why is reflect included in the problem solving process

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Reflecting on problems

• Trial and error
• Working backwards
• Mind mapping
• Freewriting
• Which of the strategies do you think you will try next time you’re faced with a problem?
• Why do you think it is useful to reflect on how you tried to solve a problem and the outcome?

Reflection allows you to delve deeper into the problem, gaining a better understanding of its various aspects, causes, and potential solutions. This deeper understanding can lead to more effective problem-solving. Not only does reflecting on problems help us solve them, but reflecting on the steps we took to solve a problem and whether or not we were successful makes tackling issues much easier the next time they arise. It also gives us more confidence in our ability to deal with future problems.

Whichever strategy you employ to solve a problem, it’s a good idea to take some time to reflect on how things turned out and whether the problem-solving strategy you used was the right one.

For example:

Yu is trying to improve customer ratings. She’s used the trial-and-error strategy, but so far nothing has worked satisfactorily. She reflects on her ap proach and thinks carefully about why the ‘trials’ haven’t been successful. She realises that her solutions haven’t addressed the root of the problem. Yu decides to use the 5 Whys strategy instead, to find the cause and fix it. If she hadn’t reflected on her problem-solving process, she would have continued coming up with surface-level solutions.  

Consider these questions when reflecting on a problem and your problem-solving process:

• What worked and what didn’t?
• What would you do the same and what you would change if you had your time over?
• How will these insights help you in the future?

Let’s practise doing a reflection together

If you’d like to learn more about reflective thinking in your studies, everyday life, and work, check out the Reflective thinking and practice chapter.

Having explored this chapter, you’re now on your way to becoming an expert troubleshooter. As we’ve seen in this chapter, there are all sorts of problems, and luckily there are also many problem-solving strategies. Being able to choose the right strategy or technique to solve a problem is a useful skill for many situations in life and across all disciplines.

Key Transferable Skills Copyright © 2024 by RMIT University Library is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Overview of the Problem-Solving Mental Process

• Identify the Problem
• Define the Problem
• Form a Strategy
• Organize Information
• Allocate Resources
• Monitor Progress
• Evaluate the Results

Frequently Asked Questions

Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing, and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue.

The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.

It is not necessary to follow problem-solving steps sequentially, It is common to skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached.

In order to correctly solve a problem, it is often important to follow a series of steps. Researchers sometimes refer to this as the problem-solving cycle. While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution.

The following steps include developing strategies and organizing knowledge.

1. Identifying the Problem

While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.

Some strategies that you might use to figure out the source of a problem include :

• Asking questions about the problem
• Breaking the problem down into smaller pieces
• Looking at the problem from different perspectives
• Conducting research to figure out what relationships exist between different variables

2. Defining the Problem

After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved. You can define a problem by operationally defining each aspect of the problem and setting goals for what aspects of the problem you will address

At this point, you should focus on figuring out which aspects of the problems are facts and which are opinions. State the problem clearly and identify the scope of the solution.

3. Forming a Strategy

After the problem has been identified, it is time to start brainstorming potential solutions. This step usually involves generating as many ideas as possible without judging their quality. Once several possibilities have been generated, they can be evaluated and narrowed down.

The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences. Common problem-solving strategies include heuristics and algorithms.

• Heuristics are mental shortcuts that are often based on solutions that have worked in the past. They can work well if the problem is similar to something you have encountered before and are often the best choice if you need a fast solution.
• Algorithms are step-by-step strategies that are guaranteed to produce a correct result. While this approach is great for accuracy, it can also consume time and resources.

Heuristics are often best used when time is of the essence, while algorithms are a better choice when a decision needs to be as accurate as possible.

4. Organizing Information

Before coming up with a solution, you need to first organize the available information. What do you know about the problem? What do you not know? The more information that is available the better prepared you will be to come up with an accurate solution.

When approaching a problem, it is important to make sure that you have all the data you need. Making a decision without adequate information can lead to biased or inaccurate results.

5. Allocating Resources

Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time, and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is.

If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources on coming up with a solution.

At this stage, it is important to consider all of the factors that might affect the problem at hand. This includes looking at the available resources, deadlines that need to be met, and any possible risks involved in each solution. After careful evaluation, a decision can be made about which solution to pursue.

6. Monitoring Progress

After selecting a problem-solving strategy, it is time to put the plan into action and see if it works. This step might involve trying out different solutions to see which one is the most effective.

It is also important to monitor the situation after implementing a solution to ensure that the problem has been solved and that no new problems have arisen as a result of the proposed solution.

Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies .

7. Evaluating the Results

After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment.

Once a problem has been solved, it is important to take some time to reflect on the process that was used and evaluate the results. This will help you to improve your problem-solving skills and become more efficient at solving future problems.

A Word From Verywell​

It is important to remember that there are many different problem-solving processes with different steps, and this is just one example. Problem-solving in real-world situations requires a great deal of resourcefulness, flexibility, resilience, and continuous interaction with the environment.

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You can become a better problem solving by:

• Practicing brainstorming and coming up with multiple potential solutions to problems
• Being open-minded and considering all possible options before making a decision
• Breaking down problems into smaller, more manageable pieces
• Asking for help when needed
• Researching different problem-solving techniques and trying out new ones
• Learning from mistakes and using them as opportunities to grow

It's important to communicate openly and honestly with your partner about what's going on. Try to see things from their perspective as well as your own. Work together to find a resolution that works for both of you. Be willing to compromise and accept that there may not be a perfect solution.

Take breaks if things are getting too heated, and come back to the problem when you feel calm and collected. Don't try to fix every problem on your own—consider asking a therapist or counselor for help and insight.

If you've tried everything and there doesn't seem to be a way to fix the problem, you may have to learn to accept it. This can be difficult, but try to focus on the positive aspects of your life and remember that every situation is temporary. Don't dwell on what's going wrong—instead, think about what's going right. Find support by talking to friends or family. Seek professional help if you're having trouble coping.

Davidson JE, Sternberg RJ, editors.  The Psychology of Problem Solving .  Cambridge University Press; 2003. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511615771

Sarathy V. Real world problem-solving .  Front Hum Neurosci . 2018;12:261. Published 2018 Jun 26. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00261

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Problem Solving through Reflective Practice

Reflective practice progresses through several steps. The practitioner first identifies a problem followed by the observation and analysis stage. Ostermann & Kottk amp (2004) identify this stage as “the most critical and complex of the four” (p. 28) stages. This stage entails the necessity of not only gathering information about the problem without tainting it with personal judgment but also analyzing the dilemma as it is compared from the current situation to the desired goal . The third stage, abstract re-conceptualization requires the practitioner to investigate new solutions and resources which address the root of the dilemma. Lastly, experimentation enters as the new strategies are utilized in changing behaviors. York-Barr et al. (2005) suggests that these steps are not linear, nor are they circular. Each step is interconnected

Using a learning journal aids in the learning process. Click on image.

with the others. 

This practice can be utilized through recording each step and later reviewing what was learned. It allows educators to provide the example for the students in a continuous learning environment of progression as they develop skills to be more proficient at teaching and more skilled at learning. It is simply the experiential model by which educators learn most effectively.

These are some of my favorite sources for a reflective practice and problem solving using reflective practice.

Click on image.

Osterman, K. & Kottkamp, R. (2004). Reflective practice for educators: Professional development to improve student learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

York-Barr, J., Sommers, W., Ghere, G. & Monthie, J. (2005). Reflective practice to improve schools: An action guide for educators.  Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

By Tracy Harrington-Atkinson

Tracy Harrington-Atkinson, mother of six, lives in the Midwest with her husband. She is a teacher, having taught elementary school to higher education, holding degrees in elementary education, a master’s in higher education and continued on to a PhD in curriculum design. She has published several titles, including Calais: The Annals of the Hidden , Lemosa: The Annals of the Hidden, Book Two, Rachel’s 8 and Securing Your Tent . She is currently working on a non-fiction text exploring the attributes of self-directed learners: The Five Characteristics of Self-directed Learners.

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Gibbs Reflective Cycle

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle is a theoretical model, developed in 1988 by Professor Graham Gibbs, that provides a structured framework for experiential learning through a structured six-stage process of reflection.

This cyclical model, as opposed to a linear one, emphasizes the importance of continuously revisiting experiences, analyzing them from different angles, and using the insights gained to inform future actions and improve decision-making.

Originally designed for nursing, the model has since been widely adopted across various professions and industries for self-improvement, coaching, and mentoring.

It emphasizes the importance of reflecting on experiences to gain insights, learn from mistakes, and improve future actions.

6 Stages of the Gibbs Reflective Cycle

The Gibbs Reflective Cycle is a structured framework designed to guide individuals through the process of reflecting on experiences in a systematic way.

If you’re new to structured reflection, begin with reflecting on less complex experiences. Don’t expect transformative insights from every reflection—it’s an ongoing process.

Approach reflection with a growth mindset, viewing challenges as opportunities for learning rather than occasions for self-judgment.

Developed by Graham Gibbs in 1988, it consists of six stages that help individuals analyze their experiences and learn from them. Here’s how it works:

Stage 1 – Description

The  description  stage is the first step in Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle and serves as the foundation for the entire reflection process.

The primary goal of this stage is to provide a clear, objective, and factual account of the event or experience without delving into analysis, interpretation or emotional input

The goal is to establish a clear and concise understanding of what transpired.

This stage is not about analyzing why things happened or how you felt; it’s about establishing a neutral and comprehensive account of the event as the foundation for deeper reflection in the following stages.

Stick to a factual and objective recounting and avoid using emotionally charged language or making judgments about the experience.

Think of it as setting the scene for your reflection, like a journalist reporting on an event or a novelist describing a scene. The goal is to paint a clear picture of what happened, free from personal interpretations, emotional responses, or judgments.

What does it mean to describe the experience in the Gibbs reflective cycle?

• Context: Begin by providing the essential background information about the experience. This includes specifying when and where the event took place. Was it during a meeting, a casual interaction, or a specific task during a work placement? Establishing the context helps ground the reflection and provides valuable information for later analysis.
• Participants: Next, identify who was involved in the experience. List everyone who played a role, even if their involvement was seemingly insignificant. This helps in understanding the dynamics of the situation and considering different perspectives later in the reflection process.
• Sequence of Events: Now, provide a chronological account of what happened . Detail the events in the order they occurred, focusing on objectivity and accuracy. Avoid making assumptions about the motivations of others or drawing premature conclusions. Just stick to the facts as they unfolded.
• Purpose: Reflect on the reason behind the event. What was the goal or intention at the time? Understanding the purpose can shed light on your actions and reactions during the experience, offering valuable insights during later stages of the cycle.
• Outcome: Finally, describe the result of the situation. What was the final outcome of the experience? Providing a clear picture of what transpired helps set the stage for evaluating the experience in the subsequent stages.

Example of a “Description” Stage Reflection

I am currently shadowing a midwife in a hospital setting as part of my midwifery training program. Yesterday, I witnessed a situation involving a first-time mother struggling to breastfeed her newborn. The mother was visibly distressed and the baby was crying inconsolably. The midwife I was with gently intervened and tried to guide the mother on different breastfeeding positions and latch techniques. However, despite their best efforts, both the mother and the baby continued to struggle. The midwife then suggested using a nipple shield to assist with latching, which the mother agreed to try. After a few attempts with the nipple shield, the baby finally latched on and began feeding. The mother’s visible relief was palpable and she expressed her gratitude to the midwife. The midwife provided positive reinforcement and encouragement, highlighting the mother’s perseverance and the successful feeding outcome.

Stage 2 – Feelings

Stage 2 of Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle focuses on exploring and analyzing the emotions and feelings experienced during the event, both your own and potentially those of others involved.

This involves reflecting on initial reactions, subsequent emotional shifts, and potential feelings of others involved.

This stage is not about judging or analyzing your feelings but rather about creating space for honest self-reflection and fostering self-awareness.

This stage is crucial for  developing emotional intelligence and understanding how emotions impact decision-making and actions.

How do I identify my feelings in the Gibbs reflective cycle?

• “What were your feelings before this situation occurred?”
• “What were your feelings while this situation occurred?”
• “What did you feel after the situation?”
• Recognize Emotional Shifts: After identifying your initial feelings, reflect on how your emotions might have evolved. Did your feelings change as the situation progressed or after it concluded? Did you experience a shift in perspective or understanding? Acknowledging these nuances in your emotional experience can provide valuable insights into your personal triggers and patterns of response.
• “According to you, how did other people feel during this situation?”
• “According to you, what do other people feel about this situation now?”
• Acknowledge All Feelings: Importantly, all emotions are valid in this stage. Avoid dismissing or downplaying any feelings, even those that might seem negative or undesirable. Allow yourself to acknowledge and accept the full spectrum of your emotional response without judgment.

By honestly exploring the feelings stage, you gain a deeper understanding of how the experience impacted you emotionally.

This sets the stage for a more insightful and balanced evaluation in the following stages of Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle.

Example of a “Feeling” Stage Reflection

Reflecting on the breastfeeding situation, I recall feeling a surge of anxiety as I witnessed the mother’s distress and the baby’s cries. I felt a sense of helplessness, unsure of how I could contribute as a student midwife still learning the ropes. As the midwife I was with stepped in, I felt a sense of relief, grateful for her expertise and calming presence. When their initial attempts proved unsuccessful, I felt a wave of empathy for the mother, imagining the immense pressure she must be feeling. However, when the baby finally latched on with the nipple shield, I felt a surge of joy and hope. The mother’s visible relief was contagious, and I felt a sense of privilege to witness this intimate and powerful moment.

Stage 3 – Evaluation

Stage 3 of Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle is the  evaluation  stage. In this phase, the focus is on critically assessing the experience by identifying what aspects worked well and what did not.

This involves a balanced consideration of both positive and negative elements of the experience, which helps in creating a comprehensive understanding of the event.

What should I consider when evaluating the experience in the Gibbs reflective cycle?

• What were the positive aspects? What went well?
• What were the negative aspects? What didn’t go so well?
• Even in primarily negative experiences, identifying positive elements is crucial for learning and growth.
• How did your actions contribute to the positive aspects of the experience?
• How did your actions contribute to the negative aspects of the experience?
• What did other people do to contribute to the situation (either positively or negatively)?
• Maintaining objectivity is key here. Avoid self-blame, but don’t shy away from acknowledging where you could have done better.
• What was missing? : Consider any actions or elements that were absent but could have improved the situation. This can provide insights into potential improvements for future similar experiences.
• Were there any external factors that contributed to the positive or negative aspects?
• Acknowledging these external factors helps provide a more comprehensive understanding of the experience.
• Was the experience generally positive or negative? Why?
• This overall assessment helps provide context for your analysis in later stages.
• If you are writing about a difficult incident, did you feel that the situation was resolved afterwards?

By thoroughly evaluating your experience from these different angles, you’ll be better equipped to analyze the “why” behind the outcomes and draw meaningful conclusions that can inform your future actions.

Example of an “Evaluation” Stage Reflection

Scenario: A student midwife is reflecting on her experience assisting a mother during labor. The labor was protracted, and the mother ultimately required an epidural after initially wanting a natural birth. The student midwife felt she wasn’t adequately supporting the mother’s emotional needs during this challenging labor.

• Positives: The mother was able to communicate her needs effectively. The medical team worked well together to ensure the mother’s safety and well-being. I was able to maintain a calm and professional demeanor throughout the labor and delivery.
• Negatives: I felt my communication skills were lacking, especially in providing emotional support to the mother as she transitioned from wanting a natural birth to requesting pain relief. I was focused on the clinical aspects of the labor and didn’t fully recognize the mother’s emotional distress. My lack of experience made me feel unsure of how to best provide comfort and reassurance during this challenging time.
• My Contributions: My focus on clinical tasks, while important, prevented me from fully recognizing and addressing the mother’s emotional needs. I could have been more proactive in seeking guidance from the experienced midwife on how to best support the mother’s emotional well-being.
• More effective emotional support strategies: If I had been more knowledgeable about different techniques for providing comfort and reassurance, I could have better supported the mother’s emotional well-being.
• Stronger communication skills: If I had been more adept at active listening and empathy, I might have picked up on the mother’s distress sooner and adjusted my approach.
• Greater confidence in my abilities: If I had felt more confident in my skills and knowledge, I might have been more proactive in providing support and less reliant on the experienced midwife’s guidance.
• External Factors: The protracted labor itself likely contributed to the mother’s distress, making it more challenging for her to cope with the pain and adjust to needing pain relief. The clinical environment of the labor ward, while designed for safety, might not have been conducive to the calming and supportive atmosphere she needed.
• Overall Experience: While the experience was ultimately positive in that the mother and baby were healthy, it highlighted areas where I need to improve my communication and emotional support skills. It made me realize that providing holistic care requires being attentive to both the physical and emotional needs of the mother.

Stage 4 – Analysis

Stage 4 of Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle is the analysis stage, which focuses on making sense of the situation and extracting deeper meaning from the experience. 

The analysis stage builds directly on the insights gained from the description, feelings, and evaluation stages. It’s where you bring those elements together to develop a more nuanced understanding of the experience and its implications.

By thoroughly analyzing your experience, you’ll identify key learnings, recognize patterns in your behavior, and develop strategies for improvement, leading to more effective actions in the future.

The analysis stage aims to examine the event in depth, exploring reasons behind what happened and considering different perspectives.

Analysis is where you shift from describing and evaluating the experience to critically examining why things unfolded the way they did.

This involves examining the situation from different perspectives, considering the viewpoints of others, and applying relevant theoretical models or frameworks to gain insights.

This stage requires critical thinking and a deeper level of reflection compared to earlier stages. It often involves looking beyond surface-level observations to uncover underlying causes and connections.

How do I analyze the experience in the Gibbs reflective cycle?

• Why did things go well?
• Why didn’t things go so well?
• Consider internal factors (your skills, knowledge, assumptions, feelings) and external factors (work environment, resources, other people’s actions).
• What theories, models, or concepts from your field of study can help you make sense of the experience?
• How does your experience align with or differ from what the literature says about similar situations?
• For example, a student midwife might draw upon communication theories, models of labor support, or ethical guidelines to analyze her actions and interactions during a challenging labor.
• How might they have perceived the situation differently?
• What factors might have influenced their perspectives?
• This step is crucial for developing empathy and understanding the complexities of interpersonal dynamics.
• Could you have responded to the situation differently?
• What might have been the potential outcomes of those alternative actions?
• This isn’t about dwelling on mistakes, but rather about learning from the experience to inform future practice.

Example of a “Analysis” Stage Reflection

Scenario: A student midwife is reflecting on her experience assisting a mother during a difficult labor that required an epidural. She previously identified that her lack of confidence and communication skills limited her ability to provide emotional support.

Stage 4: Analysis

• Why were my communication skills lacking? I can connect this back to Carper’s Ways of Knowing in Nursing, which emphasizes the importance of empirical, ethical, personal, and aesthetic knowing in nursing practice. While I had some theoretical knowledge of labor support (empirical), I hadn’t yet developed the confidence to apply it (personal) or fully grasp the emotional nuances of the situation (aesthetic).
• How could I have responded differently, considering relevant literature? “Midwifery education follows the theories of the andragogy model and seeks to inspire critical thinking skills to promote the application of theory to practice.” Reflecting on andragogy—specifically, the idea that adult learners (like the mother) bring their own experiences and perspectives—I could have sought to understand the mother’s birth plan more deeply. This might have revealed her values and fears, allowing me to tailor my support more effectively.
• What might have helped the mother feel more supported, considering different perspectives? The mother might have felt a loss of control when her birth plan needed to change. Applying the principles of informed choice and shared decision-making, as emphasized in midwifery practice, I could have explained the risks and benefits of different pain management options more thoroughly. This might have helped her feel more empowered in the decision-making process, even amidst challenging circumstances.
• How do my actions connect to ethical guidelines? The NMC Code emphasizes that midwives must “ensure that their knowledge and skills are up-to-date” and provide compassionate care. While I strove to provide safe care, my lack of experience hindered my ability to provide holistic support. To uphold these ethical standards, I need to proactively seek opportunities to develop my skills in emotional support and communication.

Moving Towards Action:

Through this analysis, the student midwife has identified specific areas for improvement:

• Seek mentorship: She could request additional guidance from experienced midwives in providing emotional support during challenging labors.
• Enhance communication skills: She could pursue continuing education opportunities focused on therapeutic communication techniques specific to labor support.
• Reflect on personal experiences: Journaling or reflecting on similar situations could help her develop her emotional intelligence and capacity for empathy.

By connecting her experience to relevant theory, considering multiple perspectives, and aligning her actions with ethical guidelines, the student midwife can transform this challenging experience into a valuable learning opportunity for her future practice.

Stage 5 – Conclusion

In Stage 5: conclusion , you consolidate the insights you’ve gained throughout the reflective process.

It’s where you explicitly state what you’ve learned from the experience, how your thinking has changed , and what you’ll do differently in the future.

This stage involves synthesizing the insights gained from the previous stages and drawing meaningful conclusions from the experience.

Key aspects of the conclusion stage include:

• What are the most significant takeaways from this experience?
• What new understandings have you developed about yourself, your practice, or the situation itself?
• Emphasize the importance of connecting reflection to professional development. What specific skills, knowledge, or attitudes do you need to develop further?
• How has this experience challenged your assumptions or previous ways of thinking?
• Have you gained a new appreciation for different viewpoints or approaches?
• Based on what you now understand, how would you approach a similar situation in the future?
• Be specific about the actions you would take or the approaches you would try.
• What are the skills you require to react in a more effective way the next time?
• Is there any chance that you could have approached the incident with a positive attitude or given only honest feedback at the moment?

Connecting Conclusion to Other Stages:

The Conclusion stage synthesizes the insights gained from all the previous stages:

• Description: You draw on the specific details of the experience to provide context for your conclusions.
• Feelings: Your emotional responses inform your understanding of the situation and your motivation for future change.
• Evaluation: Your judgments about what went well and what didn’t provide the basis for identifying areas for improvement.
• Analysis: Your exploration of contributing factors, alternative perspectives, and relevant theory enables you to draw informed conclusions.

A Strong Conclusion Demonstrates:

• Honesty and Self-Awareness: You acknowledge both your successes and areas where you can grow.
• Application of Knowledge: You connect the experience to relevant theories, models, or ethical guidelines.
• Commitment to Improvement: You articulate specific actions you will take to enhance your practice.

Remember, the conclusion stage is not just a summary of the previous stages. It’s an opportunity to synthesize your learning, articulate your insights, and formulate a plan for continued professional development.

Example of a “Conclusion” Stage Reflection

Scenario: A student midwife has reflected on her experience assisting a mother during a difficult labor that required an epidural. She has explored her feelings, evaluated the situation, and analyzed contributing factors.

This experience has highlighted the complexity of labor support and the importance of providing individualized care. While I was able to contribute to the mother’s physical safety, I realize that my lack of experience and confidence limited my ability to offer the compassionate, holistic support that defines excellent midwifery care.

Specifically, I’ve learned that:

• Emotional support requires more than just good intentions. I need to develop a broader repertoire of comfort techniques and communication skills to effectively address the emotional needs of women in labor, especially during challenging situations.
• Confidence comes from both knowledge and experience. To feel more confident in my practice, I need to proactively seek out learning opportunities that enhance both my clinical skills and my ability to apply theoretical knowledge in real-time.
• Reflection is crucial for bridging the gap between theory and practice. By engaging in critical reflection—using models like Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle—I can better integrate theoretical principles, ethical guidelines (like those outlined in the NMC Code), and the insights of experienced midwives into my own developing practice.

Moving forward, I will prioritize:

• Seeking mentorship from experienced midwives who can provide guidance and feedback on my labor support techniques, particularly in situations that require adaptability and emotional resilience.
• Attending continuing education workshops that focus on communication skills and evidence-based approaches to emotional support during labor.
• Reflecting on my experiences—both positive and challenging —through journaling and discussion to enhance my self-awareness, emotional intelligence, and empathy.

By taking these concrete steps, I can transform this challenging experience into a catalyst for growth, ensuring that I can provide truly woman-centered, holistic care as I continue my journey to becoming a competent and compassionate midwife.

Stage 6 – Action Plan

This stage focuses on converting the insights from the previous stages into a concrete plan for improvement, turning reflection into a catalyst for professional and personal growth.

This includes defining specific actions, developing preventive strategies for similar scenarios, and outlining how to apply learnings to enhance personal and professional growth in future situations.

Key aspects of the action plan stage include:

• This step involves outlining practical and achievable actions you will take to address the issues and opportunities you identified through your reflection.
• Identify any skills or knowledge you need to acquire to handle similar situations more effectively in the future.
• Specific: Each action should target a specific area for improvement.
• Measurable: Define how you’ll track your progress and determine success.
• Achievable: Ensure your actions are realistic and attainable.
• Relevant: Align your actions with your overall goals and the context of the situation.
• Time-bound: Set deadlines for your actions to maintain momentum.
• What did you learn that can help you prevent similar challenges or negative outcomes in the future?
• Consider proactive measures to mitigate potential risks or address your identified weaknesses.
• How will you integrate your newfound knowledge or skills into your everyday practice, decisions, and responses?
• Reflection should lead to observable changes in your approach. Emphasize the cyclical nature of Gibbs’ model, highlighting how your action plan sets the stage for different results in future cycles of this experience.
• Document the action plan and regularly review it to track progress and make adjustments as needed. Consider sharing the plan with a mentor or colleague for accountability and support.
• The Action Plan provides the crucial bridge between reflection and meaningful change. It’s about taking concrete steps to ensure your reflections translate into real improvements in your future actions and responses.
• Hold Yourself Accountable: Share your action plan with someone who can support you and check in on your progress.

Example of a “Action Plan” Stage Reflection

Scenario: A student midwife is reflecting on her experience assisting with a difficult labor that required an epidural and during which she felt her support of the mother was lacking. She has already worked through Stages 1-5 of Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle.

Goal: To enhance emotional support skills during labor, particularly in challenging situations.

Actionable Steps:

• Specific Action: Schedule a meeting with the supervising midwife from the difficult labor to discuss approaches to emotional support. During this meeting, request to shadow her or a different experienced midwife during future births, focusing specifically on observing communication techniques and how they adapt their support based on the mother’s needs.
• Rationale: Highlight the value of mentorship and observation in midwifery education. Experienced midwives can act as role models, provide guidance on adapting communication styles, and offer feedback on the student’s developing skills. Shadowing provides opportunities to observe different approaches to labor support firsthand.
• Timeline: Contact the supervising midwife within the next week to schedule a meeting. Aim to begin shadowing within the next month.
• Specific Action: Register for the upcoming continuing education workshop on therapeutic communication in labor support.
• Rationale: Engaging in formal professional development activities is essential for midwives to fulfill their professional requirements and maintain competence. Workshops provide opportunities to learn new skills, discuss evidence-based practices with other professionals, and gain exposure to a wider range of techniques.
• Timeline: Review upcoming workshop offerings this week and register for the one that best fits my schedule.
• What were my initial emotional responses to the labor and birth?
• How did I feel my support was received by the mother and her birth partner?
• What specific actions or communication techniques seemed particularly effective or ineffective?
• What could I have done differently to provide more effective emotional support?
• Rationale: Structured reflection, using tools like Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle, helps bridge the gap between theory and practice. Journaling provides a dedicated space for processing emotions, analyzing communication patterns, and identifying areas for improvement.
• Timeline: Start journaling after the next birth I attend.
• Specific Action: After any labor where I feel my support was lacking or I experience significant emotional responses, I will debrief with a trusted peer, mentor, or faculty member.
• Rationale: Midwifery professionals encounter challenging and emotionally charged situations. Discussing these experiences with others provides support, different perspectives, and insights for improving practice. Mentors can offer guidance and help reframe challenging situations for growth.
• Timeline: Reach out to schedule a debriefing session within 24-48 hours of a challenging labor.

Review and Revision:

• I will review and revise this action plan regularly (at least monthly) as I gain experience and encounter new challenges. Reflection is a cyclical process, and this action plan should evolve with my developing understanding and skills.

By consistently implementing these steps, I aim to develop into a competent and compassionate midwife who can provide truly woman-centered care.

Applications in Midwifery

1. reflecting on challenging births or complications:.

Scenario: A midwife assists with a birth involving unforeseen complications, such as a shoulder dystocia or an emergency cesarean section.

• Description: The midwife would describe the events of the birth in detail, including the mother’s condition, fetal monitoring, interventions taken, and the outcome for both mother and baby.
• Feelings: She would reflect on her emotional responses during the event, such as anxiety, fear, or a sense of being overwhelmed.
• Evaluation: This stage involves assessing what went well and what could have been done differently. Did she follow established protocols effectively? Were communication and teamwork optimal?
• Analysis: Here, the midwife might research evidence-based practices related to the specific complication, examine her actions in light of her training and guidelines, and identify any knowledge gaps.
• Conclusion: She would summarize her key learnings from the experience, perhaps realizing the need for additional training in a specific emergency skill or a greater understanding of risk factors.
• Action Plan: The midwife might create a plan to enhance her competency in managing similar situations, such as attending workshops, shadowing a more experienced colleague, or developing a checklist of essential steps during a particular complication.

2. Analyzing Communication Breakdowns:

Scenario: A midwife experiences miscommunication with a woman in labor about her birth plan, leading to feelings of frustration or being unheard by the woman.

• Description: The midwife would detail the communication exchange, including her approach to discussing the birth plan and the woman’s responses.
• Feelings: She would explore her own feelings during the interaction (e.g., frustration, feeling dismissed) and attempt to understand the woman’s perspective and emotional state.
• Evaluation: This stage involves analyzing what contributed to the communication breakdown. Was there a lack of clarity? Were cultural or personal beliefs not adequately considered?
• Analysis: The midwife might research communication strategies for labor support, particularly those focused on active listening, shared decision-making, and cultural sensitivity.
• Conclusion: She might conclude that she needs to improve her skills in establishing rapport, clarifying expectations, and adapting her communication style to individual women.
• Action Plan: The midwife could seek training in communication techniques relevant to midwifery, practice active listening skills, or develop resources for facilitating birth plan discussions.

3. Evaluating New Practices or Techniques:

Scenario: A midwife decides to implement a new pain management technique (e.g., water birth, sterile water injections) or a different labor support strategy (e.g., use of a rebozo, different positioning techniques).

• Description: The midwife would document her experience using the new technique or strategy, including the specific steps taken, the woman’s response, and the perceived effectiveness.
• Feelings: She would reflect on her comfort level using the technique, any challenges encountered, and how confident she felt in her abilities.
• Evaluation: This stage involves assessing the technique’s effectiveness in pain management or labor progress. Did it meet the woman’s needs and preferences? Were there any unforeseen difficulties or advantages?
• Analysis: The midwife might research evidence supporting the new technique, compare her experience to best practice guidelines, and consider if adjustments to her approach are needed.
• Conclusion: She might conclude that the technique is valuable and should be incorporated into her practice, or that further refinement is needed, or that it might not be suitable for all women.
• Action Plan: Based on her reflections, the midwife could seek further training, develop protocols for implementing the technique, or share her experiences with colleagues to promote knowledge exchange.

Limitations of the Gibbs Reflective Cycle

• This is particularly true if the individual using the cycle rushes through the stages or doesn’t fully engage in critical self-analysis.
• Without sufficient depth, the reflective process might not lead to meaningful insights or changes in practice.
• Impact of Assumptions: Our pre-existing beliefs and biases can shape how we perceive and interpret events. The cycle could be strengthened by incorporating a step where individuals actively examine their assumptions about the experience they are reflecting on.
• Value of External Perspectives: Incorporating perspectives from others involved in the situation could provide a more well-rounded understanding and challenge blind spots.
• Commitment to Change is Essential: For the cycle to be truly effective, individuals must be willing to acknowledge areas for improvement and put in the effort to make changes.
• Action Planning is Crucial: The Action Plan stage of Gibbs’ cycle is essential for bridging reflection and action.
• This perception might limit creativity or make it feel like a box-ticking exercise if not approached with a spirit of genuine inquiry and self-reflection.

Benefits of the Gibbs Reflective Cycle

• To Enhance Learning from Experience : The cycle goes beyond passively having an experience; it emphasizes the importance of actively reflecting on it. This process of linking “doing” with “thinking” is crucial to embed learning and make it applicable to new situations. For instance, simply knowing the theory behind a chemical reaction is insufficient; true understanding emerges from designing and conducting experiments, analyzing the results, and refining the approach based on those reflections.
• To Challenge Assumptions and Promote Self-Improvement : By systematically reflecting on experiences, individuals can identify and challenge their preconceived notions and biases, leading to new perspectives and personal growth. This process of self-examination is particularly beneficial when dealing with challenging situations, helping individuals understand their emotional responses and potential areas for improvement.
• To Bridge the Gap Between Theory and Practice : Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle encourages individuals to connect theoretical knowledge with practical experiences. This integration of theory and practice is essential for professionals in fields like nursing and midwifery, where applying academic knowledge in real-world clinical settings is crucial for providing effective care.
• To Promote Continuous Professional Development : The cyclical nature of Gibbs’ model aligns well with the concept of lifelong learning, encouraging individuals to consistently evaluate their actions and seek improvements. This ongoing process of reflection is particularly relevant in fields like midwifery, where professionals are required to demonstrate continuous learning and maintain updated knowledge and skills to ensure patient safety and fulfill professional requirements.

Gibbs Reflective Cycle FAQs

Q1. how can i ensure that my reflections using the gibbs reflective cycle are meaningful and insightful.

One of the main criticisms of Gibbs’ model is that it can be used superficially, becoming a mere checklist of stages without leading to genuine insight or behavior change.

We recommend:

1. Embrace the “Feelings” Stage and Go Beyond Superficial Emotions:

• Why This Matters: Simply describing what happened isn’t enough for meaningful reflection.
• What specific aspects of the situation triggered these feelings?
• How did these feelings influence my actions or decisions at the time?
• Are there any underlying beliefs or assumptions that might be contributing to my emotional responses?
• Example from Midwifery: A midwife might reflect on a birth where she felt panicked during an emergency. Examining her feelings could reveal a lack of confidence in her skills or a fear of making a mistake, which can then be addressed in her action plan.

2. Actively Challenge Your Assumptions:

• Why This Matters: The need to “challenge your assumptions” is a core aim of using Gibbs’ cycle. Our conversation highlights how unexamined assumptions can limit the depth of reflection.
• Ask “Why?” After describing the situation, ask yourself why you believe things unfolded the way they did. What assumptions did you have going into the situation? Were these assumptions accurate?
• Consider Alternative Perspectives: How might others involved (e.g., the woman, her partner, colleagues) view the situation differently based on their own assumptions and experiences?
• Midwifery Example: A midwife who had a disagreement with a colleague about a woman’s care plan could reflect on her assumptions about the best course of action. By considering the colleague’s perspective, she might gain new insights into the situation.

3. Link Your Experience to Theory and Knowledge:

• Why This Matters: It is important to connect practical experiences with theoretical understanding. Reflection in a professional context is “of benefit in experiential learning, and for the development of critical thinking skills, which facilitate the integration between theory and practice.”
• What professional knowledge or research is relevant to this situation?
• Are there any theoretical models or frameworks that can help me understand what happened?
• Midwifery Example: A midwife reflecting on a birth where the woman felt her pain was dismissed might research pain perception and the impact of communication on the experience of pain. This would provide a broader context for understanding the situation.

4. Move Beyond Description and Evaluation to In-Depth Analysis:

• Why This Matters: Students often struggle to differentiate between the Evaluation, Analysis, and Conclusion stages, leading to repetition rather than insightful reflection.
• Analysis: Don’t just state what went well or poorly—dig into the reasons behind these outcomes . Why did something work or not work? What were the contributing factors?
• Conclusion: Move beyond simply summarizing what you learned to exploring the implications for your practice . What is the significance of these learnings? How will they change your approach in the future?
• Midwifery Example: Instead of just stating that a woman felt unsupported during labor, the midwife would analyze the specific communication patterns, environmental factors, or interventions that contributed to this feeling.

5. Ensure Your Action Plan Is Specific and Actionable:

• Why This Matters: The Action Plan is crucial for translating reflection into meaningful change. Be “specific about what you plan to do.”
• Set SMART Goals: Goals should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound.
• Outline Detailed Steps: Break down goals into smaller, manageable actions.
• Consider Resources and Support: Identify any resources (e.g., training, mentorship, books) or support systems that will help you achieve your goals.
• Midwifery Example: A midwife might commit to attending a workshop on communication skills, practicing active listening techniques during her next 5 appointments, or developing a resource list for women on different pain management options.

6. Make Reflection a Regular Practice:

• Why This Matters: The cycle is seen as a valuable tool for helping students connect theoretical knowledge from their coursework with the practical challenges they face during clinical practice.
• Scheduled Reflection: Dedicate specific time for reflection after challenging experiences or at regular intervals (e.g., weekly, after each clinical shift).
• Journaling: Keep a reflective journal to document your experiences, thoughts, and insights.
• Seek Feedback: Engage in peer or mentor feedback to gain external perspectives on your practice.

By following these strategies, midwives and other professionals can move beyond a superficial checklist approach to Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle and engage in a more profound process of self-reflection, critical analysis, and meaningful growth.

Q2. What are the key differences between “reflection-in-action” and “reflection-on-action”?

Schön (1991) identified two types that are particularly relevant in the development of teaching practice:

Both reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action are crucial for midwifery education and practice. Students are encouraged to reflect on their clinical experiences using structured models to enhance their self-awareness, critical thinking skills, and ability to integrate theory and practice.

This ongoing reflection is essential for their professional development and for meeting the standards required for registration and revalidation.

Reflection-in-action: Thinking on your feet

• Definition: Reflection-in-action refers to the process of actively observing your thoughts and actions as they occur within a situation, enabling you to make real-time adjustments.
• Timing: This type of reflection occurs in the moment , requiring immediate responses based on your existing knowledge, skills, and intuition.
• Process: It’s about making on-the-spot assessments and modifications as the situation unfolds, drawing on your experience to navigate the complexities.
• Example: Imagine a midwife assisting a woman in labor who suddenly experiences complications. Reflection-in-action occurs as the midwife quickly assesses the situation, drawing on their training and experience to adjust their approach and respond effectively to the emerging challenges.

Reflection-on-action: Learning from the past

• Definition: Reflection-on-action, in contrast, involves looking back at an experience after it has occurred to analyze what happened, what went well, what could have been done differently, and how these insights can inform future actions.
• Timing: This type of reflection is retrospective , occurring after the event has transpired.
• Process: It involves a more structured and deliberate review of the experience to extract valuable lessons and guide future actions.
• Example: A midwife might engage in reflection-on-action after a challenging birth. They might revisit the experience, analyze their actions, consider alternative approaches, and identify areas for improvement or further learning.

Q3. How does the use of reflective practice contribute to the revalidation process for midwives?

Reflective practice plays a vital role in the revalidation process for midwives as mandated by the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC).

Revalidation is an essential process for all registered midwives to demonstrate their continued fitness to practice and maintain their professional registration, ultimately safeguarding the public.

Here’s how reflective practice specifically contributes to the revalidation process for midwives:

• Reflective practice provides a structured framework for midwives to learn from their experiences, identify areas for improvement, and engage in targeted professional development activities.
• By documenting their reflections, midwives can provide evidence of their ongoing learning and development, aligning with the NMC’s requirements for revalidation.
• This process of reflecting on feedback and making concrete changes to their practice is crucial for demonstrating their commitment to providing safe and effective care.
• By engaging in critical reflection, midwives can assess their actions against these standards, identify any gaps in their practice, and take steps to address them.
• This process of self-regulation and continuous improvement is essential for maintaining public trust and ensuring accountability within the midwifery profession.

NMC expects midwives to provide concrete examples of how they have reflected on their practice and professional development activities during each three-year registration period as part of the revalidation process.

This highlights the importance of midwives incorporating structured reflection into their daily practice and using reflective models, such as Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle, to guide their reflections and document their learning jour

Atkins, S., & Murphy, K. (1993). Reflection: a review of the literature .  Journal of advanced nursing ,  18 (8), 1188-1192.

Cheyne, H., McGinley, M., & Turnbull, D. (1996). Peer review: an aid to reflective practice . MIDIRS Midwifery Digest March 6 (1): 4–6

Chesney, M. (1996). Sharing reflections on critical incidents in midwifery practice .  British Journal of Midwifery ,  4 (1), 8-11.

Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods.  Further Education Unit .

Haddock, J. (1997). Reflection ingroups: contextual and theoretical considerations within nurse education and practice.  Nurse Education Today ,  17 (5), 381-385.

Rich, A., & Parker, D. L. (1995). Reflection and critical incident analysis: ethical and moral implications of their use within nursing and midwifery education .  Journal of advanced nursing ,  22 (6), 1050-1057.

Schön, D.A. (1991). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple

Stuart, C. C. (1998). Concepts of reflection and reflective practice.  British Journal of Midwifery ,  6 (10), 640-647.

What is Problem Solving? (Steps, Techniques, Examples)

What is problem solving, definition and importance.

Problem solving is the process of finding solutions to obstacles or challenges you encounter in your life or work. It is a crucial skill that allows you to tackle complex situations, adapt to changes, and overcome difficulties with ease. Mastering this ability will contribute to both your personal and professional growth, leading to more successful outcomes and better decision-making.

Problem-Solving Steps

The problem-solving process typically includes the following steps:

• Identify the issue : Recognize the problem that needs to be solved.
• Analyze the situation : Examine the issue in depth, gather all relevant information, and consider any limitations or constraints that may be present.
• Generate potential solutions : Brainstorm a list of possible solutions to the issue, without immediately judging or evaluating them.
• Evaluate options : Weigh the pros and cons of each potential solution, considering factors such as feasibility, effectiveness, and potential risks.
• Select the best solution : Choose the option that best addresses the problem and aligns with your objectives.
• Implement the solution : Put the selected solution into action and monitor the results to ensure it resolves the issue.
• Review and learn : Reflect on the problem-solving process, identify any improvements or adjustments that can be made, and apply these learnings to future situations.

Defining the Problem

To start tackling a problem, first, identify and understand it. Analyzing the issue thoroughly helps to clarify its scope and nature. Ask questions to gather information and consider the problem from various angles. Some strategies to define the problem include:

• Brainstorming with others
• Asking the 5 Ws and 1 H (Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How)
• Analyzing cause and effect
• Creating a problem statement

Generating Solutions

Once the problem is clearly understood, brainstorm possible solutions. Think creatively and keep an open mind, as well as considering lessons from past experiences. Consider:

• Creating a list of potential ideas to solve the problem
• Grouping and categorizing similar solutions
• Prioritizing potential solutions based on feasibility, cost, and resources required
• Involving others to share diverse opinions and inputs

Evaluating and Selecting Solutions

Evaluate each potential solution, weighing its pros and cons. To facilitate decision-making, use techniques such as:

• SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats)
• Decision-making matrices
• Pros and cons lists
• Risk assessments

After evaluating, choose the most suitable solution based on effectiveness, cost, and time constraints.

Implementing and Monitoring the Solution

Implement the chosen solution and monitor its progress. Key actions include:

• Communicating the solution to relevant parties
• Setting timelines and milestones
• Assigning tasks and responsibilities
• Monitoring the solution and making adjustments as necessary
• Evaluating the effectiveness of the solution after implementation

Utilize feedback from stakeholders and consider potential improvements. Remember that problem-solving is an ongoing process that can always be refined and enhanced.

Problem-Solving Techniques

During each step, you may find it helpful to utilize various problem-solving techniques, such as:

• Brainstorming : A free-flowing, open-minded session where ideas are generated and listed without judgment, to encourage creativity and innovative thinking.
• Root cause analysis : A method that explores the underlying causes of a problem to find the most effective solution rather than addressing superficial symptoms.
• SWOT analysis : A tool used to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to a problem or decision, providing a comprehensive view of the situation.
• Mind mapping : A visual technique that uses diagrams to organize and connect ideas, helping to identify patterns, relationships, and possible solutions.

Brainstorming

When facing a problem, start by conducting a brainstorming session. Gather your team and encourage an open discussion where everyone contributes ideas, no matter how outlandish they may seem. This helps you:

• Generate a diverse range of solutions
• Encourage all team members to participate
• Foster creative thinking

When brainstorming, remember to:

• Reserve judgment until the session is over
• Encourage wild ideas
• Combine and improve upon ideas

Root Cause Analysis

For effective problem-solving, identifying the root cause of the issue at hand is crucial. Try these methods:

• 5 Whys : Ask “why” five times to get to the underlying cause.
• Fishbone Diagram : Create a diagram representing the problem and break it down into categories of potential causes.
• Pareto Analysis : Determine the few most significant causes underlying the majority of problems.

SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis helps you examine the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats related to your problem. To perform a SWOT analysis:

• List your problem’s strengths, such as relevant resources or strong partnerships.
• Identify its weaknesses, such as knowledge gaps or limited resources.
• Explore opportunities, like trends or new technologies, that could help solve the problem.
• Recognize potential threats, like competition or regulatory barriers.

SWOT analysis aids in understanding the internal and external factors affecting the problem, which can help guide your solution.

Mind Mapping

A mind map is a visual representation of your problem and potential solutions. It enables you to organize information in a structured and intuitive manner. To create a mind map:

• Write the problem in the center of a blank page.
• Draw branches from the central problem to related sub-problems or contributing factors.
• Add more branches to represent potential solutions or further ideas.

Mind mapping allows you to visually see connections between ideas and promotes creativity in problem-solving.

Examples of Problem Solving in Various Contexts

In the business world, you might encounter problems related to finances, operations, or communication. Applying problem-solving skills in these situations could look like:

• Identifying areas of improvement in your company’s financial performance and implementing cost-saving measures
• Resolving internal conflicts among team members by listening and understanding different perspectives, then proposing and negotiating solutions
• Streamlining a process for better productivity by removing redundancies, automating tasks, or re-allocating resources

In educational contexts, problem-solving can be seen in various aspects, such as:

• Addressing a gap in students’ understanding by employing diverse teaching methods to cater to different learning styles
• Developing a strategy for successful time management to balance academic responsibilities and extracurricular activities
• Seeking resources and support to provide equal opportunities for learners with special needs or disabilities

Everyday life is full of challenges that require problem-solving skills. Some examples include:

• Overcoming a personal obstacle, such as improving your fitness level, by establishing achievable goals, measuring progress, and adjusting your approach accordingly
• Navigating a new environment or city by researching your surroundings, asking for directions, or using technology like GPS to guide you
• Dealing with a sudden change, like a change in your work schedule, by assessing the situation, identifying potential impacts, and adapting your plans to accommodate the change.
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7 Module 7: Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem-Solving

This module is about how a solid working knowledge of psychological principles can help you to think more effectively, so you can succeed in school and life. You might be inclined to believe that—because you have been thinking for as long as you can remember, because you are able to figure out the solution to many problems, because you feel capable of using logic to argue a point, because you can evaluate whether the things you read and hear make sense—you do not need any special training in thinking. But this, of course, is one of the key barriers to helping people think better. If you do not believe that there is anything wrong, why try to fix it?

The human brain is indeed a remarkable thinking machine, capable of amazing, complex, creative, logical thoughts. Why, then, are we telling you that you need to learn how to think? Mainly because one major lesson from cognitive psychology is that these capabilities of the human brain are relatively infrequently realized. Many psychologists believe that people are essentially “cognitive misers.” It is not that we are lazy, but that we have a tendency to expend the least amount of mental effort necessary. Although you may not realize it, it actually takes a great deal of energy to think. Careful, deliberative reasoning and critical thinking are very difficult. Because we seem to be successful without going to the trouble of using these skills well, it feels unnecessary to develop them. As you shall see, however, there are many pitfalls in the cognitive processes described in this module. When people do not devote extra effort to learning and improving reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking skills, they make many errors.

As is true for memory, if you develop the cognitive skills presented in this module, you will be more successful in school. It is important that you realize, however, that these skills will help you far beyond school, even more so than a good memory will. Although it is somewhat useful to have a good memory, ten years from now no potential employer will care how many questions you got right on multiple choice exams during college. All of them will, however, recognize whether you are a logical, analytical, critical thinker. With these thinking skills, you will be an effective, persuasive communicator and an excellent problem solver.

The module begins by describing different kinds of thought and knowledge, especially conceptual knowledge and critical thinking. An understanding of these differences will be valuable as you progress through school and encounter different assignments that require you to tap into different kinds of knowledge. The second section covers deductive and inductive reasoning, which are processes we use to construct and evaluate strong arguments. They are essential skills to have whenever you are trying to persuade someone (including yourself) of some point, or to respond to someone’s efforts to persuade you. The module ends with a section about problem solving. A solid understanding of the key processes involved in problem solving will help you to handle many daily challenges.

7.1. Different kinds of thought

7.2. Reasoning and Judgment

7.3. Problem Solving

READING WITH PURPOSE

Remember and understand.

By reading and studying Module 7, you should be able to remember and describe:

• Concepts and inferences (7.1)
• Procedural knowledge (7.1)
• Metacognition (7.1)
• Characteristics of critical thinking:  skepticism; identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; reasoning and problem solving skills  (7.1)
• Reasoning:  deductive reasoning, deductively valid argument, inductive reasoning, inductively strong argument, availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic  (7.2)
• Fixation:  functional fixedness, mental set  (7.3)
• Algorithms, heuristics, and the role of confirmation bias (7.3)
• Effective problem solving sequence (7.3)

By reading and thinking about how the concepts in Module 6 apply to real life, you should be able to:

• Identify which type of knowledge a piece of information is (7.1)
• Recognize examples of deductive and inductive reasoning (7.2)
• Recognize judgments that have probably been influenced by the availability heuristic (7.2)
• Recognize examples of problem solving heuristics and algorithms (7.3)

Analyze, Evaluate, and Create

By reading and thinking about Module 6, participating in classroom activities, and completing out-of-class assignments, you should be able to:

• Use the principles of critical thinking to evaluate information (7.1)
• Explain whether examples of reasoning arguments are deductively valid or inductively strong (7.2)
• Outline how you could try to solve a problem from your life using the effective problem solving sequence (7.3)

7.1. Different kinds of thought and knowledge

• Take a few minutes to write down everything that you know about dogs.
• Do you believe that:
• Psychic ability exists?
• Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness?
• Magnet therapy is effective for relieving pain?
• Aerobic exercise is an effective treatment for depression?
• UFO’s from outer space have visited earth?

On what do you base your belief or disbelief for the questions above?

Of course, we all know what is meant by the words  think  and  knowledge . You probably also realize that they are not unitary concepts; there are different kinds of thought and knowledge. In this section, let us look at some of these differences. If you are familiar with these different kinds of thought and pay attention to them in your classes, it will help you to focus on the right goals, learn more effectively, and succeed in school. Different assignments and requirements in school call on you to use different kinds of knowledge or thought, so it will be very helpful for you to learn to recognize them (Anderson, et al. 2001).

Factual and conceptual knowledge

Module 5 introduced the idea of declarative memory, which is composed of facts and episodes. If you have ever played a trivia game or watched Jeopardy on TV, you realize that the human brain is able to hold an extraordinary number of facts. Likewise, you realize that each of us has an enormous store of episodes, essentially facts about events that happened in our own lives. It may be difficult to keep that in mind when we are struggling to retrieve one of those facts while taking an exam, however. Part of the problem is that, in contradiction to the advice from Module 5, many students continue to try to memorize course material as a series of unrelated facts (picture a history student simply trying to memorize history as a set of unrelated dates without any coherent story tying them together). Facts in the real world are not random and unorganized, however. It is the way that they are organized that constitutes a second key kind of knowledge, conceptual.

Concepts are nothing more than our mental representations of categories of things in the world. For example, think about dogs. When you do this, you might remember specific facts about dogs, such as they have fur and they bark. You may also recall dogs that you have encountered and picture them in your mind. All of this information (and more) makes up your concept of dog. You can have concepts of simple categories (e.g., triangle), complex categories (e.g., small dogs that sleep all day, eat out of the garbage, and bark at leaves), kinds of people (e.g., psychology professors), events (e.g., birthday parties), and abstract ideas (e.g., justice). Gregory Murphy (2002) refers to concepts as the “glue that holds our mental life together” (p. 1). Very simply, summarizing the world by using concepts is one of the most important cognitive tasks that we do. Our conceptual knowledge  is  our knowledge about the world. Individual concepts are related to each other to form a rich interconnected network of knowledge. For example, think about how the following concepts might be related to each other: dog, pet, play, Frisbee, chew toy, shoe. Or, of more obvious use to you now, how these concepts are related: working memory, long-term memory, declarative memory, procedural memory, and rehearsal? Because our minds have a natural tendency to organize information conceptually, when students try to remember course material as isolated facts, they are working against their strengths.

One last important point about concepts is that they allow you to instantly know a great deal of information about something. For example, if someone hands you a small red object and says, “here is an apple,” they do not have to tell you, “it is something you can eat.” You already know that you can eat it because it is true by virtue of the fact that the object is an apple; this is called drawing an  inference , assuming that something is true on the basis of your previous knowledge (for example, of category membership or of how the world works) or logical reasoning.

Procedural knowledge

Physical skills, such as tying your shoes, doing a cartwheel, and driving a car (or doing all three at the same time, but don’t try this at home) are certainly a kind of knowledge. They are procedural knowledge, the same idea as procedural memory that you saw in Module 5. Mental skills, such as reading, debating, and planning a psychology experiment, are procedural knowledge, as well. In short, procedural knowledge is the knowledge how to do something (Cohen & Eichenbaum, 1993).

Metacognitive knowledge

Floyd used to think that he had a great memory. Now, he has a better memory. Why? Because he finally realized that his memory was not as great as he once thought it was. Because Floyd eventually learned that he often forgets where he put things, he finally developed the habit of putting things in the same place. (Unfortunately, he did not learn this lesson before losing at least 5 watches and a wedding ring.) Because he finally realized that he often forgets to do things, he finally started using the To Do list app on his phone. And so on. Floyd’s insights about the real limitations of his memory have allowed him to remember things that he used to forget.

All of us have knowledge about the way our own minds work. You may know that you have a good memory for people’s names and a poor memory for math formulas. Someone else might realize that they have difficulty remembering to do things, like stopping at the store on the way home. Others still know that they tend to overlook details. This knowledge about our own thinking is actually quite important; it is called metacognitive knowledge, or  metacognition . Like other kinds of thinking skills, it is subject to error. For example, in unpublished research, one of the authors surveyed about 120 General Psychology students on the first day of the term. Among other questions, the students were asked them to predict their grade in the class and report their current Grade Point Average. Two-thirds of the students predicted that their grade in the course would be higher than their GPA. (The reality is that at our college, students tend to earn lower grades in psychology than their overall GPA.) Another example: Students routinely report that they thought they had done well on an exam, only to discover, to their dismay, that they were wrong (more on that important problem in a moment). Both errors reveal a breakdown in metacognition.

The Dunning-Kruger Effect

In general, most college students probably do not study enough. For example, using data from the National Survey of Student Engagement, Fosnacht, McCormack, and Lerma (2018) reported that first-year students at 4-year colleges in the U.S. averaged less than 14 hours per week preparing for classes. The typical suggestion is that you should spend two hours outside of class for every hour in class, or 24 – 30 hours per week for a full-time student. Clearly, students in general are nowhere near that recommended mark. Many observers, including some faculty, believe that this shortfall is a result of students being too busy or lazy. Now, it may be true that many students are too busy, with work and family obligations, for example. Others, are not particularly motivated in school, and therefore might correctly be labeled lazy. A third possible explanation, however, is that some students might not think they need to spend this much time. And this is a matter of metacognition. Consider the scenario that we mentioned above, students thinking they had done well on an exam only to discover that they did not. Justin Kruger and David Dunning examined scenarios very much like this in 1999. Kruger and Dunning gave research participants tests measuring humor, logic, and grammar. Then, they asked the participants to assess their own abilities and test performance in these areas. They found that participants in general tended to overestimate their abilities, already a problem with metacognition. Importantly, the participants who scored the lowest overestimated their abilities the most. Specifically, students who scored in the bottom quarter (averaging in the 12th percentile) thought they had scored in the 62nd percentile. This has become known as the  Dunning-Kruger effect . Many individual faculty members have replicated these results with their own student on their course exams, including the authors of this book. Think about it. Some students who just took an exam and performed poorly believe that they did well before seeing their score. It seems very likely that these are the very same students who stopped studying the night before because they thought they were “done.” Quite simply, it is not just that they did not know the material. They did not know that they did not know the material. That is poor metacognition.

In order to develop good metacognitive skills, you should continually monitor your thinking and seek frequent feedback on the accuracy of your thinking (Medina, Castleberry, & Persky 2017). For example, in classes get in the habit of predicting your exam grades. As soon as possible after taking an exam, try to find out which questions you missed and try to figure out why. If you do this soon enough, you may be able to recall the way it felt when you originally answered the question. Did you feel confident that you had answered the question correctly? Then you have just discovered an opportunity to improve your metacognition. Be on the lookout for that feeling and respond with caution.

concept :  a mental representation of a category of things in the world

Dunning-Kruger effect : individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do

inference : an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning

metacognition :  knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking

Critical thinking

One particular kind of knowledge or thinking skill that is related to metacognition is  critical thinking (Chew, 2020). You may have noticed that critical thinking is an objective in many college courses, and thus it could be a legitimate topic to cover in nearly any college course. It is particularly appropriate in psychology, however. As the science of (behavior and) mental processes, psychology is obviously well suited to be the discipline through which you should be introduced to this important way of thinking.

More importantly, there is a particular need to use critical thinking in psychology. We are all, in a way, experts in human behavior and mental processes, having engaged in them literally since birth. Thus, perhaps more than in any other class, students typically approach psychology with very clear ideas and opinions about its subject matter. That is, students already “know” a lot about psychology. The problem is, “it ain’t so much the things we don’t know that get us into trouble. It’s the things we know that just ain’t so” (Ward, quoted in Gilovich 1991). Indeed, many of students’ preconceptions about psychology are just plain wrong. Randolph Smith (2002) wrote a book about critical thinking in psychology called  Challenging Your Preconceptions,  highlighting this fact. On the other hand, many of students’ preconceptions about psychology are just plain right! But wait, how do you know which of your preconceptions are right and which are wrong? And when you come across a research finding or theory in this class that contradicts your preconceptions, what will you do? Will you stick to your original idea, discounting the information from the class? Will you immediately change your mind? Critical thinking can help us sort through this confusing mess.

But what is critical thinking? The goal of critical thinking is simple to state (but extraordinarily difficult to achieve): it is to be right, to draw the correct conclusions, to believe in things that are true and to disbelieve things that are false. We will provide two definitions of critical thinking (or, if you like, one large definition with two distinct parts). First, a more conceptual one: Critical thinking is thinking like a scientist in your everyday life (Schmaltz, Jansen, & Wenckowski, 2017).  Our second definition is more operational; it is simply a list of skills that are essential to be a critical thinker. Critical thinking entails solid reasoning and problem solving skills; skepticism; and an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions. Excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills contribute to critical thinking. So, you can consider the subject matter of sections 7.2 and 7.3 to be part of critical thinking. Because we will be devoting considerable time to these concepts in the rest of the module, let us begin with a discussion about the other aspects of critical thinking.

Let’s address that first part of the definition. Scientists form hypotheses, or predictions about some possible future observations. Then, they collect data, or information (think of this as making those future observations). They do their best to make unbiased observations using reliable techniques that have been verified by others. Then, and only then, they draw a conclusion about what those observations mean. Oh, and do not forget the most important part. “Conclusion” is probably not the most appropriate word because this conclusion is only tentative. A scientist is always prepared that someone else might come along and produce new observations that would require a new conclusion be drawn. Wow! If you like to be right, you could do a lot worse than using a process like this.

A Critical Thinker’s Toolkit 

Now for the second part of the definition. Good critical thinkers (and scientists) rely on a variety of tools to evaluate information. Perhaps the most recognizable tool for critical thinking is  skepticism (and this term provides the clearest link to the thinking like a scientist definition, as you are about to see). Some people intend it as an insult when they call someone a skeptic. But if someone calls you a skeptic, if they are using the term correctly, you should consider it a great compliment. Simply put, skepticism is a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided. People from Missouri should recognize this principle, as Missouri is known as the Show-Me State. As a skeptic, you are not inclined to believe something just because someone said so, because someone else believes it, or because it sounds reasonable. You must be persuaded by high quality evidence.

Of course, if that evidence is produced, you have a responsibility as a skeptic to change your belief. Failure to change a belief in the face of good evidence is not skepticism; skepticism has open mindedness at its core. M. Neil Browne and Stuart Keeley (2018) use the term weak sense critical thinking to describe critical thinking behaviors that are used only to strengthen a prior belief. Strong sense critical thinking, on the other hand, has as its goal reaching the best conclusion. Sometimes that means strengthening your prior belief, but sometimes it means changing your belief to accommodate the better evidence.

Many times, a failure to think critically or weak sense critical thinking is related to a  bias , an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice. Everybody has biases, but many people are unaware of them. Awareness of your own biases gives you the opportunity to control or counteract them. Unfortunately, however, many people are happy to let their biases creep into their attempts to persuade others; indeed, it is a key part of their persuasive strategy. To see how these biases influence messages, just look at the different descriptions and explanations of the same events given by people of different ages or income brackets, or conservative versus liberal commentators, or by commentators from different parts of the world. Of course, to be successful, these people who are consciously using their biases must disguise them. Even undisguised biases can be difficult to identify, so disguised ones can be nearly impossible.

Here are some common sources of biases:

• Personal values and beliefs.  Some people believe that human beings are basically driven to seek power and that they are typically in competition with one another over scarce resources. These beliefs are similar to the world-view that political scientists call “realism.” Other people believe that human beings prefer to cooperate and that, given the chance, they will do so. These beliefs are similar to the world-view known as “idealism.” For many people, these deeply held beliefs can influence, or bias, their interpretations of such wide ranging situations as the behavior of nations and their leaders or the behavior of the driver in the car ahead of you. For example, if your worldview is that people are typically in competition and someone cuts you off on the highway, you may assume that the driver did it purposely to get ahead of you. Other types of beliefs about the way the world is or the way the world should be, for example, political beliefs, can similarly become a significant source of bias.
• Racism, sexism, ageism and other forms of prejudice and bigotry.  These are, sadly, a common source of bias in many people. They are essentially a special kind of “belief about the way the world is.” These beliefs—for example, that women do not make effective leaders—lead people to ignore contradictory evidence (examples of effective women leaders, or research that disputes the belief) and to interpret ambiguous evidence in a way consistent with the belief.
• Self-interest.  When particular people benefit from things turning out a certain way, they can sometimes be very susceptible to letting that interest bias them. For example, a company that will earn a profit if they sell their product may have a bias in the way that they give information about their product. A union that will benefit if its members get a generous contract might have a bias in the way it presents information about salaries at competing organizations. (Note that our inclusion of examples describing both companies and unions is an explicit attempt to control for our own personal biases). Home buyers are often dismayed to discover that they purchased their dream house from someone whose self-interest led them to lie about flooding problems in the basement or back yard. This principle, the biasing power of self-interest, is likely what led to the famous phrase  Caveat Emptor  (let the buyer beware) .  

Knowing that these types of biases exist will help you evaluate evidence more critically. Do not forget, though, that people are not always keen to let you discover the sources of biases in their arguments. For example, companies or political organizations can sometimes disguise their support of a research study by contracting with a university professor, who comes complete with a seemingly unbiased institutional affiliation, to conduct the study.

People’s biases, conscious or unconscious, can lead them to make omissions, distortions, and assumptions that undermine our ability to correctly evaluate evidence. It is essential that you look for these elements. Always ask, what is missing, what is not as it appears, and what is being assumed here? For example, consider this (fictional) chart from an ad reporting customer satisfaction at 4 local health clubs.

Clearly, from the results of the chart, one would be tempted to give Club C a try, as customer satisfaction is much higher than for the other 3 clubs.

There are so many distortions and omissions in this chart, however, that it is actually quite meaningless. First, how was satisfaction measured? Do the bars represent responses to a survey? If so, how were the questions asked? Most importantly, where is the missing scale for the chart? Although the differences look quite large, are they really?

Well, here is the same chart, with a different scale, this time labeled:

Club C is not so impressive any more, is it? In fact, all of the health clubs have customer satisfaction ratings (whatever that means) between 85% and 88%. In the first chart, the entire scale of the graph included only the percentages between 83 and 89. This “judicious” choice of scale—some would call it a distortion—and omission of that scale from the chart make the tiny differences among the clubs seem important, however.

Also, in order to be a critical thinker, you need to learn to pay attention to the assumptions that underlie a message. Let us briefly illustrate the role of assumptions by touching on some people’s beliefs about the criminal justice system in the US. Some believe that a major problem with our judicial system is that many criminals go free because of legal technicalities. Others believe that a major problem is that many innocent people are convicted of crimes. The simple fact is, both types of errors occur. A person’s conclusion about which flaw in our judicial system is the greater tragedy is based on an assumption about which of these is the more serious error (letting the guilty go free or convicting the innocent). This type of assumption is called a value assumption (Browne and Keeley, 2018). It reflects the differences in values that people develop, differences that may lead us to disregard valid evidence that does not fit in with our particular values.

Oh, by the way, some students probably noticed this, but the seven tips for evaluating information that we shared in Module 1 are related to this. Actually, they are part of this section. The tips are, to a very large degree, set of ideas you can use to help you identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions. If you do not remember this section, we strongly recommend you take a few minutes to review it.

skepticism :  a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided

bias : an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice

• Which of your beliefs (or disbeliefs) from the Activate exercise for this section were derived from a process of critical thinking? If some of your beliefs were not based on critical thinking, are you willing to reassess these beliefs? If the answer is no, why do you think that is? If the answer is yes, what concrete steps will you take?

7.2 Reasoning and Judgment

• What percentage of kidnappings are committed by strangers?
• Which area of the house is riskiest: kitchen, bathroom, or stairs?
• What is the most common cancer in the US?
• What percentage of workplace homicides are committed by co-workers?

An essential set of procedural thinking skills is  reasoning , the ability to generate and evaluate solid conclusions from a set of statements or evidence. You should note that these conclusions (when they are generated instead of being evaluated) are one key type of inference that we described in Section 7.1. There are two main types of reasoning, deductive and inductive.

Deductive reasoning

Suppose your teacher tells you that if you get an A on the final exam in a course, you will get an A for the whole course. Then, you get an A on the final exam. What will your final course grade be? Most people can see instantly that you can conclude with certainty that you will get an A for the course. This is a type of reasoning called  deductive reasoning , which is defined as reasoning in which a conclusion is guaranteed to be true as long as the statements leading to it are true. The three statements can be listed as an  argument , with two beginning statements and a conclusion:

Statement 1: If you get an A on the final exam, you will get an A for the course

Statement 2: You get an A on the final exam

Conclusion: You will get an A for the course

This particular arrangement, in which true beginning statements lead to a guaranteed true conclusion, is known as a  deductively valid argument . Although deductive reasoning is often the subject of abstract, brain-teasing, puzzle-like word problems, it is actually an extremely important type of everyday reasoning. It is just hard to recognize sometimes. For example, imagine that you are looking for your car keys and you realize that they are either in the kitchen drawer or in your book bag. After looking in the kitchen drawer, you instantly know that they must be in your book bag. That conclusion results from a simple deductive reasoning argument. In addition, solid deductive reasoning skills are necessary for you to succeed in the sciences, philosophy, math, computer programming, and any endeavor involving the use of logic to persuade others to your point of view or to evaluate others’ arguments.

Cognitive psychologists, and before them philosophers, have been quite interested in deductive reasoning, not so much for its practical applications, but for the insights it can offer them about the ways that human beings think. One of the early ideas to emerge from the examination of deductive reasoning is that people learn (or develop) mental versions of rules that allow them to solve these types of reasoning problems (Braine, 1978; Braine, Reiser, & Rumain, 1984). The best way to see this point of view is to realize that there are different possible rules, and some of them are very simple. For example, consider this rule of logic:

therefore q

Logical rules are often presented abstractly, as letters, in order to imply that they can be used in very many specific situations. Here is a concrete version of the of the same rule:

I’ll either have pizza or a hamburger for dinner tonight (p or q)

I won’t have pizza (not p)

Therefore, I’ll have a hamburger (therefore q)

This kind of reasoning seems so natural, so easy, that it is quite plausible that we would use a version of this rule in our daily lives. At least, it seems more plausible than some of the alternative possibilities—for example, that we need to have experience with the specific situation (pizza or hamburger, in this case) in order to solve this type of problem easily. So perhaps there is a form of natural logic (Rips, 1990) that contains very simple versions of logical rules. When we are faced with a reasoning problem that maps onto one of these rules, we use the rule.

But be very careful; things are not always as easy as they seem. Even these simple rules are not so simple. For example, consider the following rule. Many people fail to realize that this rule is just as valid as the pizza or hamburger rule above.

if p, then q

therefore, not p

Concrete version:

If I eat dinner, then I will have dessert

I did not have dessert

Therefore, I did not eat dinner

The simple fact is, it can be very difficult for people to apply rules of deductive logic correctly; as a result, they make many errors when trying to do so. Is this a deductively valid argument or not?

Students who like school study a lot

Students who study a lot get good grades

Jane does not like school

Therefore, Jane does not get good grades

Many people are surprised to discover that this is not a logically valid argument; the conclusion is not guaranteed to be true from the beginning statements. Although the first statement says that students who like school study a lot, it does NOT say that students who do not like school do not study a lot. In other words, it may very well be possible to study a lot without liking school. Even people who sometimes get problems like this right might not be using the rules of deductive reasoning. Instead, they might just be making judgments for examples they know, in this case, remembering instances of people who get good grades despite not liking school.

Making deductive reasoning even more difficult is the fact that there are two important properties that an argument may have. One, it can be valid or invalid (meaning that the conclusion does or does not follow logically from the statements leading up to it). Two, an argument (or more correctly, its conclusion) can be true or false. Here is an example of an argument that is logically valid, but has a false conclusion (at least we think it is false).

Either you are eleven feet tall or the Grand Canyon was created by a spaceship crashing into the earth.

You are not eleven feet tall

Therefore the Grand Canyon was created by a spaceship crashing into the earth

This argument has the exact same form as the pizza or hamburger argument above, making it is deductively valid. The conclusion is so false, however, that it is absurd (of course, the reason the conclusion is false is that the first statement is false). When people are judging arguments, they tend to not observe the difference between deductive validity and the empirical truth of statements or conclusions. If the elements of an argument happen to be true, people are likely to judge the argument logically valid; if the elements are false, they will very likely judge it invalid (Markovits & Bouffard-Bouchard, 1992; Moshman & Franks, 1986). Thus, it seems a stretch to say that people are using these logical rules to judge the validity of arguments. Many psychologists believe that most people actually have very limited deductive reasoning skills (Johnson-Laird, 1999). They argue that when faced with a problem for which deductive logic is required, people resort to some simpler technique, such as matching terms that appear in the statements and the conclusion (Evans, 1982). This might not seem like a problem, but what if reasoners believe that the elements are true and they happen to be wrong; they will would believe that they are using a form of reasoning that guarantees they are correct and yet be wrong.

deductive reasoning :  a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true

argument :  a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion

deductively valid argument :  an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true

Inductive reasoning and judgment

Every day, you make many judgments about the likelihood of one thing or another. Whether you realize it or not, you are practicing  inductive reasoning   on a daily basis. In inductive reasoning arguments, a conclusion is likely whenever the statements preceding it are true. The first thing to notice about inductive reasoning is that, by definition, you can never be sure about your conclusion; you can only estimate how likely the conclusion is. Inductive reasoning may lead you to focus on Memory Encoding and Recoding when you study for the exam, but it is possible the instructor will ask more questions about Memory Retrieval instead. Unlike deductive reasoning, the conclusions you reach through inductive reasoning are only probable, not certain. That is why scientists consider inductive reasoning weaker than deductive reasoning. But imagine how hard it would be for us to function if we could not act unless we were certain about the outcome.

Inductive reasoning can be represented as logical arguments consisting of statements and a conclusion, just as deductive reasoning can be. In an inductive argument, you are given some statements and a conclusion (or you are given some statements and must draw a conclusion). An argument is  inductively strong   if the conclusion would be very probable whenever the statements are true. So, for example, here is an inductively strong argument:

• Statement #1: The forecaster on Channel 2 said it is going to rain today.
• Statement #2: The forecaster on Channel 5 said it is going to rain today.
• Statement #3: It is very cloudy and humid.
• Statement #4: You just heard thunder.
• Conclusion (or judgment): It is going to rain today.

Think of the statements as evidence, on the basis of which you will draw a conclusion. So, based on the evidence presented in the four statements, it is very likely that it will rain today. Will it definitely rain today? Certainly not. We can all think of times that the weather forecaster was wrong.

A true story: Some years ago psychology student was watching a baseball playoff game between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Los Angeles Dodgers. A graphic on the screen had just informed the audience that the Cardinal at bat, (Hall of Fame shortstop) Ozzie Smith, a switch hitter batting left-handed for this plate appearance, had never, in nearly 3000 career at-bats, hit a home run left-handed. The student, who had just learned about inductive reasoning in his psychology class, turned to his companion (a Cardinals fan) and smugly said, “It is an inductively strong argument that Ozzie Smith will not hit a home run.” He turned back to face the television just in time to watch the ball sail over the right field fence for a home run. Although the student felt foolish at the time, he was not wrong. It was an inductively strong argument; 3000 at-bats is an awful lot of evidence suggesting that the Wizard of Ozz (as he was known) would not be hitting one out of the park (think of each at-bat without a home run as a statement in an inductive argument). Sadly (for the die-hard Cubs fan and Cardinals-hating student), despite the strength of the argument, the conclusion was wrong.

Given the possibility that we might draw an incorrect conclusion even with an inductively strong argument, we really want to be sure that we do, in fact, make inductively strong arguments. If we judge something probable, it had better be probable. If we judge something nearly impossible, it had better not happen. Think of inductive reasoning, then, as making reasonably accurate judgments of the probability of some conclusion given a set of evidence.

We base many decisions in our lives on inductive reasoning. For example:

Statement #1: Psychology is not my best subject

Statement #2: My psychology instructor has a reputation for giving difficult exams

Statement #3: My first psychology exam was much harder than I expected

Judgment: The next exam will probably be very difficult.

Decision: I will study tonight instead of watching Netflix.

Some other examples of judgments that people commonly make in a school context include judgments of the likelihood that:

• A particular class will be interesting/useful/difficult
• You will be able to finish writing a paper by next week if you go out tonight
• Your laptop’s battery will last through the next trip to the library
• You will not miss anything important if you skip class tomorrow
• Your instructor will not notice if you skip class tomorrow
• You will be able to find a book that you will need for a paper
• There will be an essay question about Memory Encoding on the next exam

Tversky and Kahneman (1983) recognized that there are two general ways that we might make these judgments; they termed them extensional (i.e., following the laws of probability) and intuitive (i.e., using shortcuts or heuristics, see below). We will use a similar distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 thinking, as described by Keith Stanovich and his colleagues (Evans and Stanovich, 2013; Stanovich and West, 2000). Type 1 thinking is fast, automatic, effortful, and emotional. In fact, it is hardly fair to call it reasoning at all, as judgments just seem to pop into one’s head. Type 2 thinking , on the other hand, is slow, effortful, and logical. So obviously, it is more likely to lead to a correct judgment, or an optimal decision. The problem is, we tend to over-rely on Type 1. Now, we are not saying that Type 2 is the right way to go for every decision or judgment we make. It seems a bit much, for example, to engage in a step-by-step logical reasoning procedure to decide whether we will have chicken or fish for dinner tonight.

Many bad decisions in some very important contexts, however, can be traced back to poor judgments of the likelihood of certain risks or outcomes that result from the use of Type 1 when a more logical reasoning process would have been more appropriate. For example:

Statement #1: It is late at night.

Statement #2: Albert has been drinking beer for the past five hours at a party.

Statement #3: Albert is not exactly sure where he is or how far away home is.

Judgment: Albert will have no difficulty walking home.

Decision: He walks home alone.

As you can see in this example, the three statements backing up the judgment do not really support it. In other words, this argument is not inductively strong because it is based on judgments that ignore the laws of probability. What are the chances that someone facing these conditions will be able to walk home alone easily? And one need not be drunk to make poor decisions based on judgments that just pop into our heads.

The truth is that many of our probability judgments do not come very close to what the laws of probability say they should be. Think about it. In order for us to reason in accordance with these laws, we would need to know the laws of probability, which would allow us to calculate the relationship between particular pieces of evidence and the probability of some outcome (i.e., how much likelihood should change given a piece of evidence), and we would have to do these heavy math calculations in our heads. After all, that is what Type 2 requires. Needless to say, even if we were motivated, we often do not even know how to apply Type 2 reasoning in many cases.

So what do we do when we don’t have the knowledge, skills, or time required to make the correct mathematical judgment? Do we hold off and wait until we can get better evidence? Do we read up on probability and fire up our calculator app so we can compute the correct probability? Of course not. We rely on Type 1 thinking. We “wing it.” That is, we come up with a likelihood estimate using some means at our disposal. Psychologists use the term heuristic to describe the type of “winging it” we are talking about. A  heuristic   is a shortcut strategy that we use to make some judgment or solve some problem (see Section 7.3). Heuristics are easy and quick, think of them as the basic procedures that are characteristic of Type 1.  They can absolutely lead to reasonably good judgments and decisions in some situations (like choosing between chicken and fish for dinner). They are, however, far from foolproof. There are, in fact, quite a lot of situations in which heuristics can lead us to make incorrect judgments, and in many cases the decisions based on those judgments can have serious consequences.

Let us return to the activity that begins this section. You were asked to judge the likelihood (or frequency) of certain events and risks. You were free to come up with your own evidence (or statements) to make these judgments. This is where a heuristic crops up. As a judgment shortcut, we tend to generate specific examples of those very events to help us decide their likelihood or frequency. For example, if we are asked to judge how common, frequent, or likely a particular type of cancer is, many of our statements would be examples of specific cancer cases:

Statement #1: Andy Kaufman (comedian) had lung cancer.

Statement #2: Colin Powell (US Secretary of State) had prostate cancer.

Statement #3: Bob Marley (musician) had skin and brain cancer

Statement #4: Sandra Day O’Connor (Supreme Court Justice) had breast cancer.

Statement #5: Fred Rogers (children’s entertainer) had stomach cancer.

Statement #6: Robin Roberts (news anchor) had breast cancer.

Statement #7: Bette Davis (actress) had breast cancer.

Judgment: Breast cancer is the most common type.

Your own experience or memory may also tell you that breast cancer is the most common type. But it is not (although it is common). Actually, skin cancer is the most common type in the US. We make the same types of misjudgments all the time because we do not generate the examples or evidence according to their actual frequencies or probabilities. Instead, we have a tendency (or bias) to search for the examples in memory; if they are easy to retrieve, we assume that they are common. To rephrase this in the language of the heuristic, events seem more likely to the extent that they are available to memory. This bias has been termed the  availability heuristic   (Kahneman and Tversky, 1974).

The fact that we use the availability heuristic does not automatically mean that our judgment is wrong. The reason we use heuristics in the first place is that they work fairly well in many cases (and, of course that they are easy to use). So, the easiest examples to think of sometimes are the most common ones. Is it more likely that a member of the U.S. Senate is a man or a woman? Most people have a much easier time generating examples of male senators. And as it turns out, the U.S. Senate has many more men than women (74 to 26 in 2020). In this case, then, the availability heuristic would lead you to make the correct judgment; it is far more likely that a senator would be a man.

In many other cases, however, the availability heuristic will lead us astray. This is because events can be memorable for many reasons other than their frequency. Section 5.2, Encoding Meaning, suggested that one good way to encode the meaning of some information is to form a mental image of it. Thus, information that has been pictured mentally will be more available to memory. Indeed, an event that is vivid and easily pictured will trick many people into supposing that type of event is more common than it actually is. Repetition of information will also make it more memorable. So, if the same event is described to you in a magazine, on the evening news, on a podcast that you listen to, and in your Facebook feed; it will be very available to memory. Again, the availability heuristic will cause you to misperceive the frequency of these types of events.

Most interestingly, information that is unusual is more memorable. Suppose we give you the following list of words to remember: box, flower, letter, platypus, oven, boat, newspaper, purse, drum, car. Very likely, the easiest word to remember would be platypus, the unusual one. The same thing occurs with memories of events. An event may be available to memory because it is unusual, yet the availability heuristic leads us to judge that the event is common. Did you catch that? In these cases, the availability heuristic makes us think the exact opposite of the true frequency. We end up thinking something is common because it is unusual (and therefore memorable). Yikes.

The misapplication of the availability heuristic sometimes has unfortunate results. For example, if you went to K-12 school in the US over the past 10 years, it is extremely likely that you have participated in lockdown and active shooter drills. Of course, everyone is trying to prevent the tragedy of another school shooting. And believe us, we are not trying to minimize how terrible the tragedy is. But the truth of the matter is, school shootings are extremely rare. Because the federal government does not keep a database of school shootings, the Washington Post has maintained their own running tally. Between 1999 and January 2020 (the date of the most recent school shooting with a death in the US at of the time this paragraph was written), the Post reported a total of 254 people died in school shootings in the US. Not 254 per year, 254 total. That is an average of 12 per year. Of course, that is 254 people who should not have died (particularly because many were children), but in a country with approximately 60,000,000 students and teachers, this is a very small risk.

But many students and teachers are terrified that they will be victims of school shootings because of the availability heuristic. It is so easy to think of examples (they are very available to memory) that people believe the event is very common. It is not. And there is a downside to this. We happen to believe that there is an enormous gun violence problem in the United States. According the the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there were 39,773 firearm deaths in the US in 2017. Fifteen of those deaths were in school shootings, according to the Post. 60% of those deaths were suicides. When people pay attention to the school shooting risk (low), they often fail to notice the much larger risk.

And examples like this are by no means unique. The authors of this book have been teaching psychology since the 1990’s. We have been able to make the exact same arguments about the misapplication of the availability heuristics and keep them current by simply swapping out for the “fear of the day.” In the 1990’s it was children being kidnapped by strangers (it was known as “stranger danger”) despite the facts that kidnappings accounted for only 2% of the violent crimes committed against children, and only 24% of kidnappings are committed by strangers (US Department of Justice, 2007). This fear overlapped with the fear of terrorism that gripped the country after the 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and US Pentagon and still plagues the population of the US somewhat in 2020. After a well-publicized, sensational act of violence, people are extremely likely to increase their estimates of the chances that they, too, will be victims of terror. Think about the reality, however. In October of 2001, a terrorist mailed anthrax spores to members of the US government and a number of media companies. A total of five people died as a result of this attack. The nation was nearly paralyzed by the fear of dying from the attack; in reality the probability of an individual person dying was 0.00000002.

The availability heuristic can lead you to make incorrect judgments in a school setting as well. For example, suppose you are trying to decide if you should take a class from a particular math professor. You might try to make a judgment of how good a teacher she is by recalling instances of friends and acquaintances making comments about her teaching skill. You may have some examples that suggest that she is a poor teacher very available to memory, so on the basis of the availability heuristic you judge her a poor teacher and decide to take the class from someone else. What if, however, the instances you recalled were all from the same person, and this person happens to be a very colorful storyteller? The subsequent ease of remembering the instances might not indicate that the professor is a poor teacher after all.

Although the availability heuristic is obviously important, it is not the only judgment heuristic we use. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman examined the role of heuristics in inductive reasoning in a long series of studies. Kahneman received a Nobel Prize in Economics for this research in 2002, and Tversky would have certainly received one as well if he had not died of melanoma at age 59 in 1996 (Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously). Kahneman and Tversky demonstrated repeatedly that people do not reason in ways that are consistent with the laws of probability. They identified several heuristic strategies that people use instead to make judgments about likelihood. The importance of this work for economics (and the reason that Kahneman was awarded the Nobel Prize) is that earlier economic theories had assumed that people do make judgments rationally, that is, in agreement with the laws of probability.

Another common heuristic that people use for making judgments is the  representativeness heuristic (Kahneman & Tversky 1973). Suppose we describe a person to you. He is quiet and shy, has an unassuming personality, and likes to work with numbers. Is this person more likely to be an accountant or an attorney? If you said accountant, you were probably using the representativeness heuristic. Our imaginary person is judged likely to be an accountant because he resembles, or is representative of the concept of, an accountant. When research participants are asked to make judgments such as these, the only thing that seems to matter is the representativeness of the description. For example, if told that the person described is in a room that contains 70 attorneys and 30 accountants, participants will still assume that he is an accountant.

inductive reasoning :  a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence

inductively strong argument :  an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true

heuristic :  a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

availability heuristic :  judging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)

representativeness heuristic:   judging the likelihood that something is a member of a category on the basis of how much it resembles a typical category member (i.e., how representative it is of the category)

Type 1 thinking : fast, automatic, and emotional thinking.

Type 2 thinking : slow, effortful, and logical thinking.

• What percentage of workplace homicides are co-worker violence?

Many people get these questions wrong. The answers are 10%; stairs; skin; 6%. How close were your answers? Explain how the availability heuristic might have led you to make the incorrect judgments.

• Can you think of some other judgments that you have made (or beliefs that you have) that might have been influenced by the availability heuristic?

7.3 Problem Solving

• Please take a few minutes to list a number of problems that you are facing right now.
• Now write about a problem that you recently solved.
• What is your definition of a problem?

Mary has a problem. Her daughter, ordinarily quite eager to please, appears to delight in being the last person to do anything. Whether getting ready for school, going to piano lessons or karate class, or even going out with her friends, she seems unwilling or unable to get ready on time. Other people have different kinds of problems. For example, many students work at jobs, have numerous family commitments, and are facing a course schedule full of difficult exams, assignments, papers, and speeches. How can they find enough time to devote to their studies and still fulfill their other obligations? Speaking of students and their problems: Show that a ball thrown vertically upward with initial velocity v0 takes twice as much time to return as to reach the highest point (from Spiegel, 1981).

These are three very different situations, but we have called them all problems. What makes them all the same, despite the differences? A psychologist might define a  problem   as a situation with an initial state, a goal state, and a set of possible intermediate states. Somewhat more meaningfully, we might consider a problem a situation in which you are in here one state (e.g., daughter is always late), you want to be there in another state (e.g., daughter is not always late), and with no obvious way to get from here to there. Defined this way, each of the three situations we outlined can now be seen as an example of the same general concept, a problem. At this point, you might begin to wonder what is not a problem, given such a general definition. It seems that nearly every non-routine task we engage in could qualify as a problem. As long as you realize that problems are not necessarily bad (it can be quite fun and satisfying to rise to the challenge and solve a problem), this may be a useful way to think about it.

Can we identify a set of problem-solving skills that would apply to these very different kinds of situations? That task, in a nutshell, is a major goal of this section. Let us try to begin to make sense of the wide variety of ways that problems can be solved with an important observation: the process of solving problems can be divided into two key parts. First, people have to notice, comprehend, and represent the problem properly in their minds (called  problem representation ). Second, they have to apply some kind of solution strategy to the problem. Psychologists have studied both of these key parts of the process in detail.

When you first think about the problem-solving process, you might guess that most of our difficulties would occur because we are failing in the second step, the application of strategies. Although this can be a significant difficulty much of the time, the more important source of difficulty is probably problem representation. In short, we often fail to solve a problem because we are looking at it, or thinking about it, the wrong way.

problem :  a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)

problem representation :  noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem

Defining and Mentally Representing Problems in Order to Solve Them

So, the main obstacle to solving a problem is that we do not clearly understand exactly what the problem is. Recall the problem with Mary’s daughter always being late. One way to represent, or to think about, this problem is that she is being defiant. She refuses to get ready in time. This type of representation or definition suggests a particular type of solution. Another way to think about the problem, however, is to consider the possibility that she is simply being sidetracked by interesting diversions. This different conception of what the problem is (i.e., different representation) suggests a very different solution strategy. For example, if Mary defines the problem as defiance, she may be tempted to solve the problem using some kind of coercive tactics, that is, to assert her authority as her mother and force her to listen. On the other hand, if Mary defines the problem as distraction, she may try to solve it by simply removing the distracting objects.

As you might guess, when a problem is represented one way, the solution may seem very difficult, or even impossible. Seen another way, the solution might be very easy. For example, consider the following problem (from Nasar, 1998):

Two bicyclists start 20 miles apart and head toward each other, each going at a steady rate of 10 miles per hour. At the same time, a fly that travels at a steady 15 miles per hour starts from the front wheel of the southbound bicycle and flies to the front wheel of the northbound one, then turns around and flies to the front wheel of the southbound one again, and continues in this manner until he is crushed between the two front wheels. Question: what total distance did the fly cover?

Please take a few minutes to try to solve this problem.

Most people represent this problem as a question about a fly because, well, that is how the question is asked. The solution, using this representation, is to figure out how far the fly travels on the first leg of its journey, then add this total to how far it travels on the second leg of its journey (when it turns around and returns to the first bicycle), then continue to add the smaller distance from each leg of the journey until you converge on the correct answer. You would have to be quite skilled at math to solve this problem, and you would probably need some time and pencil and paper to do it.

If you consider a different representation, however, you can solve this problem in your head. Instead of thinking about it as a question about a fly, think about it as a question about the bicycles. They are 20 miles apart, and each is traveling 10 miles per hour. How long will it take for the bicycles to reach each other? Right, one hour. The fly is traveling 15 miles per hour; therefore, it will travel a total of 15 miles back and forth in the hour before the bicycles meet. Represented one way (as a problem about a fly), the problem is quite difficult. Represented another way (as a problem about two bicycles), it is easy. Changing your representation of a problem is sometimes the best—sometimes the only—way to solve it.

Unfortunately, however, changing a problem’s representation is not the easiest thing in the world to do. Often, problem solvers get stuck looking at a problem one way. This is called  fixation . Most people who represent the preceding problem as a problem about a fly probably do not pause to reconsider, and consequently change, their representation. A parent who thinks her daughter is being defiant is unlikely to consider the possibility that her behavior is far less purposeful.

Problem-solving fixation was examined by a group of German psychologists called Gestalt psychologists during the 1930’s and 1940’s. Karl Dunker, for example, discovered an important type of failure to take a different perspective called  functional fixedness . Imagine being a participant in one of his experiments. You are asked to figure out how to mount two candles on a door and are given an assortment of odds and ends, including a small empty cardboard box and some thumbtacks. Perhaps you have already figured out a solution: tack the box to the door so it forms a platform, then put the candles on top of the box. Most people are able to arrive at this solution. Imagine a slight variation of the procedure, however. What if, instead of being empty, the box had matches in it? Most people given this version of the problem do not arrive at the solution given above. Why? Because it seems to people that when the box contains matches, it already has a function; it is a matchbox. People are unlikely to consider a new function for an object that already has a function. This is functional fixedness.

Mental set is a type of fixation in which the problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past, even though the solution may no longer be useful. It is commonly seen when students do math problems for homework. Often, several problems in a row require the reapplication of the same solution strategy. Then, without warning, the next problem in the set requires a new strategy. Many students attempt to apply the formerly successful strategy on the new problem and therefore cannot come up with a correct answer.

The thing to remember is that you cannot solve a problem unless you correctly identify what it is to begin with (initial state) and what you want the end result to be (goal state). That may mean looking at the problem from a different angle and representing it in a new way. The correct representation does not guarantee a successful solution, but it certainly puts you on the right track.

A bit more optimistically, the Gestalt psychologists discovered what may be considered the opposite of fixation, namely  insight . Sometimes the solution to a problem just seems to pop into your head. Wolfgang Kohler examined insight by posing many different problems to chimpanzees, principally problems pertaining to their acquisition of out-of-reach food. In one version, a banana was placed outside of a chimpanzee’s cage and a short stick inside the cage. The stick was too short to retrieve the banana, but was long enough to retrieve a longer stick also located outside of the cage. This second stick was long enough to retrieve the banana. After trying, and failing, to reach the banana with the shorter stick, the chimpanzee would try a couple of random-seeming attempts, react with some apparent frustration or anger, then suddenly rush to the longer stick, the correct solution fully realized at this point. This sudden appearance of the solution, observed many times with many different problems, was termed insight by Kohler.

Lest you think it pertains to chimpanzees only, Karl Dunker demonstrated that children also solve problems through insight in the 1930s. More importantly, you have probably experienced insight yourself. Think back to a time when you were trying to solve a difficult problem. After struggling for a while, you gave up. Hours later, the solution just popped into your head, perhaps when you were taking a walk, eating dinner, or lying in bed.

fixation :  when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)

functional fixedness :  a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function

mental set :  a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past

insight :  a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

Solving Problems by Trial and Error

Correctly identifying the problem and your goal for a solution is a good start, but recall the psychologist’s definition of a problem: it includes a set of possible intermediate states. Viewed this way, a problem can be solved satisfactorily only if one can find a path through some of these intermediate states to the goal. Imagine a fairly routine problem, finding a new route to school when your ordinary route is blocked (by road construction, for example). At each intersection, you may turn left, turn right, or go straight. A satisfactory solution to the problem (of getting to school) is a sequence of selections at each intersection that allows you to wind up at school.

If you had all the time in the world to get to school, you might try choosing intermediate states randomly. At one corner you turn left, the next you go straight, then you go left again, then right, then right, then straight. Unfortunately, trial and error will not necessarily get you where you want to go, and even if it does, it is not the fastest way to get there. For example, when a friend of ours was in college, he got lost on the way to a concert and attempted to find the venue by choosing streets to turn onto randomly (this was long before the use of GPS). Amazingly enough, the strategy worked, although he did end up missing two out of the three bands who played that night.

Trial and error is not all bad, however. B.F. Skinner, a prominent behaviorist psychologist, suggested that people often behave randomly in order to see what effect the behavior has on the environment and what subsequent effect this environmental change has on them. This seems particularly true for the very young person. Picture a child filling a household’s fish tank with toilet paper, for example. To a child trying to develop a repertoire of creative problem-solving strategies, an odd and random behavior might be just the ticket. Eventually, the exasperated parent hopes, the child will discover that many of these random behaviors do not successfully solve problems; in fact, in many cases they create problems. Thus, one would expect a decrease in this random behavior as a child matures. You should realize, however, that the opposite extreme is equally counterproductive. If the children become too rigid, never trying something unexpected and new, their problem solving skills can become too limited.

Effective problem solving seems to call for a happy medium that strikes a balance between using well-founded old strategies and trying new ground and territory. The individual who recognizes a situation in which an old problem-solving strategy would work best, and who can also recognize a situation in which a new untested strategy is necessary is halfway to success.

Solving Problems with Algorithms and Heuristics

For many problems there is a possible strategy available that will guarantee a correct solution. For example, think about math problems. Math lessons often consist of step-by-step procedures that can be used to solve the problems. If you apply the strategy without error, you are guaranteed to arrive at the correct solution to the problem. This approach is called using an  algorithm , a term that denotes the step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution. Because algorithms are sometimes available and come with a guarantee, you might think that most people use them frequently. Unfortunately, however, they do not. As the experience of many students who have struggled through math classes can attest, algorithms can be extremely difficult to use, even when the problem solver knows which algorithm is supposed to work in solving the problem. In problems outside of math class, we often do not even know if an algorithm is available. It is probably fair to say, then, that algorithms are rarely used when people try to solve problems.

Because algorithms are so difficult to use, people often pass up the opportunity to guarantee a correct solution in favor of a strategy that is much easier to use and yields a reasonable chance of coming up with a correct solution. These strategies are called  problem solving heuristics . Similar to what you saw in section 6.2 with reasoning heuristics, a problem solving heuristic is a shortcut strategy that people use when trying to solve problems. It usually works pretty well, but does not guarantee a correct solution to the problem. For example, one problem solving heuristic might be “always move toward the goal” (so when trying to get to school when your regular route is blocked, you would always turn in the direction you think the school is). A heuristic that people might use when doing math homework is “use the same solution strategy that you just used for the previous problem.”

By the way, we hope these last two paragraphs feel familiar to you. They seem to parallel a distinction that you recently learned. Indeed, algorithms and problem-solving heuristics are another example of the distinction between Type 1 thinking and Type 2 thinking.

Although it is probably not worth describing a large number of specific heuristics, two observations about heuristics are worth mentioning. First, heuristics can be very general or they can be very specific, pertaining to a particular type of problem only. For example, “always move toward the goal” is a general strategy that you can apply to countless problem situations. On the other hand, “when you are lost without a functioning gps, pick the most expensive car you can see and follow it” is specific to the problem of being lost. Second, all heuristics are not equally useful. One heuristic that many students know is “when in doubt, choose c for a question on a multiple-choice exam.” This is a dreadful strategy because many instructors intentionally randomize the order of answer choices. Another test-taking heuristic, somewhat more useful, is “look for the answer to one question somewhere else on the exam.”

You really should pay attention to the application of heuristics to test taking. Imagine that while reviewing your answers for a multiple-choice exam before turning it in, you come across a question for which you originally thought the answer was c. Upon reflection, you now think that the answer might be b. Should you change the answer to b, or should you stick with your first impression? Most people will apply the heuristic strategy to “stick with your first impression.” What they do not realize, of course, is that this is a very poor strategy (Lilienfeld et al, 2009). Most of the errors on exams come on questions that were answered wrong originally and were not changed (so they remain wrong). There are many fewer errors where we change a correct answer to an incorrect answer. And, of course, sometimes we change an incorrect answer to a correct answer. In fact, research has shown that it is more common to change a wrong answer to a right answer than vice versa (Bruno, 2001).

The belief in this poor test-taking strategy (stick with your first impression) is based on the  confirmation bias   (Nickerson, 1998; Wason, 1960). You first saw the confirmation bias in Module 1, but because it is so important, we will repeat the information here. People have a bias, or tendency, to notice information that confirms what they already believe. Somebody at one time told you to stick with your first impression, so when you look at the results of an exam you have taken, you will tend to notice the cases that are consistent with that belief. That is, you will notice the cases in which you originally had an answer correct and changed it to the wrong answer. You tend not to notice the other two important (and more common) cases, changing an answer from wrong to right, and leaving a wrong answer unchanged.

Because heuristics by definition do not guarantee a correct solution to a problem, mistakes are bound to occur when we employ them. A poor choice of a specific heuristic will lead to an even higher likelihood of making an error.

algorithm :  a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

problem solving heuristic :  a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

confirmation bias :  people’s tendency to notice information that confirms what they already believe

An Effective Problem-Solving Sequence

You may be left with a big question: If algorithms are hard to use and heuristics often don’t work, how am I supposed to solve problems? Robert Sternberg (1996), as part of his theory of what makes people successfully intelligent (Module 8) described a problem-solving sequence that has been shown to work rather well:

• Identify the existence of a problem.  In school, problem identification is often easy; problems that you encounter in math classes, for example, are conveniently labeled as problems for you. Outside of school, however, realizing that you have a problem is a key difficulty that you must get past in order to begin solving it. You must be very sensitive to the symptoms that indicate a problem.
• Define the problem.  Suppose you realize that you have been having many headaches recently. Very likely, you would identify this as a problem. If you define the problem as “headaches,” the solution would probably be to take aspirin or ibuprofen or some other anti-inflammatory medication. If the headaches keep returning, however, you have not really solved the problem—likely because you have mistaken a symptom for the problem itself. Instead, you must find the root cause of the headaches. Stress might be the real problem. For you to successfully solve many problems it may be necessary for you to overcome your fixations and represent the problems differently. One specific strategy that you might find useful is to try to define the problem from someone else’s perspective. How would your parents, spouse, significant other, doctor, etc. define the problem? Somewhere in these different perspectives may lurk the key definition that will allow you to find an easier and permanent solution.
• Formulate strategy.  Now it is time to begin planning exactly how the problem will be solved. Is there an algorithm or heuristic available for you to use? Remember, heuristics by their very nature guarantee that occasionally you will not be able to solve the problem. One point to keep in mind is that you should look for long-range solutions, which are more likely to address the root cause of a problem than short-range solutions.
• Represent and organize information.  Similar to the way that the problem itself can be defined, or represented in multiple ways, information within the problem is open to different interpretations. Suppose you are studying for a big exam. You have chapters from a textbook and from a supplemental reader, along with lecture notes that all need to be studied. How should you (represent and) organize these materials? Should you separate them by type of material (text versus reader versus lecture notes), or should you separate them by topic? To solve problems effectively, you must learn to find the most useful representation and organization of information.
• Allocate resources.  This is perhaps the simplest principle of the problem solving sequence, but it is extremely difficult for many people. First, you must decide whether time, money, skills, effort, goodwill, or some other resource would help to solve the problem Then, you must make the hard choice of deciding which resources to use, realizing that you cannot devote maximum resources to every problem. Very often, the solution to problem is simply to change how resources are allocated (for example, spending more time studying in order to improve grades).
• Monitor and evaluate solutions.  Pay attention to the solution strategy while you are applying it. If it is not working, you may be able to select another strategy. Another fact you should realize about problem solving is that it never does end. Solving one problem frequently brings up new ones. Good monitoring and evaluation of your problem solutions can help you to anticipate and get a jump on solving the inevitable new problems that will arise.

Please note that this as  an  effective problem-solving sequence, not  the  effective problem solving sequence. Just as you can become fixated and end up representing the problem incorrectly or trying an inefficient solution, you can become stuck applying the problem-solving sequence in an inflexible way. Clearly there are problem situations that can be solved without using these skills in this order.

Additionally, many real-world problems may require that you go back and redefine a problem several times as the situation changes (Sternberg et al. 2000). For example, consider the problem with Mary’s daughter one last time. At first, Mary did represent the problem as one of defiance. When her early strategy of pleading and threatening punishment was unsuccessful, Mary began to observe her daughter more carefully. She noticed that, indeed, her daughter’s attention would be drawn by an irresistible distraction or book. Fresh with a re-representation of the problem, she began a new solution strategy. She began to remind her daughter every few minutes to stay on task and remind her that if she is ready before it is time to leave, she may return to the book or other distracting object at that time. Fortunately, this strategy was successful, so Mary did not have to go back and redefine the problem again.

Pick one or two of the problems that you listed when you first started studying this section and try to work out the steps of Sternberg’s problem solving sequence for each one.

a mental representation of a category of things in the world

an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning

knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking

individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do

Thinking like a scientist in your everyday life for the purpose of drawing correct conclusions. It entails skepticism; an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; and excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills.

a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided

an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice

a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true

a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion

an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true

a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence

an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true

fast, automatic, and emotional thinking

slow, effortful, and logical thinking

a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

udging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)

judging the likelihood that something is a member of a category on the basis of how much it resembles a typical category member (i.e., how representative it is of the category)

a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)

noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem

when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past

a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

The tendency to notice and pay attention to information that confirms your prior beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms them.

a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

Introduction to Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Ken Gray; Elizabeth Arnott-Hill; and Or'Shaundra Benson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• The Inventory

A 6-step reflection can improve your team's problem-solving

There’s no better time for reflection than at the beginning of a year. Designating time and space for retrospectives allows team members to identify problems and propose different solutions. Doing this habitually builds psychological safety, one of the key attributes of high-performing teams.

At Atlassian, we use the 4Ls Retrospective technique to facilitate team reflection. During this activity, team members identify what they Loved, Loathed, Learned, and Longed for in a project or sprint of work. Reflecting back on work helps the team use what they’ve learned to improve.

It only takes 60 minutes to run, and I have step-by-step instructions and templates for your team to try it, too. Let’s dive in!

Step 1: Prep

Before the session, agree as a team on the time period you’d like to look back on. For remote teams, create a collaboration document: you can check out these templates in Trello , Confluence , and Miro . For in-person teams, find a whiteboard and set out sticky notes and markers. Create six columns labeled Milestones, LOVED, LOATHED, LONGED FOR, LEARNED, and Actions.

If your team is distributed—meaning you have a few members who sit together, in-person, while others dial in virtually—we recommend running this play in an entirely virtual fashion by asking in-person team members to participate via Zoom.

Step 2: Set the stage

To build psychological safety, where team members feel they can speak freely without fear of repercussions, reiterate these points at the start of the session:

• We’re talking about how we have worked to see how we can make improvements.
• We understand everyone did the best they could given their knowledge and tools.
• This meeting is a safe space. Nothing that is shared will be used against anyone.
• We’re here to explore, not to blame.

Step 3: Identify key moments

Have the team think back over a specific time period and identify key events that occurred. Provide a few examples, such as results achieved, team celebrations, team members joining, or company events. Anchoring the team in key milestones jogs the team’s memory of events that occurred and how they felt about them. Then set a timer for five minutes for people to add their own key events to the Milestone column.

Step 4: Reflect

Explain the four lists to the team: “LOVED,” “LONGED FOR,” “LOATHED” and “LEARNED.”

• LOVED : what you loved about your work over the time period. This is what you want to keep doing, or do more of, in the future.
• LONGED FOR : what you wish you’d had. It could be more people, more time, more coffee. Nothing is off the table.
• LOATHED : what made life worse back then. What do you hope will never happen again?
• LEARNED : what you learned from your successes and your mistakes.

Set a timer for 10 minutes for everyone to place activities in each list. Don’t rush it. Giving time to write allows for processing and reflection while also giving quieter team members space for sharing their ideas.

Step 5: Create an action plan

For 10 minutes, either as a team or in breakout groups, discuss:

• One action you’ll take to remove something from the LOATHED list.
• One action you’ll take to amplify something from the LOVED list.
• Use the LONGED FOR and LEARNED lists to help shape your ideas for what actions to take.

Come back together and give each person or group a few minutes to share their plan. Use the actions list to capture each action. Make sure to include who will do it, what they are doing, and by when . Commit to when you’ll track progress on actions on a regular basis, such as at team meetings or at the next 4Ls.

Step 6: Follow up

Before you break, schedule your next 4Ls session. Once a quarter is a good start. I also like running this play at the end of a big project or moment, like a product launch or annual meeting.

I’ve run this play with dozens of teams, and it’s amazing to see the dynamic shift during the session. Giving team members an opportunity to reflect together and contribute to a better path forward can be transformational. What are you waiting for? Carve out an hour in the next month and see how it goes.

Mark Cruth is Atlassian’s resident Modern Work Expert. Focused on practice over theory, Mark spends his days coaching both Atlassian and customer teams on new ways of working, then sharing what he’s learned at events around the world.

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• Rasmussen University
• Transferable Skills*
• Critical Thinking
• Steps 1 & 2: Reflection and Analysis

Critical Thinking: Steps 1 & 2: Reflection and Analysis

• Step 3: Acquisition of Information
• Step 4: Creativity
• Step 5: Structuring Arguments
• Step 6: Decision Making
• Steps 7 & 8: Commitment and Debate
• In the Classroom
• In the Workplace

Identify, Reflect, and Analyze

• Step 1: Reflect
• Step 2: Analyze

Step 1: Reflecting on the Issue, Problem, or Task

Reflection is an important early step in critical thinking. There are various kinds of reflection that promote deeper levels of critical thinking (click on the table to view larger):

Brockbank, A., & McGill, I. (2007).  Facilitating Reflective Learning in Higher Education . Maidenhead, England: McGraw-Hill Education.

Ask yourself questions to identify the nature and essence of the issue, problem, or task. Why are you examining this subject? Why is it important that you solve this problem? 

Reflective Thinking

Game:   There is 1 random word below.  Use it as inspiration to think of something it would be interesting if we never had in this world.

Challenge:   For extra challenge, reply to someone else’s suggestion and predict how life would be different if it never was.  Try and think big.  Think about profound and extreme ways in which the world may be different.

Strategy: We often think about how life would be better if only we had X (X being something we would quite like).  It can be a fun way to pass the time but it tends to involve adding something new to our lives.  Let's go the other way around and subtract something instead.  But instead of something desirable it will be something that we take for granted, something simple.  Then trying to predict how it would have a profound effect changing the world around us becomes an act in following a chain reaction of influences.  Creativity often involves having keen insights into how everything influences and affects everything around it in often unobvious ways.  This little game is a good way to practice that thinking.

• << Previous: Steps to Critical Thinking
• Next: Step 3: Acquisition of Information >>
• Last Updated: Aug 1, 2024 9:49 AM
• URL: https://guides.rasmussen.edu/criticalthinking

When Reflection Hinders Creative Problem-Solving: a Test of Alternative Reflection Strategies

• Original Paper
• Published: 15 April 2021
• Volume 37 , pages 429–441, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Julie Rosseel 1 &
• Frederik Anseel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4697-7293 2  

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A growing body of evidence suggests that reflecting on performance is an important source of individual learning. Given the importance of creativity in contemporary business settings, reflection has also been cast as a useful strategy to facilitate creative problem-solving. Challenging this idea, we conducted a series of lab experiments to examine the effects of reflection on creative problem-solving. Drawing from theory in cognitive psychology on knowledge structures, we argue that reflection may sometimes debilitate rather than improve creative problem-solving, due to the reinforcement of existing cognitive schemas and the resulting cognitive entrenchment. To test our theoretical arguments, we developed two alternative reflection strategies, imaginative reflection and vicarious elaboration. In Study 1 ( N = 101), we observed a detrimental effect of task reflection on creative problem-solving, which was offset by having participants engage in imaginative reflection. In Study 2 ( N = 191), vicarious elaboration, elaborating on another’s creative experiences instead of reflecting on one’s own creative experiences, was introduced as a second strategy to counter cognitive entrenchment. In Study 3 ( N = 235), we combined the reflection strategies, demonstrating that imaginative thinking was more effective when focused on one’s own experiences rather than on others’ experiences (i.e., vicarious imaginative elaboration). Together, these findings increase our understanding of the effects of different reflection strategies, but also call for further research to address an intriguing observation: none of the reflection strategies led to better outcomes as compared to a control condition without reflection, suggesting that individual reflection might not help creative problem-solving at all.

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How a reflection intervention improves the effect of learning goals on performance outcomes in a complex decision-making task, enhancement of creative thinking skills using a cognitive-based creativity training.

Creative Problem-Solving

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Acknowledgment

We would like to thank Ronald Bledow, Ute Hulsheger, Jonas Lang, and Hannes Leroy for the comments on the previous versions of our paper.

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(DOCX 44 kb)

Toilet paper scenario: A production manager of a multinational, which produces toilet paper, is confronted with a new package problem of toilet paper. Based on market research, it seems that consumers would like to have more compact packages of toilet paper without reduction of the amount and quality of toilet paper.

Shampoo bottle scenario: A production manager of a multinational, which produces shampoo bottles, is confronted with a complaint of consumers. Based on market research, it seems that consumers are being irritated if they are unable to use the last remnant due to the stickiness of shampoo.

Shampoo Design Coding Rules

General rule is ‘Count all specific design options for the shampoo bottle problem.’ The problem is stickiness of shampoo. Considering this problem: ‘Is the proposed design a concrete solution for the problem?’

One bullet point with different ideas separated by comma = count as different ideas.

A different idea written between brackets next to another idea = count as two ideas.

One idea combined with an arrow and followed by a consequence = count as one idea.

One idea combined with an arrow and followed by a new idea = count as two ideas.

Synonym and Rehearsal

Synonyms = count as one idea.

Writing down the same idea twice in different bullet points = count as one idea.

Conjunctions

One bullet point with different ideas separated by & or and or or = count as different ideas. Beware, if the different ideas belong to one idea = count as one idea.

If ideas are written as an essay instead of bullet points = count each different idea .

An idea combined with an example = count as one idea .

Different questions = count as different ideas.

If a drawing is a visualization of an idea = count as one idea.

If drawings represent different new ideas = count as different ideas.

Do not count the word ‘other’. If ‘other’ is written without suggestion, do not count it as an idea.

Do not count incomplete sentences.

Reflection Exercise Coding Rules

1. Did the participant continue writing additional creative applications?

2. Did the participant write a ‘?’, ‘/’, or absolutely nothing?

3. Did the participant write random words that had nothing to do with the creativity task?

4. Did the participant indicate that it is abstract or too complex?

5. Did the participant think imaginatively?

6. Did the participant think factually?

7. Did the participant think imaginatively and factually?

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Rosseel, J., Anseel, F. When Reflection Hinders Creative Problem-Solving: a Test of Alternative Reflection Strategies. J Bus Psychol 37 , 429–441 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-021-09741-8

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Accepted : 09 March 2021

Published : 15 April 2021

Issue Date : April 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-021-09741-8

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Guide: Problem Solving

Author: Daniel Croft

What is Problem Solving?

Analyzing the problem is the next critical step. This analysis involves breaking down the problem into smaller parts to understand its intricacies. It requires looking at the problem from various angles and considering all relevant factors – be they environmental, social, technical, or economic. This comprehensive analysis aids in developing a deeper understanding of the problem’s root causes, rather than just its symptoms.

Finally, effective problem-solving involves the implementation of the chosen solution and its subsequent evaluation. This stage tests the practicality of the solution and its effectiveness in the real world. It’s a critical phase where theoretical solutions meet practical application.

The Nature of Problems

Simple vs. Complex Problems : Simple problems are straightforward, often with clear solutions. They usually have a limited number of variables and predictable outcomes. On the other hand, complex problems are multi-faceted. They involve multiple variables, stakeholders, and potential outcomes, often requiring a more sophisticated analysis and a multi-pronged approach to solving.

Structured vs. Unstructured Problems : Structured problems are well-defined. They follow a specific pattern or set of rules, making their outcomes more predictable. These problems often have established methodologies for solving. For example, mathematical problems usually fall into this category. Unstructured problems, in contrast, are more ambiguous. They lack a clear pattern or set of rules, making their outcomes uncertain. These problems require a more exploratory approach, often involving trial and error, to identify potential solutions.

The Problem-Solving Process

Step 1: identifying the problem, step 2: defining the problem, step 3: analyzing the problem, step 4: generating solutions, step 5: evaluating and selecting solutions, step 6: implementing the solution, step 7: reviewing and reflecting, tools and techniques for effective problem solving, brainstorming, swot analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats), root cause analysis.

Each of these tools and techniques can be adapted to different types of problems and situations. Effective problem solvers often use a combination of these methods, depending on the nature of the problem and the context in which it exists. By leveraging these tools, one can enhance their ability to dissect complex problems, generate creative solutions, and implement effective strategies to address challenges.

Developing Problem-Solving Skills

Critical thinking is a foundational skill in problem-solving. It involves analyzing information, evaluating different perspectives, and making reasoned judgments. Creativity is another vital component. It pushes the boundaries of conventional thinking and leads to innovative solutions. Effective communication also plays a crucial role, as it ensures that ideas are clearly understood and collaboratively refined.

Q: What are the key steps in the problem-solving process?

Q: how can brainstorming be effectively used in problem-solving.

A: Brainstorming is effective in the solution generation phase of problem-solving. It involves gathering a group and encouraging the free flow of ideas without immediate criticism. The goal is to produce a large quantity of ideas, fostering creative thinking. This technique helps in uncovering unique and innovative solutions that might not surface in a more structured setting.

Q: What is SWOT Analysis and how does it aid in problem-solving?

Q: why is it important to understand the nature of a problem before solving it, q: how does reflection contribute to developing problem-solving skills.

A : Reflection is a critical component in developing problem-solving skills. It involves looking back at the problem-solving process and the implemented solution to assess what worked well and what didn’t. Reflecting on both successes and failures provides valuable insights and lessons, helping to refine and improve problem-solving strategies for future challenges. This reflective practice enhances one’s ability to approach problems more effectively over time.

Daniel Croft

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Adopting the right problem-solving approach

May 4, 2023 You’ve defined your problem, ensured stakeholders are aligned, and are ready to bring the right problem-solving approach and focus to the situation to find an optimal solution. But what is the right problem-solving approach? And what if there is no single ideal course of action? In our 2013 classic  from the Quarterly , senior partner Olivier Leclerc  highlights the value of taking a number of different approaches simultaneously to solve difficult problems. Read on to discover the five flexons, or problem-solving languages, that can be applied to the same problem to generate richer insights and more innovative solutions. Then check out more insights on problem-solving approaches, and dive into examples of pressing challenges organizations are contending with now.

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What is the problem-solving process?

Reading time: about 6 min

Much of your day is spent subconsciously and consciously solving problems. It’s second nature to you. So much so that, when problems arise at work, you likely have your own methods of tackling them. But there will come a time when you encounter a problem and realize your methods for solving it don’t match the methods other people are using. Suddenly, your team or your business is facing a large challenge, and team members are pinballing in dozens of directions attempting to solve it, creating more chaos and prolonging the solution. 

This is what happens without having a problem-solving process. A cohesive problem-solving process needs to be defined and must include identifying the problem, gathering potential solutions, deciding on one of them, and implementing that solution. Without agreeing on a specific problem-solving process, your company will struggle to choose a solution, lack innovative solutions from which to choose, and ultimately create more problems than it solves. 

But a company that has standardized its problem-solving is able to be lean, rise to pivots in the market, and improve business value over time. We’ll teach you the components of problem-solving and give you techniques to implement a process in your own business.

6-step problem-solving process 

While your preferred method for solving problems may involve more or fewer steps, these six components comprise the backbone of any good process. 

1. Identify and define the problem 

This step seems like the most basic but can actually be the most surprising part of the process. Without agreeing on what the problem is, there’s no way to actually fix it. And sometimes, it may appear that you have one issue when the root of the problem is something else entirely.

• Write down the problem. It’s not enough to just state it aloud.
• Get granular. List everything known about the issue, from when it began to how broad it is.
• List the problem’s cascading effect to understand how broad of an issue you face.

2. Generate possible solutions

Get brainstorming. Start talking. Think big.

• Narrow down your solutions to the best few.

3. Evaluate alternatives

Before settling on the solution, make sure that you’ve examined all angles.

• Widen the response base. Consider soliciting solutions from beyond your own team to gather a different perspective.
• Carefully weigh the options against each other. What are the risks of each? What are the benefits? Is there a clear winner?

4. Decide on a solution

• Prepare to back up your choice with metrics. Data goes a long way in getting stakeholders on board.
• Detail what you expect the solution to achieve. Why are you taking this approach, and what will the perfect implementation look like?
• Determine what success will look like with this solution. How will you measure it?

Consider using a decision-making matrix template (like the one below) to help with this step. 

5. Implement the solution

This can often be the most difficult step. Implementing a solution involves change management and getting people on board with your solution. 

• Consider communications. How will you get the message out broadly about this solution, how you chose it, and why it’s important? Being completely transparent about the process can help convince your broader team you’ve put considerable thought into all aspects of the solution, which increases trust. 
• Figure out training around the solution, as well as any technical requirements. Will the solution need new software? Will it require a change in process? Outline all this in a single source of truth document that can be referred to often.

6. Evaluate the outcome 

There’s a good chance your solution won’t go perfectly. And you may need to reevaluate it in the future. Periodically evaluating your solution is a valuable tool for improving over time and learning from past mistakes.

Tips for effective problem-solving

As you move through the problem-solving process, you may feel tempted to figure things out as you go, but that can end up wasting valuable time. Consider these tips before you begin so you can avoid missing the best solution.

Don’t jump to conclusions

It’s likely you’ll start the problem-solving process with a clear favorite solution in mind. You may even subconsciously start trying to convince others on your team of the correctness of your solution instead of allowing them space to develop their own solutions. That’s when sticking to the process works the best—it eliminates bias and encourages free thinking. 

Get the right people in the room

This means doing some work ahead of time. Who has the right expertise, as well as the right authority to contribute solutions? Who’s particularly familiar with the problem? Gathering solution-minded people who have the correct understanding of the issue at hand will go far in problem-solving. 

Design a thoughtful agenda

Ever been in a meeting that’s been a waste of time? That could have been because there wasn’t an effective agenda . The agenda should walk the team through the entire process and should be divided into time segments to keep things moving.

Techniques for developing solutions 

In addition to all the above, here are three more problem-solving techniques beyond brainstorming.

Improved solutions

This technique involves improving upon the solutions of others. After presenting the problem, allow each team member to come up with one solid solution and write it down. Then rotate clockwise and encourage the next team member to improve upon the solution that was presented. Continue rotating until all solutions have been improved upon.

A brainwriting template can help with this. 

How-now-wow matrix

Infuse creativity into your process with this technique. The how-now-wow matrix progresses through obvious ideas that are easy to implement through original ideas that may need more effort to implement. This matrix frees up the mind and encourages creative thinking. 

Impact and effort matrix

An impact and effort matrix shows where solutions fall on a scale of their impact vs. how easy they are to complete. This makes it easy for the team to see where there are some quick wins and where there are some high-impact solutions worth putting resources into. 

Problem-solving isn’t going anywhere. The more comfortable you are with tackling problems, the more you’ll train your brain to think of creative solutions, but it all starts with understanding the process. Now that you’ve become more familiar with the problem-solving process, you can better lead your team through the steps, taking a systematic approach to finding solutions. The more you repeat this process, the easier it will be to develop solutions that make a real impact.

Try out this decision-making matrix template for the next problem you need to solve!   

About Lucidspark

Lucidspark, a cloud-based virtual whiteboard, is a core component of Lucid Software's Visual Collaboration Suite. This cutting-edge digital canvas brings teams together to brainstorm, collaborate, and consolidate collective thinking into actionable next steps—all in real time. Lucid is proud to serve top businesses around the world, including customers such as Google, GE, and NBC Universal, and 99% of the Fortune 500. Lucid partners with industry leaders, including Google, Atlassian, and Microsoft. Since its founding, Lucid has received numerous awards for its products, business, and workplace culture. For more information, visit lucidspark.com.

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Problem solving techniques: Steps and methods

Posted on May 29, 2019

Constant disruption has become a hallmark of the modern workforce and organisations want problem solving skills to combat this. Employers need people who can respond to change – be that evolving technology, new competitors, different models for doing business, or any of the other transformations that have taken place in recent years.

In addition, problem solving techniques encompass many of the other top skills employers seek . For example, LinkedIn’s list of the most in-demand soft skills of 2019 includes creativity, collaboration and adaptability, all of which fall under the problem-solving umbrella.

Despite its importance, many employees misunderstand what the problem solving method really involves.

What constitutes effective problem solving?

Effective problem solving doesn’t mean going away and coming up with an answer immediately. In fact, this isn’t good problem solving at all, because you’ll be running with the first solution that comes into your mind, which often isn’t the best.

Instead, you should look at problem solving more as a process with several steps involved that will help you reach the best outcome. Those steps are:

• Define the problem
• List all the possible solutions
• Evaluate the options
• Select the best solution
• Create an implementation plan
• Communicate your solution

Let’s look at each step in a little more detail.

1. Define the problem

The first step to solving a problem is defining what the problem actually is – sounds simple, right? Well no. An effective problem solver will take the thoughts of everyone involved into account, but different people might have different ideas on what the root cause of the issue really is. It’s up to you to actively listen to everyone without bringing any of your own preconceived notions to the conversation. Learning to differentiate facts from opinion is an essential part of this process.

An effective problem solver will take the opinions of everyone involved into account

The same can be said of data. Depending on what the problem is, there will be varying amounts of information available that will help you work out what’s gone wrong. There should be at least some data involved in any problem, and it’s up to you to gather as much as possible and analyse it objectively.

2. List all the possible solutions

Once you’ve identified what the real issue is, it’s time to think of solutions. Brainstorming as many solutions as possible will help you arrive at the best answer because you’ll be considering all potential options and scenarios. You should take everyone’s thoughts into account when you’re brainstorming these ideas, as well as all the insights you’ve gleaned from your data analysis. It also helps to seek input from others at this stage, as they may come up with solutions you haven’t thought of.

Depending on the type of problem, it can be useful to think of both short-term and long-term solutions, as some of your options may take a while to implement.

3. Evaluate the options

Each option will have pros and cons, and it’s important you list all of these, as well as how each solution could impact key stakeholders. Once you’ve narrowed down your options to three or four, it’s often a good idea to go to other employees for feedback just in case you’ve missed something. You should also work out how each option ties in with the broader goals of the business.

There may be a way to merge two options together in order to satisfy more people.

4. Select an option

Only now should you choose which solution you’re going to go with. What you decide should be whatever solves the problem most effectively while also taking the interests of everyone involved into account. There may be a way to merge two options together in order to satisfy more people.

5. Create an implementation plan

At this point you might be thinking it’s time to sit back and relax – problem solved, right? There are actually two more steps involved if you want your problem solving method to be truly effective. The first is to create an implementation plan. After all, if you don’t carry out your solution effectively, you’re not really solving the problem at all. 

Create an implementation plan on how you will put your solution into practice. One problem solving technique that many use here is to introduce a testing and feedback phase just to make sure the option you’ve selected really is the most viable. You’ll also want to include any changes to your solution that may occur in your implementation plan, as well as how you’ll monitor compliance and success.

6. Communicate your solution

There’s one last step to consider as part of the problem solving methodology, and that’s communicating your solution . Without this crucial part of the process, how is anyone going to know what you’ve decided? Make sure you communicate your decision to all the people who might be impacted by it. Not everyone is going to be 100 per cent happy with it, so when you communicate you must give them context. Explain exactly why you’ve made that decision and how the pros mean it’s better than any of the other options you came up with.

Prove your problem solving skills with Deakin

Employers are increasingly seeking soft skills, but unfortunately, while you can show that you’ve got a degree in a subject, it’s much harder to prove you’ve got proficiency in things like problem solving skills. But this is changing thanks to Deakin’s micro-credentials. These are university-level micro-credentials that provide an authoritative and third-party assessment of your capabilities in a range of areas, including problem solving. Reach out today for more information .

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