Abhishek Sinha, Eytan Modiano, “ Network Utility Maximization with Heterogeneous Traffic Flows ,” Wiopt 2018, Shanghai, China, May 2018.

207. Qingkai Liang, Eytan Modiano, “ Minimizing Queue Length Regret Under Adversarial Network Models ,” ACM Sigmetrics, 2018.

206. Jianan Zhang, Abhishek Sinha, Jaime Llorca, Anonia Tulino, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Control of Distributed Computing Networks with Mixed-Cast Traffic Flows ,” IEEE Infocom, Honolulu, HI, April 2018.

205. Qingkai Liang, Eytan Modiano, “ Network Utility Maximization in Adversarial Environments ,” IEEE Infocom, Honolulu, HI, April 2018.

204. Igor Kadota, Abhishek Sinha, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimizing Age of Information in Wireless Networks with Throughput Constraints ,” IEEE Infocom, Honolulu, HI, April 2018.

203. QIngkai Liang, Verina (Fanyu) Que, Eytan Modiano, “ Accelerated Primal-Dual Policy Optimization for Safe Reinforcement Learning ,” NIPS workshop on “Transparent and interpretable machine learning in safety critical environments,”December 2017.

202. Rahul Singh, Xueying Guo,Eytan Modiano, “ Risk-Sensitive Optimal Control of Queues ,” IEEE Conference on Decision and Control (CDC), December 2017.

201. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ Minimizing Age of Information in Multi-Hop Wireless Networks ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2017.

200. Abhishek Sinha, Eytan Modiano, “ Throughput-Optimal Broadcast in Wireless Networks with Point-to-Multipoint Transmissions ,” ACM MobiHoc, Madras, India, July 2017.

199. Rajat Talak, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ Capacity and delay scaling for broadcast transmission in highly mobile wireless networks ,” ACM MobiHoc, Madras, India, July 2017.

198.5 . Y.-P. Hsu, E. Modiano, and L. Duan, “ Age of Information: Design and Analysis of Optimal Scheduling Algorithms ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory (ISIT), 2017.

198. Qingkai Liang and Eytan Modiano, “ Coflow Scheduling in Input-Queued Switches: Optimal Delay Scaling and Algorithms ,” IEEE Infocom, Atlanta, GA, May 2017.

197. Jianan Zhang and Eytan Modiano, “ Robust Routing in Interdependent Networks ,” IEEE Infocom, Atlanta, GA, May 2017.

196. Abhishek Sinha, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Control for Generalized Network Flow Problems ,” IEEE Infocom, Atlanta, GA, May 2017.

195. Rajat Talak*, Sertac Karaman, Eytan Modiano, “ Speed Limits in Autonomous Vehicular Networks due to Communication Constraints ,” IEEE Conference on Decision and Control (CDC), Las Vegas, NV, December 2016.

194. Marzieh Parandehgheibi*, Konstantin Turitsyn, Eytan Modiano, “ Distributed Frequency Control in Power Grids Under Limited Communication ,” IEEE Conference on Decision and Control (CDC), Las Vegas, NV, December 2016.

193. Igor Kadota, Elif Uysal-Biyikoglu, Rahul Singh, Eytan Modiano, “ Minimizing Age of Information in Broadcast Wireless Networks ,” Allerton Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2016.

192. Jianan Zhang, Edmund Yeh, Eytan Modiano, “ Robustness of Interdependent Random Geometric Networks ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2016.

191. Abhishek Sinha, Leandros Tassiulas, Eytan Modiano, “ Throughput-Optimal Broadcast in Wireless Networks with Dynamic Topology ,” ACM MobiHoc’16, Paderborn, Germany, July, 2016. (winner of best paper award)

190. Abishek Sinha, Georgios Paschos, Eytan Modiano, “ Throughput-Optimal Multi-hop Broadcast Algorithms ,” ACM MobiHoc’16, Paderborn, Germany, July, 2016.

189. Thomas Stahlbuhk, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ Throughput Maximization in Uncooperative Spectrum Sharing Networks ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, Barcelona, Spain, July 2016.

188. Thomas Stahlbuhk, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ Topology Control for Wireless Networks with Highly-Directional Antennas ,” IEEE Wiopt, Tempe, Arizona, May, 2016.

187. Qingkai Liang, H.W. Lee, Eytan Modiano, “ Robust Design of Spectrum-Sharing Networks ,” IEEE Wiopt, Tempe, Arizona, May, 2016.

186. Hossein Shokri-Ghadikolae, Carlo Fischione and Eytan Modiano, “ On the Accuracy of Interference Models in Wireless Communications ,” IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), 2016.

185. Qingkai Liang and Eytan Modiano, “ Survivability in Time-varying Networks ,” IEEE Infocom, San Francisco, CA, April 2016.

184. Kyu S. Kim, Chih-Ping Li, Igor Kadota, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Scheduling of Real-Time Traffic in Wireless Networks with Delayed Feedback ,” Allerton conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2015.

183. Marzieh Parandehgheibi, Eytan Modiano, “ Modeling the Impact of Communication Loss on the Power Grid Under Emergency Control ,” IEEE SmartGridComm, Miami, FL, Nov. 2015.

182. Anurag Rai, Chih-ping Li, Georgios Paschos, Eytan Modiano, “ Loop-Free Backpressure Routing Using Link-Reversal Algorithms ,” Proceedings of the ACM MobiHoc, July 2015.

181. Longbo Huang, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimizing Age of Information in a Multiclass Queueing System ,” Proceedings of IEEE ISIT 2015, Hong Kong, Jun 2015.

180. M. Johnston, E. Modiano, “ A New Look at Wireless Scheduling with Delayed Information ,” Proceedings of IEEE ISIT 2015, Hong Kong, June 2015.

179. M. Johnston, E. Modiano, “ Scheduling over Time Varying Channels with Hidden State Information ,” Proceedings of IEEE ISIT 2015, Hong Kong, June 2015.

178. M. Johnston and E. Modiano, “ Controller Placement for Maximum Throughput Under Delayed CSI ,” IEEE Wiopt, Mombai, India, May 2015.

177. A. Sinha, G. Paschos, C. P. Li, and E. Modiano, “ Throughput Optimal Broadcast on Directed Acyclic Graphs ,” IEEE Infocom, Hong Kong, April 2015.

176. J. Zheng and E. Modiano, “ Enhancing Network Robustness via Shielding ,” IEEE Design of Reliable Communication Networks, Kansas City, March 2015.

175. H. W. Lee and E. Modiano, “ Robust Design of Cognitive Radio Networks ,” Information and Communication Technology Convergence (ICTC), 2014.

174. Greg Kuperman and Eytan Modiano, “ Disjoint Path Protection in Multi-Hop Wireless Networks with Interference Constraints ,” IEEE Globecom, Austin, TX, December 2014.

173. Marzieh Parandehgheibi, Eytan Modiano, David Hay, “ Mitigating Cascading Failures in Interdependent Power Grids and Communication Networks ,” IEEE Smartgridcomm, Venice, Italy, November 2014.

172. Georgios Paschos and Eytan Modiano, “ Throughput optimal routing in overlay networks ,” Allerton conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2014.

171. Nathan Jones, George Paschos, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ An overlay architecture for Throughput Optimal Multipath Routing ,” ACM MobiHoc, August 2014.

170. Matt Johnston, Eytan Modiano, Yuri Polyanskiy, “ Opportunistic Scheduling with Limited Channel State Information: A Rate Distortion Approach ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, Honolulu, HI, July 2014.

169. Chih-Ping Li, Georgios Paschos, Eytan Modiano, Leandros Tassiulas, “ Dynamic Overload Balancing in Server Farms ,” Networking 2014, Trondheim, Norway, June, 2014.

168. Hulya Seferonglu and Eytan Modiano, “ TCP-Aware Backpressure Routing and Scheduling ,” Information Theory and Applications, San Diego, CA, February 2014.

167. Mihalis Markakis, Eytan Modiano, John Tsitsiklis, “ Delay Stability of Back-Pressure Policies in the presence of Heavy-Tailed Traffic ,” Information Theory and Applications, San Diego, CA, February 2014.

166. Kyu Soeb Kim, Chih-ping Li, Eytan Modiano, “ Scheduling Multicast Traffic with Deadlines in Wireless Networks ,” IEEE Infocom, Toronto, CA, April 2014.

165. Georgios Paschos, Chih-ping Li, Eytan Modiano, Kostas Choumas, Thanasis Korakis, “ A Demonstration of Multirate Multicast Over an 802.11 Mesh Network ,” IEEE Infocom, Toronto, CA, April 2014.

164. Sebastian Neumayer, Eytan Modiano, “ Assessing the Effect of Geographically Correlated Failures on Interconnected Power-Communication Networks ,” IEEE SmartGridComm, 2013.

163. Marzieh Parandehgheibi, Eytan Modiano, “ Robustness of Interdependent Networks: The case of communication networks and the power grid ,” IEEE Globecom, December 2013.

162. Matt Johnston, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Channel Probing in Communication Systems: The Two-Channel Case ,” IEEE Globecom, December 2013.

161. Mihalis Markakis, Eytan Modiano, John N. Tsitsiklis, “ Delay Analysis of the Max-Weight Policy under Heavy-Tailed Traffic via Fluid Approximations ,” Allerton Conference, October 2013.

160. Matthew Johnston, Isaac Keslassy, Eytan Modiano, “ Channel Probing in Communication Systems: Myopic Policies Are Not Always Optimal ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, July 2013.

159. Krishna P Jagannathan, Libin Jiang, Palthya Lakshma Naik, Eytan Modiano, “ Scheduling Strategies to Mitigate the Impact of Bursty Traffic in Wireless Networks ,” 11th International Symposium on Modeling and Optimization in Mobile, Ad Hoc and Wireless Networks Wiopt 2013, Japan, May 2013. (Winner – Best Paper Award).

158. Hulya Seferoglu and Eytan Modiano, “ Diff-Max: Separation of Routing and Scheduling in Backpressure-Based Wireless Networks ,” IEEE Infocom, Turin, Italy, April 2013.

157. Chih-Ping Li, Eytan Modiano, “ Receiver-Based Flow Control for Networks in Overload ,” IEEE Infocom, Turin, Italy, April 2013.

156. Nathan Jones, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ Distributed CSMA with Pairwise Coding ,” IEEE Infocom, Turin, Italy, April 2013.

155. Greg Kuperman and Eytan Modiano, “ Network Protection with Guaranteed Recovery Times using Recovery Domains ,” IEEE Infocom, Turin, Italy, April 2013.

154. Greg Kuperman and Eytan Modiano, “ Providing Protection in Multi-Hop Wireless Networks ,” IEEE Infocom, Turin, Italy, April 2013.

153. Greg Kuperman, Eytan Modiano, Aradhana Narula-Tam, “ Network Protection with Multiple Availability Guarantees ,” IEEE ICC workshop on New Trends in Optical Networks Survivability, June 2012.

152. Nathaniel Jones, Brooke Shrader, Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Routing and Scheduling for a Simple Network Coding Scheme ,” IEEE Infocom, Orlando, Fl, March, 2012.

151. Mihalis Markakis, Eytan Modiano, John Tsitsiklis, “ Max-Weight Scheduling in Networks with Heavy-Tailed Traffic ,” IEEE Infocom, Orlando, Fl, March, 2012.

150. Guner Celik and Eytan Modiano, “ Scheduling in Networks with Time-Varying Channels and Reconfiguration Delay ,” IEEE Infocom, Orlando, Fl, March, 2012.

149. Sebastian Neumayer, Alon Efrat, Eytan Modiano, “ Geographic Max-Flow and Min-cut Under a Circular Disk Failure Model ,” IEEE Infocom (MC), Orlando, Fl, March, 2012.

148. Marzieh Parandehgheibi, Hyang-Won Lee, and Eytan Modiano, “ Survivable Paths in Multi-Layer Networks ,” Conference on Information Science and Systems, March, 2012.

147. Greg Kuperman, Eytan Modiano, and Aradhana Narula-Tam, “ Partial Protection in Networks with Backup Capacity Sharing ,” Optical Fiber Communications Conference (OFC), Anaheim, CA, March, 2012.

146. Krishna Jagannathan, Libin Jiang, Eytan Modiano, “ On Scheduling Algorithms Robust to Heavy-Tailed Traffic ,” Information Theory and Applications (ITA), San Diego, CA, February 2012.

145. M. Johnston, H.W. Lee, E. Modiano, “ Robust Network Design for Stochastic Traffic Demands ,” IEEE Globecom, Next Generation Networking Symposium, Houston, TX, December 2011.

144. S. Neumayer, E. Modiano, “ Network Reliability Under Random Circular Cuts ,” IEEE Globecom, Optical Networks and Systems Symposium, Houston, TX, December 2011.

143. H.W. Lee, K. Lee, E. Modiano, “ Maximizing Reliability in WDM Networks through Lightpath Routing ,” IEEE Globecom, Optical Networks and Systems Symposium, Houston, TX, December 2011.

142. Guner Celik, Sem Borst, Eytan Modiano, Phil Whiting, “ Variable Frame Based Max-Weight Algorithms for Networks with Switchover Delay ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, St. Petersburgh, Russia, August 2011.

141. Krishna Jaganathan, Ishai Menache, Eytan Modiano, and Gil Zussman, “ Non-cooperative Spectrum Access – The Dedicated vs. Free Spectrum Choice ,” ACM MOBIHOC’11, May 2011.

140. Krishna Jagannathan, Shie Mannor, Ishai Menache, Eytan Modiano, “ A State Action Frequency Approach to Throughput Maximization over Uncertain Wireless Channels ,” IEEE Infocom (Mini-conference), Shanghai, China, April 2011.

139. Guner Celik, Long B. Le, Eytan Modiano, “ Scheduling in Parallel Queues with Randomly Varying Connectivity and Switchover Delay ,” IEEE Infocom (Mini-conference), Shanghai, China, April 2011.

138. Gregory Kuperman, Eytan Modiano, Aradhana Narula-Tam, “ Analysis and Algorithms for Partial Protection in Mesh Networks ,” IEEE Infocom (Mini-conference), Shanghai, China, April 2011.

137. Matthew Johnston, Hyang-Won Lee, Eytan Modiano, “ A Robust Optimization Approach to Backup Network Design with Random Failures ,” IEEE Infocom, Shanghai, China, April 2011.

136. Krishna Jagannathan, Mihalis Markakis, Eytan Modiano, John Tsitsiklis, “ Queue Length Asymptotics for Generalized Max-Weight Scheduling in the presence of Heavy-Tailed Traffic ,” IEEE Infocom, Shanghai, China, April 2011.

135. Guner Celik and Eytan Modiano, “ Dynamic Vehicle Routing for Data Gathering in Wireless Networks ,” In Proc. IEEE CDC’10, Dec. 2010..***

134. Long B. Le, Eytan Modiano, Changhee Joo, and Ness B. Shroff, “ Longest-queue-first scheduling under the SINR interference model ,” ACM MobiHoc, September 2010..***

133. Krishna Jagannathan, Mihalis Markakis, Eytan Modiano, John Tsitsiklis, “ Throughput Optimal Scheduling in the Presence of Heavy-Tailed Traffic ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2010..**

132. Delia Ciullo, Guner Celik, Eytan Modiano, “ Minimizing Transmission Energy in Sensor Networks via Trajectory Control ,” IEEE Wiopt 2010, Avignon, France, June 2010, (10 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).

131. Sebastian Neumayer and Eytan Modiano, “ Network Reliability with Geographically Correlated Failures ,” IEEE Infocom 2010, San Diego, CA, March 2010, (9 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

130. Long Le, Eytan Modiano, Ness Shroff, “ Optimal Control of Wireless Networks with Finite Buffers ,” IEEE Infocom 2010, San Diego, CA, March 2010, (9 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).

129. Kayi Lee, Hyang-Won Lee, Eytan Modiano, “ Reliability in Layered Network with Random Link Failures ,” IEEE Infocom 2010, San Diego, CA, March 2010, (9 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

128. Krishna Jagannathan, Eytan Modiano, “ The Impact of Queue length Information on Buffer Overflow in Parallel Queues ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2009, pgs. 1103 -1110 **

127. Mihalis Markakis, Eytan Modiano, John Tsitsiklis, “ Scheduling Policies for Single-Hop with Heavy-Tailed Traffic ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2009, pgs. 112 – 120..**

126. Dan Kan, Aradhana Narula-Tam, Eytan Modiano, “ Lightpath Routing and Capacity Assignment for Survivable IP-over-WDM Networks ,” DRCN 2009, Alexandria, VA October 2009, pgs. 37 -44..**

125. Mehdi Ansari, Alireza Bayesteh, Eytan Modiano, “ Opportunistic Scheduling in Large Scale Wireless Networks ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, Seoul, Korea, June 2009, pgs. 1624 – 1628.

124. Hyang-Won Lee, Eytan Modiano and Long Bao Le, “ Distributed Throughput Maximization in Wireless Networks via Random Power Allocation ,” IEEE Wiopt, Seoul, Korea, June 2009. (9 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).

123. Wajahat Khan, Eytan Modiano, Long Le, “ Autonomous Routing Algorithms for Networks with Wide-Spread Failures ,” IEEE MILCOM, Boston, MA, October 2009. (6 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

122. Guner Celik and Eytan Modiano, “ Random Access Wireless Networks with Controlled Mobility ,” IEEE Med-Hoc-Nets, Haifa, Israel, June 2009, pgs. 8 – 14.**

121. Hyang-Won Lee and Eytan Modiano, “ Diverse Routing in Networks with Probabilistic Failures ,” IEEE Infocom, April 2009, pgs. 1035 – 1043.

120. Kayi Lee and Eytan Modiano, “ Cross-layer Survivability in WDM-based Networks ,” IEEE Infocom, April 2009, pgs. 1017 -1025..**

119. Krishna Jagannathan, Eytan Modiano, Lizhong Zheng, “ On the Trade-off between Control Rate and Congestion in Single Server Systems ,” IEEE Infocom, April 2009, pgs. 271 – 279.**

118. Sebastian Neumayer, Gil Zussman, Rueven Cohen, Eytan Modiano, “ Assessing the Vulnerability of the Fiber Infrastructure to Disasters ,” IEEE Infocom, April 2009, pgs. 1566 – 1574.**

117. Long Le, Krishna Jagannathan and Eytan Modiano, “ Delay analysis of max-weight scheduling in wireless ad hoc networks ,” Conference on Information Science and Systems, Baltimore, MD, March, 2009, pgs. 389 – 394.**

116. Krishna Jagannathan, Eytan Modiano, Lizhong Zheng, “ Effective Resource Allocation in a Queue: How Much Control is Necessary? ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, September 2008, pgs. 508 – 515.**

115. Sebastian Neumayer, Gil Zussman, Rueven Cohen, Eytan Modiano, “ Assessing the Impact of Geographically Correlated Network Failures ,” IEEE MILCOM, November 2008. (6 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

114. Emily Craparo, Jonathan P. How, and Eytan Modiano, “ Simultaneous Placement and Assignment for Exploration in Mobile Backbone Networks ,” IEEE conference on Decision and Control (CDC), November 2008, pgs. 1696 – 1701 **

113. Anand Srinivas and Eytan Modiano, “ Joint node placement and assignment for throughput optimization in mobile backbone networks ,” IEEE INFOCOM’08, pp. 1130 – 1138, Phoenix, AZ, Apr. 2008, pgs. 1130 – 1138.**

112. Guner Celik, Gil Zussman, Wajahat Khan and Eytan Modiano, “ MAC for Networks with Multipacket Reception Capability and Spatially Distributed Nodes ,” IEEE INFOCOM’08, Phoenix, AZ, Apr. 2008, pgs. 1436 – 1444.**

111. Gil Zussman, Andrew Brzezinski, and Eytan Modiano, “ Multihop Local Pooling for Distributed Throughput Maximization in Wireless Networks ,” IEEE INFOCOM’08, Phoenix, AZ, Apr. 2008, pgs 1139 – 1147.**

110. Emily Craparo, Jonathan How and Eytan Modiano, “ Optimization of Mobile Backbone Networks: Improved Algorithms and Approximation ,” IEEE American Control Conference, Seattle, WA, June 2008, pgs. 2016 – 2021.**

109. Atilla Eryilmaz, Asuman Ozdaglar, Devavrat Shah, Eytan Modiano, “ Imperfect Randomized Algorithms for the Optimal Control of Wireless Networks ,” Conference on Information Science and Systems, Princeton, NJ, March, 2008, pgs. 932 – 937.

108. Anand Srinivas and Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Path Planning for Mobile Backbone Networks ,” Conference on Information Science and Systems, Princeton, NJ, March, 2008, pgs. 913 – 918.

107. Kayi Lee and Eytan Modiano, “ Cross-layer Survivability in WDM Networks with Multiple Failures ,” IEEE Optical Fiber Communications Conference, San Diego, CA February, 2008 (3 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).

106. Andrew Brzezinski, Gil Zussman and Eytan Modiano, “ Local Pooling Conditions for Joint Routing and Scheduling ,” Workshop on Information Theory and Applications, pp. 499 – 506, La Jolla, CA, January, 2008, pgs. 499 – 506.

105. Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “ Minimum Energy Transmission over a Wireless Fading Channel with Packet Deadlines ,” Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Decision and Control (CDC), New Orleans, LA, December, 2007, pgs. 1148 – 1155.**

104. Atilla Eryilmaz, Asuman Ozdaglar, Eytan Modiano, “ Polynomial Complexity Algorithms for Full Utilization of Multi-hop Wireless Networks ,” IEEE Infocom, Anchorage, AK, April, 2007, pgs. 499 – 507.

103. Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “ Delay Constrained Energy Efficient Data Transmission over a Wireless Fading Channel ,” Workshop on Information Theory and Application, University of California, San Diego, CA, February, 2007, pgs. 289 – 298.**

102. Atilla Eryilmaz, Eytan Modiano, Asuman Ozdaglar, “ Randomized Algorithms for Throughput-Optimality and Fairness in Wireless Networks ,” Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Decision and Control (CDC), San Diego, CA, December, 2006, pgs. 1936 – 1941.

101. Anand Srinivas, Gil Zussman, and Eytan Modiano, “ Distributed Mobile Disk Cover – A Building Block for Mobile Backbone Networks ,” Proc. Allerton Conf. on Communication, Control, and Computing, Allerton, IL, September 2006, (9 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

100. Krishna Jagannathan, Sem Borst, Phil Whiting, Eytan Modiano, “ Scheduling of Multi-Antenna Broadcast Systems with Heterogeneous Users ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control and Computing, Allerton, IL, September 2006, (10 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

99. Andrew Brzezinski, Gil Zussman, and Eytan Modiano, “ Enabling Distributed Throughput Maximization in Wireless Mesh Networks – A Partitioning Approach ,” Proceedings of ACM MOBICOM’06, Los Angeles, CA, Sep. 2006, (12 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

98. Eytan Modiano, Devavrat Shah, and Gil Zussman, “ Maximizing Throughput in Wireless Networks via Gossiping ,” Proc. ACM SIGMETRICS / IFIP Performance’06, Saint-Malo, France, June 2006, (12 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available). (best paper award)

97. Anand Srinivas, Gil Zussman, and Eytan Modiano, “ Mobile Backbone Networks – Construction and Maintenance ,” Proc. ACM MOBIHOC’06, Florence, Italy, May 2006, (12 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

96. Andrew Brzezinski and Eytan Modiano, “ Achieving 100% throughput in reconfigurable optical networks ,” IEEE INFOCOM 2006 High-Speed Networking Workshop, Barcelona, Spain, April 2006, (5 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

95. Krishna P. Jagannathan, Sem Borst, Phil Whiting, Eytan Modiano, “ Efficient scheduling of multi-user multi-antenna systems ,” Proceedings of WiOpt 2006, Boston, MA, April 2006, (8 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

94. Andrew Brzezinski and Eytan Modiano, “ Greedy weighted matching for scheduling the input-queued switch ,” Conference on Information Sciences and Systems (CISS), Princeton, NJ, March 2006, pgs. 1738 – 1743.**

93. Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Adaptive Data Transmission over a Fading Channel with Deadline and Power Constraints ,” Conference on Information Sciences and Systems (CISS), Princeton, New Jersey, March 2006, pgs. 931 – 937.**

92. Li-Wei Chen and E. Modiano, “ A Geometric Approach to Capacity Provisioning in WDM Networks with Dynamic Traffic ,” Conference on Information Science and Systems (CISS), Princeton, NJ, March, 2006, pgs. 1676 – 1683, **

91. Jun Sun and Eytan Modiano, “ Channel Allocation Using Pricing in Satellite Networks ,” Conference on Information Science and Systems (CISS), Princeton, NJ, March, 2006, pgs. 182 – 187.**

90. Jun Sun, Jay Gao, Shervin Shambayatti and Eytan Modiano, “ Ka-Band Link Optimization with Rate Adaptation ,” IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, MN, March, 2006. (7 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).

89. Alessandro Tarello, Eytan Modiano and Jay Gao, “ Energy efficient transmission scheduling over Mars proximity links ,” IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, MN, March, 2006. (10 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).

88. A. Brzezinski and E. Modiano, “ RWA decompositions for optimal throughput in reconfigurable optical networks ,” INFORMS Telecommunications Conference, Dallas, TX, March 2006 (3 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

87. Li Wei Chen and E. Modiano, “ Geometric Capacity Provisioning for Wavelength Switched WDM Networks ,” Workshop on Information Theory and Application, University of California, San Diego, CA, February, 2006. (8 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

86. Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “ Joint Scheduling of Rate-guaranteed and Best-effort Services over a Wireless Channel ,” IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Seville, Spain, December, 2005, pgs. 6022–6027.**

85. Jun Sun and Eytan Modiano, “ Opportunistic Power Allocation for Fading Channels with Non-cooperative Users and Random Access ,” IEEE BroadNets – Wireless Networking Symposium, Boston, MA, October, 2005, pgs. 397–405.**

84. Li Wei Chen and Eytan Modiano, “ Uniform vs. Non-uniform Band Switching in WDM Networks ,” IEEE BroadNets-Optical Networking Symposium, Boston, MA, October, 2005, pgs. 219– 228.**

83. Sonia Jain and Eytan Modiano, “ Buffer Management Schemes for Enhanced TCP Performance over Satellite Links ,” IEEE MILCOM, Atlantic City, NJ, October 2005 (8 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

82. Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “ Continuous-time Optimal Rate Control for Delay Constrained Data Transmission ,” Allerton Conference on Communications, Control and Computing, Allerton, IL, September, 2005 (10 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

81. Alessandro Tarello, Eytan Modiano, Jun Sun, Murtaza Zafer, “ Minimum Energy Transmission Scheduling subject to Deadline Constraints ,” IEEE Wiopt, Trentino, Italy, April, 2005, pgs. 67–76. (Winner of best student paper award).**

80. Amir Khandani, Eytan Modiano, Jinane Abounadi, Lizhong Zheng, “ Reliability and Route Diversity in Wireless Networks ,” Conference on Information Science and System, Baltimore, MD, March, 2005, (8 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

79. Andrew Brzezinski, Iraj Saniee, Indra Widjaja, Eytan Modiano, “ Flow Control and Congestion Management for Distributed Scheduling of Burst Transmissions in Time-Domain Wavelength Interleaved Networks ,” IEEE/OSA Optical Fiber Conference (OFC), Anaheim, CA, March, 2005, pgs. WC4-1–WC4-3.

78. Andrew Brzezinski and Eytan Modiano, “ Dynamic Reconfiguration and Routing Algorithms for IP-over-WDM Networks with Stochastic Traffic ,” IEEE Infocom 2005, Miami, FL, March, 2005, pgs. 6–11.**

77. Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “ A Calculus Approach to Minimum Energy Transmission Policies with Quality of Service Guarantees ,” IEEE Infocom 2005, Miami, FL, March, 2005, pgs. 548–559.**

76. Michael Neely and Eytan Modiano, “ Fairness and optimal stochastic control for heterogeneous networks ,” IEEE Infocom 2005, Miami, FL, March, 2005, pgs. 1723 – 1734.**

75. Aradhana Narula-Tam, Thomas G. Macdonald, Eytan Modiano, and Leslie Servi, “ A Dynamic Resource Allocation Strategy for Satellite Communications ,” IEEE MILCOM, Monterey, CA, October, 2004, pgs. 1415 – 1421.

74. Li-Wei Chen, Poompat Saengudomlert and Eytan Modiano, “ Optimal Waveband Switching in WDM Networks ,” IEEE International Conference on Communication (ICC), Paris, France, June, 2004, pgs. 1604 – 1608.**

73. Michael Neely and Eytan Modiano, “ Logarithmic Delay for NxN Packet Switches ,” IEEE Workshop on High performance Switching and Routing (HPSR 2004), Phoenix, AZ, April, 2004, pgs. 3–9.**

72. Li-Wei Chen and Eytan Modiano, “ Dynamic Routing and Wavelength Assignment with Optical Bypass using Ring Embeddings ,” IEEE Workshop on High performance Switching and Routing (HPSR 2004), Phoenix, Az, April, 2004, pgs. 119–125.**

71. Randall Berry and Eytan Modiano, “ On the Benefits of Tunability in Reducing Electronic Port Counts in WDM/TDM Networks ,” IEEE Infocom, Hong Kong, March 2004, pgs. 1340–1351.

70. Andrew Brzezinski and Eytan Modiano, “ A new look at dynamic traffic scheduling in WDM networks with transceiver tuning latency ,” Informs Telecommunications Conference, Boca Raton, FL, March 2004, pgs. 25–26.**

69. Chunmei Liu and Eytan Modiano, “ Packet Scheduling with Window Service Constraints ,” Conference on Information Science and System, Princeton, NJ, March, 2004, pgs. 178–184.**

68. Jun Sun, Eytan Modiano, and Lizhong Zheng, “ A Novel Auction Algorithm for Fair Allocation of a Wireless Fading Channel ,” Conference on Information Science and System, Princeton, NJ, March, 2004, pgs. 1377–1383.**

67. Murtaza Zafer and Eytan Modiano, “ Impact of Interference and Channel Assignment on Blocking Probability in Wireless Networks ,” Conference on Information Science and System, Princeton, NJ, March, 2004, pgs. 430–436.**

66. Chunmei Liu and Eytan Modiano, “ An Analysis of TCP over Random Access Satellite Links ,” IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), Atlanta, GA, February, 2004, pgs. 2033–2040..**

65. Randall Berry and Eytan Modiano, “ Using tunable optical transceivers for reducing the number of ports in WDM/TDM Networks ,” IEEE/OSA Optical Fiber Conference (OFC), Los Angeles, CA, February, 2004, pgs. 23–27.

64. Aradhana Narula-Tam, Eytan Modiano and Andrew Brzezinski, “ Physical Topology Design for Survivable Routiing of Logical Rings in WDM-based Networks ,” IEEE Globecom, San francisco, CA, December, 2003, pgs. 2552–2557.

63. Jun Sun, Lizhong Zheng and Eytan Modiano, “ Wireless Channel Allocation Using an Auction Algorithm ,” Allerton Conference on Communications, Control and Computing, October, 2003, pgs. 1114–1123..**

62. Amir Khandani, Jinane Abounadi, Eytan Modiano, Lizhong Zhang, “ Cooperative Routing in Wireless Networks ,” Allerton Conference on Communications, Control and Computing, October, 2003, pgs. 1270–1279.**

61. Poompat Saengudomlert, Eytan Modiano and Robert Gallager, “ Dynamic Wavelength Assignment for WDM all optical Tree Networks ,” Allerton Conference on Communications, Control and Computing, October, 2003, 915–924.**

60. Aradhana Narula-Tam and Eytan Modiano, “ Designing Physical Topologies that Enable Survivable Routing of Logical Rings ,” IEEE Workshop on Design of Reliable Communication Networks (DRCN), October, 2003, pgs. 379–386.

59. Anand Srinivas and Eytan Modiano, “ Minimum Energy Disjoint Path Routing in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks ,” ACM Mobicom, San Diego, Ca, September, 2003, pgs. 122–133.**

58. Michael Neely and Eytan Modiano, “ Improving Delay in Ad-Hoc Mobile Networks Via Redundant Packet Transfers ,” Conference on Information Science and System, Baltimore, MD, March, 2003 (6 pages; CD proceedings – page numbers not available).**

57. Michael Neely, Eytan Modiano and Charles Rohrs, “ Dynamic Power Allocation and Routing for Time Varying Wireless Networks ,” IEEE Infocom 2003, San Francisco, CA, April, 2003, pgs. 745–755.**

56. Alvin Fu, Eytan Modiano, and John Tsitsiklis, “ Optimal Energy Allocation for Delay-Constrained Data Transmission over a Time-Varying Channel ,” IEEE Infocom 2003, San Francisco, CA, April, 2003, pgs. 1095–1105.**

55. Poompat Saengudomlert, Eytan Modiano and Rober Gallager, “ On-line Routing and Wavelength Assignment for Dynamic Traffic in WDM Ring and Torus Networks ,” IEEE Infocom 2003, San Francisco, CA, April, 2003, pgs. 1805–1815.**

54. Li-Wei Chen and Eytan Modiano, “ Efficient Routing and Wavelength Assignment for Reconfigurable WDM Networks with Wavelength Converters ,” IEEE Infocom 2003, San Francisco, CA, April, 2003, pgs. 1785–1794. Selected as one of the best papers of Infocom 2003 for fast track publication in IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking.**

53. Mike Neely, Jun Sun and Eytan Modiano, “ Delay and Complexity Tradeoffs for Dynamic Routing and Power Allocation in a Wireless Network ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, Allerton, Illinois, October, 2002, pgs. 157 –159.**

52. Anand Ganti, Eytan Modiano and John Tsitsiklis, “ Transmission Scheduling for Multi-Channel Satellite and Wireless Networks ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, Allerton, Illinois, October, 2002, pgs. 1318–1327.**

51. Poompat Saengudomlert, Eytan Modiano, and Robert G. Gallager, “ Optimal Wavelength Assignment for Uniform All-to-All Traffic in WDM Tree Networks ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, Allerton, Illinois, October, 2002, pgs. 528–537.**

50. Hungjen Wang, Eytan Modiano and Muriel Medard, “ Partial Path Protection for WDM Networks: End-to-End Recovery Using Local Failure Information ,” IEEE International Symposium on Computer Communications (ISCC), Taormina, Italy, July 2002, pgs. 719–725.**

49. Jun Sun and Eytan Modiano, “ Capacity Provisioning and Failure Recovery in Mesh-Torus Networks with Application to Satellite Constellations ,” IEEE International Symposium on Computer Communications (ISCC), Taormina, Italy, July 2002, pgs. 77–84.**

48. Alvin Fu, Eytan Modiano, and John Tsitsiklis, “ Optimal Energy Allocation and Admission Control for Communications Satellites ,” IEEE INFOCOM 2002, New York, June, 2002, pgs. 648–656.**

47. Michael Neely, Eytan Modiano and Charles Rohrs, “ Power and Server Allocation in a Multi-Beam Satellite with Time Varying Channels ,” IEEE INFOCOM 2002, New York, June, 2002, pgs. 1451–1460..**

46. Mike Neely, Eytan Modiano and Charles Rohrs, “ Tradeoffs in Delay Guarantees and Computation Complexity for N x N Packet Switches ,” Conference on Information Science and Systems, Princeton, NJ, March, 2002, pgs. 136–148.**

45. Alvin Fu, Eytan Modiano and John Tsitsiklis, “ Transmission Scheduling Over a Fading Channel with Energy and Deadline Constraints ,” Conference on Information Science and System, Princeton, NJ, March, 2002, pgs. 1018–1023.**

44. Chunmei Liu and Eytan Modiano, “ On the Interaction of Layered Protocols: The Case of Window Flow Control and ARQ ,” Conference on Information Science and System, Princeton, NJ, March, 2002, pgs. 118–124.**

43. Mike Neely, Eytan Modiano and Charles Rohrs, “ Packet Routing over Parallel Time-varying Queues with Application to Satellite and Wireless Networks ,” Conference on Information Science and System, Princeton, NJ, March, 2002, pgs. 360–366.**

42. Ahluwalia Ashwinder, Eytan Modiano and Li Shu, “ On the Complexity and Distributed Construction of Energy Efficient Broadcast Trees in Static Ad Hoc Wireless Networks ,” Conference on Information Science and System, Princeton, NJ, March, 2002, pgs. 807–813.**

41. Jun Sun and Eytan Modiano, “ Capacity Provisioning and Failure Recovery for Satellite Constellations ,” Conference on Information Science and System, Princeton, NJ, March, 2002, pgs. 1039–1045.**

40. Eytan Modiano, Hungjen Wang, and Muriel Medard, “ Partial Path Protection for WDM networks ,” Informs Telecommunications Conference, Boca Raton, FL, March 2002, pgs. 78–79.**

39. Poompat Saengudomlert, Eytan H. Modiano, and Robert G. Gallager, “ An On-Line Routing and Wavelength Assignment Algorithm for Dynamic Traffic in a WDM Bidirectional Ring ,” Joint Conference on Information Sciences (JCIS), Durham, North Carolina, March, 2002, pgs. 1331–1334.**

38. Randy Berry and Eytan Modiano, “ Switching and Traffic Grooming in WDM Networks ,” Joint Conference on Information Sciences (JCIS), Durham, North Carolina, March, 2002, pgs. 1340–1343.

37. Eytan Modiano, Hungjen Wang, and Muriel Medard, “ Using Local Information for WDM Network Protection ,” Joint Conference on Information Sciences (JCIS), Durham, North Carolina, March, 2002, pgs. 1398–1401.**

36. Aradhana Narula-Tam and Eytan Modiano, “ Network architectures for supporting survivable WDM rings ,” IEEE/OSA Optical Fiber Conference (OFC) 2002, Anaheim, CA, March, 2002, pgs. 105–107.

35. Michael Neely, Eytan Modiano, Charles Rohrs, “ Packet Routing over Parallel Time-Varying Queues with Application to Satellite and Wireless Networks ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, Allerton, Illinois, September, 2001, pgs. 1110-1111.**

34. Eytan Modiano and Randy Berry, “ The Role of Switching in Reducing Network Port Counts ,” Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and Computing, Allerton, Illinois, September, 2001, pgs. 376-385.

33. Eytan Modiano, “ Resource allocation and congestion control in next generation satellite networks ,” IEEE Gigabit Networking Workshop (GBN 2001), Anchorage, AK, April 2001, (2 page summary-online proceedings).

32. Eytan Modiano and Aradhana Narula-Tam, “ Survivable Routing of Logical Topologies in WDM Networks ,” IEEE Infocom 2001, Anchorage, AK, April 2001, pgs. 348–357.

31. Michael Neely and Eytan Modiano, “ Convexity and Optimal Load Distribution in Work Conserving */*/1 Queues ,” IEEE Infocom 2001, Anchorage, AK, April 2001, pgs. 1055–1064.

30. Eytan Modiano and Randy Berry, “ Using Grooming Cross- Connects to Reduce ADM Costs in Sonet/WDM Ring Networks ,” IEEE/OSA Optical Fiber Conference (OFC) 2001, Anaheim, CA March 2001, pgs. WL1- WL3.

29. Eytan Modiano and Aradhana Narula-Tam, “ Designing Survivable Networks Using Effective Rounting and Wavelenght Assignment (RWA) ,” IEEE/OSA Optical Fiber Conference (OFC) 2001, Anaheim, CA March 2001, pgs. TUG5-1 – TUG5– 3.

28. Roop Ganguly and Eytan Modiano, “ Distributed Algorithms and Architectures for Optical Flow Switching in WDM networks ,” IEEE International Symposium on Computer Communications (ISCC 2000), Antibes, France, July 2000, pgs. 134–139.

27. Aradhana Narula-Tam, Philip J. Lin and Eytan Modiano, “ Wavelength Requirements for Virtual topology Reconfiguration in WDM Ring Networks ,” IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC 2000), New Orleans, LA, June 2000, pgs. 1650–1654.

26. Eytan Modiano, “Optical Flow Switching for the Next Generation Internet,” IEEE Gigabit Networking Workshop (GBN 2000), Tel-aviv, March 2000 (2 page summary-online proceedings).

25. Aradhana Narula and Eytan Modiano, “ Dynamic Reconfiguration in WDM Packet Networks with Wavelength Limitations ,” IEEE/OSA Optical Fiber Conference (OFC) 2000, Baltimore, MD, March, 2000, pgs. 1210–1212.

24. Brett Schein and Eytan Modiano, “ Quantifying the benefits of configurability in circuit-switched WDM ring networks ,” IEEE Infocom 2000, Tel Aviv, Israel, April, 2000, pgs.1752–1760..***

23. Aradhana Narula-Tam and Eytan Modiano, “ Load Balancing Algorithms for WDM-based IP networks ,” IEEE Infocom 2000, Tel Aviv, Israel, April, 2000, pgs. 1010–1019.

22. Nan Froberg, M. Kuznetsov, E. Modiano, et. al., “ The NGI ONRAMP test bed: Regional Access WDM technology for the Next Generation Internet ,” IEEE LEOS ’99, October, 1999, pgs. 230–231.

21. Randy Berry and Eytan Modiano, “ Minimizing Electronic Multiplexing Costs for Dynamic Traffic in Unidirectional SONET Ring Networks ,” IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC ’99), Vancouver, CA, June 1999, pgs. 1724–1730..***

20. Brett Schein and Eytan Modiano, “Increasing Traffic Capacity in WDM Ring Networks via Topology Reconfiguration,” Conference on Information Science and Systems, Baltimore, MD, March 1999, pgs. 201 – 206.

19. Eytan Modiano and Richard Barry, “ Design and Analysis of an Asynchronous WDM Local Area Network Using a Master/Slave Scheduler ,” IEEE Infocom ’99, New York, NY, March 1999, pgs. 900–907.

18. Randy Berry and Eytan Modiano, “ Grooming Dynamic Traffic in Unidirectional SONET Ring Networks ,” IEEE/OSA Optical Fiber Conference (OFC) ’99, San Diego, CA, February 1999, pgs. 71–73.

17. Angela Chiu and Eytan Modiano, “ Reducing Electronic Multiplexing Costs in Unidirectional SONET/WDM Ring Networks Via Efficient Traffic Grooming ,” IEEE Globecom ’98, Sydney, Australia, November 1998, pgs. 322–327.

16. Eytan Modiano, “ Throughput Analysis of Unscheduled Multicast Transmissions in WDM Broadcast-and-Select Networks ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, Boston, MA, September 1998, pg. 167.

15. Eytan Modiano and Angela Chiu, “Traffic Grooming Algorithms for Minimizing Electronic Multiplexing Costs in Unidirectional SONET/WDM Ring Networks,” Conference on Information Science and Systems, Princeton, NJ, March 1998, 653–658.

14. Eytan Modiano and Eric Swanson, “ An Architecture for Broadband Internet Services over a WDM-based Optical Access Network ,” IEEE Gigabit Networking Workshop (GBN ’98), San Francisco, CA, March 1998 (2 page summary-online proceedings).

13. Eytan Modiano, “ Unscheduled Multicasts in WDM Broadcast-and-Select Networks ,” IEEE Infocom ’98, San Francisco, CA, March 1998, pgs. 86–93.

12. Eytan Modiano, Richard Barry and Eric Swanson, “ A Novel Architecture and Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol for WDM Networks ,” IEEE/OSA Optical Fiber Conference (OFC) ’98, San Jose, CA, February 1998, pgs. 90–91.

11. Eytan Modiano, “ Scheduling Algorithms for Message Transmission Over a Satellite Broadcast System ,” IEEE MILCOM 97, Monterey, CA, November 1997, pgs. 628–634.

10. Eytan Modiano, “ Scheduling Packet Transmissions in A Multi-hop Packet Switched Network Based on Message Length ,” IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks (IC3N) Las Vegas, Nevada, September 1997, pgs. 350–357.

9. Eytan Modiano, “A Simple Algorithm for Optimizing the Packet Size Used in ARQ Protocols Based on Retransmission History,” Conference on Information Science and Systems, Baltimore, MD, March 1997, pgs. 672–677.

8. Eytan Modiano, “ A Multi-Channel Random Access Protocol for the CDMA Channel ,” IEEE PIMRC ’95, Toronto, Canada, September 1995, pgs. 799–803.

7. Eytan Modiano Jeffrey Wieselthier and Anthony Ephremides, “ A Simple Derivation of Queueing Delay in a Tree Network of Discrete-Time Queues with Deterministic Service Times ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, Trondheim, Norway, June 1994, pg. 372.

6. Eytan Modiano, Jeffrey Wieselthier and Anthony Ephremides, “An Approach for the Analysis of Packet Delay in an Integrated Mobile Radio Network,” Conference on Information Sciences and Systems, Baltimore, MD, March 1993, pgs. 138-139.

5. Eytan Modiano and Anthony Ephremides, “ A Method for Delay Analysis of Interacting Queues in Multiple Access Systems ,” IEEE INFOCOM 1993, San Francisco, CA, March 1993, pgs. 447 – 454.

4. Eytan Modiano and Anthony Ephremides, “ A Model for the Approximation of Interacting Queues that Arise in Multiple Access Schemes ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, San Antonio, TX, January 1993, pg. 324.

3. Eytan Modiano and Anthony Ephremides, “ Efficient Routing Schemes for Multiple Broadcasts in a Mesh ,” Conference on Information Sciences and Systems, Princeton, NJ, March 1992, pgs. 929 – 934.

2. Eytan Modiano and Anthony Ephremides, “ On the Secrecy Complexity of Computing a Binary Function of Non-uniformly Distributed Random Variables ,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, Budapest, Hungary, June 1991, pg. 213.

1. Eytan Modiano and Anthony Ephremides, “Communication Complexity of Secure Distributed Computation in the Presence of Noise,” IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, San Diego, CA, January 1990, pg. 142.

Book Chapters

Hyang-Won Lee, Kayi Lee, Eytan Modiano, “ Cross-Layer Survivability ” in Cross-Layer Design in Optical Networks, Springer, 2013.
Li-Wei Chen and Eytan Modiano, “ Geometric Capacity Provisioning for Wavelength-Switched WDM Networks ,” Chapter in Computer Communications and Networks Series: Algorithms for Next Generation Networks, Springer, 2010.
Amir Khandani, Eytan Modiano, Lizhong Zhang, Jinane Aboundi, “ Cooperative Routing in Wireless Networks ,” Chapter in Advances in Pervasive Computing and Networking, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2005.
Jian-Qiang Hu and Eytan Modiano, “ Traffic Grooming in WDM Networks ,” Chapter in Emerging Optical Network Technologies, Kluwer Academic Publishers, to appear, 2004.
Eytan Modiano, “ WDM Optical Networks ,” Wiley Encyclopedia of Telecommunications (John Proakis, Editor), 2003.
Eytan Modiano, “ Optical Access Networks for the Next Generation Internet ,” in Optical WDM Networks: Principles and Practice, Kluwer Academic Prublishers, 2002.
Eytan Modiano, Richard Barry and Eric Swanson, “ A Novel Architecture and Medium Access Control protocol for WDM Networks ,” Trends in Optics and Photonics Series (TOPS) volume on Optical Networks and Their Applications, 1998.
Eytan Modiano and Kai-Yeung Siu, “Network Flow and Congestion Control,” Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 1999.

Technical Reports

Amir Khandani, Eytan Modiano, Jinane Abounadi, Lizhong Zheng, “Reliability and Route Diversity in Wireless Networks, ” MIT LIDS Technical Report number 2634, November, 2004.
Anand Srinivas and Eytan Modiano, “Minimum Energy Disjoint Path Routing in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks, ” MIT LIDS Technical Report, P-2559, March, 2003.
Eytan Modiano and Aradhana Narula-Tam, “Survivable lightpath routing: a new approach to the design of WDM-based networks, ” LIDS report 2552, October, 2002.
Michael Neely, Eytan Modiano and Charles Rohrs, “Packet Routing over Parallel Time-Varying Queues with Application to Satellite and Wireless Networks,” LIDS report 2520, September, 2001.
Jun Sun and Eytan Modiano, “Capacity Provisioning and Failure Recovery in Mesh-Torus Networks with Application to Satellite Constellations,” LIDS report 2518, September, 2001.
Hungjen Wang, Eytan Modiano and Muriel Medard, “Partial Path Protection for WDM Networks: End-to-End Recovery Using Local Failure Information, ” LIDS report 2517, Sept. 2001.
Alvin Fu, Eytan Modiano, and John Tsitsiklis, “Optimal Energy Allocation and Admission Control for Communications Satellites, ” LIDS report 2516, September, 2001.
Michael Neely, Eytan Modiano and Charles Rohrs, “Power and Server Allocation in a Multi-Beam Satellite with Time Varying Channels, ” LIDS report 2515, September, 2001.
Eytan Modiano, “Scheduling Algorithms for Message Transmission Over the GBS Satellite Broadcast System, ” Lincoln Laboratory Technical Report Number TR-1035, June 1997.
Eytan Modiano, “Scheduling Packet Transmissions in A Multi-hop Packet Switched Network Based on Message Length, ” Lincoln Laboratory Technical Report number TR-1036, June, 1997.

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Essay on the Communication Networks (586 Words)

Essay on the Communication Networks (586 Words)!

The communication model discussed earlier identifies the process whereby a message is sent by a sender and is received by a receiver. However, organizational communication is not confined to one sender and one receiver only.

Image Source: fra.europa.eu

In organizations, communication frequently takes place among many individuals and groups. Many tasks require a variety of inputs from a variety of people and hence managers must link up with these resources of inputs for the purpose of coordination of tasks.

A “communication network” represents a pattern of information flow among group members. The importance of communication networks lies in their potential influences on effectiveness, task efficiency, group leadership, member satisfaction, and other variables that affect organizational effectiveness.

In the literature on communication networks, five different types of networks have been defined. Even though, there can be many people in a given network as desired, let us assume, for the sake of simplicity, that there are five members in the group.

Three of the five networks shown here reflect the centralized process in which information must flow through a central or a pivotal person. In contrast, in a decentralized network, each member has an equal opportunity to participate in the communication process.

The centralized networks are known as the “chain”, the “wheel” and the “Y” types. These networks are shown below in which each circle represents a member of the group and an X within a circle represents the pivotal person.

The “Chain” is a typical network formation in a classical type of organization where the information flows only up or down in a hierarchical chain of command. No horizontal communication is provided.

The figure shown can be considered as five levels in the organizational hierarchy, from the president down to plant supervisor and X in the circle marks the position of the general manager.

A “Wheel” network, also known as a “star” network represents a supervisor in the centre with four subordinates. The subordinates do not communicate with each other. All communication is channeled through the supervisor.

The “Y” shape network is a four level hierarchy, where two subordinates through the hierarchical chain report to the manager X who has two levels above him to whom he reports.

The two communication networks that are decentralized are the “circle” and the “all-channel” network. These are shown as follows:

In a “circle” network, members of the group interact with adjoining members and no more. The group may have a formal leader or the supervisor, but the interaction is primarily lateral among members. Finally, in the “all channel” or “completely connected” network, each of the members can communicate freely with the other four.

Typically, there is no leader and the communication can be initiated by anyone, even though one member, either formally or informally, can become the dominant member, but without any dominating privileges.

Each one of these networks has some significant effect on the task performance. When the group task is relatively simple and routine, centralized networks tend to perform with greatest efficiency. The dominant leader facilitates performance by coordinating the flow of information.

However, when the tasks are complex requiring sharing of information and coordinated efforts by groups, then decentralized networks are more advantageous. In general, members of decentralized networks report greater satisfaction than members of centralized networks.

The formal communication networks play a significant role in several aspects of organizational operations and an understanding is necessary as to which type of network is most useful in the areas of information flow, decision making as well as commitment of group members.

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Communication in Social Networks

Adolescents’ use of social media networks has become incredibly prevalent in recent years, with scientists now beginning to gauge its impact and effects on youth. Proponents of its use argue that social media has benefitted adolescents by providing them access to a large, global community, allowing them to connect and express themselves. Social media can help young people to develop social and technical skills and promote self-expression. It can also be a source of fun, entertainment, and relaxation.

1 (a) Despite the benefits that social media networks can provide, research has shown that excessive use of social media by adolescents can lead to a wide range of adverse effects. Such effects can include increased depression and anxiety, lower self-esteem and body image issues, loneliness, difficulty sleeping, and even suicidal thoughts. Adolescents’ social media usage also affects their self-esteem and body image (Vannucci & Ohannessian 1469–1493). Constant comparison to others struggling with low confidence can lead to bad feelings. Customizing and posting pictures can lead to severe body image issues as teens are influenced by people they may not even know. Furthermore, this constant comparison creates a false sense of what is typical and recognizable.

The overuse of social media can also make them feel isolated and lonely, leading to an inability to socialize. Additionally, the creation of habits of being glued to a phone or laptop leads to sleep deprivation and sleep disturbance, leading to further issues and hindering the normal development of an adolescent. The effects can be devastating for some teens, leading to thoughts of suicide and an inability to cope with everyday life (Vidal et al., pp.235-253). Therefore, it is essential to control adolescents’ social media usage, educate them about the effects of too much usage on their mental and physical health, and introduce and focus on activities that can help offset the negative spiral of depression and anxiety.

(b) Excessive use of social media can lead to depression and strained conversations with peers, “Negative psychological effects of heavy use, including difficulty initiating conversations with peers, withdrawal from social activities, and an overall increase of depressive symptoms (Vannucci & Ohannessian 1469–1493) .”Changes in users’ body image have been connected to social media usage and subsequent depression. “Individuals with greater body image concerns were more likely to pursue social comparisons on social networking sites, leading to increased social media usage and subsequently higher depression symptoms” (Vannucci and Ohannessian). Feelings of isolation, low self-esteem, and body image problems frequently result from spending much time on social media. according to research on the intended and unintended consequences of the punishing feedback loop that users attempt to escape from to gain acceptance and self-esteem.”Through changes in how we socialize, social media has created a new way of life and a new set of problems due to its addictive and constant monitoring nature. Social media presents a platform that makes users vulnerable to depression, loneliness, low self-esteem, and body image issues. These conditions can be life-threatening (Nesi 116-121). Users need to be more aware of the intense effect of social media on their mental health and need to take measures that prevent further damage.

B). Adolescents who need to constantly check and update their social media accounts become fixated on what their peers are doing, resulting in a feeling of inferiority and envy, leading to symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. Furthermore, FoMO may also cause adolescents to experience a distorted reality, leading to unrealistic expectations, social comparisons, and a more profound sense of isolation and loneliness (Bloemen & Coninck 1-6). Studies have also shown that FoMO is connected with sleep deprivation, as adolescents spend more time online, adversely affecting their sleep quality. Lastly, research now suggests that FoMO may contribute to suicidal thoughts and behaviors in adolescents, creating additional risks to their mental health.

Adolescent use of social media networks has been increasingly linked to mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, body image issues, lack of sleep, and, even worse, suicidal thoughts. Studies have found that long-duration use of social media networks is correlated with higher levels of depression, anxiety, and feelings of loneliness (Bloemen & Coninck 1-6). it is believed to be primarily due to the array of filters and editing options available to users, leading to a distorted sense of self-worth based on comparisons to highly edited images of others. Additionally, overuse of social media networks may lead to unhealthy sleeping habits, such as difficulty falling asleep and excessively checking social media accounts late at night, which are linked to decreased mental health. There is, therefore, a need to address the risks of excessive social media use (Steinsbekk et al. 106528). Mental health professionals now recommend interventions such as developing healthy sleeping habits, mindful attention, and awareness of digital media use and creating balanced behavioral, physical, and social self-care plans. Education on digital media literacy, fostering a positive body image, and self-care techniques can help adolescents stay engaged in the real world, self-regulate their online activities, and improve their overall mental health(Bloemen & Coninck 1-6).

C) Low self-esteem is an issue many people grapple with, and it can be exacerbated and even triggered by the use of social media. This is because people are exposed to comments, photos, and videos that can be hurtful (Nesi 116-121). This is especially true for adolescents because they do not have fully developed and mature emotional intelligence that can allow them to overcome demeaning comments or posts, especially about their appearance. This means that when adolescents receive discouraging comments or negative posts about their physical appearance, it leads to negative self-perception and self-esteem issues. They begin to internalize these negative comments and feel inadequate compared to their peers (Steinsbekk et al. 106528). A decrease in self-esteem can lead to depression and anxiety and negatively affect adolescents’ physical and mental health. The use of social media can hurt a teenager’s self-esteem. Social media exposes teenagers to messages that mock or criticize their looks, lifestyle, talents, or accomplishments. This can lead to a decrease in a person’s self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy. Social media use can make youth feel as if their lives are not good enough and less than perfect, leading to feelings of regret, inadequacy, and low self-esteem (Nesi 116-121). Constant visual indications of successful peers, such as photos, can signal youth that their lives do not measure up. Cyberbullying and the subsequent humiliation experienced by it can also lead to a decrease in self-confidence.

D) With the rise of social media, adolescents can find themselves spending more time online than interacting with people in person. As a result, this can lead to feelings of loneliness and isolation. Regular social media use can make it challenging to build and maintain real-life relationships and make it tempting to compare oneself to others online. This can often lead to insecurity and diminished self-esteem (Pop et al., 5064). Furthermore, adolescents may compare their lives to the often-idealized lives they see online, inducing feelings of loneliness due to a false perception of reality. Thus, spending time on social media can lead to loneliness and isolation, contributing to mental health issues like depression. The relationship between increased use of social media and increased levels of loneliness has been well documented in the literature, with research showing that constant use of media could lead to teens having difficulty engaging in meaningful conversations with family and friends (Bonsaksen et al. 1-6). This is because media consumption takes precedence over real-time social interactions, leading to a lack of understanding of genuine interactions with people, causing feelings of isolation and loneliness.

E) Social media use has dramatically increased in the last decade as it provides a platform to connect with peers, express opinions, and expand knowledge. Many popular social media applications, such as Instagram, Snapchat, and YouTube, are specifically designed to capture the young adult demographic due to their interactive features and visuals. However, the surge in social media use amongst the young population has been linked to an increase in various sleep disorders, such as insomnia among teenagers. Sleeping disorders are related to the amount of time spent online and the content consumed. Social media can lead to feelings of anxiety and depression due to the amount of comparison that often occurs between oneself and other users. This can disrupt sleep quality and length (van den Eijnden et al. 1346). When teenagers are exposed to certain types of blue light exposure from screens, melatonin hormones can be thrown off balance leading to delayed sleep cycles or difficulty sleeping. Not getting enough sleep or having quality sleep can lead to differences in behavior, cognition, and physical health. Studies have shown that teenagers who spend 4-7 hours per day on social media sites experience more disrupted sleeping patterns, poorer sleep quality, and shorter sleeping duration than those who spend less time on social media. It is also suggested that social media use can decrease physical activity, increase stress, and decrease overall activity levels. Social media use amongst teenagers can lead to insomnia and other sleeping disorders due to the content consumed, the amount of time spent on social media, and the blue light exposure from screens which can disrupt the melatonin hormones (Pirdehghan et al.). This lack of quality sleep can lead to sleep disorders, cognition and behavior problems, and physical health difficulties. Teenagers should be aware of the possible consequences of excessive social media use and watch how much time they spend on screens to encourage good sleep patterns and improved mental health.

F) A downward spiral and suicidal thoughts positively correlate with social media use. This can be attributed to the fact that social media use among adolescents can lead to several issues related to self-esteem, loneliness, and emotional intelligence. Social media can be a source of cyberbullying from peers or strangers, causing them to feel isolated and devalued (Vidal et al., pp.235-253). it can lead to feelings of hopelessness, worthlessness, and depression. Furthermore, comparing themselves to the success of their peers can also lead to feelings of inadequacy which can further exacerbate these feelings. Suppose such teenagers do not get the help of a trained mental health expert. In that case, these feelings of depression and inadequacy can lead to a downward spiral of events, ultimately culminating in suicidal thoughts. Therefore, it is essential to provide adequate help and support to adolescents struggling with the effects of their social media use (Vidal et al., pp.235-253). With the help and support of a trusted mental health expert, adolescents can develop healthy coping strategies and a better sense of self, resulting in a more positive outlook.

In conclusion, the frequent use of social media has a detrimental effect on adolescents’ mental health. Consequently, limiting exposure to social media and developing strategies to promote positive well-being in adolescents who use these media platforms is essential. Preventative measures should focus on assisting adolescents in understanding the impact of their interactions on social media, encouraging positive behavior and online communication, and educating them on the risks of developing mental health issues from using such media platforms.

Works Cited

Vannucci, Anna, Ohannessian, Christine. “Social Media Use Subgroups Differentially Predict

Psychological Well-Being During Early Adolescence.” J Youth Adolescence, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01060-9.

Nesi, Jacqueline. “The Impact of Social Media on Youth Mental Health.” North Carolina Medical Journal, 2020.

Vidal, Carol, et al. “Social media use and depression in adolescents: a scoping review.” International Review of Psychiatry , vol. 32, no. 3, 2020, pp. 235–253.

Steinsbekk, Silje, et al. “The impact of social media use on appearance self-esteem from

childhood to adolescence–A 3-wave community study.” Computers in Human Behavior 114 (2021): 106528

Bloemen, Noor, and Coninck, David. “Social Media and Fear of Missing Out in Adolescents:

The Role of Family Characteristics.” Sage Journals , 2020 https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120965517.

Bonsaksen, Tore, et al. “Loneliness and Its Association with Social Media Use During the

COVID-19 Outbreak.” Sage Journals , 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211033821.

Pirdehghan, Azar, et al. “Social Media Use and Sleep Disturbance among Adolescents: A Cross-

Sectional Study.” Iranian journal of psychiatry vol.16,2 (2021): 137-145. doi:10.18502/ijps.v16i2.5814

van den Eijnden, Regina J., et al. “Social Media Use and Adolescents’ Sleep: A Longitudinal

Study on the Protective Role of Parental Rules Regarding Internet Use before sleep.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 18, 3, 2021, p. 1346.

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Essay on Importance of Communication for Students and Children

500+ words essay on importance of communication:.

Communication is one of the important tools that aid us to connect with people. Either you are a student or a working professional, good communication is something that will connect you far ahead. Proper communication can help you to solve a number of issues and resolve problems. This is the reason that one must know how to communicate well. The skills of communication essential to be developed so that you are able to interact with people. And able to share your thoughts and reach out to them. All this needs the correct guidance and self-analysis as well.

Meaning of Communication

The word communication is basically a process of interaction with the people and their environment . Through such type of interactions, two or more individuals influence the ideas, beliefs, and attitudes of each other.

Such interactions happen through the exchange of information through words, gestures, signs, symbols, and expressions. In organizations, communication is an endless process of giving and receiving information and to build social relationships.

Importance of Communication

Communication is not merely essential but the need of the hour. It allows you to get the trust of the people and at the same time carry better opportunities before you. Some important points are as follows –

Help to Build Relationships

No matter either you are studying or working, communication can aid you to build a relationship with the people. If you are studying you communicate with classmates and teachers to build a relationship with them. Likewise in offices and organizations too, you make relationships with the staff, your boss and other people around.

Improve the Working Environment

There are a number of issues which can be handled through the right and effective communication. Even planning needs communication both written as well as verbal. Hence it is essential to be good in them so as to fill in the communication gap.

Foster strong team

Communication helps to build a strong team environment in the office and other places. Any work which requires to be done in a team. It is only possible if the head communicates everything well and in the right direction.

Find the right solutions

Through communication, anyone can find solutions to even serious problems. When we talk, we get ideas from people that aid us to solve the issues. This is where communication comes into play. Powerful communication is the strength of any organization and can help it in many ways.

Earns more respect

If your communication skills are admirable, people will love and give you respect. If there is any problem, you will be the first person to be contacted. Thus it will increase your importance. Hence you can say that communications skills can make a big change to your reputation in society.

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Don’t Go Overboard With Your Point

The conversation is about to express your thoughts. And to let the other person know what you feel. It is not mean to prove that your point is correct and the other person is wrong. Don’t Overboard other With Your Point.

Watch Your Words

Before you say something to Watch Your Words. At times, out of anger or anxiousness, we say somethings that we must not say. Whenever you are in a professional meeting or in some formal place, where there is a necessity of communicating about your product or work then it is advised to practice the same beforehand

Communication is the greatest importance. It is important to sharing out one’s thoughts and feelings to live a fuller and happier life. The more we communicate the less we suffer and the better we feel about everything around. However, it is all the more necessary to learn the art of effective communication to put across ones point well.

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Add a method, remove a method, edit datasets, communication in multiplex transportation networks.

9 Sep 2024 · Silvia Noschese , Lothar Reichel · Edit social preview

Complex networks are made up of vertices and edges. The edges, which may be directed or undirected, are equipped with positive weights. Modeling complex systems that consist of different types of objects leads to multilayer networks, in which vertices in distinct layers represent different kinds of objects. Multiplex networks are special vertex-aligned multilayer networks, in which vertices in distinct layers are identified with each other and inter-layer edges connect each vertex with its copy in other layers and have a fixed weight $\gamma>0$ associated with the ease of communication between layers. This paper discusses two different approaches to analyze communication in a multiplex. One approach focuses on the multiplex global efficiency by using the multiplex path length matrix, the other approach considers the multiplex total communicability. The sensitivity of both the multiplex global efficiency and the multiplex total communicability to structural perturbations in the network is investigated to help to identify intra-layer edges that should be strengthened to enhance communicability.

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The Global Network

Globalization is the connection of different parts of the world. Globalization results in the expansion of international cultural, economic, and political activities.

Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, World History

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Globalization is the connection of different parts of the world. Globalization results in the expansion of international cultural, economic, and political activities. As people, ideas, knowledge, and goods move more easily around the globe, the experiences of people around the world become more similar . Globalization in History Globalization has a long history, for example, Ancient Greek culture was spread across much of southwestern Asia, northern Africa, and southern Europe. The globalization of Greek culture came with the conqueror Alexander the Great . In fact, there are cities named for Alexander in Iraq (Iskandariya), Egypt (Alexandria), and Turkey (Alexandria Troas). The Silk Road , a trade route between China and the Mediterranean, promoted the exchange of ideas and knowledge, along with trade goods and foods such as silk, spices, porcelain, and other treasures from the East. When Europeans began establishing colonies overseas, globalization grew. Many early European explorers were eager to bring the Christian religion to the regions they visited. The globalization of Christianity spread from Europe to Latin America through Christian missionaries working with the local populations. Globalization was accelerated in the nineteenth century with the Industrial Revolution , as mechanical mills and factories became more common. Many companies used raw materials from distant lands. They also sold their goods in other countries. Britain’s colony in India, for instance, supplied cotton to British merchants and traders . Madras , a light cotton cloth, was made in the city of Madras (now called Chennai), a major port in India. Eventually, madras cloth was no longer manufactured in Madras at all—the Indian labor force supplied the raw material , cotton . Factories in the county of Lancashire, England, created madras cloth. British factories made fabric and other goods from the cotton . British manufacturers could then sell their finished goods , such as clothing and blankets, to buyers all over the world—the United States, Brazil, Australia, even India. Globalization sped up dramatically in the twentieth century with the proliferation of air travel , the expansion of free trade , and the dawn of the Information Age . Miles of fiber-optic cable now connect the continents, allowing people around the world to communicate instantly through the borderless World Wide Web. Communication Modern communication has played a large role in cultural globalization . Today, news and information zips instantly around the world on the internet . People can read information about foreign countries as easily as they read about their local news. Through globalization , people may become aware of incidents very quickly. In seconds, people are able to respond to natural disasters that happen thousands of miles away. Many people access information through improved and new technology, such as cell phones . About 70 percent of the people in the world use cell phones . A farmer in Nigeria can easily talk to his cousin who moved to New York, New York. The success of global news networks like CNN have also contributed to globalization . People all over the world have access to the same news 24 hours a day.

Travel Increased international travel has also increased globalization . Each year, millions of people move from one country to another in search of work. Sometimes, these migrant workers travel a short distance, such as between the Mexican state of Sonora and the U.S. state of California. Sometimes, migrant workers travel many thousands of miles. Migrant workers from the Philippines, for instance, may travel to Europe, Australia, or North America to find better-paying jobs. People do not travel just for work, of course. Millions of people take vacations to foreign countries. Most of these international tourists are from developed countries. Many are most comfortable with goods and services that resemble what they have at home. In this way, globalization encourages countries around the world to provide typical Western services. The facilities of a Holiday Inn hotel, for instance, are very similar , whether the location is Bangor, Maine, or Bangkok, Thailand. Travel and tourism have made people more familiar with other cultures. Travelers are exposed to new ideas about food, which may change what they buy at the store at home. They are exposed to ideas about goods and services, which may increase demand for a specific product that may not be available at home. They are exposed to new ideas, which may influence how they vote. In this way, globalization influences trade , taste, and culture. Popular Culture Popular culture has also become more globalized. People in the United States enjoy listening to South African music and reading Japanese comic books. American soap operas are popular in Israel. India, for instance, has a thriving film industry, nicknamed “ Bollywood .” Bollywood movies are popular both in India and with the huge population of Indians living abroad . In fact, some Bollywood movies do much better in the United States or the United Kingdom than they do in India. Clothing styles have also become more uniform as a result of globalization . National and regional costumes have become rarer as globalization has increased. In most parts of the world, professionals such as bankers wear suits, and jeans and T-shirts are common for young people. There has also been an increasing exchange of foods across the globe. People in England eat Indian curry , while people in Peru enjoy Japanese sushi . Meanwhile, American fast food chains have become common throughout the world. McDonald's has more than 37,000 restaurants in over 100 countries. And people all across the world are eating more meat and sugary foods, like those sold in fast food restaurants. The worldwide expansion of McDonald’s has become a symbol of globalization . Some menu items, such as the Big Mac, are the same all over the world. Other menu items are specific to that region. McDonalds in Japan features a green-tea flavored milkshake. At McDonald’s in Uruguay, a “McHuevo” is a burger topped with a fried egg. Globalization has brought McDonald’s to billions of consumers worldwide.

Economy The international economy has also become more globalized in recent decades . International trade is vital to the economies of most countries around the world. American software companies, such as Microsoft, rely on international trade to make large profits . The economy of the country of Saudi Arabia is almost entirely dependent on oil exports . To increase trade , many countries have created free trade agreements with other countries. Under free trade agreements, countries agree to remove trade barriers. For example, they may stop charging tariffs , or taxes , on imports . In 1994, the United States, Mexico, and Canada signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) , which eventually ended all tariffs on trade goods between the three nations. This allowed globalization of goods and services, as well as people and ideas, between these three countries. Most large corporations operate in many countries around the world. HSBC , the world’s largest bank, has offices in 88 different countries. Originally, HSBC stood for Hong Kong Shanghai Banking Corporation , which was founded in 1865 to promote trade between China and the United Kingdom. Today, HSBC has its headquarters in London, England. Economic globalization has allowed many corporations based in the West to move factories and jobs to less economically developed countries, a process called outsourcing . The corporation can pay lower wages , because the standard of living in less developed countries is much lower. Laws protecting the environment and workers’ safety are less widespread in developing countries, which also lowers costs for the corporation . Often, this results in lower costs for consumers, too. Economic markets are global. People and organizations invest in companies all over the globe. Because of this, economic downturns in one country are repeated in other countries. The financial crisis that began in the United States in 2006 quickly spread around the world. The way globalization allowed this situation to spread led to the nation of Iceland nearly going bankrupt , for example. Politics Cultural and economic globalization have caused countries to become more connected politically. Countries frequently cooperate to enact trade agreements. They work together to open their borders to allow the movement of money and people needed to keep economic globalization working. Because people, money, and computerized information move so easily around the globe, countries are increasingly working together to fight crime . The idea of maintaining international law has also grown. In 2002, the International Criminal Court was established . This court, which handles cases such as war crimes , has a global reach, although not all countries have accepted it. Many problems facing the world today cross national borders , so countries must work together to solve them. Efforts to confront problems such as global climate change must involve many different countries. In 2009, representatives from 170 countries gathered at a conference in Copenhagen, Denmark, to discuss climate change . Other international issues include terrorism , drug trafficking , and immigration . The process of globalization is very controversial . Many people say globalization will help people communicate. Aid agencies can respond more quickly to a natural disaster . Advanced medicines are more easily and widely available to people who may not have been able to afford them. Jobs available through globalization have lifted many people out of poverty . Globalization has increased the number of students studying abroad . Not everyone says that globalization is good, however. Some people worry that Western culture will destroy local cultures around the world. They fear that everyone will end up eating hamburgers and watching Hollywood movies. Others point out that people tend to adopt some aspects of other cultures without giving up their own. Ironically, modern technology is often used to preserve and spread traditional beliefs and customs. Opponents to globalization blame free trade for unfair working conditions. They also say that outsourcing has caused wealthy countries to lose too many jobs. Sup porters of globalization say that factory workers in poor countries are making much better wages than they would at other jobs available to them. They also argue that free trade has lowered prices in wealthier countries and improved the economy of poorer countries.

Battle in Seattle The 1999 meeting of the World Trade Organization (WTO) was held in Seattle, Washington, United States. This meeting was protested by thousands of people opposed to globalization. The protests turned violent. Hundreds of people were arrested. Many were injured in confrontations with police. Many buildings were damaged. The incident is sometimes called "the Battle in Seattle."

Powerful Peppers Food has long been an important part of globalization. Today, foods in Korea and many parts of China are often spicy. They get their spice from chili peppers. This was not the case before the 1600s. The fiery chili pepper is native to the Western Hemisphere. Christopher Columbus first brought chilies to Europe in 1493, and from there they spread across Asia.

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Exclusively available on IvyPanda®. The concept of networking focuses on relationship building that is a critical skill, especially in the context of the contemporary ever-changing world, setting new challenges and opportunities in the field of communication. There is a wide range of networking forms that are, however, may be divided into tete ...
The Impact of the Internet on Society: A Global Perspective
This global network of computer networks, largely based nowadays on platforms of wireless communication, provides ubiquitous capacity of multimodal, interactive communication in chosen time, transcending space. The Internet is not really a new technology: its ancestor, the Arpanet, was first deployed in 1969 (Abbate 1999).
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Internet. radio technology. telecommunication, science and practice of transmitting information by electromagnetic means. Modern telecommunication centres on the problems involved in transmitting large volumes of information over long distances without damaging loss due to noise and interference. The basic components of a modern digital ...
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Get a custom essay on Social Network Communication. The main reason that has lead to the growth in social media networks is the cost associated and their effectiveness. When something has been posted over the social media, it can easily spread to the intended people. According to Dasf, in modern computerized world, people seem to be more ...
An Overview Research on Wireless Communication Network
Wireless communication is one of the important mediums of transmission of data or information to other devices. The Communication is set and the information is transmitted through the air, without ...
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20. Randall Berry and Eytan Modiano, "'The Role of Switching in Reducing the Number of Electronic Ports in WDM Networks," IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Communication, October, 2004. 19. Jun Sun and Eytan Modiano, "Routing Strategies for Maximizing Throughput in LEO Satellite Networks,," IEEE JSAC, February, 2004.
Communication Network Essay Example For FREE
The communication lines is the route that connects a power house to its base. Examples : copper wire cables, radio waves and telephone lines. Human resources are nowadays dependent on communication through network and their various types and protocols. Human uses this network to exchange information through symbols, signals and speeches and for ...
Essay on the Communication Networks (586 Words)
Essay on the Communication Networks (586 Words)! The communication model discussed earlier identifies the process whereby a message is sent by a sender and is received by a receiver. However, organizational communication is not confined to one sender and one receiver only. In organizations, communication frequently takes place among many individuals and groups. Many tasks […]
Communication in Social Networks
Adolescents' use of social media networks has become incredibly prevalent in recent years, with scientists now beginning to gauge its impact and effects on youth. Proponents of its use argue that social media has benefitted adolescents by providing them access to a large, global community, allowing them to connect and express themselves. Social media can […]
Essay on Importance of Communication for Students and Children
The word communication is basically a process of interaction with the people and their environment. Through such type of interactions, two or more individuals influence the ideas, beliefs, and attitudes of each other. Such interactions happen through the exchange of information through words, gestures, signs, symbols, and expressions.
Network Security: Private Communication in a Public World 3rd Edition
Abstract Widely regarded as the most comprehensive yet comprehensible guide to network security and cryptography, the previous editions of Network Security received critical acclaim for lucid and witty explanations of the inner workings of cryptography and network security protocols.
Communication in Multiplex Transportation Networks
Multiplex networks are special vertex-aligned multilayer networks, in which vertices in distinct layers are identified with each other and inter-layer edges connect each vertex with its copy in other layers and have a fixed weight $\gamma>0$ associated with the ease of communication between layers.
The Global Network
noun. international exchange of goods and services without taxes or other fees. globalization. noun. connection of different parts of the world resulting in the expansion of international cultural, economic, and political activities. HSBC. noun. (HSBC Holdings plc) one of the largest banks in the world. immigration.
Satellite Quantum Communications Network: UK National Delegate support
This page provides a guide for applying for 'UK National Delegate' support for Satellite Quantum Communications Network activities under the ESA ARTES Programme.

Definition of communication network

What is a communication network?

Diagram of communication network

What are the 5 types of communication networks?

1/ Wheel Network:

Key Components and Structure:

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Examples of Wheel Network:

2/ Star Network:

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Examples of Start Network:

3/ Vertical Network:

Key Components and Structure :

Examples of Vertical Networks:

4/ Circuit Network:

Examples of Circuit Networks:

5/ Chain Network:

Examples of Chain Networks:

Types of Communication Networks in Organizations by different directions

Importance of a communication network in an organization

Communication networks in business communication

Comparison of communication network

Similarities:

Differences:

Factors Influencing the Choice of Network:

What is the role of a communication network in information exchange

Frequently Asked Questions

Q2) What are the 5 different communication networks?

Q3) What is a communication network and its types?

Q4) Which communication network is best?

Q5) What are the three communication networks?

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Ethics in Business Communication: Examples, Types & Importance

Advantages & Disadvantages of Verbal Communication in Points

Technological Barriers to Communication: Examples & Solutions

Communication Networks

Importance of Networking

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11.2 The Evolution of the Internet

The History of the Internet

The Building Blocks of the Internet

You’ve Got Mail: The Beginnings of the Electronic Mailbox

Hypertext: Web 1.0

For Sale: The Web

The Early Days of Social Media

How Did We Get Here? The Late 1970s, Early 1980s, and Usenet

GeoCities: Yahoo! Pioneers

Key Takeaways

From Science to Arts, an Inevitable Decision?

Technologies of Freedom, the Network Society, and the Culture of Autonomy

The Rise of Social Network Sites on the Internet

Communication Power: Mass-Self Communication and the Transformation of Politics

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Essay on the Communication Networks (586 Words)

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