article about online learning education

How Effective Is Online Learning? What the Research Does and Doesn’t Tell Us

• Share article

Editor’s Note: This is part of a series on the practical takeaways from research.

The times have dictated school closings and the rapid expansion of online education. Can online lessons replace in-school time?

Clearly online time cannot provide many of the informal social interactions students have at school, but how will online courses do in terms of moving student learning forward? Research to date gives us some clues and also points us to what we could be doing to support students who are most likely to struggle in the online setting.

The use of virtual courses among K-12 students has grown rapidly in recent years. Florida, for example, requires all high school students to take at least one online course. Online learning can take a number of different forms. Often people think of Massive Open Online Courses, or MOOCs, where thousands of students watch a video online and fill out questionnaires or take exams based on those lectures.

In the online setting, students may have more distractions and less oversight, which can reduce their motivation.

Most online courses, however, particularly those serving K-12 students, have a format much more similar to in-person courses. The teacher helps to run virtual discussion among the students, assigns homework, and follows up with individual students. Sometimes these courses are synchronous (teachers and students all meet at the same time) and sometimes they are asynchronous (non-concurrent). In both cases, the teacher is supposed to provide opportunities for students to engage thoughtfully with subject matter, and students, in most cases, are required to interact with each other virtually.

Coronavirus and Schools

Online courses provide opportunities for students. Students in a school that doesn’t offer statistics classes may be able to learn statistics with virtual lessons. If students fail algebra, they may be able to catch up during evenings or summer using online classes, and not disrupt their math trajectory at school. So, almost certainly, online classes sometimes benefit students.

In comparisons of online and in-person classes, however, online classes aren’t as effective as in-person classes for most students. Only a little research has assessed the effects of online lessons for elementary and high school students, and even less has used the “gold standard” method of comparing the results for students assigned randomly to online or in-person courses. Jessica Heppen and colleagues at the American Institutes for Research and the University of Chicago Consortium on School Research randomly assigned students who had failed second semester Algebra I to either face-to-face or online credit recovery courses over the summer. Students’ credit-recovery success rates and algebra test scores were lower in the online setting. Students assigned to the online option also rated their class as more difficult than did their peers assigned to the face-to-face option.

Most of the research on online courses for K-12 students has used large-scale administrative data, looking at otherwise similar students in the two settings. One of these studies, by June Ahn of New York University and Andrew McEachin of the RAND Corp., examined Ohio charter schools; I did another with colleagues looking at Florida public school coursework. Both studies found evidence that online coursetaking was less effective.

About this series

This essay is the fifth in a series that aims to put the pieces of research together so that education decisionmakers can evaluate which policies and practices to implement.

The conveners of this project—Susanna Loeb, the director of Brown University’s Annenberg Institute for School Reform, and Harvard education professor Heather Hill—have received grant support from the Annenberg Institute for this series.

To suggest other topics for this series or join in the conversation, use #EdResearchtoPractice on Twitter.

Read the full series here .

It is not surprising that in-person courses are, on average, more effective. Being in person with teachers and other students creates social pressures and benefits that can help motivate students to engage. Some students do as well in online courses as in in-person courses, some may actually do better, but, on average, students do worse in the online setting, and this is particularly true for students with weaker academic backgrounds.

Students who struggle in in-person classes are likely to struggle even more online. While the research on virtual schools in K-12 education doesn’t address these differences directly, a study of college students that I worked on with Stanford colleagues found very little difference in learning for high-performing students in the online and in-person settings. On the other hand, lower performing students performed meaningfully worse in online courses than in in-person courses.

But just because students who struggle in in-person classes are even more likely to struggle online doesn’t mean that’s inevitable. Online teachers will need to consider the needs of less-engaged students and work to engage them. Online courses might be made to work for these students on average, even if they have not in the past.

Just like in brick-and-mortar classrooms, online courses need a strong curriculum and strong pedagogical practices. Teachers need to understand what students know and what they don’t know, as well as how to help them learn new material. What is different in the online setting is that students may have more distractions and less oversight, which can reduce their motivation. The teacher will need to set norms for engagement—such as requiring students to regularly ask questions and respond to their peers—that are different than the norms in the in-person setting.

Online courses are generally not as effective as in-person classes, but they are certainly better than no classes. A substantial research base developed by Karl Alexander at Johns Hopkins University and many others shows that students, especially students with fewer resources at home, learn less when they are not in school. Right now, virtual courses are allowing students to access lessons and exercises and interact with teachers in ways that would have been impossible if an epidemic had closed schools even a decade or two earlier. So we may be skeptical of online learning, but it is also time to embrace and improve it.

A version of this article appeared in the April 01, 2020 edition of Education Week as How Effective Is Online Learning?

Sign Up for EdWeek Tech Leader

Edweek top school jobs.

Sign Up & Sign In

Shaping the Future of Online Learning

Published may 22, 2024.

If you’ve been enrolled in any educational course or postsecondary educational program since 2020, chances are you’ve witnessed the rise in online learning firsthand .

The COVID-19 global pandemic shuttered storefronts, theaters, and classrooms alike, causing major disruptions in how goods and services were delivered. As consumers adopted Instacart for their grocery needs and streamed new blockbuster movies from the comfort of their living rooms, students needed an innovative way to bring their classes home. A year into the pandemic over 60% of all undergraduate students were enrolled in at least one online course , with 28% exclusively enrolled in online courses, according to the National Center for Education Statistics.

There are other reasons for the widespread adoption, including accessibility. Rural and international students who may be far removed from traditional educational institutions can now attend Harvard classes anywhere there’s an internet connection. Or, consider working adults seeking to progress or switch careers. Life doesn’t stop for a class, and attending one in-person can be prohibitive. While still challenging, logging into a virtual classroom is far more manageable. Online education is for everyone.

Technological and pedagogical developments have helped online learning progress beyond the days of discussion boards and essay uploads. Now, students can enjoy a multimedia educational experience that is rooted in the latest research, all while participating in the community of their “virtual campus”.

If you’re one of the millions of learners who have experienced online education, you might be interested to learn where it’s going next. At Harvard Online, the question, “what is the future of online learning?” guides an ongoing conversation that drives us everyday.

In this blog, we sat down with Catherine Breen , Managing Director of Harvard Online. With more than two decades of senior executive leadership at Harvard University and oversight of Harvard Online, Breen has an invaluable perspective on the future of online learning, and the exciting role Harvard Online is playing in bringing the future into the present. 

Catherine Breen, Managing Director of Harvard Online, in a team meeting.

Harvard Online (HO): How has the online learning landscape evolved in recent years? 

Catherine Breen (CB): At the beginning of the COVID-19 lockdown, there was a massive escalation in demand for online learning. Demand began to recede slowly as the months wore on and by late 2022, it started to level out. But we observed two big changes: Internally, the demand for Harvard Online content was still almost three times higher than pre-pandemic. Externally, in reaction to the demand surge, there was significant and rapid growth of new online course offerings and companies that purveyed varying types of digital products.    

HO: What is shaping the future of online learning today? 

CB: Because of the rapid and massive shift to online that occurred around the globe in the spring of 2020, the landscape changed permanently. There are many things shaping the future but here are just a few that I can see from my perspective:

• Increased adoption of online learning across all ages and levels of education: Everyone expanded their online course catalogs; new companies and offerings sprung up everywhere.
• Greater tech investment across organizations and industries: Organizations are investing more time, money, and effort into technology infrastructure, tools, and platforms to support online learning and participants in these courses.
• New pedagogical methods to bridge the gap between traditional and novel learning methods: Instructors have adapted their teaching methods for online, hybrid, and blended environments.
• Enhanced accessibility to quality education and learning experiences: Efforts have been made to improve access for students of all types, abilities, geographies, and backgrounds so that everyone can participate effectively.    

HO: What are the remaining challenges that online learning faces? 

CB: While these changes have improved the online learning experience, challenges remain, including addressing the digital divide, maximizing student engagement, and refining the quality of online courses.

The pandemic accelerated the adoption of online learning and its impact will likely continue to shape higher education for many years to come.  

HO: How does online learning contribute to Harvard's mission of promoting accessibility and inclusion in education, especially for learners who may not have traditional access to higher education?

CB: Online learning levels the playing field for learners in many ways.

Most students think that a Harvard-quality education is out of reach, for a variety of reasons. With online courses, however, learners from around the country and the world can take courses with Harvard instructors at their own pace at a more affordable price point.

Our online courses also typically incorporate a range of multimedia elements, allowing students with different learning styles to flourish. We also ensure that our online learning experiences are accessible to all learners, including those with disabilities. This commitment to inclusivity aligns with the broader goals of promoting equitable access to education.

Lastly, our online courses often include discussion forums and virtual communities where learners can connect and collaborate. This allows for interactions among students from diverse backgrounds and experiences, fostering a sense of belonging and inclusion.  

It’s clear that online learning has a lot to offer everyone, and it’s only getting better. In our next blog in this series, we’ll hear more from Cathy on how institutions can implement online learning modalities effectively. 

If you missed the first blog in this series detailing the future of online learning, you can check out the first blog here . To learn more about Harvard Online, explore our fully online course catalog here .

Related Blog Posts

Uniref brings harvard courses on web programming to syrian refugees.

Harvard Online is proud to provide access to education and experiences that help communities thrive.

Harvard Online in Your Workplace: Elevate Your Team's Professional Development

At Harvard Online we understand the value of an educated and skilled workforce.

A Decade of Innovation: Online Learning at Harvard

We are always asking, “What does the future look like for teaching and learning?”

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

What We’re Learning About Online Learning

As virtual classrooms and online learning proliferate, researchers are working to quantify what works and what doesn’t.

By Benedict Carey

Over four days in mid-March, Cindy Hansen, an 11th grade English teacher at Timpanogos High School in Orem, Utah, had to go fully virtual, and took her class of some 30 students reading “The Great Gatsby” online.

Ms. Hansen had no experience with virtual courses and, like teachers around the country, had to experiment. She decided to upload video lessons — presenting the text of “Gatsby” along with a small window in the corner of the screen, in which she read aloud key passages and assigned essays.

The transition seemed to be proceeding smoothly until, after several lessons, she received a note from a student who rarely spoke up in class.

“He’s one of my sweetest students, and he wrote, ‘Ms. Hansen, those videos are glitchy — I can’t really see the text,’” she said in a phone interview. “I had just assumed they were fine. Well, they were horrible, and the poor kid felt frustrated. I’m glad he said something.” She quickly fixed the problem, she said, by reshooting the videos directly on the teaching site instead of uploading them.

After this spring’s on-the-fly experiment in online classes, teachers and school districts across the country are preparing for what will be anything but a normal fall semester. Some districts stumbled in the transition, with classes zoom-bombed and interrupted ; many strained to address serious inequities in access to computers . Recent research finds that most students fell months behind during the last term of the year, with the heaviest impact on low-income students.

Other schools, like Timpanogos, transitioned with less disruption, in part by mobilizing facilitators, coaches and other staff members to support both teachers and students who were in danger of logging off and checking out, according to a report by researchers.

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

A systematic review of the effectiveness of online learning in higher education during the covid-19 pandemic period.

• 1 Department of Basic Education, Beihai Campus, Guilin University of Electronic Technology Beihai, Beihai, Guangxi, China
• 2 School of Sports and Arts, Harbin Sport University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
• 3 School of Music, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
• 4 School of General Education, Beihai Vocational College, Beihai, Guangxi, China
• 5 School of Economics and Management, Beihai Campus, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin, Guangxi, China

Background: The effectiveness of online learning in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic period is a debated topic but a systematic review on this topic is absent.

Methods: The present study implemented a systematic review of 25 selected articles to comprehensively evaluate online learning effectiveness during the pandemic period and identify factors that influence such effectiveness.

Results: It was concluded that past studies failed to achieve a consensus over online learning effectiveness and research results are largely by how learning effectiveness was assessed, e.g., self-reported online learning effectiveness, longitudinal comparison, and RCT. Meanwhile, a set of factors that positively or negatively influence the effectiveness of online learning were identified, including infrastructure factors, instructional factors, the lack of social interaction, negative emotions, flexibility, and convenience.

Discussion: Although it is debated over the effectiveness of online learning during the pandemic period, it is generally believed that the pandemic brings a lot of challenges and difficulties to higher education and these challenges and difficulties are more prominent in developing countries. In addition, this review critically assesses limitations in past research, develops pedagogical implications, and proposes recommendations for future research.

1 Introduction

1.1 research background.

The COVID-19 pandemic first out broken in early 2020 has considerably shaped the higher education landscape globally. To restrain viral transmission, universities globally locked down, and teaching and learning activities were transferred to online platforms. Although online learning is a relatively mature learning model and is increasingly integrated into higher education, the sudden and unprepared transition to wholly online learning caused by the pandemic posed formidable challenges to higher education stakeholders, e.g., policymakers, instructors, and students, especially at the early stage of the pandemic ( García-Morales et al., 2021 ; Grafton-Clarke et al., 2022 ). Correspondingly, the effectiveness of online learning during the pandemic period is still questionable as online learning during this period has some unique characteristics, e.g., the lack of preparation, sudden and unprepared transition, the huge scale of implementation, and social distancing policies ( Sharma et al., 2020 ; Rahman, 2021 ; Tsang et al., 2021 ; Hollister et al., 2022 ; Zhang and Chen, 2023 ). This question is more prominent in developing or undeveloped countries because of insufficient Internet access, network problems, the lack of electronic devices, and poor network infrastructure ( Adnan and Anwar, 2020 ; Muthuprasad et al., 2021 ; Rahman, 2021 ; Chandrasiri and Weerakoon, 2022 ).

Learning effectiveness is a key consideration of education as it reflects the extent to which learning and teaching objectives are achieved and learners’ needs are satisfied ( Joy and Garcia, 2000 ; Swan, 2003 ). Online learning was generally proven to be effective within a higher education context ( Kebritchi et al., 2017 ) prior to the pandemic. ICTs have fundamentally shaped the process of learning as they allow learners to learn anywhere and anytime, interact with others efficiently and conveniently, and freely acquire a large volume of learning materials online ( Kebritchi et al., 2017 ; Choudhury and Pattnaik, 2020 ). Such benefits may be offset by the challenges brought about by the pandemic. A lot of empirical studies globally have investigated the effectiveness of online learning but there is currently a scarcity of a systematic review of these studies to comprehensively evaluate online learning effectiveness and identify factors that influence effectiveness.

At present, although the vast majority of countries have implemented opening policies to deal with the pandemic and higher education institutes have recovered offline teaching and learning, assessing the effectiveness of online learning during the pandemic period via a systematic review is still essential. First, it is necessary to summarize, learn from, and reflect on the lessons and experiences of online learning practices during the pandemic period to offer implications for future practices and research. Second, the review of online learning research carried out during the pandemic period is likely to generate interesting knowledge because of the unique research context. Third, higher education institutes still need a contingency plan for emergency online learning to deal with potential crises in the future, e.g., wars, pandemics, and natural disasters. A systematic review of research on the effectiveness of online learning during the pandemic period offers valuable knowledge for designing a contingency plan for the future.

1.2 Related concepts

1.2.1 online learning.

Online learning should not be simply understood as learning on the Internet or the integration of ICTs with learning because it is a systematic framework consisting of a set of pedagogies, technologies, implementations, and processes ( Kebritchi et al., 2017 ; Choudhury and Pattnaik, 2020). Choudhury and Pattnaik (2020; p.2) summarized prior definitions of online learning and provided a comprehensive and up-to-date definition, i.e., online learning refers to “ the transfer of knowledge and skills, in a well-designed course content that has established accreditations, through an electronic media like the Internet, Web 4.0, intranets and extranets .” Online learning differs from traditional learning because of not only technological differences, but also differences in social development and pedagogies ( Camargo et al., 2020 ). Online learning has also considerably shaped the patterns by which knowledge is stored, shared, and transferred, skills are practiced, as well as the way by which stakeholders (e.g., teachers and teachers) interact ( Desai et al., 2008 ; Anderson and Hajhashemi, 2013 ). In addition, online learning has altered educational objectives and learning requirements. Memorizing knowledge was traditionally viewed as vital to learning but it is now less important since required knowledge can be conveniently searched and acquired on the Internet while the reflection and application of knowledge becomes more important ( Gamage et al., 2023 ). Online learning also entails learners’ self-regulated learning ability more than traditional learning because the online learning environment inflicts less external regulation and provides more autonomy and flexibility ( Barnard-Brak et al., 2010 ; Wong et al., 2019 ). The above differences imply that traditional pedagogies may not apply to online learning.

There are a variety of online learning models according to the differences in learning methods, processes, outcomes, and the application of technologies ( Zeitoun, 2008 ). As ICTs can be used as either the foundation of learning or auxiliary means, online learning can be classified into assistant, blended, and wholly online models. Here, assistant online learning refers to the scenario where online learning technologies are used to supplement and support traditional learning; blended online learning refers to the integration/ mixture of online and offline methods, and; wholly online learning refers to the exclusive use of the Internet for learning ( Arkorful and Abaidoo, 2015 ). The present review focuses on wholly online learning because the review is interested in the COVID-19 pandemic context where learning activities are fully switched to online platforms.

1.2.2 Learning effectiveness

Learning effectiveness can be broadly defined as the extent to which learning and teaching objectives have been effectively and efficiently achieved via educational activities ( Swan, 2003 ) or the extent to which learners’ needs are satisfied by learning activities ( Joy and Garcia, 2000 ). It is a multi-dimensional construct because learning objectives and needs are always diversified ( Joy and Garcia, 2000 ; Swan, 2003 ). Assessing learning effectiveness is a key challenge in educational research and researchers generally use a set of subjective and objective indicators to assess learning effectiveness, e.g., examination scores, assignment performance, perceived effectiveness, student satisfaction, learning motivation, engagement in learning, and learning experience ( Rajaram and Collins, 2013 ; Noesgaard and Ørngreen, 2015 ). Prior research related to the effectiveness of online learning was diversified in terms of learning outcomes, e.g., satisfaction, perceived effectiveness, motivation, and learning engagement, and there is no consensus over which outcomes are valid indicators of learning effectiveness. The present study adopts a broad definition of learning effectiveness and considers various learning outcomes that are closely associated with learning objectives and needs.

1.3 Previous review research

Up to now, online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic period has attracted considerable attention from academia and there is a lot of related review research. Some review research analyzed the trends and major topics in related research. Pratama et al. (2020) tracked the trend of using online meeting applications in online learning during the pandemic period based on a systematic review of 12 articles. It was reported that the use of these applications kept a rising trend and this use helps promote learning and teaching processes. However, this review was descriptive and failed to identify problems related to these applications as well as the limitations of these applications. Zhang et al. (2022) implemented a bibliometric review to provide a holistic view of research on online learning in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic period. They concluded that the majority of research focused on identifying the use of strategies and technologies, psychological impacts brought by the pandemic, and student perceptions. Meanwhile, collaborative learning, hands-on learning, discovery learning, and inquiry-based learning were the most frequently discussed instructional approaches. In addition, chemical and medical education were found to be the most investigated disciplines. This review hence offered a relatively comprehensive landscape of related research in the field. However, since it was a bibliometric review, it merely analyzed the superficial characteristics of past articles in the field without a detailed analysis of their research contributions. Bughrara et al. (2023) categorized the major research topics in the field of online medical education during the pandemic period via a scoping review. A total of 174 articles were included in the review and it was found there were seven major topics, including students’ mental health, stigma, student vaccination, use of telehealth, students’ physical health, online modifications and educational adaptations, and students’ attitudes and knowledge. Overall, the review comprehensively reveals major topics in the focused field.

Some scholars believed that online learning during the pandemic period has brought about a lot of problems while both students and teachers encounter many challenges. García-Morales et al. (2021) implemented a systematic review to identify the challenges encountered by higher education in an online learning scenario during the pandemic period. A total of seven studies were included and it was found that higher education suddenly transferred to online learning and a lot of technologies and platforms were used to support online learning. However, this transition was hasty and forced by the extreme situation. Thus, various stakeholders in learning and teaching (e.g., students, universities, and teachers) encountered difficulties in adapting to this sudden change. To deal with these challenges, universities need to utilize the potential of technologies, improve learning experience, and meet students’ expectations. The major limitation of García-Morales et al. (2021) review of the small-sized sample. Meanwhile, García-Morales et al. (2021) also failed to systematically categorize various types of challenges. Stojan et al. (2022) investigated the changes to medical education brought about by the shift to online learning in the COVID-19 pandemic context as well as the lessons and impacts of these changes via a systematic review. A total of 56 articles were included in the analysis, it was reported that small groups and didactics were the most prevalent instructional methods. Although learning engagement was always interactive, teachers majorly integrated technologies to amplify and replace, rather than transform learning. Based on this, they argued that the use of asynchronous and synchronous formats promoted online learning engagement and offered self-directed and flexible learning. The major limitation of this review is that the article is somewhat descriptive and lacks the crucial evaluation of problems of online learning.

Review research has also focused on the changes and impacts brought by online learning during the pandemic period. Camargo et al. (2020) implemented a meta-analysis on seven empirical studies regarding online learning methods during the pandemic period to evaluate feasible online learning platforms, effective online learning models, and the optimal duration of online lectures, as well as the perceptions of teachers and students in the online learning process. Overall, it was concluded that the shift from offline to online learning is feasible, and; effective online learning needs a well-trained and integrated team to identify students’ and teachers’ needs, timely respond, and support them via digital tools. In addition, the pandemic has brought more or less difficulties to online learning. An obvious limitation of this review is the overly small-sized sample ( N  = 7), which offers very limited information, but the review tries to answer too many questions (four questions). Grafton-Clarke et al. (2022) investigated the innovation/adaptations implemented, their impacts, and the reasons for their selections in the shift to online learning in medical education during the pandemic period via a systematic review of 55 articles. The major adaptations implemented include the rapid shift to the virtual space, pre-recorded videos or live streaming of surgical procedures, remote adaptations for clinical visits, and multidisciplinary ward rounds and team meetings. Major challenges encountered by students and teachers include the need for technical resources, faculty time, and devices, the shortage of standardized telemedicine curricula, and the lack of personal interactions. Based on this, they criticized the quality of online medical education. Tang (2023) explored the impact of the pandemic on primary, secondary, and tertiary education in the pandemic context via a systematic review of 41 articles. It was reported that the majority of these impacts are negative, e.g., learning loss among learners, assessment and experiential learning in the virtual environment, limitations in instructions, technology-related constraints, the lack of learning materials and resources, and deteriorated psychosocial well-being. These negative impacts are amplified by the unequal distribution of resources, unfair socioeconomic status, ethnicity, gender, physical conditions, and learning ability. Overall, this review comprehensively criticizes the problems brought about by online learning during the pandemic period.

Very little review research evaluated students’ responses to online learning during the pandemic period. For instance, Salas-Pilco et al. (2022) evaluated the engagement in online learning in Latin American higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic period via a systematic review of 23 studies. They considered three dimensions of engagement, including affective, cognitive, and behavioral engagement. They described the characteristics of learning engagement and proposed suggestions for enhancing engagement, including improving Internet connectivity, providing professional training, transforming higher education, ensuring quality, and offering emotional support. A key limitation of the review is that these authors focused on describing the characteristics of engagement without identifying factors that influence engagement.

A synthesis of previous review research offers some implications. First, although learning effectiveness is an important consideration in educational research, review research is scarce on this topic and hence there is a lack of comprehensive knowledge regarding the extent to which online learning is effective during the COVID-19 pandemic period. Second, according to past review research that summarized the major topics of related research, e.g., Bughrara et al. (2023) and Zhang et al. (2022) , the effectiveness of online learning is not a major topic in prior empirical research and hence the author of this article argues that this topic has not received due attention from researchers. Third, some review research has identified a lot of problems in online learning during the pandemic period, e.g., García-Morales et al. (2021) and Stojan et al. (2022) . Many of these problems are caused by the sudden and rapid shift to online learning as well as the unique context of the pandemic. These problems may undermine the effectiveness of online learning. However, the extent to which these problems influence online learning effectiveness is still under-investigated.

1.4 Purpose of the review research

The research is carried out based on a systematic review of past empirical research to answer the following two research questions:

Q1: To what extent online learning in higher education is effective during the COVID-19 pandemic period?

Q2: What factors shape the effectiveness of online learning in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic period?

2 Research methodology

2.1 literature review as a research methodology.

Regardless of discipline, all academic research activities should be related to and based on existing knowledge. As a result, scholars must identify related research on the topic of interest, critically assess the quality and content of existing research, and synthesize available results ( Linnenluecke et al., 2020 ). However, this task is increasingly challenging for scholars because of the exponential growth of academic knowledge, which makes it difficult to be at the forefront and keep up with state-of-the-art research ( Snyder, 2019 ). Correspondingly, literature review, as a research methodology is more relevant than previously ( Snyder, 2019 ; Linnenluecke et al., 2020 ). A well-implemented review provides a solid foundation for facilitating theory development and advancing knowledge ( Webster and Watson, 2002 ). Here, a literature review is broadly defined as a more or less systematic way of collecting and synthesizing past studies ( Tranfield et al., 2003 ). It allows researchers to integrate perspectives and results from a lot of past research and is able to address research questions unanswered by a single study ( Snyder, 2019 ).

There are generally three types of literature review, including meta-analysis, bibliometric review, and systematic review ( Snyder, 2019 ). A meta-analysis refers to a statistical technique for integrating results from a large volume of empirical research (majorly quantitative research) to compare, identify, and evaluate patterns, relationships, agreements, and disagreements generated by research on the same topic ( Davis et al., 2014 ). This study does not adopt a meta-analysis for two reasons. First, the research on the effectiveness of online learning in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic was published since 2020 and currently, there is a limited volume of empirical evidence. If the study adopts a meta-analysis, the sample size will be small, resulting in limited statistical power. Second, as mentioned above, there are a variety of indicators, e.g., motivation, satisfaction, experience, test score, and perceived effectiveness ( Rajaram and Collins, 2013 ; Noesgaard and Ørngreen, 2015 ), that reflect different aspects of online learning effectiveness. The use of diversified effectiveness indicators increases the difficulty of carrying out meta-analysis.

A bibliometric review refers to the analysis of a large volume of empirical research in terms of publication characteristics (e.g., year, journal, and citation), theories, methods, research questions, countries, and authors ( Donthu et al., 2021 ) and it is useful in tracing the trend, distribution, relationship, and general patterns of research published in a focused topic ( Wallin, 2005 ). A bibliometric review does not fit the present study for two reasons. First, at present, there are less than 4 years of history of research on online learning effectiveness. Hence the volume of relevant research is limited and the public trend is currently unclear. Second, this study is interested in the inner content and results of articles published, rather than their external characteristics.

A systematic review is a method and process of critically identifying and appraising research in a specific field based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria to test a hypothesis, answer a research question, evaluate problems in past research, identify research gaps, and/or point out the avenue for future research ( Liberati et al., 2009 ; Moher et al., 2009 ). This type of review is particularly suitable to the present study as there are still a lot of unanswered questions regarding the effectiveness of online learning in the pandemic context, a need for indicating future research direction, a lack of summary of relevant research in this field, and a scarcity of critical appraisal of problems in past research.

Adopting a systematic review methodology brings multiple benefits to the present study. First, it is helpful for distinguishing what needs to be done from what has been done, identifying major contributions made by past research, finding out gaps in past research, avoiding fruitless research, and providing insights for future research in the focused field ( Linnenluecke et al., 2020 ). Second, it is also beneficial for finding out new research directions, needs for theory development, and potential solutions for limitations in past research ( Snyder, 2019 ). Third, this methodology helps scholars to efficiently gain an overview of valuable research results and theories generated by past research, which inspires their research design, ideas, and perspectives ( Callahan, 2014 ).

Commonly, a systematic review can be either author-centric or theme-centric ( Webster and Watson, 2002 ) and the present review is theme-centric. Specifically, an author-centric review focuses on works published by a certain author or a group of authors and summarizes the major contributions made by the author(s; ( Webster and Watson, 2002 ). This type of review is problematic in terms of its incompleteness of research conclusions in a specific field and descriptive nature ( Linnenluecke et al., 2020 ). A theme-centric review is more common where a researcher guides readers through reviewing themes, concepts, and interesting phenomena according to a certain logic ( Callahan, 2014 ). A theme in this review can be further structured into several related sub-themes and this type of review helps researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of relevant academic knowledge ( Papaioannou et al., 2016 ).

2.2 Research procedures

This study follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline ( Liberati et al., 2009 ) to implement a systematic review. The guideline indicates four phases of performing a systematic review, including (1) identifying possible research, (2) abstract screening, (3) assessing full-text for eligibility, and (4) qualitatively synthesizing included research. Figure 1 provides a flowchart of the process and the number of articles excluded and included in each phase.

Figure 1 . PRISMA flowchart concerning the selection of articles.

This study uses multiple academic databases to identify possible research, e.g., Academic Search Complete, IGI Global, ACM Digital Library, Elsevier (SCOPUS), Emerald, IEEE Xplore, Web of Science, Science Direct, ProQuest, Wiley Online Library, Taylor and Francis, and EBSCO. Since the COVID-19 pandemic broke out in January 2020, this study limits the literature search to articles published from January 2020 to August 2023. During this period, online learning was highly prevalent in schools globally and a considerable volume of articles were published to investigate various aspects of online learning in this period. Keywords used for searching possible research include pandemic, COVID, SARS-CoV-2, 2019-nCoV, coronavirus, online learning, e-learning, electronic learning, higher education, tertiary education, universities, learning effectiveness, learning satisfaction, learning engagement, and learning motivation. Aside from searching from databases, this study also manually checks the reference lists of relevant articles and uses Google Scholar to find out other articles that have cited these articles.

2.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Articles included in the review must meet the following criteria. First, articles have to be written in English and published on peer-reviewed journals. The academic language being English was chosen because it is in the Q zone of the specified search engines. Second, the research must be carried out in an online learning context. Third, the research must have collected and analyzed empirical data. Fourth, the research should be implemented in a higher education context and during the pandemic period. Fifth, the outcome variable must be factors related to learning effectiveness, and included studies must have reported the quantitative results for online learning effectiveness. The outcome variable should be measured by data collected from students, rather than other individuals (e.g., instructors). For instance, the research of Rahayu and Wirza (2020) used teacher perception as a measurement of online learning effectiveness and was hence excluded from the sample. According to the above criteria, a total of 25 articles were included in the review.

2.4 Data extraction and analysis

Content analysis is performed on included articles and an inductive approach is used to answer the two research questions. First, to understand the basic characteristics of the 25 articles/studies, the researcher summarizes their types, research designs, and samples and categorizes them into several groups. The researcher carefully reads the full-text of these articles and codes valuable pieces of content. In this process, an inductive approach is used, and key themes in these studies have been extracted and summarized. Second, the researcher further categorizes these studies into different groups according to their similarities and differences in research findings. In this way, these studies are broadly categorized into three groups, i.e., (1) ineffective (2) neutral, and (3) effective. Based on this, the research answers the research question and indicates the percentage of studies that evidenced online learning as effective in a COVID-19 pandemic context. The researcher also discusses how online learning is effective by analyzing the learning outcomes brought by online learning. Third, the researcher analyzes and compares the characteristics of the three groups of studies and extracts key themes that are relevant to the conditional effectiveness of online learning from these studies. Based on this, the researcher identifies factors that influence the effectiveness of online learning in a pandemic context. In this way, the two research questions have been adequately answered.

3 Research results and discussion

3.1 study characteristics.

Table 1 shows the statistics of the 25 studies while Table 2 shows a summary of these studies. Overall, these studies varied greatly in terms of research design, research subjects, contexts, measurements of learning effectiveness, and eventually research findings. Approximately half of the studies were published in 2021 and the number of studies reduced in 2022 and 2023, which may be attributed to the fact that universities gradually implemented opening-up policies after 2020. China received the largest number of studies ( N  = 5), followed by India ( N = 4) and the United States ( N  = 3). The sample sizes of the majority of studies (88.0%) ranged between 101 and 500. As this review excluded qualitative studies, all studies included adopted a purely quantitative design (88.0%) or a mixed design (12.0%). The majority of the studies were cross-sectional (72%) and a few studies (2%) were experimental.

Table 1 . Statistics of studies included in the review.

Table 2 . A summary of studies reviewed.

3.2 The effectiveness of online learning

Overall, the 25 studies generated mixed results regarding the effectiveness of online learning during the pandemic period. 9 (36%) studies reported online learning as effective; 13 (52%) studies reported online learning as ineffective, and the rest 3 (12%) studies produced neutral results. However, it should be noted that the results generated by these studies are not comparable as they used different approaches to evaluate the effectiveness of online learning. According to the approach of evaluating online learning effectiveness, these studies are categorized into four groups, including (1) Cross-sectional evaluation of online learning effectiveness without a comparison with offline learning; without a control group ( N  = 14; 56%), (2) Cross-sectional comparison of the effectiveness of online learning with offline learning; without control group (7; 28%), (3) Longitudinal comparison of the effectiveness of online learning with offline learning, without a control group ( N  = 2; 8%), and (4) Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT); with a control group ( N  = 2; 8%).

The first group of studies asked students to report the extent to which they perceived online learning as effective, they had achieved expected learning outcomes through online learning, or they were satisfied with online learning experience or outcomes, without a comparison with offline learning. Six out of 14 studies reported online learning as ineffective, including Adnan and Anwar (2020) , Hong et al. (2021) , Mok et al. (2021) , Baber (2022) , Chandrasiri and Weerakoon (2022) , and Lalduhawma et al. (2022) . Five out of 14 studies reported online learning as effective, including Almusharraf and Khahro (2020) , Sharma et al. (2020) , Mahyoob (2021) , Rahman (2021) , and Haningsih and Rohmi (2022) . In addition, 3 out of 14 studies reported neutral results, including Cranfield et al. (2021) , Tsang et al. (2021) , and Conrad et al. (2022) . It should be noted that this measurement approach is problematic in three aspects. First, researchers used various survey instruments to measure learning effectiveness without reaching a consensus over a widely accepted instrument. As a result, these studies measured different aspects of learning effectiveness and hence their results may be incomparable. Second, these studies relied on students’ self-reports to evaluate learning effectiveness, which is subjective and inaccurate. Third, even though students perceived online learning as effective, it does not imply that online learning is more effective than offline learning because of the absence of comparables.

The second group of studies asked students to compare online learning with offline learning to evaluate learning effectiveness. Interestingly, all 7 studies, including Alawamleh et al. (2020) , Almahasees et al. (2021) , Gonzalez-Ramirez et al. (2021) , Muthuprasad et al. (2021) , Selco and Habbak (2021) , Hollister et al. (2022) , and Zhang and Chen (2023) , reported that online learning was perceived by participants as less effective than offline learning. It should be noted that these results were specific to the COVID-19 pandemic context where strict social distancing policies were implemented. Consequently, these results should be interpreted as online learning during the school lockdown period was perceived by participants as less effective than offline learning during the pre-pandemic period. A key problem of the measurement of learning effectiveness in these studies is subjectivity, i.e., students’ self-reported online learning effectiveness relative to offline learning may be subjective and influenced by a lot of factors caused by the pandemic, e.g., negative emotions (e.g., fear, loneliness, and anxiety).

Only two studies implemented a longitudinal comparison of the effectiveness of online learning with offline learning, i.e., Chang et al. (2021) and Fyllos et al. (2021) . Interestingly, both studies reported that participants perceived online learning as more effective than offline learning, which is contradicted with the second group of studies. In the two studies, the same group of students participated in offline learning and online learning successively and rated the effectiveness of the two learning approaches, respectively. The two studies were implemented by time coincidence, i.e., researchers unexpectedly encountered the pandemic and subsequently, school lockdown when they were investigating learning effectiveness. Such time coincidence enabled them to compare the effectiveness of offline and online learning. However, this research design has three key problems. First, the content of learning in the online and offline learning periods was different and hence the evaluations of learning effectiveness of the two periods are not comparable. Second, self-reported learning effectiveness is subjective. Third, students are likely to obtain better examination scores in online examinations than in offline examinations because online examinations bring a lot of cheating behaviors and are less fair than offline examinations. As reported by Fyllos et al. (2021) , the examination score after online learning was significantly higher than after offline learning. Chang et al. (2021) reported that participants generally believed that offline examinations are fairer than online examinations.

Lastly, only two studies, i.e., Jiang et al. (2023) and Shirahmadi et al. (2023) , implemented an RCT design, which is more persuasive, objective, and accurate than the above-reviewed studies. Indeed, implementing an RCT to evaluate the effectiveness of online learning was a formidable challenge during the pandemic period because of viral transmission and social distancing policies. Both studies reported that online learning is more effective than offline learning during the pandemic period. However, it is questionable about the extent to which such results are affected by health/safety-related issues. It is reasonable to infer that online learning was perceived by students as safer than offline learning during the pandemic period and such perceptions may affect learning effectiveness.

Overall, it is difficult to conclude whether online learning is effective during the pandemic period. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify factors that shape the effectiveness of online learning, which is discussed in the next section.

3.3 Factors that shape online learning effectiveness

Infrastructure factors were reported as the most salient factors that determine online learning effectiveness. It seems that research from developed countries generated more positive results for online learning than research from less developed countries. This view was confirmed by the cross-country comparative study of Cranfield et al. (2021) . Indeed, online learning entails the support of ICT infrastructure, and hence ICT related factors, e.g., Internet connectivity, technical issues, network speed, accessibility of digital devices, and digital devices, considerably influence the effectiveness of online learning ( García-Morales et al., 2021 ; Grafton-Clarke et al., 2022 ). Prior review research, e.g., Tang (2023) also suggested that the unequal distribution of resources and unfair socioeconomic status intensified the problems brought about by online learning during the pandemic period. Salas-Pilco et al. (2022) recommended that improving Internet connectivity would increase students’ engagement in online learning during the pandemic period.

Adnan and Anwar (2020) study is one of the most cited works in the focused field. They reported that online learning is ineffective in Pakistan because of the problems of Internet access due to monetary and technical issues. The above problems hinder students from implementing online learning activities, making online learning ineffective. Likewise, Lalduhawma et al. (2022) research from India indicated that online learning is ineffective because of poor network interactivity, slow data speed, low data limits, and expensive costs of devices. As a result, online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic may have expanded the education gap between developed and developing countries because of developing countries’ infrastructure disadvantages. More attention to online learning infrastructure problems in developing countries is needed.

Instructional factors, e.g., course management and design, instructor characteristics, instructor-student interaction, assignments, and assessments were found to affect online learning effectiveness ( Sharma et al., 2020 ; Rahman, 2021 ; Tsang et al., 2021 ; Hollister et al., 2022 ; Zhang and Chen, 2023 ). Although these instructional factors have been well-documented as significant drivers of learning effectiveness in traditional learning literature, these factors in the pandemic period have some unique characteristics. Both students and teachers were not well prepared for wholly online instruction and learning in 2020 and hence they encountered a lot of problems in course management and design, learning interactions, assignments, and assessments ( Stojan et al., 2022 ; Tang, 2023 ). García-Morales et al. (2021) review also suggested that various stakeholders in learning and teaching encountered difficulties in adapting to the sudden, hasty, and forced transition of offline to online learning. Consequently, these instructional factors become salient in terms of affecting online learning effectiveness.

The negative role of the lack of social interaction caused by social distancing in affecting online learning effectiveness was highlighted by a lot of studies ( Almahasees et al., 2021 ; Baber, 2022 ; Conrad et al., 2022 ; Hollister et al., 2022 ). Baber (2022) argued that people give more importance to saving lives than socializing in the online environment and hence social interactions in learning are considerably reduced by social distancing norms. The negative impact of the lack of social interaction on online learning effectiveness is reflected in two aspects. First, according to a constructivist view, interaction is an indispensable element of learning because knowledge is actively constructed by learners in social interactions ( Woo and Reeves, 2007 ). Consequently, online learning effectiveness during the pandemic period is reduced by the lack of social interaction. Second, the lack of social interaction brings a lot of negative emotions, e.g., feelings of isolation, loneliness, anxiety, and depression ( Alawamleh et al., 2020 ; Gonzalez-Ramirez et al., 2021 ; Selco and Habbak, 2021 ). Such negative emotions undermine online learning effectiveness.

Negative emotions caused by the pandemic and school lockdown were also found to be detrimental to online learning effectiveness. In this context, it was reported that many students experience a lot of negative emotions, e.g., feelings of isolation, exhaustion, loneliness, and distraction ( Alawamleh et al., 2020 ; Gonzalez-Ramirez et al., 2021 ; Selco and Habbak, 2021 ). Such negative emotions, as mentioned above, reduce online learning effectiveness.

Several factors were also found to increase online learning effectiveness during the pandemic period, e.g., convenience and flexibility ( Hong et al., 2021 ; Muthuprasad et al., 2021 ; Selco and Habbak, 2021 ). Students with strong self-regulated learning abilities gain more benefits from convenience and flexibility in online learning ( Hong et al., 2021 ).

Overall, although it is debated over the effectiveness of online learning during the pandemic period, it is generally believed that the pandemic brings a lot of challenges and difficulties to higher education. Meanwhile, the majority of students prefer offline learning to online learning. The above challenges and difficulties are more prominent in developing countries than in developed countries.

3.4 Pedagogical implications

The results generated by the systematic review offer a lot of pedagogical implications. First, online learning entails the support of ICT infrastructure, and infrastructure defects strongly undermine learning effectiveness ( García-Morales et al., 2021 ; Grafton-Clarke et al., 2022 ). Given the fact online learning is increasingly integrated into higher education ( Kebritchi et al., 2017 ) regardless of the presence of the pandemic, governments globally should increase the investment in learning-related ICT infrastructure in higher education institutes. Meanwhile, schools should consider students’ affordability of digital devices and network fees when implementing online learning activities. It is important to offer material support for those students with poor economic status. Infrastructure issues are more prominent in developing countries because of the lack of monetary resources and poor infrastructure base. Thus, international collaboration and aid are recommended to address these issues.

Second, since the lack of social interaction is a key factor that reduces online learning effectiveness, it is important to increase social interactions during the implementation of online learning activities. On the one hand, both students and instructors are encouraged to utilize network technologies to promote inter-individual interactions. On the other hand, the two parties are also encouraged to engage in offline interaction activities if the risk is acceptable.

Third, special attention should be paid to students’ emotions during the online learning process as online learning may bring a lot of negative emotions to students, which undermine learning effectiveness ( Alawamleh et al., 2020 ; Gonzalez-Ramirez et al., 2021 ; Selco and Habbak, 2021 ). In addition, higher education institutes should prepare a contingency plan for emergency online learning to deal with potential crises in the future, e.g., wars, pandemics, and natural disasters.

3.5 Limitations and suggestions for future research

There are several limitations in past research regarding online learning effectiveness during the pandemic period. The first is the lack of rigor in assessing learning effectiveness. Evidently, there is a scarcity of empirical research with an RCT design, which is considered to be accurate, objective, and rigorous in assessing pedagogical models ( Torgerson and Torgerson, 2001 ). The scarcity of ICT research leads to the difficulty in accurately assessing the effectiveness of online learning and comparing it with offline learning. Second, the widely accepted criteria for assessing learning effectiveness are absent, and past empirical studies used diversified procedures, techniques, instruments, and criteria for measuring online learning effectiveness, resulting in difficulty in comparing research results. Third, learning effectiveness is a multi-dimensional construct but its multidimensionality was largely ignored by past research. Therefore, it is difficult to evaluate which dimensions of learning effectiveness are promoted or undermined by online learning and it is also difficult to compare the results of different studies. Finally, there is very limited knowledge about the difference in online learning effectiveness between different subjects. It is likely that the subjects that depend on lab-based work (e.g., experimental physics, organic chemistry, and cell biology) are less appropriate for online learning than the subjects that depend on desk-based work (e.g., economics, psychology, and literature).

To deal with the above limitations, there are several recommendations for future research on online learning effectiveness. First, future research is encouraged to adopt an RCT design and collect a large-sized sample to objectively, rigorously, and accurately quantify the effectiveness of online learning. Second, scholars are also encouraged to develop a new framework to assess learning effectiveness comprehensively. This framework should cover multiple dimensions of learning effectiveness and have strong generalizability. Finally, it is recommended that future research could compare the effectiveness of online learning between different subjects.

4 Conclusion

This study carried out a systematic review of 25 empirical studies published between 2020 and 2023 to evaluate the effectiveness of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic period. According to how online learning effectiveness was assessed, these 25 studies were categorized into four groups. The first group of studies employed a cross-sectional design and assessed online learning based on students’ perceptions without a control group. Less than half of these studies reported online learning as effective. The second group of studies also employed a cross-sectional design and asked students to compare the effectiveness of online learning with offline learning. All these studies reported that online learning is less effective than offline learning. The third group of studies employed a longitudinal design and compared the effectiveness of online learning with offline learning but without a control group and this group includes only 2 studies. It was reported that online learning is more effective than offline learning. The fourth group of studies employed an RCT design and this group includes only 2 studies. Both studies reported online learning as more effective than offline learning.

Overall, it is difficult to conclude whether online learning is effective during the pandemic period because of the diversified research contexts, methods, and approaches in past research. Nevertheless, the review identifies a set of factors that positively or negatively influence the effectiveness of online learning, including infrastructure factors, instructional factors, the lack of social interaction, negative emotions, flexibility, and convenience. Although it is debated over the effectiveness of online learning during the pandemic period, it is generally believed that the pandemic brings a lot of challenges and difficulties to higher education. Meanwhile, the majority of students prefer offline learning to online learning. In addition, developing countries face more challenges and difficulties in online learning because of monetary and infrastructure issues.

The findings of this review offer significant pedagogical implications for online learning in higher education institutes, including enhancing the development of ICT infrastructure, providing material support for students with poor economic status, enhancing social interactions, paying attention to students’ emotional status, and preparing a contingency plan of emergency online learning.

The review also identifies several limitations in past research regarding online learning effectiveness during the pandemic period, including the lack of rigor in assessing learning effectiveness, the absence of accepted criteria for assessing learning effectiveness, the neglect of the multidimensionality of learning effectiveness, and limited knowledge about the difference in online learning effectiveness between different subjects.

To deal with the above limitations, there are several recommendations for future research on online learning effectiveness. First, future research is encouraged to adopt an RCT design and collect a large-sized sample to objectively, rigorously, and accurately quantify the effectiveness of online learning. Second, scholars are also encouraged to develop a new framework to assess learning effectiveness comprehensively. This framework should cover multiple dimensions of learning effectiveness and have strong generalizability. Finally, it is recommended that future research could compare the effectiveness of online learning between different subjects. To fix these limitations in future research, recommendations are made.

It should be noted that this review is not free of problems. First, only studies that quantitatively measured online learning effectiveness were included in the review and hence a lot of other studies (e.g., qualitative studies) that investigated factors that influence online learning effectiveness were excluded, resulting in a relatively small-sized sample and incomplete synthesis of past research contributions. Second, since this review was qualitative, it was difficult to accurately quantify the level of online learning effectiveness.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

WM: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. LY: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. CL: Writing – review & editing. NP: Writing – review & editing. XP: Writing – review & editing. YZ: Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Adnan, M., and Anwar, K. (2020). Online learning amid the COVID-19 pandemic: Students' perspectives. J. Pedagogical Sociol. Psychol. 1, 45–51. doi: 10.33902/JPSP.2020261309

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Alawamleh, M., Al-Twait, L. M., and Al-Saht, G. R. (2020). The effect of online learning on communication between instructors and students during Covid-19 pandemic. Asian Educ. Develop. Stud. 11, 380–400. doi: 10.1108/AEDS-06-2020-0131

Almahasees, Z., Mohsen, K., and Amin, M. O. (2021). Faculty’s and students’ perceptions of online learning during COVID-19. Front. Educ. 6:638470. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2021.638470

Almusharraf, N., and Khahro, S. (2020). Students satisfaction with online learning experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. (iJET) 15, 246–267. doi: 10.3991/ijet.v15i21.15647

Anderson, N., and Hajhashemi, K. (2013). Online learning: from a specialized distance education paradigm to a ubiquitous element of contemporary education. In 4th international conference on e-learning and e-teaching (ICELET 2013) (pp. 91–94). IEEE.

Google Scholar

Arkorful, V., and Abaidoo, N. (2015). The role of e-learning, advantages and disadvantages of its adoption in higher education. Int. J. Instructional Technol. Distance Learn. 12, 29–42.

Baber, H. (2022). Social interaction and effectiveness of the online learning–a moderating role of maintaining social distance during the pandemic COVID-19. Asian Educ. Develop. Stud. 11, 159–171. doi: 10.1108/AEDS-09-2020-0209

Barnard-Brak, L., Paton, V. O., and Lan, W. Y. (2010). Profiles in self-regulated learning in the online learning environment. Int. Rev. Res. Open Dist. Learn. 11, 61–80. doi: 10.19173/irrodl.v11i1.769

Bughrara, M. S., Swanberg, S. M., Lucia, V. C., Schmitz, K., Jung, D., and Wunderlich-Barillas, T. (2023). Beyond COVID-19: the impact of recent pandemics on medical students and their education: a scoping review. Med. Educ. Online 28:2139657. doi: 10.1080/10872981.2022.2139657

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Callahan, J. L. (2014). Writing literature reviews: a reprise and update. Hum. Resour. Dev. Rev. 13, 271–275. doi: 10.1177/1534484314536705

Camargo, C. P., Tempski, P. Z., Busnardo, F. F., Martins, M. D. A., and Gemperli, R. (2020). Online learning and COVID-19: a meta-synthesis analysis. Clinics 75:e2286. doi: 10.6061/clinics/2020/e2286

Choudhury, S., and Pattnaik, S. (2020). Emerging themes in e-learning: A review from the stakeholders’ perspective. Computers and Education 144, 103657. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103657

Chandrasiri, N. R., and Weerakoon, B. S. (2022). Online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: perceptions of allied health sciences undergraduates. Radiography 28, 545–549. doi: 10.1016/j.radi.2021.11.008

Chang, J. Y. F., Wang, L. H., Lin, T. C., Cheng, F. C., and Chiang, C. P. (2021). Comparison of learning effectiveness between physical classroom and online learning for dental education during the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Dental Sci. 16, 1281–1289. doi: 10.1016/j.jds.2021.07.016

Conrad, C., Deng, Q., Caron, I., Shkurska, O., Skerrett, P., and Sundararajan, B. (2022). How student perceptions about online learning difficulty influenced their satisfaction during Canada's Covid-19 response. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 53, 534–557. doi: 10.1111/bjet.13206

Cranfield, D. J., Tick, A., Venter, I. M., Blignaut, R. J., and Renaud, K. (2021). Higher education students’ perceptions of online learning during COVID-19—a comparative study. Educ. Sci. 11, 403–420. doi: 10.3390/educsci11080403

Desai, M. S., Hart, J., and Richards, T. C. (2008). E-learning: paradigm shift in education. Education 129, 1–20.

Davis, J., Mengersen, K., Bennett, S., and Mazerolle, L. (2014). Viewing systematic reviews and meta-analysis in social research through different lenses. SpringerPlus 3, 1–9. doi: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-511

Donthu, N., Kumar, S., Mukherjee, D., Pandey, N., and Lim, W. M. (2021). How to conduct a bibliometric analysis: An overview and guidelines. Journal of business research 133, 264–269. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.04.070

Fyllos, A., Kanellopoulos, A., Kitixis, P., Cojocari, D. V., Markou, A., Raoulis, V., et al. (2021). University students perception of online education: is engagement enough? Acta Informatica Medica 29, 4–9. doi: 10.5455/aim.2021.29.4-9

Gamage, D., Ruipérez-Valiente, J. A., and Reich, J. (2023). A paradigm shift in designing education technology for online learning: opportunities and challenges. Front. Educ. 8:1194979. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1194979

García-Morales, V. J., Garrido-Moreno, A., and Martín-Rojas, R. (2021). The transformation of higher education after the COVID disruption: emerging challenges in an online learning scenario. Front. Psychol. 12:616059. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.616059

Gonzalez-Ramirez, J., Mulqueen, K., Zealand, R., Silverstein, S., Mulqueen, C., and BuShell, S. (2021). Emergency online learning: college students' perceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Coll. Stud. J. 55, 29–46.

Grafton-Clarke, C., Uraiby, H., Gordon, M., Clarke, N., Rees, E., Park, S., et al. (2022). Pivot to online learning for adapting or continuing workplace-based clinical learning in medical education following the COVID-19 pandemic: a BEME systematic review: BEME guide no. 70. Med. Teach. 44, 227–243. doi: 10.1080/0142159X.2021.1992372

Haningsih, S., and Rohmi, P. (2022). The pattern of hybrid learning to maintain learning effectiveness at the higher education level post-COVID-19 pandemic. Eurasian J. Educ. Res. 11, 243–257. doi: 10.12973/eu-jer.11.1.243

Hollister, B., Nair, P., Hill-Lindsay, S., and Chukoskie, L. (2022). Engagement in online learning: student attitudes and behavior during COVID-19. Front. Educ. 7:851019. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.851019

Hong, J. C., Lee, Y. F., and Ye, J. H. (2021). Procrastination predicts online self-regulated learning and online learning ineffectiveness during the coronavirus lockdown. Personal. Individ. Differ. 174:110673. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.110673

Jiang, P., Namaziandost, E., Azizi, Z., and Razmi, M. H. (2023). Exploring the effects of online learning on EFL learners’ motivation, anxiety, and attitudes during the COVID-19 pandemic: a focus on Iran. Curr. Psychol. 42, 2310–2324. doi: 10.1007/s12144-022-04013-x

Joy, E. H., and Garcia, F. E. (2000). Measuring learning effectiveness: a new look at no-significant-difference findings. JALN 4, 33–39.

Kebritchi, M., Lipschuetz, A., and Santiague, L. (2017). Issues and challenges for teaching successful online courses in higher education: a literature review. J. Educ. Technol. Syst. 46, 4–29. doi: 10.1177/0047239516661713

Lalduhawma, L. P., Thangmawia, L., and Hussain, J. (2022). Effectiveness of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in Mizoram. J. Educ. e-Learning Res. 9, 175–183. doi: 10.20448/jeelr.v9i3.4162

Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gotzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P., et al. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. Annals of internal medicine , 151, W-65. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00136

Linnenluecke, M. K., Marrone, M., and Singh, A. K. (2020). Conducting systematic literature reviews and bibliometric analyses. Aust. J. Manag. 45, 175–194. doi: 10.1177/0312896219877678

Mahyoob, M. (2021). Online learning effectiveness during the COVID-19 pandemic: a case study of Saudi universities. Int. J. Info. Commun. Technol. Educ. (IJICTE) 17, 1–14. doi: 10.4018/IJICTE.20211001.oa7

Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, D., and Altman, G. and PRISMA Group (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Annals of internal medicine , 151, 264–269. doi: 10.3736/jcim20090918

Mok, K. H., Xiong, W., and Bin Aedy Rahman, H. N. (2021). COVID-19 pandemic’s disruption on university teaching and learning and competence cultivation: student evaluation of online learning experiences in Hong Kong. Int. J. Chinese Educ. 10:221258682110070. doi: 10.1177/22125868211007011

Muthuprasad, T., Aiswarya, S., Aditya, K. S., and Jha, G. K. (2021). Students’ perception and preference for online education in India during COVID-19 pandemic. Soc. Sci. Humanities open 3:100101. doi: 10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100101

Noesgaard, S. S., and Ørngreen, R. (2015). The effectiveness of e-learning: an explorative and integrative review of the definitions, methodologies and factors that promote e-learning effectiveness. Electronic J. E-learning 13, 278–290.

Papaioannou, D., Sutton, A., and Booth, A. (2016). Systematic approaches to a successful literature review. London: Sage.

Pratama, H., Azman, M. N. A., Kassymova, G. K., and Duisenbayeva, S. S. (2020). The trend in using online meeting applications for learning during the period of pandemic COVID-19: a literature review. J. Innovation in Educ. Cultural Res. 1, 58–68. doi: 10.46843/jiecr.v1i2.15

Rahayu, R. P., and Wirza, Y. (2020). Teachers’ perception of online learning during pandemic covid-19. Jurnal penelitian pendidikan 20, 392–406. doi: 10.17509/jpp.v20i3.29226

Rahman, A. (2021). Using students’ experience to derive effectiveness of COVID-19-lockdown-induced emergency online learning at undergraduate level: evidence from Assam. India. Higher Education for the Future 8, 71–89. doi: 10.1177/2347631120980549

Rajaram, K., and Collins, B. (2013). Qualitative identification of learning effectiveness indicators among mainland Chinese students in culturally dislocated study environments. J. Int. Educ. Bus. 6, 179–199. doi: 10.1108/JIEB-03-2013-0010

Salas-Pilco, S. Z., Yang, Y., and Zhang, Z. (2022). Student engagement in online learning in Latin American higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 53, 593–619. doi: 10.1111/bjet.13190

Selco, J. I., and Habbak, M. (2021). Stem students’ perceptions on emergency online learning during the covid-19 pandemic: challenges and successes. Educ. Sci. 11:799. doi: 10.3390/educsci11120799

Sharma, K., Deo, G., Timalsina, S., Joshi, A., Shrestha, N., and Neupane, H. C. (2020). Online learning in the face of COVID-19 pandemic: assessment of students’ satisfaction at Chitwan medical college of Nepal. Kathmandu Univ. Med. J. 18, 40–47. doi: 10.3126/kumj.v18i2.32943

Shirahmadi, S., Hazavehei, S. M. M., Abbasi, H., Otogara, M., Etesamifard, T., Roshanaei, G., et al. (2023). Effectiveness of online practical education on vaccination training in the students of bachelor programs during the Covid-19 pandemic. PLoS One 18:e0280312. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0280312

Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: an overview and guidelines. J. Bus. Res. 104, 333–339. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039

Stojan, J., Haas, M., Thammasitboon, S., Lander, L., Evans, S., Pawlik, C., et al. (2022). Online learning developments in undergraduate medical education in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: a BEME systematic review: BEME guide no. 69. Med. Teach. 44, 109–129. doi: 10.1080/0142159X.2021.1992373

Swan, K. (2003). Learning effectiveness online: what the research tells us. Elements of quality online education, practice and direction 4, 13–47.

Tang, K. H. D. (2023). Impacts of COVID-19 on primary, secondary and tertiary education: a comprehensive review and recommendations for educational practices. Educ. Res. Policy Prac. 22, 23–61. doi: 10.1007/s10671-022-09319-y

Torgerson, C. J., and Torgerson, D. J. (2001). The need for randomised controlled trials in educational research. Br. J. Educ. Stud. 49, 316–328. doi: 10.1111/1467-8527.t01-1-00178

Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., and Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence‐informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British journal of management , 14, 207–222. doi: 10.1111/1467-8551.00375

Tsang, J. T., So, M. K., Chong, A. C., Lam, B. S., and Chu, A. M. (2021). Higher education during the pandemic: the predictive factors of learning effectiveness in COVID-19 online learning. Educ. Sci. 11:446. doi: 10.3390/educsci11080446

Wallin, J. A. (2005). Bibliometric methods: pitfalls and possibilities. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 97, 261–275. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2005.pto_139.x

Webster, J., and Watson, R. T. (2002). Analyzing the past to prepare for the future: Writing a literature review. MIS quarterly , 26, 13–23.

Wong, J., Baars, M., Davis, D., Van Der Zee, T., Houben, G. J., and Paas, F. (2019). Supporting self-regulated learning in online learning environments and MOOCs: a systematic review. Int. J. Human–Computer Interaction 35, 356–373. doi: 10.1080/10447318.2018.1543084

Woo, Y., and Reeves, T. C. (2007). Meaningful interaction in web-based learning: a social constructivist interpretation. Internet High. Educ. 10, 15–25. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2006.10.005

Zeitoun, H. (2008). E-learning: Concept, Issues, Application, Evaluation . Riyadh: Dar Alsolateah Publication.

Zhang, L., Carter, R. A. Jr., Qian, X., Yang, S., Rujimora, J., and Wen, S. (2022). Academia's responses to crisis: a bibliometric analysis of literature on online learning in higher education during COVID-19. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 53, 620–646. doi: 10.1111/bjet.13191

Zhang, Y., and Chen, X. (2023). Students’ perceptions of online learning in the post-COVID era: a focused case from the universities of applied sciences in China. Sustain. For. 15:946. doi: 10.3390/su15020946

Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic, higher education, online learning, learning effectiveness, systematic review

Citation: Meng W, Yu L, Liu C, Pan N, Pang X and Zhu Y (2024) A systematic review of the effectiveness of online learning in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic period. Front. Educ . 8:1334153. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1334153

Received: 06 November 2023; Accepted: 27 December 2023; Published: 17 January 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Meng, Yu, Liu, Pan, Pang and Zhu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Lei Yu, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Capturing the benefits of remote learning

How education experts are applying lessons learned in the pandemic to promote positive outcomes for all students

Vol. 52 No. 6 Print version: page 46

• Schools and Classrooms
• Technology and Design

With schools open again after more than a year of teaching students outside the classroom, the pandemic sometimes feels like a distant memory. The return to classrooms this fall brings major relief for many families and educators. Factors such as a lack of reliable technology and family support, along with an absence of school resources, resulted in significant academic setbacks, not to mention stress for everyone involved.

But for all the downsides of distance learning, educators, psychologists, and parents have seen some benefits as well. For example, certain populations of students found new ways to be more engaged in learning, without the distractions and difficulties they faced in the classroom, and the general challenges of remote learning and the pandemic brought mental health to the forefront of the classroom experience.

Peter Faustino, PsyD, a school psychologist in Scarsdale, New York, said the pandemic also prompted educators and school psychologists to find creative new ways of ensuring students’ emotional and academic well-being. “So many students were impacted by the pandemic, so we couldn’t just assume they would find resources on their own,” said Faustino. “We had to work hard at figuring out new ways to connect with them.”

Here are some of the benefits of distance learning that school psychologists and educators have observed and the ways in which they’re implementing those lessons post-pandemic, with the goal of creating a more equitable, productive environment for all students.

Prioritizing mental health

Faustino said that during the pandemic, he had more mental health conversations with students, families, and teachers than ever. “Because COVID-19 affected everyone, we’re now having mental health discussions as school leaders on a daily and weekly basis,” he said.

This renewed focus on mental health has the potential to improve students’ well-being in profound ways—starting with helping them recover from the pandemic’s effects. In New York City, for example, schools are hiring more than 600 new clinicians, including psychologists , to screen students’ mental health and help them process pandemic-related trauma and adjust to the “new normal” of attending school in person.

Educators and families are also realizing the importance of protecting students’ mental health more generally—not only for their health and safety but for their learning. “We’ve been seeing a broader appreciation for the fact that mental health is a prerequisite for learning rather than an extracurricular pursuit,” said Eric Rossen, PhD, director of professional development and standards at the National Association of School Psychologists.

As a result, Rossen hopes educators will embed social and emotional learning components into daily instruction. For example, teachers could teach mindfulness techniques in the classroom and take in-the-moment opportunities to help kids resolve conflicts or manage stress.

Improved access to mental health resources in schools is another positive effect. Because of physical distancing guidelines, school leaders had to find ways to deliver mental health services remotely, including via online referrals and teletherapy with school psychologists and counselors.

Early in the pandemic, Faustino said he was hesitant about teletherapy’s effectiveness; now, he hopes to continue offering a virtual option. Online scheduling and remote appointments make it easier for students to access mental health resources, and some students even enjoy virtual appointments more, as they can attend therapy in their own spaces rather than showing up in the counselor’s office. For older students, Faustino said that level of comfort often leads to more productive, open conversations.

Autonomy as a key to motivation

Research suggests that when students have more choices about their materials and activities, they’re more motivated—which may translate to increased learning and academic success. In a 2016 paper, psychology researcher Allan Wigfield, PhD, and colleagues make the case that control and autonomy in reading activities can improve both motivation and comprehension ( Child Development Perspectives , Vol. 10, No. 3 ).

During the period of online teaching, some students had opportunities to learn at their own pace, which educators say improved their learning outcomes—especially in older students. In a 2020 survey of more than 600 parents, researchers found the second-most-valued benefit of distance learning was flexibility—not only in schedule but in method of learning.

In a recent study, researchers found that 18% of parents pointed to greater flexibility in a child’s schedule or way of learning as the biggest benefit or positive outcome related to remote learning ( School Psychology , Roy, A., et al., in press).

This individualized learning helps students find more free time for interests and also allows them to conduct their learning at a time they’re most likely to succeed. During the pandemic, Mark Gardner, an English teacher at Hayes Freedom High School in Camas, Washington, said he realized how important student-centered learning is and that whether learning happens should take precedence over how and when it occurs.

For example, one of his students thrived when he had the choice to do work later at night because he took care of his siblings during the day. Now, Gardner posts homework online on Sundays so students can work at their own pace during the week. “Going forward, we want to create as many access points as we can for kids to engage with learning,” he said.

Rosanna Breaux , PhD, an assistant professor of psychology and assistant director of the Child Study Center at Virginia Tech, agrees. “I’d like to see this flexibility continue in some way, where—similar to college—students can guide their own learning based on their interests or when they’re most productive,” she said.

During the pandemic, many educators were forced to rethink how to keep students engaged. Rossen said because many school districts shared virtual curricula during the period of remote learning, older students could take more challenging or interesting courses than they could in person. The same is true for younger students: Megan Hibbard, a teacher in White Bear Lake, Minnesota, said many of her fifth graders enjoyed distance learning more than in-person because they could work on projects that aligned with their interests.

“So much of motivation is discovering the unique things the student finds interesting,” said Hunter Gehlbach, PhD, a professor and vice dean at the Johns Hopkins School of Education. “The more you can facilitate students spending more time on the things they’re really interested in, the better.”

Going forward, Rossen hopes virtual curricula will allow students greater opportunities to pursue their interests, such as by taking AP classes, foreign languages, or vocational electives not available at their own schools.

Conversely, Hibbard’s goal is to increase opportunities for students to pursue their interests in the in-person setting. For example, she plans to increase what she calls “Genius Hours,” a time at the end of the school day when students can focus on high-interest projects they’ll eventually share with the class.

Better understanding of children's needs

One of the most important predictors of a child’s success in school is parental involvement in their education. For example, in a meta-analysis of studies, researchers linked parental engagement in their middle schoolers’ education with greater measures of success (Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F., Developmental Psychology , Vol. 45, No. 3, 2009).

During the pandemic, parents had new opportunities to learn about their kids and, as a result, help them learn. According to a study by Breaux and colleagues, many parents reported that the pandemic allowed them a better understanding of their child’s learning style, needs, or curriculum.

James C. Kaufman , PhD, a professor of educational psychology at the University of Connecticut and the father of an elementary schooler and a high schooler, said he’s had a front-row seat for his sons’ learning for the first time. “Watching my kids learn and engage with classmates has given me some insight in how to parent them,” he said.

Stephen Becker , PhD, a pediatric psychologist at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, said some parents have observed their children’s behavior or learning needs for the first time, which could prompt them to consider assessment and Individualized Education Program (IEP) services. Across the board, Gehlbach said parents are realizing how they can better partner with schools to ensure their kids’ well-being and academic success.

For example, Samantha Marks , PsyD, a Florida-based clinical psychologist, said she realized how much help her middle school daughter, a gifted and talented student with a 504 plan (a plan for how the school will offer support for a student’s disability) for anxiety, needed with independence. “Bringing the learning home made it crystal clear what we needed to teach our daughter to be independent and improve executive functioning” she said. “My takeaway from this is that more parents need to be involved in their children’s education in a healthy, helpful way.”

Marks also gained a deeper understanding of her daughter’s mental health needs. Through her 504 plan, she received help managing her anxiety at school—at home, though, Marks wasn’t always available to help, which taught her the importance of helping her daughter manage her anxiety independently.

Along with parents gaining a deeper understanding of their kids’ needs, the pandemic also prompted greater parent participation in school. For example, Rossen said his kids’ school had virtual school board meetings; he hopes virtual options continue for events like back-to-school information sessions and parenting workshops. “These meetings are often in the evening, and if you’re a single parent or sole caregiver, you may not want to pay a babysitter in order to attend,” he said.

Brittany Greiert, PhD, a school psychologist in Aurora, Colorado, says culturally and linguistically diverse families at her schools benefited from streamlined opportunities to communicate with administrators and teachers. Her district used an app that translates parent communication into 150 languages. Parents can also remotely participate in meetings with school psychologists or teachers, which Greiert says she plans to continue post-pandemic.

Decreased bullying

During stay-at-home orders, kids with neurodevelopmental disorders experienced less bullying than pre-pandemic (McFayden, T. C., et al., Journal of Rural Mental Health , No. 45, Vol. 2, 2021). According to 2019 research, children with emotional, behavioral, and physical health needs experience increased rates of bullying victimization ( Lebrun-Harris, L. A., et al., ), and from the U.S. Department of Education suggests the majority of bullying takes place in person and in unsupervised areas (PDF) .

Scott Graves , PhD, an associate professor of educational studies at The Ohio State University and a member of APA’s Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education (CPSE), said the supervision by parents and teachers in remote learning likely played a part in reducing bullying. As a result, he’s less worried his Black sons will be victims of microaggressions and racist behavior during online learning.

Some Asian American families also report that remote learning offered protection against racism students may have experienced in person. Shereen Naser, PhD, an associate professor of psychology at Cleveland State University and a member of CPSE, and colleagues found that students are more comfortable saying discriminatory things in school when their teachers are also doing so; Naser suspects this trickle-down effect is less likely to happen when students learn from home ( School Psychology International , 2019).

Reductions in bullying and microaggressions aren’t just beneficial for students’ long-term mental health. Breaux said less bullying at school results in less stress, which can improve students’ self-esteem and mood—both of which impact their ability to learn.

Patricia Perez, PhD, an associate professor of international psychology at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology and a member of CPSE, said it’s important for schools to be proactive in providing spaces for support and cultural expression for students from vulnerable backgrounds, whether in culture-specific clubs, all-school assemblies that address racism and other diversity-related topics, or safe spaces to process feelings with teachers.

According to Rossen, many schools are already considering how to continue supporting students at risk for bullying, including by restructuring the school environment.

One principal, Rossen said, recently switched to single-use bathrooms to avoid congregating in those spaces once in-person learning commences to maintain social distancing requirements. “The principal received feedback from students about how going to the bathroom is much less stressful for these students in part due to less bullying,” he said.

More opportunities for special needs students

In Becker and Breaux’s research, parents of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), particularly those with a 504 plan and IEP, reported greater difficulties with remote learning. But some students with special learning needs—including those with IEPs and 504 plans—thrived in an at-home learning environment. Recent reporting in The New York Times suggests this is one reason many students want to continue online learning.

According to Cara Laitusis, PhD, a principal research scientist at Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) and a member of CPSE, reduced distractions may improve learning outcomes for some students with disabilities that impact attention in a group setting. “In assessments, small group or individual settings are frequently requested accommodations for some students with ADHD, anxiety, or autism. Being in a quiet place alone without peers for part of the instructional day may also allow for more focus,” she said. However, she also pointed out the benefits of inclusion in the classroom for developing social skills with peers.

Remote learning has improved academic outcomes for students with different learning needs, too. Marks said her seventh-grade daughter, a visual learner, appreciated the increase in video presentations and graphics. Similarly, Hibbard said many of her students who struggle to grasp lessons on the first try have benefited from the ability to watch videos over again until they understand. Post-pandemic, she plans to record bite-size lessons—for example, a 1-minute video of a long division problem—so her students can rewatch and process at their own rate.

Learners with anxiety also appreciate the option not to be in the classroom, because the social pressures of being surrounded by peers can make it hard to focus on academics. “Several of my students have learned more in the last year simply due to the absence of anxiety,” said Rosie Reid, an English teacher at Ygnacio Valley High School in Concord, California, and a 2019 California Teacher of the Year. “It’s just one less thing to negotiate in a learning environment.”

On online learning platforms, it’s easier for kids with social anxiety or shyness to participate. One of Gardner’s students with social anxiety participated far more in virtual settings and chats. Now, Gardner is brainstorming ways to encourage students to chat in person, such as by projecting a chat screen on the blackboard.

Technology has helped school psychologists better engage students, too. For example, Greiert said the virtual setting gave her a new understanding of her students’ personalities and needs. “Typing out their thoughts, they were able to demonstrate humor or complex thoughts they never demonstrated in person,” she said. “I really want to keep incorporating technology into sessions so kids can keep building on their strengths.”

Reid says that along with the high school students she teaches, she’s seen her 6-year-old daughter benefit from learning at her own pace in the familiarity of her home. Before the pandemic, she was behind academically, but by guiding her own learning—writing poems, reading books, playing outside with her siblings—she’s blossomed. “For me, as both a mother and as a teacher, this whole phenomenon has opened the door to what education can be,” Reid said.

Eleanor Di Marino-Linnen, PhD, a psychologist and superintendent of the Rose Tree Media School District in Media, Pennsylvania, says the pandemic afforded her district a chance to rethink old routines and implement new ones. “As challenging as it is, it’s definitely an exciting time to be in education when we have a chance to reenvision what schools have looked like for many years,” she said. “We want to capitalize on what we’ve learned.”

Further reading

Why are some kids thriving during remote learning? Fleming, N., Edutopia, 2020

Remote learning has been a disaster for many students. But some kids have thrived. Gilman, A., The Washington Post , Oct. 3, 2020

A preliminary examination of key strategies, challenges, and benefits of remote learning expressed by parents during the COVID-19 pandemic Roy, A., et al., School Psychology , in press

Remote learning during COVID-19: Examining school practices, service continuation, and difficulties for adolescents with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder Becker S. P., et al., Journal of Adolescent Health , 2020

Recommended Reading

Contact APA

You may also like.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 09 January 2024

Online vs in-person learning in higher education: effects on student achievement and recommendations for leadership

• Bandar N. Alarifi 1 &
• Steve Song 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  86 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

12k Accesses

3 Citations

3 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Science, technology and society

This study is a comparative analysis of online distance learning and traditional in-person education at King Saud University in Saudi Arabia, with a focus on understanding how different educational modalities affect student achievement. The justification for this study lies in the rapid shift towards online learning, especially highlighted by the educational changes during the COVID-19 pandemic. By analyzing the final test scores of freshman students in five core courses over the 2020 (in-person) and 2021 (online) academic years, the research provides empirical insights into the efficacy of online versus traditional education. Initial observations suggested that students in online settings scored lower in most courses. However, after adjusting for variables like gender, class size, and admission scores using multiple linear regression, a more nuanced picture emerged. Three courses showed better performance in the 2021 online cohort, one favored the 2020 in-person group, and one was unaffected by the teaching format. The study emphasizes the crucial need for a nuanced, data-driven strategy in integrating online learning within higher education systems. It brings to light the fact that the success of educational methodologies is highly contingent on specific contextual factors. This finding advocates for educational administrators and policymakers to exercise careful and informed judgment when adopting online learning modalities. It encourages them to thoroughly evaluate how different subjects and instructional approaches might interact with online formats, considering the variable effects these might have on learning outcomes. This approach ensures that decisions about implementing online education are made with a comprehensive understanding of its diverse and context-specific impacts, aiming to optimize educational effectiveness and student success.

Similar content being viewed by others

Elementary school teachers’ perspectives about learning during the COVID-19 pandemic

Quality of a master’s degree in education in Ecuador

Co-designing inclusive excellence in higher education: Students’ and teachers’ perspectives on the ideal online learning environment using the I-TPACK model

Introduction.

The year 2020 marked an extraordinary period, characterized by the global disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Governments and institutions worldwide had to adapt to unforeseen challenges across various domains, including health, economy, and education. In response, many educational institutions quickly transitioned to distance teaching (also known as e-learning, online learning, or virtual classrooms) to ensure continued access to education for their students. However, despite this rapid and widespread shift to online learning, a comprehensive examination of its effects on student achievement in comparison to traditional in-person instruction remains largely unexplored.

In research examining student outcomes in the context of online learning, the prevailing trend is the consistent observation that online learners often achieve less favorable results when compared to their peers in traditional classroom settings (e.g., Fischer et al., 2020 ; Bettinger et al., 2017 ; Edvardsson and Oskarsson, 2008 ). However, it is important to note that a significant portion of research on online learning has primarily focused on its potential impact (Kuhfeld et al., 2020 ; Azevedo et al., 2020 ; Di Pietro et al., 2020 ) or explored various perspectives (Aucejo et al., 2020 ; Radha et al., 2020 ) concerning distance education. These studies have often omitted a comprehensive and nuanced examination of its concrete academic consequences, particularly in terms of test scores and grades.

Given the dearth of research on the academic impact of online learning, especially in light of Covid-19 in the educational arena, the present study aims to address that gap by assessing the effectiveness of distance learning compared to in-person teaching in five required freshmen-level courses at King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. To accomplish this objective, the current study compared the final exam results of 8297 freshman students who were enrolled in the five courses in person in 2020 to their 8425 first-year counterparts who has taken the same courses at the same institution in 2021 but in an online format.

The final test results of the five courses (i.e., University Skills 101, Entrepreneurship 101, Computer Skills 101, Computer Skills 101, and Fitness and Health Culture 101) were examined, accounting for potential confounding factors such as gender, class size and admission scores, which have been cited in past research to be correlated with student achievement (e.g., Meinck and Brese, 2019 ; Jepsen, 2015 ) Additionally, as the preparatory year at King Saud University is divided into five tracks—health, nursing, science, business, and humanity, the study classified students based on their respective disciplines.

Motivation for the study

The rapid expansion of distance learning in higher education, particularly highlighted during the recent COVID-19 pandemic (Volk et al., 2020 ; Bettinger et al., 2017 ), underscores the need for alternative educational approaches during crises. Such disruptions can catalyze innovation and the adoption of distance learning as a contingency plan (Christensen et al., 2015 ). King Saud University, like many institutions worldwide, faced the challenge of transitioning abruptly to online learning in response to the pandemic.

E-learning has gained prominence in higher education due to technological advancements, offering institutions a competitive edge (Valverde-Berrocoso et al., 2020 ). Especially during conditions like the COVID-19 pandemic, electronic communication was utilized across the globe as a feasible means to overcome barriers and enhance interactions (Bozkurt, 2019 ).

Distance learning, characterized by flexibility, became crucial when traditional in-person classes are hindered by unforeseen circumstance such as the ones posed by COVID-19 (Arkorful and Abaidoo, 2015 ). Scholars argue that it allows students to learn at their own pace, often referred to as self-directed learning (Hiemstra, 1994 ) or self-education (Gadamer, 2001 ). Additional advantages include accessibility, cost-effectiveness, and flexibility (Sadeghi, 2019 ).

However, distance learning is not immune to its own set of challenges. Technical impediments, encompassing network issues, device limitations, and communication hiccups, represent formidable hurdles (Sadeghi, 2019 ). Furthermore, concerns about potential distractions in the online learning environment, fueled by the ubiquity of the internet and social media, have surfaced (Hall et al., 2020 ; Ravizza et al., 2017 ). The absence of traditional face-to-face interactions among students and between students and instructors is also viewed as a potential drawback (Sadeghi, 2019 ).

Given the evolving understanding of the pros and cons of distance learning, this study aims to contribute to the existing literature by assessing the effectiveness of distance learning, specifically in terms of student achievement, as compared to in-person classroom learning at King Saud University, one of Saudi Arabia’s largest higher education institutions.

Academic achievement: in-person vs online learning

The primary driving force behind the rapid integration of technology in education has been its emphasis on student performance (Lai and Bower, 2019 ). Over the past decade, numerous studies have undertaken comparisons of student academic achievement in online and in-person settings (e.g., Bettinger et al., 2017 ; Fischer et al., 2020 ; Iglesias-Pradas et al., 2021 ). This section offers a concise review of the disparities in academic achievement between college students engaged in in-person and online learning, as identified in existing research.

A number of studies point to the superiority of traditional in-person education over online learning in terms of academic outcomes. For example, Fischer et al. ( 2020 ) conducted a comprehensive study involving 72,000 university students across 433 subjects, revealing that online students tend to achieve slightly lower academic results than their in-class counterparts. Similarly, Bettinger et al. ( 2017 ) found that students at for-profit online universities generally underperformed when compared to their in-person peers. Supporting this trend, Figlio et al. ( 2013 ) indicated that in-person instruction consistently produced better results, particularly among specific subgroups like males, lower-performing students, and Hispanic learners. Additionally, Kaupp’s ( 2012 ) research in California community colleges demonstrated that online students faced lower completion and success rates compared to their traditional in-person counterparts (Fig. 1 ).

The figure compared student achievement in the final tests in the five courses by year, using independent-samples t-tests; the results show a statistically-significant drop in test scores from 2020 (in person) to 2021 (online) for all courses except CT_101.

In contrast, other studies present evidence of online students outperforming their in-person peers. For example, Iglesias-Pradas et al. ( 2021 ) conducted a comparative analysis of 43 bachelor courses at Telecommunication Engineering College in Malaysia, revealing that online students achieved higher academic outcomes than their in-person counterparts. Similarly, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Gonzalez et al. ( 2020 ) found that students engaged in online learning performed better than those who had previously taken the same subjects in traditional in-class settings.

Expanding on this topic, several studies have reported mixed results when comparing the academic performance of online and in-person students, with various student and instructor factors emerging as influential variables. Chesser et al. ( 2020 ) noted that student traits such as conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion play a substantial role in academic achievement, regardless of the learning environment—be it traditional in-person classrooms or online settings. Furthermore, Cacault et al. ( 2021 ) discovered that online students with higher academic proficiency tend to outperform those with lower academic capabilities, suggesting that differences in students’ academic abilities may impact their performance. In contrast, Bergstrand and Savage ( 2013 ) found that online classes received lower overall ratings and exhibited a less respectful learning environment when compared to in-person instruction. Nevertheless, they also observed that the teaching efficiency of both in-class and online courses varied significantly depending on the instructors’ backgrounds and approaches. These findings underscore the multifaceted nature of the online vs. in-person learning debate, highlighting the need for a nuanced understanding of the factors at play.

Theoretical framework

Constructivism is a well-established learning theory that places learners at the forefront of their educational experience, emphasizing their active role in constructing knowledge through interactions with their environment (Duffy and Jonassen, 2009 ). According to constructivist principles, learners build their understanding by assimilating new information into their existing cognitive frameworks (Vygotsky, 1978 ). This theory highlights the importance of context, active engagement, and the social nature of learning (Dewey, 1938 ). Constructivist approaches often involve hands-on activities, problem-solving tasks, and opportunities for collaborative exploration (Brooks and Brooks, 1999 ).

In the realm of education, subject-specific pedagogy emerges as a vital perspective that acknowledges the distinctive nature of different academic disciplines (Shulman, 1986 ). It suggests that teaching methods should be tailored to the specific characteristics of each subject, recognizing that subjects like mathematics, literature, or science require different approaches to facilitate effective learning (Shulman, 1987 ). Subject-specific pedagogy emphasizes that the methods of instruction should mirror the ways experts in a particular field think, reason, and engage with their subject matter (Cochran-Smith and Zeichner, 2005 ).

When applying these principles to the design of instruction for online and in-person learning environments, the significance of adapting methods becomes even more pronounced. Online learning often requires unique approaches due to its reliance on technology, asynchronous interactions, and potential for reduced social presence (Anderson, 2003 ). In-person learning, on the other hand, benefits from face-to-face interactions and immediate feedback (Allen and Seaman, 2016 ). Here, the interplay of constructivism and subject-specific pedagogy becomes evident.

Online learning. In an online environment, constructivist principles can be upheld by creating interactive online activities that promote exploration, reflection, and collaborative learning (Salmon, 2000 ). Discussion forums, virtual labs, and multimedia presentations can provide opportunities for students to actively engage with the subject matter (Harasim, 2017 ). By integrating subject-specific pedagogy, educators can design online content that mirrors the discipline’s methodologies while leveraging technology for authentic experiences (Koehler and Mishra, 2009 ). For instance, an online history course might incorporate virtual museum tours, primary source analysis, and collaborative timeline projects.

In-person learning. In a traditional brick-and-mortar classroom setting, constructivist methods can be implemented through group activities, problem-solving tasks, and in-depth discussions that encourage active participation (Jonassen et al., 2003 ). Subject-specific pedagogy complements this by shaping instructional methods to align with the inherent characteristics of the subject (Hattie, 2009). For instance, in a physics class, hands-on experiments and real-world applications can bring theoretical concepts to life (Hake, 1998 ).

In sum, the fusion of constructivism and subject-specific pedagogy offers a versatile approach to instructional design that adapts to different learning environments (Garrison, 2011 ). By incorporating the principles of both theories, educators can tailor their methods to suit the unique demands of online and in-person learning, ultimately providing students with engaging and effective learning experiences that align with the nature of the subject matter and the mode of instruction.

Course description

The Self-Development Skills Department at King Saud University (KSU) offers five mandatory freshman-level courses. These courses aim to foster advanced thinking skills and cultivate scientific research abilities in students. They do so by imparting essential skills, identifying higher-level thinking patterns, and facilitating hands-on experience in scientific research. The design of these classes is centered around aiding students’ smooth transition into university life. Brief descriptions of these courses are as follows:

University Skills 101 (CI 101) is a three-hour credit course designed to nurture essential academic, communication, and personal skills among all preparatory year students at King Saud University. The primary goal of this course is to equip students with the practical abilities they need to excel in their academic pursuits and navigate their university lives effectively. CI 101 comprises 12 sessions and is an integral part of the curriculum for all incoming freshmen, ensuring a standardized foundation for skill development.

Fitness and Health 101 (FAJB 101) is a one-hour credit course. FAJB 101 focuses on the aspects of self-development skills in terms of health and physical, and the skills related to personal health, nutrition, sports, preventive, psychological, reproductive, and first aid. This course aims to motivate students’ learning process through entertainment, sports activities, and physical exercises to maintain their health. This course is required for all incoming freshmen students at King Saud University.

Entrepreneurship 101 (ENT 101) is a one-hour- credit course. ENT 101 aims to develop students’ skills related to entrepreneurship. The course provides students with knowledge and skills to generate and transform ideas and innovations into practical commercial projects in business settings. The entrepreneurship course consists of 14 sessions and is taught only to students in the business track.

Computer Skills 101 (CT 101) is a three-hour credit course. This provides students with the basic computer skills, e.g., components, operating systems, applications, and communication backup. The course explores data visualization, introductory level of modern programming with algorithms and information security. CT 101 course is taught for all tracks except those in the human track.

Computer Skills 102 (CT 102) is a three-hour credit course. It provides IT skills to the students to utilize computers with high efficiency, develop students’ research and scientific skills, and increase capability to design basic educational software. CT 102 course focuses on operating systems such as Microsoft Office. This course is only taught for students in the human track.

Structure and activities

These courses ranged from one to three hours. A one-hour credit means that students must take an hour of the class each week during the academic semester. The same arrangement would apply to two and three credit-hour courses. The types of activities in each course are shown in Table 1 .

At King Saud University, each semester spans 15 weeks in duration. The total number of semester hours allocated to each course serves as an indicator of its significance within the broader context of the academic program, including the diverse tracks available to students. Throughout the two years under study (i.e., 2020 and 2021), course placements (fall or spring), course content, and the organizational structure remained consistent and uniform.

Participants

The study’s data comes from test scores of a cohort of 16,722 first-year college students enrolled at King Saud University in Saudi Arabia over the span of two academic years: 2020 and 2021. Among these students, 8297 were engaged in traditional, in-person learning in 2020, while 8425 had transitioned to online instruction for the same courses in 2021 due to the Covid-19 pandemic. In 2020, the student population consisted of 51.5% females and 48.5% males. However, in 2021, there was a reversal in these proportions, with female students accounting for 48.5% and male students comprising 51.5% of the total participants.

Regarding student enrollment in the five courses, Table 2 provides a detailed breakdown by average class size, admission scores, and the number of students enrolled in the courses during the two years covered by this study. While the total number of students in each course remained relatively consistent across the two years, there were noticeable fluctuations in average class sizes. Specifically, four out of the five courses experienced substantial increases in class size, with some nearly doubling in size (e.g., ENT_101 and CT_102), while one course (CT_101) showed a reduction in its average class size.

In this study, it must be noted that while some students enrolled in up to three different courses within the same academic year, none repeated the same exam in both years. Specifically, students who failed to pass their courses in 2020 were required to complete them in summer sessions and were consequently not included in this study’s dataset. To ensure clarity and precision in our analysis, the research focused exclusively on student test scores to evaluate and compare the academic effectiveness of online and traditional in-person learning methods. This approach was chosen to provide a clear, direct comparison of the educational impacts associated with each teaching format.

Descriptive analysis of the final exam scores for the two years (2020 and 2021) were conducted. Additionally, comparison of student outcomes in in-person classes in 2020 to their online platform peers in 2021 were conducted using an independent-samples t -test. Subsequently, in order to address potential disparities between the two groups arising from variables such as gender, class size, and admission scores (which serve as an indicator of students’ academic aptitude and pre-enrollment knowledge), multiple regression analyses were conducted. In these multivariate analyses, outcomes of both in-person and online cohorts were assessed within their respective tracks. By carefully considering essential aforementioned variables linked to student performance, the study aimed to ensure a comprehensive and equitable evaluation.

Study instrument

The study obtained students’ final exam scores for the years 2020 (in-person) and 2021 (online) from the school’s records office through their examination management system. In the preparatory year at King Saud University, final exams for all courses are developed by committees composed of faculty members from each department. To ensure valid comparisons, the final exam questions, crafted by departmental committees of professors, remained consistent and uniform for the two years under examination.

Table 3 provides a comprehensive assessment of the reliability of all five tests included in our analysis. These tests exhibit a strong degree of internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients spanning a range from 0.77 to 0.86. This robust and consistent internal consistency measurement underscores the dependable nature of these tests, affirming their reliability and suitability for the study’s objectives.

In terms of assessing test validity, content validity was ensured through a thorough review by university subject matter experts, resulting in test items that align well with the content domain and learning objectives. Additionally, criterion-related validity was established by correlating students’ admissions test scores with their final required freshman test scores in the five subject areas, showing a moderate and acceptable relationship (0.37 to 0.56) between the test scores and the external admissions test. Finally, construct validity was confirmed through reviews by experienced subject instructors, leading to improvements in test content. With guidance from university subject experts, construct validity was established, affirming the effectiveness of the final tests in assessing students’ subject knowledge at the end of their coursework.

Collectively, these validity and reliability measures affirm the soundness and integrity of the final subject tests, establishing their suitability as effective assessment tools for evaluating students’ knowledge in their five mandatory freshman courses at King Saud University.

After obtaining research approval from the Research Committee at King Saud University, the coordinators of the five courses (CI_101, ENT_101, CT_101, CT_102, and FAJB_101) supplied the researchers with the final exam scores of all first-year preparatory year students at King Saud University for the initial semester of the academic years 2020 and 2021. The sample encompassed all students who had completed these five courses during both years, resulting in a total of 16,722 students forming the final group of participants.

Limitations

Several limitations warrant acknowledgment in this study. First, the research was conducted within a well-resourced major public university. As such, the experiences with online classes at other types of institutions (e.g., community colleges, private institutions) may vary significantly. Additionally, the limited data pertaining to in-class teaching practices and the diversity of learning activities across different courses represents a gap that could have provided valuable insights for a more thorough interpretation and explanation of the study’s findings.

To compare student achievement in the final tests in the five courses by year, independent-samples t -tests were conducted. Table 4 shows a statistically-significant drop in test scores from 2020 (in person) to 2021 (online) for all courses except CT_101. The biggest decline was with CT_102 with 3.58 points, and the smallest decline was with CI_101 with 0.18 points.

However, such simple comparison of means between the two years (via t -tests) by subjects does not account for the differences in gender composition, class size, and admission scores between the two academic years, all of which have been associated with student outcomes (e.g., Ho and Kelman, 2014 ; De Paola et al., 2013 ). To account for such potential confounding variables, multiple regressions were conducted to compare the 2 years’ results while controlling for these three factors associated with student achievement.

Table 5 presents the regression results, illustrating the variation in final exam scores between 2020 and 2021, while controlling for gender, class size, and admission scores. Importantly, these results diverge significantly from the outcomes obtained through independent-sample t -test analyses.

Taking into consideration the variables mentioned earlier, students in the 2021 online cohort demonstrated superior performance compared to their 2020 in-person counterparts in CI_101, FAJB_101, and CT_101, with score advantages of 0.89, 0.56, and 5.28 points, respectively. Conversely, in the case of ENT_101, online students in 2021 scored 0.69 points lower than their 2020 in-person counterparts. With CT_102, there were no statistically significant differences in final exam scores between the two cohorts of students.

The study sought to assess the effectiveness of distance learning compared to in-person learning in the higher education setting in Saudi Arabia. We analyzed the final exam scores of 16,722 first-year college students in King Saud University in five required subjects (i.e., CI_101, ENT_101, CT_101, CT_102, and FAJB_101). The study initially performed a simple comparison of mean scores by tracks by year (via t -tests) and then a number of multiple regression analyses which controlled for class size, gender composition, and admission scores.

Overall, the study’s more in-depth findings using multiple regression painted a wholly different picture than the results obtained using t -tests. After controlling for class size, gender composition, and admissions scores, online students in 2021 performed better than their in-person instruction peers in 2020 in University Skills (CI_101), Fitness and Health (FAJB_101), and Computer Skills (CT_101), whereas in-person students outperformed their online peers in Entrepreneurship (ENT_101). There was no meaningful difference in outcomes for students in the Computer Skills (CT_102) course for the two years.

In light of these findings, it raises the question: why do we observe minimal differences (less than a one-point gain or loss) in student outcomes in courses like University Skills, Fitness and Health, Entrepreneurship, and Advanced Computer Skills based on the mode of instruction? Is it possible that when subjects are primarily at a basic or introductory level, as is the case with these courses, the mode of instruction may have a limited impact as long as the concepts are effectively communicated in a manner familiar and accessible to students?

In today’s digital age, one could argue that students in more developed countries, such as Saudi Arabia, generally possess the skills and capabilities to effectively engage with materials presented in both in-person and online formats. However, there is a notable exception in the Basic Computer Skills course, where the online cohort outperformed their in-person counterparts by more than 5 points. Insights from interviews with the instructors of this course suggest that this result may be attributed to the course’s basic and conceptual nature, coupled with the availability of instructional videos that students could revisit at their own pace.

Given that students enter this course with varying levels of computer skills, self-paced learning may have allowed them to cover course materials at their preferred speed, concentrating on less familiar topics while swiftly progressing through concepts they already understood. The advantages of such self-paced learning have been documented by scholars like Tullis and Benjamin ( 2011 ), who found that self-paced learners often outperform those who spend the same amount of time studying identical materials. This approach allows learners to allocate their time more effectively according to their individual learning pace, providing greater ownership and control over their learning experience. As such, in courses like introductory computer skills, it can be argued that becoming familiar with fundamental and conceptual topics may not require extensive in-class collaboration. Instead, it may be more about exposure to and digestion of materials in a format and at a pace tailored to students with diverse backgrounds, knowledge levels, and skill sets.

Further investigation is needed to more fully understand why some classes benefitted from online instruction while others did not, and vice versa. Perhaps, it could be posited that some content areas are more conducive to in-person (or online) format while others are not. Or it could be that the different results of the two modes of learning were driven by students of varying academic abilities and engagement, with low-achieving students being more vulnerable to the limitations of online learning (e.g., Kofoed et al., 2021 ). Whatever the reasons, the results of the current study can be enlightened by a more in-depth analysis of the various factors associated with such different forms of learning. Moreover, although not clear cut, what the current study does provide is additional evidence against any dire consequences to student learning (at least in the higher ed setting) as a result of sudden increase in online learning with possible benefits of its wider use being showcased.

Based on the findings of this study, we recommend that educational leaders adopt a measured approach to online learning—a stance that neither fully embraces nor outright denounces it. The impact on students’ experiences and engagement appears to vary depending on the subjects and methods of instruction, sometimes hindering, other times promoting effective learning, while some classes remain relatively unaffected.

Rather than taking a one-size-fits-all approach, educational leaders should be open to exploring the nuances behind these outcomes. This involves examining why certain courses thrived with online delivery, while others either experienced a decline in student achievement or remained largely unaffected. By exploring these differentiated outcomes associated with diverse instructional formats, leaders in higher education institutions and beyond can make informed decisions about resource allocation. For instance, resources could be channeled towards in-person learning for courses that benefit from it, while simultaneously expanding online access for courses that have demonstrated improved outcomes through its virtual format. This strategic approach not only optimizes resource allocation but could also open up additional revenue streams for the institution.

Considering the enduring presence of online learning, both before the pandemic and its accelerated adoption due to Covid-19, there is an increasing need for institutions of learning and scholars in higher education, as well as other fields, to prioritize the study of its effects and optimal utilization. This study, which compares student outcomes between two cohorts exposed to in-person and online instruction (before and during Covid-19) at the largest university in Saudi Arabia, represents a meaningful step in this direction.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Allen IE, Seaman J (2016) Online report card: Tracking online education in the United States . Babson Survey Group

Anderson T (2003) Getting the mix right again: an updated and theoretical rationale for interaction. Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn , 4 (2). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v4i2.149

Arkorful V, Abaidoo N (2015) The role of e-learning, advantages and disadvantages of its adoption in higher education. Int J Instruct Technol Distance Learn 12(1):29–42

Google Scholar  

Aucejo EM, French J, Araya MP, Zafar B (2020) The impact of COVID-19 on student experiences and expectations: Evidence from a survey. Journal of Public Economics 191:104271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104271

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Azevedo JP, Hasan A, Goldemberg D, Iqbal SA, and Geven K (2020) Simulating the potential impacts of COVID-19 school closures on schooling and learning outcomes: a set of global estimates. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper

Bergstrand K, Savage SV (2013) The chalkboard versus the avatar: Comparing the effectiveness of online and in-class courses. Teach Sociol 41(3):294–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X13479949

Article   Google Scholar  

Bettinger EP, Fox L, Loeb S, Taylor ES (2017) Virtual classrooms: How online college courses affect student success. Am Econ Rev 107(9):2855–2875. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20151193

Bozkurt A (2019) From distance education to open and distance learning: a holistic evaluation of history, definitions, and theories. Handbook of research on learning in the age of transhumanism , 252–273. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-8431-5.ch016

Brooks JG, Brooks MG (1999) In search of understanding: the case for constructivist classrooms . Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Cacault MP, Hildebrand C, Laurent-Lucchetti J, Pellizzari M (2021) Distance learning in higher education: evidence from a randomized experiment. J Eur Econ Assoc 19(4):2322–2372. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvaa060

Chesser S, Murrah W, Forbes SA (2020) Impact of personality on choice of instructional delivery and students’ performance. Am Distance Educ 34(3):211–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2019.1705116

Christensen CM, Raynor M, McDonald R (2015) What is disruptive innovation? Harv Bus Rev 93(12):44–53

Cochran-Smith M, Zeichner KM (2005) Studying teacher education: the report of the AERA panel on research and teacher education. Choice Rev Online 43 (4). https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.43-2338

De Paola M, Ponzo M, Scoppa V (2013) Class size effects on student achievement: heterogeneity across abilities and fields. Educ Econ 21(2):135–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2010.511811

Dewey, J (1938) Experience and education . Simon & Schuster

Di Pietro G, Biagi F, Costa P, Karpinski Z, Mazza J (2020) The likely impact of COVID-19 on education: reflections based on the existing literature and recent international datasets. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg

Duffy TM, Jonassen DH (2009) Constructivism and the technology of instruction: a conversation . Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group

Edvardsson IR, Oskarsson GK (2008) Distance education and academic achievement in business administration: the case of the University of Akureyri. Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn, 9 (3). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v9i3.542

Figlio D, Rush M, Yin L (2013) Is it live or is it internet? Experimental estimates of the effects of online instruction on student learning. J Labor Econ 31(4):763–784. https://doi.org/10.3386/w16089

Fischer C, Xu D, Rodriguez F, Denaro K, Warschauer M (2020) Effects of course modality in summer session: enrollment patterns and student performance in face-to-face and online classes. Internet Higher Educ 45:100710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.100710

Gadamer HG (2001) Education is self‐education. J Philos Educ 35(4):529–538

Garrison DR (2011) E-learning in the 21st century: a framework for research and practice . Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203838761

Gonzalez T, de la Rubia MA, Hincz KP, Comas-Lopez M, Subirats L, Fort S, & Sacha GM (2020) Influence of COVID-19 confinement on students’ performance in higher education. PLOS One 15 (10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239490

Hake RR (1998) Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: a six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. Am J Phys 66(1):64–74. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.18809

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Hall ACG, Lineweaver TT, Hogan EE, O’Brien SW (2020) On or off task: the negative influence of laptops on neighboring students’ learning depends on how they are used. Comput Educ 153:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103901

Harasim L (2017) Learning theory and online technologies. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203846933

Hiemstra R (1994) Self-directed learning. In WJ Rothwell & KJ Sensenig (Eds), The sourcebook for self-directed learning (pp 9–20). HRD Press

Ho DE, Kelman MG (2014) Does class size affect the gender gap? A natural experiment in law. J Legal Stud 43(2):291–321

Iglesias-Pradas S, Hernández-García Á, Chaparro-Peláez J, Prieto JL (2021) Emergency remote teaching and students’ academic performance in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic: a case study. Comput Hum Behav 119:106713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106713

Jepsen C (2015) Class size: does it matter for student achievement? IZA World of Labor . https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.190

Jonassen DH, Howland J, Moore J, & Marra RM (2003) Learning to solve problems with technology: a constructivist perspective (2nd ed). Columbus: Prentice Hall

Kaupp R (2012) Online penalty: the impact of online instruction on the Latino-White achievement gap. J Appli Res Community Coll 19(2):3–11. https://doi.org/10.46569/10211.3/99362

Koehler MJ, Mishra P (2009) What is technological pedagogical content knowledge? Contemp Issues Technol Teacher Educ 9(1):60–70

Kofoed M, Gebhart L, Gilmore D, & Moschitto R (2021) Zooming to class?: Experimental evidence on college students’ online learning during COVID-19. SSRN Electron J. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3846700

Kuhfeld M, Soland J, Tarasawa B, Johnson A, Ruzek E, Liu J (2020) Projecting the potential impact of COVID-19 school closures on academic achievement. Educ Res 49(8):549–565. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x20965918

Lai JW, Bower M (2019) How is the use of technology in education evaluated? A systematic review. Comput Educ 133:27–42

Meinck S, Brese F (2019) Trends in gender gaps: using 20 years of evidence from TIMSS. Large-Scale Assess Educ 7 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-019-0076-3

Radha R, Mahalakshmi K, Kumar VS, Saravanakumar AR (2020) E-Learning during lockdown of COVID-19 pandemic: a global perspective. Int J Control Autom 13(4):1088–1099

Ravizza SM, Uitvlugt MG, Fenn KM (2017) Logged in and zoned out: How laptop Internet use relates to classroom learning. Psychol Sci 28(2):171–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/095679761667731

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Sadeghi M (2019) A shift from classroom to distance learning: advantages and limitations. Int J Res Engl Educ 4(1):80–88

Salmon G (2000) E-moderating: the key to teaching and learning online . Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203816684

Shulman LS (1986) Those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. Edu Res 15(2):4–14

Shulman LS (1987) Knowledge and teaching: foundations of the new reform. Harv Educ Rev 57(1):1–22

Tullis JG, Benjamin AS (2011) On the effectiveness of self-paced learning. J Mem Lang 64(2):109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2010.11.002

Valverde-Berrocoso J, Garrido-Arroyo MDC, Burgos-Videla C, Morales-Cevallos MB (2020) Trends in educational research about e-learning: a systematic literature review (2009–2018). Sustainability 12(12):5153

Volk F, Floyd CG, Shaler L, Ferguson L, Gavulic AM (2020) Active duty military learners and distance education: factors of persistence and attrition. Am J Distance Educ 34(3):1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2019.1708842

Vygotsky LS (1978) Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Sports and Recreation Management, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Bandar N. Alarifi

Division of Research and Doctoral Studies, Concordia University Chicago, 7400 Augusta Street, River Forest, IL, 60305, USA

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Dr. Bandar Alarifi collected and organized data for the five courses and wrote the manuscript. Dr. Steve Song analyzed and interpreted the data regarding student achievement and revised the manuscript. These authors jointly supervised this work and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bandar N. Alarifi .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The author declares no competing interests.

Ethical approval

This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee at King Saud University on 25 March 2021 (No. 4/4/255639). This research does not involve the collection or analysis of data that could be used to identify participants (including email addresses or other contact details). All information is anonymized and the submission does not include images that may identify the person. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Informed consent

This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Alarifi, B.N., Song, S. Online vs in-person learning in higher education: effects on student achievement and recommendations for leadership. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 86 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02590-1

Download citation

Received : 07 June 2023

Accepted : 21 December 2023

Published : 09 January 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02590-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

How does virtual learning impact students in higher education?

Subscribe to the brown center on education policy newsletter, stephanie riegg cellini stephanie riegg cellini nonresident senior fellow - governance studies , brown center on education policy.

August 13, 2021

In 2020, the pandemic pushed millions of college students around the world into virtual learning. As the new academic year begins, many colleges in the U.S. are poised to bring students back to campus, but a large amount of uncertainty remains. Some institutions will undoubtedly continue to offer online or hybrid classes, even as in-person instruction resumes. At the same time, low vaccination rates, new coronavirus variants, and travel restrictions for international students may mean a return to fully online instruction for some U.S. students and many more around the world.

Public attention has largely focused on the learning losses of K-12 students who shifted online during the pandemic. Yet, we may have reason to be concerned about postsecondary students too. What can we expect from the move to virtual learning? How does virtual learning impact student outcomes? And how does it compare to in-person instruction at the postsecondary level?

Several new papers shed light on these issues, building on previous work in higher education and assessing the efficacy of online education in new contexts. The results are generally consistent with past research: Online coursework generally yields worse student performance than in-person coursework. The negative effects of online course-taking are particularly pronounced for less-academically prepared students and for students pursuing bachelor’s degrees. New evidence from 2020 also suggests that the switch to online course-taking in the pandemic led to declines in course completion. However, a few new studies point to some positive effects of online learning, too. This post discusses this new evidence and its implications for the upcoming academic year.

Evaluating online instruction in higher education

A number of studies have assessed online versus in-person learning at the college level in recent years. A key concern in this literature is that students typically self-select into online or in-person programs or courses, confounding estimates of student outcomes. That is, differences in the characteristics of students themselves may drive differences in the outcome measures we observe that are unrelated to the mode of instruction. In addition, the content, instructor, assignments, and other course features might differ across online and in-person modes as well, which makes apples-to-apples comparisons difficult.

The most compelling studies of online education draw on a random assignment design (i.e., randomized control trial or RCT) to isolate the causal effect of online versus in-person learning. Several pathbreaking studies were able to estimate causal impacts of performance on final exams or course grades in recent years. Virtually all of these studies found that online instruction resulted in lower student performance relative to in-person instruction; although in one case , students with hybrid instruction performed similarly to their in-person peers. Negative effects of online course-taking were particularly pronounced for males and less-academically prepared students.

A new paper by Kofoed and co-authors adds to this literature looking specifically at online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in a novel context: the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. When many colleges moved classes completely online or let students choose their own mode of instruction at the start of the pandemic, West Point economics professors arranged to randomly assign students to in-person or online modes of learning. The same instructors taught one online and one in-person economics class each, and all materials, exams, and assignments were otherwise identical, minimizing biases that otherwise stand in the way of true comparisons. They find that online education lowered a student’s final grade by about 0.2 standard deviations. Their work also confirms the results of previous papers, finding that the negative effect of online learning was driven by students with lower academic ability. A follow-up survey of students’ experiences suggests that online students had trouble concentrating on their coursework and felt less connected to both their peers and instructors relative to their in-person peers.

Cacault et al. (2021) also use an RCT to assess the effects of online lectures in a Swiss university. The authors find that having access to a live-streamed lecture in addition to an in-person option improves the achievement of high-ability students, but lowers the achievement of low-ability students. The key to understanding this two-pronged effect is the counterfactual: When streamed lectures substitute for no attendance (e.g., if a student is ill), they can help students, but when streaming lectures substitute for in-person attendance, they can hurt students.

Broader impacts of online learning

One drawback of RCTs is that these studies are typically limited to a single college and often a single course within that college, so it is not clear if the results generalize to other contexts. Several papers in the literature draw on larger samples of students in non-randomized settings and mitigate selection problems with various econometric methods. These papers find common themes: Students in online courses generally get lower grades, are less likely to perform well in follow-on coursework, and are less likely to graduate than similar students taking in-person classes.

In a recent paper , my co-author Hernando Grueso and I add to this strand of the literature, expanding it to a very different context. We draw on data from the country of Colombia, where students take a mandatory exit exam when they graduate. Using these data, we can assess test scores as an outcome, rather than (more subjective) course grades used in other studies. We can also assess performance across a wide range of institutions, degree programs, and majors.

We find that bachelor’s degree students in online programs perform worse on nearly all test score measures—including math, reading, writing, and English—relative to their counterparts in similar on-campus programs. Results for shorter technical certificates, however, are more mixed. While online students perform significantly worse than on-campus students on exit exams in private institutions, they perform better in SENA, the main public vocational institution in the country, suggesting substantial heterogeneity across institutions in the quality of online programming. Interviews with SENA staff indicate that SENA’s approach of synchronous learning and real-world projects may be working for some online students, but we cannot definitively call this causal evidence, particularly because we can only observe the students who graduate.

A new working paper by Fischer et al. pushes beyond near-term outcomes, like grades and scores, to consider longer-term outcomes, like graduation and time-to-degree, for bachelor’s degree-seeking students in a large public university in California. They find reason to be optimistic about online coursework: When students take courses required for their major online, they are more likely to graduate in four years and see a small decrease in time-to-degree relative to students taking the requirements in-person.

On the other hand, new work considering course completion during the pandemic is less promising. Looking at student outcomes in spring 2020 in Virginia’s community college system, Bird et al. find that the switch to online instruction resulted in an 8.5% reduction in course completion. They find that both withdrawals and failures rose. They also confirm findings in the literature that negative impacts are more extreme among less-academically-prepared students.

Online learning in the fall and beyond

Much more research on virtual learning will undoubtedly be forthcoming post-pandemic. For now, college professors and administrators should consider that college students pushed online may be less prepared for future follow-on classes, their GPAs may be lower, course completion may suffer, and overall learning may have declined relative to in-person cohorts in previous years. These results seem particularly problematic for students with less academic preparation and those in bachelor’s degree programs.

The research is less clear on the impact of virtual instruction on college completion. Although course completion rates appear to be lower for online courses relative to in-person, the evidence is mixed on the impact of virtual instruction on graduation and time-to-degree. The negative learning impacts, reduced course completion, and lack of connection with other students and faculty in a virtual environment could ultimately reduce college completion rates. On the other hand, there is also evidence that the availability of online classes may allow students to move through their degree requirement more quickly.

As the fall semester approaches, colleges will need to make critical choices about online, hybrid, and in-person course offerings. Maintaining some of the most successful online courses will enhance flexibility at this uncertain time and allow some students to continue to make progress on their degrees if they get sick or cannot return to campus for other reasons. For those transitioning back to campus, administrators might consider additional in-person programming, review sessions, tutoring, and other enhanced supports as students make up for learning losses associated with the virtual instruction of the past year.

Related Content

Stephanie Riegg Cellini, Kathryn J. Blanchard

July 22, 2021

Daphna Bassok, Lauren Bauer, Stephanie Riegg Cellini, Helen Shwe Hadani, Michael Hansen, Douglas N. Harris, Brad Olsen, Richard V. Reeves, Jon Valant, Kenneth K. Wong

March 12, 2021

Education Policy Higher Education

Governance Studies

Brown Center on Education Policy

Phillip Levine

September 3, 2024

Zachary Billot, Annie Vong, Nicole Dias Del Valle, Emily Markovich Morris

August 26, 2024

Online only

11:00 am - 12:00 pm EDT

• Teaching centers

The history and rise of online learning

The University of Missouri System has a rich history of pioneering distance and online education. The earliest forms of distance education began with the Center for Distance and Independent Study at the University of Missouri-Columbia (Mizzou) in the early 1900s with correspondence courses; work was sent and received by mail. In 1996, Mizzou’s Distance Learning Design Center was formed, beginning the expansion into online learning. The System's strategic push for online learning started in earnest in 2018 with the formation of Missouri Online, an initiative to provide high-quality digital education across its four universities. To understand the broader context of this evolution, let’s explore historical milestones that have shaped distance and online education over the centuries.

The past and future of online teaching

For centuries, humans have taken advantage of advances in technology to make learning opportunities available to students at a distance. A teacher in Boston named Caleb Phillips offered courses by mail in 1728 ( Gershon, 2020 ). By the late nineteenth century, institutions were providing complete degrees by correspondence. In 1892, the University of Wisconsin-Madison coined the term “distance education” and, by 1906, began students phonograph records of lectures ( Pappas, 2013 ). The city of Chicago shifted public school instruction to radio during a polio outbreak in 1937 ( Daley, 2020 ).

However, computers and the internet revolutionized the old “correspondence learning” model.

The roots of online learning can be traced back to the early days of computer-based education in the 1960s and 1970s, when rudimentary mainframe computers were used to deliver educational content. The emergence of the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s allowed online learning to gain momentum, paving the way for more interactive and accessible learning platforms ( Kentnor, 2015 ). Universities and institutions started experimenting with web-based courses, incorporating tools such as discussion forums, multimedia presentations, and email correspondence to deliver instruction to remote learners.

The early 2000s witnessed the introduction of learning management systems (LMSs), such as Blackboard and Moodle, which provided centralized platforms for course administration and content delivery. These technological advancements made online learning more scalable and efficient, further facilitating the growth of distance education programs ( Coates, 2005 ).

After portable MP3 players (particularly the iPod) gained popularity in the mid-2000s, Apple launched iTunes U, a dedicated service offering free university course materials for download. Although iTunes U did not offer degree programs, millions of users downloaded content from institutions such as Stanford University, Duke University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. By February 2013, iTunes U  reached over one billion downloads ; Stanford alone had  40 million downloads as of 2011 . However, iTunes U was discontinued at the end of 2021.

The rise of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) in the early 2010s marked another milestone in the evolution of online learning. MOOCs offered free or low-cost access to courses from top universities and institutions, attracting millions of learners worldwide and democratizing access to education on a global scale ( Alyoussef, 2023 ).

In recent years, technological advancements such as  artificial intelligence , virtual reality, and adaptive learning algorithms have further transformed online learning, enabling more personalized and immersive learning experiences. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic catalyzed the widespread adoption of online learning, accelerating the digital transformation of higher education and highlighting the importance of flexible and resilient learning solutions ( McKinsey, 2023 ;  Gorski & Tudorache, 2023 ).

Forbes provides a comprehensive overview of the  rapid growth and evolution of online learning in the United States . Some key takeaways from the article are as follows. 

Key takeaways

• Rapid growth of online learning : Online learning has experienced exponential growth since the early 2010s, with millions of college and university students in the U.S. now taking at least some classes online.
• Diverse student population : Distance learners come from diverse backgrounds, including traditional college-age students, working parents, military service members, established professionals, and lifelong learners. This diversity enriches the online learning experience and underscores the importance of inclusive educational practices.
• Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic : The COVID-19 pandemic significantly accelerated the adoption of online learning, with a staggering 75% of postsecondary students taking online classes in fall 2020. While online enrollment rates have slightly decreased post-pandemic, online education remains a prominent feature of higher education.
• Expansion of primarily online institutions : About 6% of all U.S. college students attend mainly online institutions, offering flexible and accessible education options. These institutions cater to both full-time and part-time learners, contributing to the democratization of education.
• Continued growth and evolution : Despite the challenges posed by the pandemic, online learning continues to evolve and expand. From MOOCs to fully remote degree programs, online education offers a range of options for learners seeking flexible and convenient learning experiences.

What’s next in online education?

Of course, online learning continues to evolve, and several emerging trends and innovations are shaping its future. These developments hold the potential to enhance learning experiences, expand access to education, and address societal needs. Here are a few key trends to watch:

• Integration of emerging technologies : Artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain and augmented reality (AR) are revolutionizing online learning. AI-powered adaptive learning platforms personalize learning experiences based on students’ individual needs and preferences ( Bundit et al., 2022 ;  Otto et al., 2023 ), while blockchain technology is being explored for credentialing and certification in online education ( Tahora et al., 2023 ). AR and virtual reality technologies offer immersive learning environments, allowing students to engage with course materials in new and interactive ways ( Bermejo et al., 2023 ).
• Microcredentials and Stackable Credentials :  Microcredentials , also known as digital badges or nanodegrees, are short-form credentials that validate specific skills or knowledgable areas. These credentials continue to gain popularity in online education as a way to provide targeted training and upskilling opportunities for learners. Stackable credentials allow learners to accumulate and combine microcredentials with comprehensive skill sets and credentials recognized by employers and industry partners ( Varadarajan et al., 2023 ). 

Final thoughts

By embracing the rich diversity of learners, leveraging innovative technologies, and implementing inclusive teaching practices, we can create learning environments that empower all individuals to thrive and succeed. As we look to the future of online education, let us continue to champion inclusivity, flexibility, and excellence, ensuring that every learner can fulfill their potential and contribute meaningfully to our global community. 

Created on August 29, 2024

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection

Online and face‐to‐face learning: Evidence from students’ performance during the Covid‐19 pandemic

Carolyn chisadza.

1 Department of Economics, University of Pretoria, Hatfield South Africa

Matthew Clance

Thulani mthembu.

2 Department of Education Innovation, University of Pretoria, Hatfield South Africa

Nicky Nicholls

Eleni yitbarek.

This study investigates the factors that predict students' performance after transitioning from face‐to‐face to online learning as a result of the Covid‐19 pandemic. It uses students' responses from survey questions and the difference in the average assessment grades between pre‐lockdown and post‐lockdown at a South African university. We find that students' performance was positively associated with good wifi access, relative to using mobile internet data. We also observe lower academic performance for students who found transitioning to online difficult and who expressed a preference for self‐study (i.e. reading through class slides and notes) over assisted study (i.e. joining live lectures or watching recorded lectures). The findings suggest that improving digital infrastructure and reducing the cost of internet access may be necessary for mitigating the impact of the Covid‐19 pandemic on education outcomes.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Covid‐19 pandemic has been a wake‐up call to many countries regarding their capacity to cater for mass online education. This situation has been further complicated in developing countries, such as South Africa, who lack the digital infrastructure for the majority of the population. The extended lockdown in South Africa saw most of the universities with mainly in‐person teaching scrambling to source hardware (e.g. laptops, internet access), software (e.g. Microsoft packages, data analysis packages) and internet data for disadvantaged students in order for the semester to recommence. Not only has the pandemic revealed the already stark inequality within the tertiary student population, but it has also revealed that high internet data costs in South Africa may perpetuate this inequality, making online education relatively inaccessible for disadvantaged students. 1

The lockdown in South Africa made it possible to investigate the changes in second‐year students' performance in the Economics department at the University of Pretoria. In particular, we are interested in assessing what factors predict changes in students' performance after transitioning from face‐to‐face (F2F) to online learning. Our main objectives in answering this study question are to establish what study materials the students were able to access (i.e. slides, recordings, or live sessions) and how students got access to these materials (i.e. the infrastructure they used).

The benefits of education on economic development are well established in the literature (Gyimah‐Brempong,  2011 ), ranging from health awareness (Glick et al.,  2009 ), improved technological innovations, to increased capacity development and employment opportunities for the youth (Anyanwu,  2013 ; Emediegwu,  2021 ). One of the ways in which inequality is perpetuated in South Africa, and Africa as a whole, is through access to education (Anyanwu,  2016 ; Coetzee,  2014 ; Tchamyou et al.,  2019 ); therefore, understanding the obstacles that students face in transitioning to online learning can be helpful in ensuring more equal access to education.

Using students' responses from survey questions and the difference in the average grades between pre‐lockdown and post‐lockdown, our findings indicate that students' performance in the online setting was positively associated with better internet access. Accessing assisted study material, such as narrated slides or recordings of the online lectures, also helped students. We also find lower academic performance for students who reported finding transitioning to online difficult and for those who expressed a preference for self‐study (i.e. reading through class slides and notes) over assisted study (i.e. joining live lectures or watching recorded lectures). The average grades between pre‐lockdown and post‐lockdown were about two points and three points lower for those who reported transitioning to online teaching difficult and for those who indicated a preference for self‐study, respectively. The findings suggest that improving the quality of internet infrastructure and providing assisted learning can be beneficial in reducing the adverse effects of the Covid‐19 pandemic on learning outcomes.

Our study contributes to the literature by examining the changes in the online (post‐lockdown) performance of students and their F2F (pre‐lockdown) performance. This approach differs from previous studies that, in most cases, use between‐subject designs where one group of students following online learning is compared to a different group of students attending F2F lectures (Almatra et al.,  2015 ; Brown & Liedholm,  2002 ). This approach has a limitation in that that there may be unobserved characteristics unique to students choosing online learning that differ from those choosing F2F lectures. Our approach avoids this issue because we use a within‐subject design: we compare the performance of the same students who followed F2F learning Before lockdown and moved to online learning during lockdown due to the Covid‐19 pandemic. Moreover, the study contributes to the limited literature that compares F2F and online learning in developing countries.

Several studies that have also compared the effectiveness of online learning and F2F classes encounter methodological weaknesses, such as small samples, not controlling for demographic characteristics, and substantial differences in course materials and assessments between online and F2F contexts. To address these shortcomings, our study is based on a relatively large sample of students and includes demographic characteristics such as age, gender and perceived family income classification. The lecturer and course materials also remained similar in the online and F2F contexts. A significant proportion of our students indicated that they never had online learning experience before. Less than 20% of the students in the sample had previous experience with online learning. This highlights the fact that online education is still relatively new to most students in our sample.

Given the global experience of the fourth industrial revolution (4IR), 2 with rapidly accelerating technological progress, South Africa needs to be prepared for the possibility of online learning becoming the new norm in the education system. To this end, policymakers may consider engaging with various organizations (schools, universities, colleges, private sector, and research facilities) To adopt interventions that may facilitate the transition to online learning, while at the same time ensuring fair access to education for all students across different income levels. 3

1.1. Related literature

Online learning is a form of distance education which mainly involves internet‐based education where courses are offered synchronously (i.e. live sessions online) and/or asynchronously (i.e. students access course materials online in their own time, which is associated with the more traditional distance education). On the other hand, traditional F2F learning is real time or synchronous learning. In a physical classroom, instructors engage with the students in real time, while in the online format instructors can offer real time lectures through learning management systems (e.g. Blackboard Collaborate), or record the lectures for the students to watch later. Purely online courses are offered entirely over the internet, while blended learning combines traditional F2F classes with learning over the internet, and learning supported by other technologies (Nguyen,  2015 ).

Moreover, designing online courses requires several considerations. For example, the quality of the learning environment, the ease of using the learning platform, the learning outcomes to be achieved, instructor support to assist and motivate students to engage with the course material, peer interaction, class participation, type of assessments (Paechter & Maier,  2010 ), not to mention training of the instructor in adopting and introducing new teaching methods online (Lundberg et al.,  2008 ). In online learning, instructors are more facilitators of learning. On the other hand, traditional F2F classes are structured in such a way that the instructor delivers knowledge, is better able to gauge understanding and interest of students, can engage in class activities, and can provide immediate feedback on clarifying questions during the class. Additionally, the designing of traditional F2F courses can be less time consuming for instructors compared to online courses (Navarro,  2000 ).

Online learning is also particularly suited for nontraditional students who require flexibility due to work or family commitments that are not usually associated with the undergraduate student population (Arias et al.,  2018 ). Initially the nontraditional student belonged to the older adult age group, but with blended learning becoming more commonplace in high schools, colleges and universities, online learning has begun to traverse a wider range of age groups. However, traditional F2F classes are still more beneficial for learners that are not so self‐sufficient and lack discipline in working through the class material in the required time frame (Arias et al.,  2018 ).

For the purpose of this literature review, both pure online and blended learning are considered to be online learning because much of the evidence in the literature compares these two types against the traditional F2F learning. The debate in the literature surrounding online learning versus F2F teaching continues to be a contentious one. A review of the literature reveals mixed findings when comparing the efficacy of online learning on student performance in relation to the traditional F2F medium of instruction (Lundberg et al.,  2008 ; Nguyen,  2015 ). A number of studies conducted Before the 2000s find what is known today in the empirical literature as the “No Significant Difference” phenomenon (Russell & International Distance Education Certificate Center (IDECC),  1999 ). The seminal work from Russell and IDECC ( 1999 ) involved over 350 comparative studies on online/distance learning versus F2F learning, dating back to 1928. The author finds no significant difference overall between online and traditional F2F classroom education outcomes. Subsequent studies that followed find similar “no significant difference” outcomes (Arbaugh,  2000 ; Fallah & Ubell,  2000 ; Freeman & Capper,  1999 ; Johnson et al.,  2000 ; Neuhauser,  2002 ). While Bernard et al. ( 2004 ) also find that overall there is no significant difference in achievement between online education and F2F education, the study does find significant heterogeneity in student performance for different activities. The findings show that students in F2F classes outperform the students participating in synchronous online classes (i.e. classes that require online students to participate in live sessions at specific times). However, asynchronous online classes (i.e. students access class materials at their own time online) outperform F2F classes.

More recent studies find significant results for online learning outcomes in relation to F2F outcomes. On the one hand, Shachar and Yoram ( 2003 ) and Shachar and Neumann ( 2010 ) conduct a meta‐analysis of studies from 1990 to 2009 and find that in 70% of the cases, students taking courses by online education outperformed students in traditionally instructed courses (i.e. F2F lectures). In addition, Navarro and Shoemaker ( 2000 ) observe that learning outcomes for online learners are as effective as or better than outcomes for F2F learners, regardless of background characteristics. In a study on computer science students, Dutton et al. ( 2002 ) find online students perform significantly better compared to the students who take the same course on campus. A meta‐analysis conducted by the US Department of Education finds that students who took all or part of their course online performed better, on average, than those taking the same course through traditional F2F instructions. The report also finds that the effect sizes are larger for studies in which the online learning was collaborative or instructor‐driven than in those studies where online learners worked independently (Means et al.,  2010 ).

On the other hand, evidence by Brown and Liedholm ( 2002 ) based on test scores from macroeconomics students in the United States suggest that F2F students tend to outperform online students. These findings are supported by Coates et al. ( 2004 ) who base their study on macroeconomics students in the United States, and Xu and Jaggars ( 2014 ) who find negative effects for online students using a data set of about 500,000 courses taken by over 40,000 students in Washington. Furthermore, Almatra et al. ( 2015 ) compare overall course grades between online and F2F students for a Telecommunications course and find that F2F students significantly outperform online learning students. In an experimental study where students are randomly assigned to attend live lectures versus watching the same lectures online, Figlio et al. ( 2013 ) observe some evidence that the traditional format has a positive effect compared to online format. Interestingly, Callister and Love ( 2016 ) specifically compare the learning outcomes of online versus F2F skills‐based courses and find that F2F learners earned better outcomes than online learners even when using the same technology. This study highlights that some of the inconsistencies that we find in the results comparing online to F2F learning might be influenced by the nature of the course: theory‐based courses might be less impacted by in‐person interaction than skills‐based courses.

The fact that the reviewed studies on the effects of F2F versus online learning on student performance have been mainly focused in developed countries indicates the dearth of similar studies being conducted in developing countries. This gap in the literature may also highlight a salient point: online learning is still relatively underexplored in developing countries. The lockdown in South Africa therefore provides us with an opportunity to contribute to the existing literature from a developing country context.

2. CONTEXT OF STUDY

South Africa went into national lockdown in March 2020 due to the Covid‐19 pandemic. Like most universities in the country, the first semester for undergraduate courses at the University of Pretoria had already been running since the start of the academic year in February. Before the pandemic, a number of F2F lectures and assessments had already been conducted in most courses. The nationwide lockdown forced the university, which was mainly in‐person teaching, to move to full online learning for the remainder of the semester. This forced shift from F2F teaching to online learning allows us to investigate the changes in students' performance.

Before lockdown, classes were conducted on campus. During lockdown, these live classes were moved to an online platform, Blackboard Collaborate, which could be accessed by all registered students on the university intranet (“ClickUP”). However, these live online lectures involve substantial internet data costs for students. To ensure access to course content for those students who were unable to attend the live online lectures due to poor internet connections or internet data costs, several options for accessing course content were made available. These options included prerecorded narrated slides (which required less usage of internet data), recordings of the live online lectures, PowerPoint slides with explanatory notes and standard PDF lecture slides.

At the same time, the university managed to procure and loan out laptops to a number of disadvantaged students, and negotiated with major mobile internet data providers in the country for students to have free access to study material through the university's “connect” website (also referred to as the zero‐rated website). However, this free access excluded some video content and live online lectures (see Table  1 ). The university also provided between 10 and 20 gigabytes of mobile internet data per month, depending on the network provider, sent to students' mobile phones to assist with internet data costs.

Sites available on zero‐rated website

Note : The table summarizes the sites that were available on the zero‐rated website and those that incurred data costs.

High data costs continue to be a contentious issue in Africa where average incomes are low. Gilbert ( 2019 ) reports that South Africa ranked 16th of the 45 countries researched in terms of the most expensive internet data in Africa, at US$6.81 per gigabyte, in comparison to other Southern African countries such as Mozambique (US$1.97), Zambia (US$2.70), and Lesotho (US$4.09). Internet data prices have also been called into question in South Africa after the Competition Commission published a report from its Data Services Market Inquiry calling the country's internet data pricing “excessive” (Gilbert,  2019 ).

3. EMPIRICAL APPROACH

We use a sample of 395 s‐year students taking a macroeconomics module in the Economics department to compare the effects of F2F and online learning on students' performance using a range of assessments. The module was an introduction to the application of theoretical economic concepts. The content was both theory‐based (developing economic growth models using concepts and equations) and skill‐based (application involving the collection of data from online data sources and analyzing the data using statistical software). Both individual and group assignments formed part of the assessments. Before the end of the semester, during lockdown in June 2020, we asked the students to complete a survey with questions related to the transition from F2F to online learning and the difficulties that they may have faced. For example, we asked the students: (i) how easy or difficult they found the transition from F2F to online lectures; (ii) what internet options were available to them and which they used the most to access the online prescribed work; (iii) what format of content they accessed and which they preferred the most (i.e. self‐study material in the form of PDF and PowerPoint slides with notes vs. assisted study with narrated slides and lecture recordings); (iv) what difficulties they faced accessing the live online lectures, to name a few. Figure  1 summarizes the key survey questions that we asked the students regarding their transition from F2F to online learning.

Summary of survey data

Before the lockdown, the students had already attended several F2F classes and completed three assessments. We are therefore able to create a dependent variable that is comprised of the average grades of three assignments taken before lockdown and the average grades of three assignments taken after the start of the lockdown for each student. Specifically, we use the difference between the post‐ and pre‐lockdown average grades as the dependent variable. However, the number of student observations dropped to 275 due to some students missing one or more of the assessments. The lecturer, content and format of the assessments remain similar across the module. We estimate the following equation using ordinary least squares (OLS) with robust standard errors:

where Y i is the student's performance measured by the difference between the post and pre‐lockdown average grades. B represents the vector of determinants that measure the difficulty faced by students to transition from F2F to online learning. This vector includes access to the internet, study material preferred, quality of the online live lecture sessions and pre‐lockdown class attendance. X is the vector of student demographic controls such as race, gender and an indicator if the student's perceived family income is below average. The ε i is unobserved student characteristics.

4. ANALYSIS

4.1. descriptive statistics.

Table  2 gives an overview of the sample of students. We find that among the black students, a higher proportion of students reported finding the transition to online learning more difficult. On the other hand, more white students reported finding the transition moderately easy, as did the other races. According to Coetzee ( 2014 ), the quality of schools can vary significantly between higher income and lower‐income areas, with black South Africans far more likely to live in lower‐income areas with lower quality schools than white South Africans. As such, these differences in quality of education from secondary schooling can persist at tertiary level. Furthermore, persistent income inequality between races in South Africa likely means that many poorer black students might not be able to afford wifi connections or large internet data bundles which can make the transition difficult for black students compared to their white counterparts.

Descriptive statistics

Notes : The transition difficulty variable was ordered 1: Very Easy; 2: Moderately Easy; 3: Difficult; and 4: Impossible. Since we have few responses to the extremes, we combined Very Easy and Moderately as well as Difficult and Impossible to make the table easier to read. The table with a full breakdown is available upon request.

A higher proportion of students reported that wifi access made the transition to online learning moderately easy. However, relatively more students reported that mobile internet data and accessing the zero‐rated website made the transition difficult. Surprisingly, not many students made use of the zero‐rated website which was freely available. Figure  2 shows that students who reported difficulty transitioning to online learning did not perform as well in online learning versus F2F when compared to those that found it less difficult to transition.

Transition from F2F to online learning.

Notes : This graph shows the students' responses to the question “How easy did you find the transition from face‐to‐face lectures to online lectures?” in relation to the outcome variable for performance

In Figure  3 , the kernel density shows that students who had access to wifi performed better than those who used mobile internet data or the zero‐rated data.

Access to online learning.

Notes : This graph shows the students' responses to the question “What do you currently use the most to access most of your prescribed work?” in relation to the outcome variable for performance

The regression results are reported in Table  3 . We find that the change in students' performance from F2F to online is negatively associated with the difficulty they faced in transitioning from F2F to online learning. According to student survey responses, factors contributing to difficulty in transitioning included poor internet access, high internet data costs and lack of equipment such as laptops or tablets to access the study materials on the university website. Students who had access to wifi (i.e. fixed wireless broadband, Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) or optic fiber) performed significantly better, with on average 4.5 points higher grade, in relation to students that had to use mobile internet data (i.e. personal mobile internet data, wifi at home using mobile internet data, or hotspot using mobile internet data) or the zero‐rated website to access the study materials. The insignificant results for the zero‐rated website are surprising given that the website was freely available and did not incur any internet data costs. However, most students in this sample complained that the internet connection on the zero‐rated website was slow, especially in uploading assignments. They also complained about being disconnected when they were in the middle of an assessment. This may have discouraged some students from making use of the zero‐rated website.

Results: Predictors for student performance using the difference on average assessment grades between pre‐ and post‐lockdown

Coefficients reported. Robust standard errors in parentheses.

∗∗∗ p  < .01.

Students who expressed a preference for self‐study approaches (i.e. reading PDF slides or PowerPoint slides with explanatory notes) did not perform as well, on average, as students who preferred assisted study (i.e. listening to recorded narrated slides or lecture recordings). This result is in line with Means et al. ( 2010 ), where student performance was better for online learning that was collaborative or instructor‐driven than in cases where online learners worked independently. Interestingly, we also observe that the performance of students who often attended in‐person classes before the lockdown decreased. Perhaps these students found the F2F lectures particularly helpful in mastering the course material. From the survey responses, we find that a significant proportion of the students (about 70%) preferred F2F to online lectures. This preference for F2F lectures may also be linked to the factors contributing to the difficulty some students faced in transitioning to online learning.

We find that the performance of low‐income students decreased post‐lockdown, which highlights another potential challenge to transitioning to online learning. The picture and sound quality of the live online lectures also contributed to lower performance. Although this result is not statistically significant, it is worth noting as the implications are linked to the quality of infrastructure currently available for students to access online learning. We find no significant effects of race on changes in students' performance, though males appeared to struggle more with the shift to online teaching than females.

For the robustness check in Table  4 , we consider the average grades of the three assignments taken after the start of the lockdown as a dependent variable (i.e. the post‐lockdown average grades for each student). We then include the pre‐lockdown average grades as an explanatory variable. The findings and overall conclusions in Table  4 are consistent with the previous results.

Robustness check: Predictors for student performance using the average assessment grades for post‐lockdown

As a further robustness check in Table  5 , we create a panel for each student across the six assignment grades so we can control for individual heterogeneity. We create a post‐lockdown binary variable that takes the value of 1 for the lockdown period and 0 otherwise. We interact the post‐lockdown dummy variable with a measure for transition difficulty and internet access. The internet access variable is an indicator variable for mobile internet data, wifi, or zero‐rated access to class materials. The variable wifi is a binary variable taking the value of 1 if the student has access to wifi and 0 otherwise. The zero‐rated variable is a binary variable taking the value of 1 if the student used the university's free portal access and 0 otherwise. We also include assignment and student fixed effects. The results in Table  5 remain consistent with our previous findings that students who had wifi access performed significantly better than their peers.

Interaction model

Notes : Coefficients reported. Robust standard errors in parentheses. The dependent variable is the assessment grades for each student on each assignment. The number of observations include the pre‐post number of assessments multiplied by the number of students.

6. CONCLUSION

The Covid‐19 pandemic left many education institutions with no option but to transition to online learning. The University of Pretoria was no exception. We examine the effect of transitioning to online learning on the academic performance of second‐year economic students. We use assessment results from F2F lectures before lockdown, and online lectures post lockdown for the same group of students, together with responses from survey questions. We find that the main contributor to lower academic performance in the online setting was poor internet access, which made transitioning to online learning more difficult. In addition, opting to self‐study (read notes instead of joining online classes and/or watching recordings) did not help the students in their performance.

The implications of the results highlight the need for improved quality of internet infrastructure with affordable internet data pricing. Despite the university's best efforts not to leave any student behind with the zero‐rated website and free monthly internet data, the inequality dynamics in the country are such that invariably some students were negatively affected by this transition, not because the student was struggling academically, but because of inaccessibility of internet (wifi). While the zero‐rated website is a good collaborative initiative between universities and network providers, the infrastructure is not sufficient to accommodate mass students accessing it simultaneously.

This study's findings may highlight some shortcomings in the academic sector that need to be addressed by both the public and private sectors. There is potential for an increase in the digital divide gap resulting from the inequitable distribution of digital infrastructure. This may lead to reinforcement of current inequalities in accessing higher education in the long term. To prepare the country for online learning, some considerations might need to be made to make internet data tariffs more affordable and internet accessible to all. We hope that this study's findings will provide a platform (or will at least start the conversation for taking remedial action) for policy engagements in this regard.

We are aware of some limitations presented by our study. The sample we have at hand makes it difficult to extrapolate our findings to either all students at the University of Pretoria or other higher education students in South Africa. Despite this limitation, our findings highlight the negative effect of the digital divide on students' educational outcomes in the country. The transition to online learning and the high internet data costs in South Africa can also have adverse learning outcomes for low‐income students. With higher education institutions, such as the University of Pretoria, integrating online teaching to overcome the effect of the Covid‐19 pandemic, access to stable internet is vital for students' academic success.

It is also important to note that the data we have at hand does not allow us to isolate wifi's causal effect on students' performance post‐lockdown due to two main reasons. First, wifi access is not randomly assigned; for instance, there is a high chance that students with better‐off family backgrounds might have better access to wifi and other supplementary infrastructure than their poor counterparts. Second, due to the university's data access policy and consent, we could not merge the data at hand with the student's previous year's performance. Therefore, future research might involve examining the importance of these elements to document the causal impact of access to wifi on students' educational outcomes in the country.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors acknowledge the helpful comments received from the editor, the anonymous reviewers, and Elizabeth Asiedu.

Chisadza, C. , Clance, M. , Mthembu, T. , Nicholls, N. , & Yitbarek, E. (2021). Online and face‐to‐face learning: Evidence from students’ performance during the Covid‐19 pandemic . Afr Dev Rev , 33 , S114–S125. 10.1111/afdr.12520 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

1 https://mybroadband.co.za/news/cellular/309693-mobile-data-prices-south-africa-vs-the-world.html .

2 The 4IR is currently characterized by increased use of new technologies, such as advanced wireless technologies, artificial intelligence, cloud computing, robotics, among others. This era has also facilitated the use of different online learning platforms ( https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-fourth-industrialrevolution-and-digitization-will-transform-africa-into-a-global-powerhouse/ ).

3 Note that we control for income, but it is plausible to assume other unobservable factors such as parental preference and parenting style might also affect access to the internet of students.

• Almatra, O. , Johri, A. , Nagappan, K. , & Modanlu, A. (2015). An empirical study of face‐to‐face and distance learning sections of a core telecommunication course (Conference Proceedings Paper No. 12944). 122nd ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition, Seattle, Washington State.
• Anyanwu, J. C. (2013). Characteristics and macroeconomic determinants of youth employment in Africa . African Development Review , 25 ( 2 ), 107–129. [ Google Scholar ]
• Anyanwu, J. C. (2016). Accounting for gender equality in secondary school enrolment in Africa: Accounting for gender equality in secondary school enrolment . African Development Review , 28 ( 2 ), 170–191. [ Google Scholar ]
• Arbaugh, J. (2000). Virtual classroom versus physical classroom: An exploratory study of class discussion patterns and student learning in an asynchronous internet‐based MBA course . Journal of Management Education , 24 ( 2 ), 213–233. [ Google Scholar ]
• Arias, J. J. , Swinton, J. , & Anderson, K. (2018). On‐line vs. face‐to‐face: A comparison of student outcomes with random assignment . e‐Journal of Business Education and Scholarship of Teaching, , 12 ( 2 ), 1–23. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bernard, R. M. , Abrami, P. C. , Lou, Y. , Borokhovski, E. , Wade, A. , Wozney, L. , Wallet, P. A. , Fiset, M. , & Huang, B. (2004). How does distance education compare with classroom instruction? A meta‐analysis of the empirical literature . Review of Educational Research , 74 ( 3 ), 379–439. [ Google Scholar ]
• Brown, B. , & Liedholm, C. (2002). Can web courses replace the classroom in principles of microeconomics? American Economic Review , 92 ( 2 ), 444–448. [ Google Scholar ]
• Callister, R. R. , & Love, M. S. (2016). A comparison of learning outcomes in skills‐based courses: Online versus face‐to‐face formats . Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education , 14 ( 2 ), 243–256. [ Google Scholar ]
• Coates, D. , Humphreys, B. R. , Kane, J. , & Vachris, M. A. (2004). “No significant distance” between face‐to‐face and online instruction: Evidence from principles of economics . Economics of Education Review , 23 ( 5 ), 533–546. [ Google Scholar ]
• Coetzee, M. (2014). School quality and the performance of disadvantaged learners in South Africa (Working Paper No. 22). University of Stellenbosch Economics Department, Stellenbosch
• Dutton, J. , Dutton, M. , & Perry, J. (2002). How do online students differ from lecture students? Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks , 6 ( 1 ), 1–20. [ Google Scholar ]
• Emediegwu, L. (2021). Does educational investment enhance capacity development for Nigerian youths? An autoregressive distributed lag approach . African Development Review , 32 ( S1 ), S45–S53. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fallah, M. H. , & Ubell, R. (2000). Blind scores in a graduate test. Conventional compared with web‐based outcomes . ALN Magazine , 4 ( 2 ). [ Google Scholar ]
• Figlio, D. , Rush, M. , & Yin, L. (2013). Is it live or is it internet? Experimental estimates of the effects of online instruction on student learning . Journal of Labor Economics , 31 ( 4 ), 763–784. [ Google Scholar ]
• Freeman, M. A. , & Capper, J. M. (1999). Exploiting the web for education: An anonymous asynchronous role simulation . Australasian Journal of Educational Technology , 15 ( 1 ), 95–116. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gilbert, P. (2019). The most expensive data prices in Africa . Connecting Africa. https://www.connectingafrica.com/author.asp?section_id=761%26doc_id=756372
• Glick, P. , Randriamamonjy, J. , & Sahn, D. (2009). Determinants of HIV knowledge and condom use among women in Madagascar: An analysis using matched household and community data . African Development Review , 21 ( 1 ), 147–179. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gyimah‐Brempong, K. (2011). Education and economic development in Africa . African Development Review , 23 ( 2 ), 219–236. [ Google Scholar ]
• Johnson, S. , Aragon, S. , Shaik, N. , & Palma‐Rivas, N. (2000). Comparative analysis of learner satisfaction and learning outcomes in online and face‐to‐face learning environments . Journal of Interactive Learning Research , 11 ( 1 ), 29–49. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lundberg, J. , Merino, D. , & Dahmani, M. (2008). Do online students perform better than face‐to‐face students? Reflections and a short review of some empirical findings . Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento , 5 ( 1 ), 35–44. [ Google Scholar ]
• Means, B. , Toyama, Y. , Murphy, R. , Bakia, M. , & Jones, K. (2010). Evaluation of evidence‐based practices in online learning: A meta‐analysis and review of online learning studies (Report No. ed‐04‐co‐0040 task 0006). U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy Development, Washington DC.
• Navarro, P. (2000). Economics in the cyber‐classroom . Journal of Economic Perspectives , 14 ( 2 ), 119–132. [ Google Scholar ]
• Navarro, P. , & Shoemaker, J. (2000). Performance and perceptions of distance learners in cyberspace . American Journal of Distance Education , 14 ( 2 ), 15–35. [ Google Scholar ]
• Neuhauser, C. (2002). Learning style and effectiveness of online and face‐to‐face instruction . American Journal of Distance Education , 16 ( 2 ), 99–113. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nguyen, T. (2015). The effectiveness of online learning: Beyond no significant difference and future horizons . MERLOT Journal of Online Teaching and Learning , 11 ( 2 ), 309–319. [ Google Scholar ]
• Paechter, M. , & Maier, B. (2010). Online or face‐to‐face? Students' experiences and preferences in e‐learning . Internet and Higher Education , 13 ( 4 ), 292–297. [ Google Scholar ]
• Russell, T. L. , & International Distance Education Certificate Center (IDECC) (1999). The no significant difference phenomenon: A comparative research annotated bibliography on technology for distance education: As reported in 355 research reports, summaries and papers . North Carolina State University. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shachar, M. , & Neumann, Y. (2010). Twenty years of research on the academic performance differences between traditional and distance learning: Summative meta‐analysis and trend examination . MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching , 6 ( 2 ), 318–334. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shachar, M. , & Yoram, N. (2003). Differences between traditional and distance education academic performances: A meta‐analytic approach . International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning , 4 ( 2 ), 1–20. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tchamyou, V. S. , Asongu, S. , & Odhiambo, N. (2019). The role of ICT in modulating the effect of education and lifelong learning on income inequality and economic growth in Africa . African Development Review , 31 ( 3 ), 261–274. [ Google Scholar ]
• Xu, D. , & Jaggars, S. S. (2014). Performance gaps between online and face‐to‐face courses: Differences across types of students and academic subject areas . The Journal of Higher Education , 85 ( 5 ), 633–659. [ Google Scholar ]

5 Reasons Why Online Learning is the Future of Education in 2024

Traditional education has changed radically within the last couple of years. Find out why online learning is a great choice for getting a quality education whenever and wherever you want.

• Online Learning
• Deciding Where to Study

The concept of traditional education has changed radically within the last couple of years. Being physically present in a classroom isn’t the only learning option anymore — not with the rise of the internet and new technologies, at least. Nowadays, you have access to a quality education whenever and wherever you want, as long as you can get online. We are now entering a new era — the revolution of online education.

There’s no need to discount the skepticism surrounding education through the internet. It’s hard to understand the notion of leaving behind the conventional classroom, especially if it's to face this vast space called The Internet. 

However, that’s not reason enough to shy away from this alternative, which has proven to be valid and useful for many students. According to the most recent survey from Babson Survey Research Group, over 30 percent of higher education students in the United States are taking at least one distance course. Online education is a sensible choice whether you’re a teenager or an adult. As a student, this can be a useful learning method for sharpening your skills in a difficult subject, or learning a new skill. 

Keep on reading to learn five more reasons why you should get involved in online education!

Interested in learning online?

Find and compare 5,000+ online programs!

1. It's flexible.

Online education enables the teacher and the student to set their own learning pace, and there’s the added flexibility of setting a schedule that fits everyone’s agenda. As a result, using an online educational platform allows for a better balance of work and studies, so there’s no need to give anything up. Studying online teaches you vital  time management skills , which makes finding a good work-study balance easier. Having a common agenda between the student and teacher can also prompt both parties to accept new responsibilities and have more autonomy. 

2. It offers a wide selection of programs.

In a space as vast and wide as the internet, there are infinite skills and subjects to teach and learn. A growing number of universities and higher education schools are offering online versions of their programs for various levels and disciplines. From music composition to quantum physics, there are options for every type of student. Studying your program online is also a great option for getting an official certificate, diploma, or degree without physically setting foot on a university campus. Nowadays, people get certificates that help them succeed in their professional careers; the excellent ones are especially the financial certifications with the best ROI ."

3. It’s accessible.

Online education enables you to study or teach from anywhere in the world. This means there’s no need to commute from one place to another, or follow a rigid schedule. On top of that, not only do you save time, but you also save money , which can be spent on other priorities. The virtual classroom is also available anywhere there’s an internet connection, and a good way to take advantage of this is to travel. For example, if you’re studying abroad and want to get a job, online education is a great choice. There’s no reason to give up on working or studying while exploring new and exotic places. 

4. It allows for a customized learning experience.

We’ve mentioned before how flexibility can help you to set your own study pace. But online education is also flexible for each student’s individual requirements and level of ability.

Online classes tend to be smaller than conventional class size. Most of the time, online learning platforms only allow one student at a time, and in almost all cases, this allows for greater interaction and more feedback between you and your tutor.

There’s often access to very diverse material such as videos, photos, and eBooks online as well, and tutors can also integrate other formats like forums or discussions to improve their lessons. And this extra content is available at any moment from anywhere, which will offer you a more dynamic and tailor-made education.

5. It’s more cost-effective than traditional education.

Unlike in-person education methods, online education tends to be more affordable. There’s also often a wide range of payment options that let you pay in installments or per class. This allows for better budget management. Many of you may also be subject to discounts or scholarships, so the price is rarely high. You can also save money from the commute and class materials, which are often available for free.

Not only that, but there are also plenty of scholarships available for online studies these days. In other words, the monetary investment is less, but the results can be better than other options.  

Final thoughts

These are only a few reasons to choose an online education, and why 90 percent of students today think that online learning is the same or better than the traditional classroom experience. Every student must assess their unique situation and decide according to their needs and goals, and while this alternative to traditional education is not for everyone, it's still a convenient option with virtually endless options for international students all over the world.

About the Author

Gemma Josep is the Content Manager for Classgap , an online platform whose purpose is to facilitate communication between teachers and students. She writes about the importance of online learning, education, and technology, and also works with Classgap to bring education closer and to create a perfect online environment to learn.

Keystone Team Author

The Keystone Team is comprised of experienced educators and advisors dedicated to providing valuable resources and advice to students all over the world.

Read related articles

Where Can TOEFL iBT Scores Take You?

July 2024 Study Abroad in the United Kingdom Study Abroad in the United States Study Abroad in Canada Study Abroad in Australia TOEFL Study Abroad in North America English Proficiency Deciding Where to Study

Top 10 Popular Online MBAs

July 2024 Top 10 Rankings MBA International Business Online Learning Business Economics & Finance Management

Why I Chose to Study Engineering in Austria

July 2024 Student Stories Study Abroad in Europe Study Abroad in Austria Student Social Life Deciding Where to Study Engineering

• Open access
• Published: 16 September 2021

Online learning during COVID-19 produced equivalent or better student course performance as compared with pre-pandemic: empirical evidence from a school-wide comparative study

• Meixun Zheng 1 ,
• Daniel Bender 1 &
• Cindy Lyon 1  

BMC Medical Education volume  21 , Article number:  495 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

215k Accesses

94 Citations

118 Altmetric

Metrics details

The COVID-19 pandemic forced dental schools to close their campuses and move didactic instruction online. The abrupt transition to online learning, however, has raised several issues that have not been resolved. While several studies have investigated dental students’ attitude towards online learning during the pandemic, mixed results have been reported. Additionally, little research has been conducted to identify and understand factors, especially pedagogical factors, that impacted students’ acceptance of online learning during campus closure. Furthermore, how online learning during the pandemic impacted students’ learning performance has not been empirically investigated. In March 2020, the dental school studied here moved didactic instruction online in response to government issued stay-at-home orders. This first-of-its-kind comparative study examined students’ perceived effectiveness of online courses during summer quarter 2020, explored pedagogical factors impacting their acceptance of online courses, and empirically evaluated the impact of online learning on students’ course performance, during the pandemic.

The study employed a quasi-experimental design. Participants were 482 pre-doctoral students in a U.S dental school. Students’ perceived effectiveness of online courses during the pandemic was assessed with a survey. Students’ course grades for online courses during summer quarter 2020 were compared with that of a control group who received face-to-face instruction for the same courses before the pandemic in summer quarter 2019.

Survey results revealed that most online courses were well accepted by the students, and 80 % of them wanted to continue with some online instruction post pandemic. Regression analyses revealed that students’ perceived engagement with faculty and classmates predicted their perceived effectiveness of the online course. More notably, Chi Square tests demonstrated that in 16 out of the 17 courses compared, the online cohort during summer quarter 2020 was equally or more likely to get an A course grade than the analogous face-to-face cohort during summer quarter 2019.

Conclusions

This is the first empirical study in dental education to demonstrate that online courses during the pandemic could achieve equivalent or better student course performance than the same pre-pandemic in-person courses. The findings fill in gaps in literature and may inform online learning design moving forward.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Research across disciplines has demonstrated that well-designed online learning can lead to students’ enhanced motivation, satisfaction, and learning [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. A report by the U.S. Department of Education [ 8 ], based on examinations of comparative studies of online and face-to-face versions of the same course from 1996 to 2008, concluded that online learning could produce learning outcomes equivalent to or better than face-to-face learning. The more recent systematic review by Pei and Wu [ 9 ] provided additional evidence that online learning is at least as effective as face-to-face learning for undergraduate medical students.

To take advantage of the opportunities presented by online learning, thought leaders in dental education in the U.S. have advocated for the adoption of online learning in the nation’s dental schools [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. However, digital innovation has been a slow process in academic dentistry [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic brought unprecedented disruption to dental education by necessitating the need for online learning. In accordance with stay-at-home orders to prevent the spread of the virus, dental schools around the world closed their campuses and moved didactic instruction online.

The abrupt transition to online learning, however, has raised several concerns and question. First, while several studies have examined dental students’ online learning satisfaction during the pandemic, mixed results have been reported. Some studies have reported students’ positive attitude towards online learning [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Sadid-Zadeh et al. [ 18 ] found that 99 % of the surveyed dental students at University of Buffalo, in the U.S., were satisfied with live web-based lectures during the pandemic. Schlenz et al. [ 15 ] reported that students in a German dental school had a favorable attitude towards online learning and wanted to continue with online instruction in their future curriculum. Other studies, however, have reported students’ negative online learning experience during the pandemic [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. For instance, dental students at Harvard University felt that learning during the pandemic had worsened and engagement had decreased [ 23 , 24 ]. In a study with medical and dental students in Pakistan, Abbasi et al. [ 21 ] found that 77 % of the students had negative perceptions about online learning and 84 % reported reduced student-instructor interactions.

In addition to these mixed results, little attention has been given to factors affecting students’ acceptance of online learning during the pandemic. With the likelihood that online learning will persist post pandemic [ 27 ], research in this area is warranted to inform online course design moving forward. In particular, prior research has demonstrated that one of the most important factors influencing students’ performance in any learning environment is a sense of belonging, the feeling of being connected with and supported by the instructor and classmates [ 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Unfortunately, this aspect of the classroom experience has suffered during school closure. While educational events can be held using a video conferencing system, virtual peer interaction on such platforms has been perceived by medical trainees to be not as easy and personal as physical interaction [ 32 ]. The pandemic highlights the need to examine instructional strategies most suited to the current situation to support students’ engagement with faculty and classmates.

Furthermore, there is considerable concern from the academic community about the quality of online learning. Pre-pandemic, some faculty and students were already skeptical about the value of online learning [ 33 ]. The longer the pandemic lasts, the more they may question the value of online education, asking: Can online learning during the pandemic produce learning outcomes that are similar to face-to-face learning before the pandemic? Despite the documented benefits of online learning prior to the pandemic, the actual impact of online learning during the pandemic on students’ academic performance is still unknown due to reasons outlined below.

On one hand, several factors beyond the technology used could influence the effectiveness of online learning, one of which is the teaching context [ 34 ]. The sudden transition to online learning has posed many challenges to faculty and students. Faculty may not have had adequate time to carefully design online courses to take full advantage of the possibilities of the online format. Some faculty may not have had prior online teaching experience and experienced a deeper learning curve when it came to adopting online teaching methods [ 35 ]. Students may have been at the risk of increased anxiety due to concerns about contracting the virus, on time graduation, finances, and employment [ 36 , 37 ], which may have negatively impacted learning performance [ 38 ]. Therefore, whether online learning during the pandemic could produce learning outcomes similar to those of online learning implemented during more normal times remains to be determined.

Most existing studies on online learning in dental education during the pandemic have only reported students’ satisfaction. The actual impact of the online format on academic performance has not been empirically investigated. The few studies that have examined students’ learning outcomes have only used students’ self-reported data from surveys and focus groups. According to Kaczmarek et al. [ 24 ], 50 % of the participating dental faculty at Harvard University perceived student learning to have worsened during the pandemic and 70 % of the students felt the same. Abbasi et al. [ 21 ] reported that 86 % of medical and dental students in a Pakistan college felt that they learned less online. While student opinions are important, research has demonstrated a poor correlation between students’ perceived learning and actual learning gains [ 39 ]. As we continue to navigate the “new normal” in teaching, students’ learning performance needs to be empirically evaluated to help institutions gauge the impact of this grand online learning experiment.

Research purposes

In March 2020, the University of the Pacific Arthur A. Dugoni School of Dentistry, in the U.S., moved didactic instruction online to ensure the continuity of education during building closure. This study examined students’ acceptance of online learning during the pandemic and its impacting factors, focusing on instructional practices pertaining to students’ engagement/interaction with faculty and classmates. Another purpose of this study was to empirically evaluate the impact of online learning during the pandemic on students’ actual course performance by comparing it with that of a pre-pandemic cohort. To understand the broader impact of the institutional-wide online learning effort, we examined all online courses offered in summer quarter 2020 (July to September) that had a didactic component.

This is the first empirical study in dental education to evaluate students’ learning performance during the pandemic. The study aimed to answer the following three questions.

How well was online learning accepted by students, during the summer quarter 2020 pandemic interruption?

How did instructional strategies, centered around students’ engagement with faculty and classmates, impact their acceptance of online learning?

How did online learning during summer quarter 2020 impact students’ course performance as compared with a previous analogous cohort who received face-to-face instruction in summer quarter 2019?

This study employed a quasi-experimental design. The study was approved by the university’s institutional review board (#2020-68).

Study context and participants

The study was conducted at the Arthur A. Dugoni School of Dentistry, University of the Pacific. The program runs on a quarter system. It offers a 3-year accelerated Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) program and a 2-year International Dental Studies (IDS) program for international dentists who have obtained a doctoral degree in dentistry from a country outside the U.S. and want to practice in the U.S. Students advance throughout the program in cohorts. IDS students take some courses together with their DDS peers. All three DDS classes (D1/DDS 2023, D2/DDS 2022, and D3/DDS 2021) and both IDS classes (I1/IDS 2022 and I2/IDS 2021) were invited to participate in the study. The number of students in each class was: D1 = 145, D2 = 143, D3 = 143, I1 = 26, and I2 = 25. This resulted in a total of 482 student participants.

During campus closure, faculty delivered remote instruction in various ways, including live online classes via Zoom @  [ 40 ], self-paced online modules on the school’s learning management system Canvas @  [ 41 ], or a combination of live and self-paced delivery. For self-paced modules, students studied assigned readings and/or viewings such as videos and pre-recorded slide presentations. Some faculty also developed self-paced online lessons with SoftChalk @  [ 42 ], a cloud-based platform that supports the inclusion of gamified learning by insertion of various mini learning activities. The SoftChalk lessons were integrated with Canvas @  [ 41 ] and faculty could monitor students’ progress. After students completed the pre-assigned online materials, some faculty held virtual office hours or live online discussion sessions for students to ask questions and discuss key concepts.

Data collection and analysis

Student survey.

Students’ perceived effectiveness of summer quarter 2020 online courses was evaluated by the school’s Office of Academic Affairs in lieu of the regular course evaluation process. A total of 19 courses for DDS students and 10 courses for IDS students were evaluated. An 8-question survey developed by the researchers (Additional file 1 ) was administered online in the last week of summer quarter 2020. Course directors invited student to take the survey during live online classes. The survey introduction stated that taking the survey was voluntary and that their anonymous responses would be reported in aggregated form for research purposes. Students were invited to continue with the survey if they chose to participate; otherwise, they could exit the survey. The number of students in each class who took the survey was as follows: D1 ( n  = 142; 98 %), D2 ( n  = 133; 93 %), D3 ( n  = 61; 43 %), I1 ( n  = 23; 88 %), and I2 ( n  = 20; 80 %). This resulted in a total of 379 (79 %) respondents across all classes.

The survey questions were on a 4-point scale, ranging from Strongly Disagree (1 point), Disagree (2 points), Agree (3 points), and Strongly Agree (4 points). Students were asked to rate each online course by responding to four statements: “ I could fully engage with the instructor and classmates in this course”; “The online format of this course supported my learning”; “Overall this online course is effective.”, and “ I would have preferred face-to-face instruction for this course ”. For the first three survey questions, a higher mean score indicated a more positive attitude toward the online course. For the fourth question “ I would have preferred face-to-face instruction for this course ”, a higher mean score indicated that more students would have preferred face-to-face instruction for the course. Two additional survey questions asked students to select their preferred online delivery method for fully online courses during the pandemic from three given choices (synchronous online/live, asynchronous online/self-paced, and a combination of both), and to report whether they wanted to continue with some online instruction post pandemic. Finally, two open-ended questions at the end of the survey allowed students to comment on the aspects of online format that they found to be helpful and to provide suggestion for improvement. For the purpose of this study, we focused on the quantitative data from the Likert-scale questions.

Descriptive data such as the mean scores were reported for each course. Regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between instructional strategies focusing on students’ engagement with faculty and classmates, and their overall perceived effectiveness of the online course. The independent variable was student responses to the question “ I could fully engage with the instructor and classmates in this course ”, and the dependent variable was their answer to the question “ Overall, this online course is effective .”

Student course grades

Using Chi-square tests, student course grade distributions (A, B, C, D, and F) for summer quarter 2020 online courses were compared with that of a previous cohort who received face-to-face instruction for the same course in summer quarter 2019. Note that as a result of the school’s pre-doctoral curriculum redesign implemented in July 2019, not all courses offered in summer quarter 2020 were offered in the previous year in summer quarter 2019. In other words, some of the courses offered in summer quarter 2020 were new courses offered for the first time. Because these new courses did not have a previous face-to-face version to compare to, they were excluded from data analysis. For some other courses, while course content remained the same between 2019 and 2020, the sequence of course topics within the course had changed. These courses were also excluded from data analysis.

After excluding the aforementioned courses, it resulted in a total of 17 “comparable” courses that were included in data analysis (see the subsequent section). For these courses, the instructor, course content, and course goals were the same in both 2019 and 2020. The assessment methods and grading policies also remained the same through both years. For exams and quizzes, multiple choice questions were the dominating format for both years. While some exam questions in 2020 were different from 2019, faculty reported that the overall exam difficulty level was similar. The main difference in assessment was testing conditions. The 2019 cohort took computer-based exams in the physical classroom with faculty proctoring, and the 2020 cohort took exams at home with remote proctoring to ensure exam integrity. The remote proctoring software monitored the student during the exam through a web camera on their computer/laptop. The recorded video file flags suspicious activities for faculty review after exam completion.

Students’ perceived effectiveness of online learning

Table  1 summarized data on DDS students’ perceived effectiveness of each online course during summer quarter 2020. For the survey question “ Overall, this online course is effective ”, the majority of courses received a mean score that was approaching or over 3 points on the 4-point scale, suggesting that online learning was generally well accepted by students. Despite overall positive online course experiences, for many of the courses examined, there was an equal split in student responses to the question “ I would have preferred face-to-face instruction for this course .” Additionally, for students’ preferred online delivery method for fully online courses, about half of the students in each class preferred a combination of synchronous and asynchronous online learning (see Fig.  1 ). Finally, the majority of students wanted faculty to continue with some online instruction post pandemic: D1class (110; 78.60 %), D2 class (104; 80 %), and D3 class (49; 83.10 %).

While most online courses received favorable ratings, some variations did exist among courses. For D1 courses, “ Anatomy & Histology ” received lower ratings than others. This could be explained by its lab component, which didn’t lend itself as well to the online format. For D2 courses, several of them received lower ratings than others, especially for the survey question on students’ perceived engagement with faculty and classmates.

DDS students’ preferred online delivery method for fully online courses

Table  2 summarized IDS students’ perceived effectiveness of each online course during summer quarter 2020. For the survey question “ Overall, this online course is effective ”, all courses received a mean score that was approaching or over 3 points on a 4-point scale, suggesting that online learning was well accepted by students. For the survey question “ I would have preferred face-to-face instruction for this course ”, for most online courses examined, the percentage of students who would have preferred face-to-face instruction was similar to that of students who preferred online instruction for the course. Like their DDS peers, about half of the IDS students in each class also preferred a combination of synchronous and asynchronous online delivery for fully online courses (See Fig.  2 ). Finally, the majority of IDS students (I1, n = 18, 81.80 %; I2, n = 16, 84.20 %) wanted to continue with some online learning after the pandemic is over.

IDS students’ preferred online delivery method for fully online courses

Factors impacting students’ acceptance of online learning

For all 19 online courses taken by DDS students, regression analyses indicated that there was a significantly positive relationship between students’ perceived engagement with faculty and classmates and their perceived effectiveness of the course. P value was 0.00 across all courses. The ranges of effect size (r 2 ) were: D1 courses (0.26 to 0.50), D2 courses (0.39 to 0.650), and D3 courses (0.22 to 0.44), indicating moderate to high correlations across courses.

For 9 out of the 10 online courses taken by IDS students, there was a positive relationship between students’ perceived engagement with faculty and classmates and their perceived effectiveness of the course. P value was 0.00 across courses. The ranges of effect size were: I1 courses (0.35 to 0.77) and I2 courses (0.47 to 0.63), indicating consistently high correlations across courses. The only course in which students’ perceived engagement with faculty and classmates didn’t predict perceived effective of the course was “ Integrated Clinical Science III (ICS III) ”, which the I2 class took together with their D3 peers.

Impact of online learning on students’ course performance

Chi square test results (Table  3 ) indicated that in 4 out of the 17 courses compared, the online cohort during summer quarter 2020 was more likely to receive an A grade than the face-to-face cohort during summer quarter 2019. In 12 of the courses, the online cohort were equally likely to receive an A grade as the face-to-face cohort. In the remaining one course, the online cohort was less likely to receive an A grade than the face-to-face cohort.

Students’ acceptance of online learning during the pandemic

Survey results revealed that students had generally positive perceptions about online learning during the pandemic and the majority of them wanted to continue with some online learning post pandemic. Overall, our findings supported several other studies in dental [ 18 , 20 ], medical [ 43 , 44 ], and nursing [ 45 ] education that have also reported students’ positive attitudes towards online learning during the pandemic. In their written comments in the survey, students cited enhanced flexibility as one of the greatest benefits of online learning. Some students also commented that typing questions in the chat box during live online classes was less intimidating than speaking in class. Others explicitly stated that not having to commute to/from school provided more time for sleep, which helped with self-care and mental health. Our findings are in line with previous studies which have also demonstrated that online learning offered higher flexibility [ 46 , 47 ]. Meanwhile, consistent with findings of other researchers [ 19 , 21 , 46 ], our students felt difficulty engaging with faculty and classmates in several online courses.

There were some variations among individual courses in students’ acceptance of the online format. One factor that could partially account for the observed differences was instructional strategies. In particular, our regression analysis results demonstrated a positive correlation between students’ perceived engagement with faculty and classmates and their perceived overall effectiveness of the online course. Other aspects of course design might also have influenced students’ overall rating of the online course. For instance, some D2 students commented that the requirements of the course “ Integrated Case-based Seminars (ICS II) ” were not clear and that assessment did not align with lecture materials. It is important to remember that communicating course requirements clearly and aligning course content and assessment are principles that should be applied in any course, whether face-to-face or online. Our results highlighted the importance of providing faculty training on basic educational design principles and online learning design strategies. Furthermore, the nature of the course might also have impacted student ratings. For example, D1 course “ Anatomy and Histology ” had a lab component, which did not lend itself as well to the online format. Many students reported that it was difficult to see faculty’s live demonstration during Zoom lectures, which may have resulted in a lower student satisfaction rating.

As for students’ preferred online delivery method for fully online courses during the pandemic, about half of them preferred a combination of synchronous and asynchronous online learning. In light of this finding, as we continue with remote learning until public health directives allow a return to campus, we will encourage faculty to integrate these two online delivery modalities. Finally, in view of the result that over 80 % of the students wanted to continue with some online instruction after the pandemic, the school will advocate for blended learning in the post-pandemic world [ 48 ]. For future face-to-face courses on campus after the pandemic, faculty are encouraged to deliver some content online to reduce classroom seat time and make learning more flexible. Taken together, our findings not only add to the overall picture of the current situation but may inform learning design moving forward.

Role of online engagement and interaction

To reiterate, we found that students’ perceived engagement with faculty and classmates predicted their perceived overall effectiveness of the online course. This aligns with the larger literature on best practices in online learning design. Extensive research prior to the pandemic has confirmed that the effectiveness of online learning is determined by a number of factors beyond the tools used, including students’ interactions with the instructor and classmates [ 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 ]. Online students may feel isolated due to reduced or lack of interaction [ 53 , 54 ]. Therefore, in designing online learning experiences, it is important to remember that learning is a social process [ 55 ]. Faculty’s role is not only to transmit content but also to promote the different types of interactions that are an integral part of the online learning process [ 33 ]. The online teaching model in which faculty uploads materials online but teach it in the same way as in the physical classroom, without special effort to engage students, doesn’t make the best use of the online format. Putting the “sage on the screen” during a live class meeting on a video conferencing system is not different from “sage on the stage” in the physical classroom - both provide limited space for engagement. Such one-way monologue devalues the potentials that online learning presents.

In light of the critical role that social interaction plays in online learning, faculty are encouraged to use the interactive features of online learning platforms to provide clear channels for student-instructor and student-student interactions. In the open-ended comments, students highlighted several instructional strategies that they perceived to be helpful for learning. For live online classes, these included conducting breakout room activities, using the chat box to facilitate discussions, polling, and integrating gameplay with apps such as Kahoot! @  [ 56 ]. For self-paced classes, students appreciated that faculty held virtual office hours or subsequent live online discussion sessions to reinforce understanding of the pre-assigned materials.

Quality of online education during the pandemic

This study provided empirical evidence in dental education that it was possible to ensure the continuity of education without sacrificing the quality of education provided to students during forced migration to distance learning upon building closure. To reiterate, in all but one online course offered in summer quarter 2020, students were equally or more likely to get an A grade than the face-to-face cohort from summer quarter 2019. Even for courses that had less student support for the online format (e.g., the D1 course “ Anatomy and Histology ”), there was a significant increase in the number of students who earned an A grade in 2020 as compared with the previous year. The reduced capacity for technical training during the pandemic may have resulted in more study time for didactic content. Overall, our results resonate with several studies in health sciences education before the pandemic that the quality of learning is comparable in face-to-face and online formats [ 9 , 57 , 58 ]. For the only course ( Integrated Case-based Seminars ICS II) in which the online cohort had inferior performance than the face-to-face cohort, as mentioned earlier, students reported that assessment was not aligned with course materials and that course expectations were not clear. This might explain why students’ course performance was not as strong as expected.

Limitations

This study used a pre-existing control group from the previous year. There may have been individual differences between students in the online and the face-to-face cohorts, such as motivation, learning style, and prior knowledge, that could have impacted the observed outcomes. Additionally, even though course content and assessment methods were largely the same in 2019 and 2020, changes in other aspects of the course could have impacted students’ course performance. Some faculty may have been more compassionate with grading (e.g., more flexible with assignment deadlines) in summer quarter 2020 given the hardship students experienced during the pandemic. On the other hand, remote proctoring in summer quarter 2020 may have heightened some students’ exam anxiety knowing that they were being monitored through a webcam. The existence and magnitude of effect of these factors needs to be further investigated.

This present study only examined the correlation between students’ perceived online engagement and their perceived overall effectiveness of the online course. Other factors that might impact their acceptance of the online format need to be further researched in future studies. Another future direction is to examine how students’ perceived online engagement correlates with their actual course performance. Because the survey data collected for our present study are anonymous, we cannot match students’ perceived online engagement data with their course grades to run this additional analysis. It should also be noted that this study was focused on didactic online instruction. Future studies might examine how technical training was impacted during the COVID building closure. It was also out of the scope of this study to examine how student characteristics, especially high and low academic performance as reflected by individual grades, affects their online learning experience and performance. We plan to conduct a follow-up study to examine which group of students are most impacted by the online format. Finally, this study was conducted in a single dental school, and so the findings may not be generalizable to other schools and disciplines. Future studies could be conducted in another school or disciplines to compare results.

This study revealed that dental students had generally favorable attitudes towards online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and that their perceived engagement with faculty and classmates predicted their acceptance of the online course. Most notably, this is the first study in dental education to demonstrate that online learning during the pandemic could achieve similar or better learning outcomes than face-to-face learning before the pandemic. Findings of our study could contribute significantly to the literature on online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in health sciences education. The results could also inform future online learning design as we re-envision the future of online learning.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Bello G, Pennisi MA, Maviglia R, Maggiore SM, Bocci MG, Montini L, et al. Online vs live methods for teaching difficult airway management to anesthesiology residents. Intensive Care Med. 2005; 31 (4): 547–552.

Article   Google Scholar  

Ruiz JG, Mintzer MJ, Leipzig RM. The impact of e-learning in medical education. Acad Med. 2006; 81(3): 207–12.

Kavadella A, Tsiklakis K, Vougiouklakis G, Lionarakis A. Evaluation of a blended learning course for teaching oral radiology to undergraduate dental students. Eur J Dent Educ. 2012; 16(1): 88–95.

de Jong N, Verstegen DL, Tan FS, O’Connor SJ. A comparison of classroom and online asynchronous problem-based learning for students undertaking statistics training as part of a public health master’s degree. Adv Health Sci Educ. 2013; 18(2):245–64.

Hegeman JS. Using instructor-generated video lectures in online mathematics coursesimproves student learning. Online Learn. 2015;19(3):70–87.

Gaupp R, Körner M, Fabry G. Effects of a case-based interactive e-learning course on knowledge and attitudes about patient safety: a quasi-experimental study with third-year medical students. BMC Med Educ. 2016; 16(1):172.

Zheng M, Bender D, Reid L, Milani J. An interactive online approach to teaching evidence-based dentistry with Web 2.0 technology. J Dent Educ. 2017; 81(8): 995–1003.

Means B, Toyama Y, Murphy R, Bakia M, Jones K. Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development. Washington D.C. 2009.

Google Scholar  

Pei L, Wu H. Does online learning work better than offline learning in undergraduate medical education? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Med Educ Online. 2019; 24(1):1666538.

Andrews KG, Demps EL. Distance education in the U.S. and Canadian undergraduate dental curriculum. J Dent Educ. 2003; 67(4):427–38.

Kassebaum DK, Hendricson WD, Taft T, Haden NK. The dental curriculum at North American dental institutions in 2002–03: a survey of current structure, recent innovations, and planned changes. J Dent Educ. 2004; 68(9):914–931.

Haden NK, Hendricson WD, Kassebaum DK, Ranney RR, Weinstein G, Anderson EL, et al. Curriculum changes in dental education, 2003–09. J Dent Educ. 2010; 74(5):539–57.

DeBate RD, Cragun D, Severson HH, Shaw T, Christiansen S, Koerber A, et al. Factors for increasing adoption of e-courses among dental and dental hygiene faculty members. J Dent Educ. 2011; 75 (5): 589–597.

Saeed SG, Bain J, Khoo E, Siqueira WL. COVID-19: Finding silver linings for dental education. J Dent Educ. 2020; 84(10):1060–1063.

Schlenz MA, Schmidt A, Wöstmann B, Krämer N, Schulz-Weidner N. Students’ and lecturers’ perspective on the implementation of online learning in dental education due to SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19): a cross-sectional study. BMC Med Educ. 2020;20(1):1–7.

Donn J, Scott JA, Binnie V, Bell A. A pilot of a virtual Objective Structured Clinical Examination in dental education. A response to COVID-19. Eur J Dent Educ. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1111/eje.12624

Hung M, Licari FW, Hon ES, Lauren E, Su S, Birmingham WC, Wadsworth LL, Lassetter JH, Graff TC, Harman W, et al. In an era of uncertainty: impact of COVID-19 on dental education. J Dent Educ. 2020; 85 (2): 148–156.

Sadid-Zadeh R, Wee A, Li R, Somogyi‐Ganss E. Audience and presenter comparison of live web‐based lectures and traditional classroom lectures during the COVID‐19 pandemic. J Prosthodont. 2020. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/jopr.13301

Wang K, Zhang L, Ye L. A nationwide survey of online teaching strategies in dental education in China. J Dent Educ. 2020; 85 (2): 128–134.

Rad FA, Otaki F, Baqain Z, Zary N, Al-Halabi M. Rapid transition to distance learning due to COVID-19: Perceptions of postgraduate dental learners and instructors. PLoS One. 2021; 16(2): e0246584.

Abbasi S, Ayoob T, Malik A, Memon SI. Perceptions of students regarding E-learning during Covid-19 at a private medical college. Pak J Med Sci. 2020; 3 6 : 57–61.

Al-Azzam N, Elsalem L, Gombedza F. A cross-sectional study to determine factors affecting dental and medical students’ preference for virtual learning during the COVID-19 outbreak. Heliyon. 6(12). 2020. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05704

Chen E, Kaczmarek K, Ohyama H. Student perceptions of distance learning strategies during COVID-19. J Dent Educ. 2020. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/jdd.12339

Kaczmarek K, Chen E, Ohyama H. Distance learning in the COVID-19 era: Comparison of student and faculty perceptions. J Dent Educ. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/jdd.12469

Sarwar H, Akhtar H, Naeem MM, Khan JA, Waraich K, Shabbir S, et al. Self-reported effectiveness of e-learning classes during COVID-19 pandemic: A nation-wide survey of Pakistani undergraduate dentistry students. Eur J Dent. 2020; 14 (S01): S34-S43.

Al-Taweel FB, Abdulkareem AA, Gul SS, Alshami ML. Evaluation of technology‐based learning by dental students during the pandemic outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019. Eur J Dent Educ. 2021; 25(1): 183–190.

Elangovan S, Mahrous A, Marchini L. Disruptions during a pandemic: Gaps identified and lessons learned. J Dent Educ. 2020; 84 (11): 1270–1274.

Goodenow C. Classroom belonging among early adolescent students: Relationships to motivation and achievement. J Early Adolesc.1993; 13(1): 21–43.

Goodenow C. The psychological sense of school membership among adolescents: Scale development and educational correlates. Psychol Sch. 1993; 30(1): 79–90.

St-Amand J, Girard S, Smith J. Sense of belonging at school: Defining attributes, determinants, and sustaining strategies. IAFOR Journal of Education. 2017; 5(2):105–19.

Peacock S, Cowan J. Promoting sense of belonging in online learning communities of inquiry at accredited courses. Online Learn. 2019; 23(2): 67–81.

Chan GM, Kanneganti A, Yasin N, Ismail-Pratt I, Logan SJ. Well‐being, obstetrics and gynecology and COVID‐19: Leaving no trainee behind. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2020; 60(6): 983–986.

Hodges C, Moore S, Lockee B, Trust T, Bond A. The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Review. 2020; 2 7 , 1–12.

Means B, Bakia M, Murphy R. Learning online: What research tells us about whether, when and how. Routledge. 2014.

Iyer P, Aziz K, Ojcius DM. Impact of COVID-19 on dental education in the United States. J Dent Educ. 2020; 84(6): 718–722.

Machado RA, Bonan PRF, Perez DEDC, Martelli JÚnior H. 2020. COVID-19 pandemic and the impact on dental education: Discussing current and future perspectives. Braz Oral Res. 2020; 34: e083.

Wu DT, Wu KY, Nguyen TT, Tran SD. The impact of COVID-19 on dental education in North America-Where do we go next? Eur J Dent Educ. 2020; 24(4): 825–827.

de Oliveira Araújo FJ, de Lima LSA, Cidade PIM, Nobre CB, Neto MLR. Impact of Sars-Cov-2 and its reverberation in global higher education and mental health. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 288:112977. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112977

Persky AM, Lee E, Schlesselman LS. Perception of learning versus performance as outcome measures of educational research. Am J Pharm Educ. 2020; 8 4 (7): ajpe7782.

Zoom @ . Zoom Video Communications , San Jose, CA, USA. https://zoom.us/

Canvas @ . Instructure, INC. Salt Lake City, UT, USA. https://www.instructure.com/canvas

SoftChalk @ . SoftChalk LLC . San Antonio, TX, USA. https://www.softchalkcloud.com/

Agarwal S, Kaushik JS. Student’s perception of online learning during COVID pandemic. Indian J Pediatr. 2020; 87: 554–554.

Khalil R, Mansour AE, Fadda WA, Almisnid K, Aldamegh M, Al-Nafeesah A, et al. The sudden transition to synchronized online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia: a qualitative study exploring medical students’ perspectives. BMC Med Educ. 2020; 20(1): 1–10.

Riley E, Capps N, Ward N, McCormack L, Staley J. Maintaining academic performance and student satisfaction during the remote transition of a nursing obstetrics course to online instruction. Online Learn. 2021; 25(1), 220–229.

Amir LR, Tanti I, Maharani DA, Wimardhani YS, Julia V, Sulijaya B, et al. Student perspective of classroom and distance learning during COVID-19 pandemic in the undergraduate dental study program Universitas Indonesia. BMC Med Educ. 2020; 20(1):1–8.

Dost S, Hossain A, Shehab M, Abdelwahed A, Al-Nusair L. Perceptions of medical students towards online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic: a national cross-sectional survey of 2721 UK medical students. BMJ Open. 2020; 10(11).

Graham CR, Woodfield W, Harrison JB. A framework for institutional adoption and implementation of blended learning in higher education. Internet High Educ. 2013; 18 : 4–14.

Sing C, Khine M. An analysis of interaction and participation patterns in online community. J Educ Techno Soc. 2006; 9(1): 250–261.

Bernard RM, Abrami PC, Borokhovski E, Wade CA, Tamim RM, Surkes MA, et al. A meta-analysis of three types of interaction treatments in distance education. Rev Educ Res. 2009; 79(3): 1243–1289.

Fedynich L, Bradley KS, Bradley J. Graduate students’ perceptions of online learning. Res High Educ. 2015; 27.

Tanis CJ. The seven principles of online learning: Feedback from faculty and alumni on its importance for teaching and learning. Res Learn Technol. 2020; 28 . https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v28.2319

Dixson MD. Measuring student engagement in the online course: The Online Student Engagement scale (OSE). Online Learn. 2015; 19 (4).

Kwary DA, Fauzie S. Students’ achievement and opinions on the implementation of e-learning for phonetics and phonology lectures at Airlangga University. Educ Pesqui. 2018; 44 .

Vygotsky LS. Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press. 1978.

Kahoot! @ . Oslo, Norway. https://kahoot.com/

Davis J, Chryssafidou E, Zamora J, Davies D, Khan K, Coomarasamy A. Computer-based teaching is as good as face to face lecture-based teaching of evidence-based medicine: a randomised controlled trial. BMC Med Educ. 2007; 7(1): 1–6.

Davis J, Crabb S, Rogers E, Zamora J, Khan K. Computer-based teaching is as good as face to face lecture-based teaching of evidence-based medicine: a randomized controlled trial. Med Teach. 2008; 30(3): 302–307.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Authors’ information

MZ is an Associate Professor of Learning Sciences and Senior Instructional Designer at School of Dentistry, University of the Pacific. She has a PhD in Education, with a specialty on learning sciences and technology. She has dedicated her entire career to conducting research on online learning, learning technology, and faculty development. Her research has resulted in several peer-reviewed publications in medical, dental, and educational technology journals. MZ has also presented regularly at national conferences.

DB is an Assistant Dean for Academic Affairs at School of Dentistry, University of the Pacific. He has an EdD degree in education, with a concentration on learning and instruction. Over the past decades, DB has been overseeing and delivering faculty pedagogical development programs to dental faculty. His research interest lies in educational leadership and instructional innovation. DB has co-authored several peer-reviewed publications in health sciences education and presented regularly at national conferences.

CL is Associate Dean of Oral Healthcare Education, School of Dentistry, University of the Pacific. She has a Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) degree and an EdD degree with a focus on educational leadership. Her professional interest lies in educational leadership, oral healthcare education innovation, and faculty development. CL has co-authored several publications in peer-reviewed journals in health sciences education and presented regularly at national conferences.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Office of Academic Affairs, Arthur A. Dugoni School of Dentistry, University of the Pacific, CA, San Francisco, USA

Meixun Zheng, Daniel Bender & Cindy Lyon

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

MZ analyzed the data and wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. DB and CL both provided assistance with research design, data collection, and reviewed and edited the manuscript. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Meixun Zheng .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The study was approved by the institutional review board at University of the Pacific in the U.S. (#2020-68). Informed consent was obtained from all participants. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

Consent for publication

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Additional file 1:.

Survey of online courses during COVID-19 pandemic.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Zheng, M., Bender, D. & Lyon, C. Online learning during COVID-19 produced equivalent or better student course performance as compared with pre-pandemic: empirical evidence from a school-wide comparative study. BMC Med Educ 21 , 495 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-021-02909-z

Download citation

Received : 31 March 2021

Accepted : 26 August 2021

Published : 16 September 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-021-02909-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Dental education
• Online learning
• COVID-19 pandemic
• Instructional strategies
• Interaction
• Learning performance

BMC Medical Education

ISSN: 1472-6920

• General enquiries: [email protected]

• Education Articles & Blogs
• Articles and Blogs | Online & Distance Learning UK Degrees
• Articles and Blogs

The Evolution of Teaching in the Era of Online Learning

• Posted by Stafford Global
• Categories Education Articles & Blogs
• Date August 29, 2024

Table of Contents

Early days of online education.

• Covid-19: A Shift to online learning

The Digital Transformation/Technological Advancements

Technological tools and resources, assessment and feedback in online learning, overcoming digital divide and accessibility issues, the future of teaching and online learning.

With online learning emerging as a dominant force that is changing how we teach and learn; the educational environment has seen a tremendous transition in recent years. A number of causes have contributed to this transformation, including as the COVID-19 epidemic, technological advancements, and the rising need for accessible and flexible learning.

The origins of online education can be found in the development of computer-based training systems and distant learning initiatives in the 1960s. But online learning didn’t really start to take off until the 1990s, when the internet became widely used. A more accessible and dynamic learning environment was made possible with the advent of web-based learning management systems and the growth of online degree programs . Early online courses were mostly text-based and did not have the interactive components that are present now. But just as technology developed, so did the efficacy and caliber of online education. Multimedia materials, like simulations and movies, were introduced, which enhanced student engagement and improved learning results.

Covid-19: A Shift to Online Learning

A major factor in the quick uptake of online learning was the COVID-19 pandemic, which compelled universities all over the world to switch to remote learning. This abrupt change brought to light the difficulties as well as the advantages that come with online education. Even though it made it possible for education to continue during a crisis, it also made clear the need for better facilities, teacher preparation programs, and student assistance. Online learning has become more popular as a result of the epidemic, and many universities have invested in new platforms and technology to facilitate distance learning. The number of students enrolling in online courses and programs has significantly increased as a result of this.

Technology has advanced at an exponential rate in the twenty-first century, revolutionising the field of online learning. These technological advancements, which range from mobile phones and high-speed internet to virtual reality and artificial intelligence, have completely changed how we distribute and use instructional content. These days, personalised, adaptive learning experiences that accommodate students’ various requirements and learning preferences can be found on online learning platforms. The creation of adaptive learning systems has been one of the biggest developments in online education. These systems make necessary adjustments to the material and difficulty level based on an analysis of student performance using algorithms. This makes it possible to provide each student with a more customised learning experience that meets their unique needs. The emergence of mobile learning has been another significant breakthrough. Due to the increasing use of tablets and smartphones, students can now access instructional materials from any location at any time. This has improved accessibility and convenience of learning, especially for working professionals and those living in rural locations.

An enormous variety of technical tools and resources that aim to improve teaching and learning have been made possible by the growth of online education. These technologies, which range from virtual labs and interactive whiteboards to video conferencing platforms and collaboration tools, have made it possible for teachers to design immersive and captivating learning environments. Massive open online courses (MOOCs) and open educational resources (OERs) have also democratised access to education by enabling learners everywhere to access top-notch content. Video conferencing apps like Zoom and Microsoft Teams are among the most popular resources for online education. With the use of these tools, teachers and students can communicate in real time, providing in-person training in a virtual environment. They also give online learners the chance to collaborate and work in groups, which is crucial for creating a sense of community and establishing social relationships. Learning management systems (LMS), like Canvas and Blackboard, are another crucial tool. These platforms facilitate students’ ability to remain organised and involved by offering a central location for course materials, assignments, and assessments. LMSs also provide services that aid educators in managing and tracking the development of their students, including as analytics, grading systems, and discussion forums.

Making sure there are efficient systems for assessment and feedback in online learning is one of the main concerns. Instructors have had to modify conventional evaluation techniques for the digital age by utilising resources such as online tests, portfolios, and peer reviews. More individualised and data-driven evaluation methods have also been made possible by the combination of learning analytics and adaptive algorithms. The effectiveness of online learning depends on efficient evaluation and feedback systems. It may be challenging to gauge student development and pinpoint areas for growth in the absence of these components. To help with assessment and feedback, online learning platforms have created a variety of tools, including discussion boards, online tests, and peer review systems. An additional crucial instrument for evaluating student success in online learning is learning analytics. Educators can enhance student outcomes by gathering and evaluating data on student engagement, performance, and progress. This allows them to make informed decisions about their teaching strategies.

Online education has the potential to expand educational opportunities, but it has also brought attention to the problem of the digital divide. Many students do not have access to the gadgets, internet connectivity, or digital literacy skills needed to fully engage in online learning, especially those from underprivileged communities. It is still very difficult to address these disparities and guarantee that all students can access online instruction. Policymakers and educational institutions need to make investments in programs and infrastructure that give marginalised people access to gadgets and internet connectivity in order to close the digital divide. This could involve programs like giving children in need laptops or tablets, collaborating with internet service providers to offer free or heavily discounted internet access, and providing digital literacy instruction to assist students and their families in utilising the resources and platforms for online learning. Another crucial factor in online learning is accessibility. Teachers need to make sure that all of their resources and courses are inclusive of and accessible to students with disabilities. This could entail making sure that video content is captioned or has transcripts accompanying it, as well as offering alternate formats for course materials like audio recordings or transcripts.  

It is obvious that online learning will become more and more significant in determining the direction of education in the future as it develops. The online learning experience could be further improved by emerging technologies like blockchain, virtual reality, and artificial intelligence, which could create more secure, immersive, and personalised learning environments. But for online learning to be successful, educational institutions must be able to adjust to these changes, make investments in support and training for teachers, and make sure that online learning is still open to and inclusive of all students. The potential for artificial intelligence (AI) to personalise the learning process is one of the most intriguing advances in the field of online education. With the use of artificial intelligence (AI), adaptive learning systems are able to analyse student performance data and modify the content and degree of difficulty to create a really customised learning environment. AI can also be utilised to give students immediate feedback and assistance, assisting them in identifying areas for growth and gaining access to more resources as needed.

In summary, the manner that education has changed in the age of online learning signifies a substantial change in our philosophy of education. Although there have been difficulties, there have also been fresh chances for creativity, accessibility, and customisation. In order to guarantee that online learning continues to be an effective instrument for empowering students and changing lives, it will be essential going ahead for educational institutions, legislators, and stakeholders to collaborate.

Interested in studying a degree in Teaching and Education ? Speak to a Higher Education Consultant if you would like to study a PGCE or Masters in Education .

Tag: Education courses , Online degree , Online Learning , Teaching courses

Previous post

How to Convince Your Employer to Fund your Education?

You may also like, the 3 main learning styles, do english teachers need a masters degree in tesol, top 5 reasons teachers study a pgce course, stafford global, privacy overview.

The Benefits of Learning Online

In This Article:

Online learning has completely changed the way we approach education, offering a level of flexibility and convenience that traditional classrooms can’t match. With online courses, you can access a wide range of materials from anywhere, fitting your studies around your own schedule and learning style. Whether you’re looking to pick up new skills or advance your career, online learning makes it easier by removing geographical and scheduling obstacles. Read more to learn how UK Online offers many benefits to its students and how these programs could be the right fit for you. 

Online Learning Provides the Same Degree

Regardless of whether you earn your degree online or in-person, all University of Kentucky degrees are the same. There is no denotation of “online” on your diploma or transcripts. All graduates have the same robust history of UK behind their degree. 

Degrees and Certificates Offered at Different Levels 

UK Online offers a wide array of programs for students including degrees and certificates at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Our variety of programs span a wide variety of disciplines and industries.  Learn more about  our programs . 

Finish Your Bachelor’s Degree

Learning online is a great option for those who have started working towards a bachelor's degree but were never able to finish their education. UK Online offers a variety of bachelor degree programs that are specially designed to allow students to apply previously earned college credit and complete a bachelor’s degree. Regardless if your last college class was one year, or a decade ago, our bachelor degree programs provide the flexibility you need to  complete your degree .

Benefits That Come With Online Learning

On your own time .

• No live lectures (for most programs) 
• Learn at your own pace in accordance with the course schedule
• Working, caregiving, etc. 

No Commute 

• Not required to step foot on campus (most programs) 
• Saves time and money that would otherwise have been spent on your commute  

Cost Effective 

• Save on living expenses 
• Online students are eligible for financial aid and scholarships just like students in traditional face-to-face programs
• Pay the same online tuition rate, even if you live outside of Kentucky

Access to Support Services 

• Be supported with  academics support services , and  well-being services
• Meet with advisors or program leaders virtually

If you are ready to take the next step in your career by furthering your education, explore all the  programs UK Online has to offer.

• Undergraduate

Get a UK Degree, Your Way

Choose from one of our 80+ degrees and certificates, designed to be flexible with your lifestyle and career..

In the Fall 2022 term, 75% of students enrolled in UK Online programs received some form of financial aid.

About UK Online

Earn your degree on your schedule. Choose from one of our 80+ degrees and certificates, designed to be flexible with your lifestyle and career at any stage of your educational goals.

Explore Online Programs

• Bachelor’s Degrees
• Master's Degrees
• Doctorate Degrees
• Undergraduate Certificates
• Graduate Certificates
• External Certifications
• All Programs
• Art & History
• Business, Administration & Leadership
• Criminal Justice & Legal Studies
• Engineering
• Information Science
• Professional Writing & Communication
• Social Work & Behavioral Sciences
• Sustainability & Agriculture

Start achieving your career goals

And earn your uk degree, from anywhere, learn online., expand your skill set. grow your career..

Pay the same tuition anywhere in the world with our online tuition rate

Fit learning into your busy schedule with the flexibility of learning online

Be Supported

Have access to support services and success coaches to help you succeed

Degree Recognition

Degrees conferred by the University of Kentucky, a long-standing land-grant university

• [email protected]
• Login / Register

Blended Learning: Maximize Impact with Hybrid Education Models

Article 04 Sep 2024 35 0

Blended learning, often referred to as hybrid learning, is rapidly becoming a favored model in modern education. It seamlessly combines the best aspects of online education and traditional in-person teaching, offering students and educators flexibility, engagement, and personalized learning experiences. In today’s world, where digital tools are indispensable in education, understanding how to implement blended learning effectively can significantly impact student outcomes.

In this article, we will explore the benefits, challenges, and best practices of blended learning. By the end, you will have a comprehensive guide to implementing hybrid education models that maximize impact for students and teachers alike.

What is Blended Learning?

Blended learning is a teaching method that integrates both online educational resources and traditional classroom instruction. Unlike fully online or fully in-person learning environments, blended learning allows students to benefit from the flexibility and technological ages of online education while retaining the personal interaction and direct guidance offered in physical classrooms.

This educational model is particularly effective because it accommodates different learning styles, fosters student engagement, and leverages the strengths of both digital tools and in-person experiences. For educators, blended learning offers a way to better track student performance through data analysis while enabling a more personalized approach to teaching.

Key Features of Blended Learning

• Flexibility : Students can learn at their own pace, access materials online, and revisit lessons whenever necessary.
• Increased Engagement : Interactive digital tools such as quizzes, simulations, and videos keep students actively involved.
• Personalized Learning : Blended learning caters to individual learning preferences, ensuring that no student is left behind.
• Efficient Use of Time : Class time can be used for discussions, hands-on activities, or personalized instruction, as students can cover the basics online.
• Tracking and Analytics : Online platforms offer detailed insights into student progress, allowing educators to tailor lessons accordingly.

Benefits of Blended Learning

Blended learning offers numerous ages to students, teachers, and educational institutions. These benefits make it a desirable model, particularly in a world increasingly driven by technology and remote education .

1. Flexibility and Customization

One of the most significant benefits of blended learning is its flexibility. Students are no longer bound by strict schedules and can access course materials at their convenience. This flexibility extends to learning pace, enabling students to spend more time on complex topics and move quickly through subjects they find easier.

For educators, this allows for the customization of learning experiences, tailoring lessons to meet the unique needs of each student. Teachers can identify which students need additional support or more challenging materials based on data collected from online platforms.

2. Enhanced Student Engagement

Blended learning naturally incorporates digital tools that make learning interactive and dynamic. Educational platforms can offer quizzes, games, simulations, and even virtual labs, making the learning process more enjoyable and engaging. This enhanced interaction keeps students motivated and helps improve knowledge retention.

In a traditional setting, teachers might struggle to engage all students equally. However, with blended learning, the combination of face-to-face interaction and technology keeps the learning process fresh and exciting.

3. Cost-Effective

For educational institutions, blended learning can reduce costs by decreasing the need for large physical spaces and frequent in-person classes. As more content shifts online, schools and universities can optimize the use of their facilities. Additionally, institutions can save on teaching resources by sharing materials digitally.

4. Real-Time Feedback and Progress Tracking

With online platforms, students and teachers can receive instant feedback. For instance, if a student takes a quiz online, they can see their results immediately and understand where they need to improve. Teachers, too, can access real-time data on student performance, making it easier to adapt their teaching strategies.

Tracking progress over time is also easier with digital platforms. Detailed analytics help educators identify trends in student learning, allowing them to intervene when necessary or provide extra help to struggling students.

5. Preparing Students for the Digital World

Incorporating digital tools into learning prepares students for the increasingly digital world. Whether students go on to higher education or enter the workforce, proficiency with digital platforms and online communication is essential. Blended learning fosters these skills, ensuring students are ready for future challenges.

Challenges of Blended Learning

While blended learning has numerous ages, there are also challenges to its implementation. Understanding and addressing these challenges is crucial to successfully integrating this model into the classroom.

1. Technology Access and Digital Literacy

Not all students have access to reliable technology or the internet, which can create inequality in learning opportunities. In order for blended learning to be successful, educational institutions must ensure that all students have access to the necessary digital tools. This includes providing devices or making learning materials accessible offline where possible.

Moreover, students and educators alike need to be proficient in using these tools. Digital literacy is a crucial component of blended learning, and institutions must invest in training both students and staff to use online platforms effectively.

2. Teacher Training and Support

Transitioning to a blended learning model requires teachers to rethink their approach to instruction. Teachers need to be trained not only on how to use digital tools but also on how to integrate these tools seamlessly with traditional teaching methods. Without proper training, teachers may struggle to maintain consistency between online and in-person lessons.

Additionally, ongoing support is essential. Educational institutions should provide teachers with access to resources, professional development opportunities, and peer collaboration to help them adapt to the blended learning environment.

3. Balancing Online and In-Person Activities

One of the challenges of blended learning is finding the right balance between online and in-person activities. If not carefully managed, students may feel overwhelmed by the online component or disengaged from in-person classes. The goal is to ensure that both online and in-person elements complement each other, rather than function as separate, disconnected parts.

Best Practices for Implementing Blended Learning

To implement blended learning effectively, educators and institutions need to follow best practices that enhance the learning experience while avoiding common pitfalls. Below are some strategies for successfully adopting blended learning models.

1. Start Small

For institutions new to blended learning, it's best to start small. Introduce blended learning in individual modules or subjects rather than overhauling the entire curriculum at once. This allows both teachers and students to adjust to the new format and provides time to troubleshoot any issues with technology or teaching strategies.

2. Use a Variety of Digital Tools

Blended learning should cater to different learning styles. Some students may prefer video lessons, while others might benefit from interactive quizzes or reading assignments. By incorporating a variety of digital tools, educators can ensure that all students remain engaged and can choose the learning method that works best for them.

3. Seamless Integration

To create a cohesive learning experience, educators should integrate online and in-person activities. For example, an online lesson can introduce a topic, while in-person classes can focus on discussion and deeper exploration. This ensures that students receive a well-rounded education and can apply what they've learned online in real-world settings.

4. Regular Feedback and Communication

Maintain open lines of communication with students. Use online platforms to provide regular feedback and encourage students to ask questions or seek help. Blended learning can sometimes feel impersonal, so fostering a strong teacher-student connection is crucial.

Blended learning is an innovative educational model that combines the best of both online and in-person teaching methods. Its flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and ability to enhance student engagement make it an increasingly popular choice for modern education. However, like any educational strategy, it requires careful planning and implementation to be effective.

Educators must focus on creating a balanced, integrated learning experience that leverages the strengths of both digital and traditional teaching. By starting small, using diverse digital tools, and providing ongoing support to students and teachers, blended learning can maximize its positive impact on education.

• Latest Articles

Accessibility in Education: Every Student's Voice Matters

Pop culture shifts in america: a historical perspective, exploring non traditional learning models for the future of education, boost skills with collaborative group learning | education strategies, shifts in pop culture & their societal implications, ai’s influence on job market trends | future of employment, philosophy’s role in the 21st century: modern relevance, biotechnology's impact on sustainable agriculture, impacts of the fashion industry on global pollution levels, improve your writing skills: a beginner's guide, top study tips for exam success: effective strategies for academic achievement, 9 practical tips to start reading more every day, top study strategies for student success, how to study smarter, not harder: tips for success, 10 important roles of technology in education, top strategies & tips for effective exam preparation, apply online.

Find Detailed information on:

• Top Colleges & Universities
• Popular Courses
• Exam Preparation
• Admissions & Eligibility
• College Rankings

Sign Up or Login

Not a Member Yet! Join Us it's Free.

Already have account Please Login

The Anticipated Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Higher Education

• Nicole Johnson
• Jeff Seaman
• Julia Seaman

Since the rise of generative AI (GenAI) in late 2022, many scholars and thought leaders have wondered about its impact on higher education. This study used a survey methodology (three multiple choice questions and one open-ended question) to explore the perspectives of a nationally representative sample of 1327 US administrators and faculty, asking questions to understand how much change they anticipate as a result of advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) technology, how prepared their institution is for such change, and what aspects of higher education they expect to change. The researchers used Kranzberg’s laws of technology as a lens to interpret the findings and guide the subsequent discussion about how AI might impact higher education. The findings showed that the vast majority of participants expect that AI will change their institution over the next five years and that the majority of participants do not feel that their institution is ready for change. The comments left in response to the open-ended questions fell into one of four themes: concerns about academic integrity and rigor, issues related to AI integration (e.g., anticipated benefits, practices in teaching and learning, issues related to preparedness, and the expected scope of change), the feeling that the current AI discourse is merely hype, and feelings of uncertainty. Ultimately, AI has the potential to be both advantageous and disadvantageous to teaching and learning, with the benefits and challenges of its use varying by context.

Copyright (c) 2024 Nicole Johnson, Jeff Seaman, Julia Seaman

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

As a condition of publication, the author agrees to apply the Creative Commons – Attribution International 4.0 (CC-BY) License to OLJ articles. See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

This licence allows anyone to reproduce OLJ articles at no cost and without further permission as long as they attribute the author and the journal. This permission includes printing, sharing and other forms of distribution.

Author(s) hold copyright in their work, and retain publishing rights without restrictions

The DOAJ Seal is awarded to journals that demonstrate best practice in open access publishing

OLC Membership

OLC Research Center

Information

• For Readers
• For Authors
• For Librarians

Suggested Tools

• Other Journals
• For Readers
• For Authors
• For Librarians

Hasna'Rizqia Achmada Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto Indonesia

Havidz Cahya Pratama Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto Indonesia

Teachers' Strategies in Improving Multicultural Aspects in Islamic Religious Education Learning

The Indonesian nation is one of the largest multicultural countries in the world because it has various ethnic groups and cultures, various languages and religious beliefs. So multicultural education is needed, namely education that respects differences so that conflict and division do not occur. This attitude of mutual respect will create dynamic cultural diversity and richness which is the nation's identity and must be maintained. One of the main goals of multicultural education is to combat discrimination and racism in society. By introducing students to diversity and opening their minds to different ways of life, beliefs, multicultural education can also help create a more tolerant and inclusive society. The method used in this research is to use the literature study method, namely a research method by searching for or obtaining data appropriate to the topic from relevant literature, whether from books, scientific articles or journals. With the results and discussion of this research, namely First, understanding Multiculturalism in the context of Islamic Religious Education. Second, the use of inclusive learning methods, teachers need to use inclusive learning methods to ensure active participation and positive learning experiences for all students, without distinguishing based on cultural background. Third, building understanding and tolerance between religions, teachers must encourage understanding and tolerance between religions in the classroom. Fourth, building problem solving and critical thinking skills, teachers can encourage students to develop problem solving and critical thinking skills through case studies and discussions involving multicultural issues in the context of Islamic religious education.

Abidin, A. A., & Murtadlo, M. A. (2020). Curriculum Development of Multicultural-Based Islamic Education As an Effort To Weaver Religious Moderation Values in Indonesia. … , Research and Multiculturalism …. https://journal.yaspim.org/index.php/IJIERM/article/view/30

Anggraeni, D., Hadiyanto, A., & ... (2023). Multicultural Islamic Religious Education Based on Local Wisdom: The Analysis of" SILAS" Values in Sundanese Culture. … Journal of Islamic …. https://ejournal.uit-lirboyo.ac.id/index.php/ijies/article/view/3649

Bahri, S. (2019). The Role of Islamic Education in Realizing Social Interaction Based on Multiculturalism Among Students of Different Religions in Elementary Schools. … of Islamic Education, Research and Multiculturalism …. https://www.journal.yaspim.org/index.php/IJIERM/article/download/2/3

Banks, J. A. (2013). The nature of multicultural education. Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives, 3–24.

Biesta, G. J. J. (2015). Beyond learning: Democratic education for a human future. Routledge.

Firmansyah, F. (2022). Class Together in Realizing the Values of Moderation of Islamic Education Through Multicultural School Culture. Journal Education Multicultural of Islamic Society. https://riset.unisma.ac.id/index.php/JEMOIS/article/view/13119

Hajiannor, H., Saddhono, K., & ... (2023). Analysis of the Content and Accuracy of Multicultural Values in Islamic Religious Education and Moral Textbook. AL-ISHLAH …. http://www.journal.staihubbulwathan.id/index.php/alishlah/article/view/2859

Hifza, H., Antoni, A., Syakhrani, A. W., & ... (2020). The Multicultural Islamic Education Development Strategy on Educational Institutions. Jurnal Iqra’ …. https://journal.iaimnumetrolampung.ac.id/index.php/ji/article/view/799

Ilyasin, M., & Tohet, M. (2020). Multicultural education in a religious life: Developing harmony among religions in southeast asia. … of the International Conference on Industrial …. https://risbang.unuja.ac.id/media/arsip/berkas_prosiding/744.pdf

Iqbal, A. M. (2013). Konsep Pemikiran al-Ghazali tentang pendidikan. Madiun: Jaya Star Nine.

Latifah, N., Marini, A., & Maksum, A. (2021). Pendidikan Multikultural di Sekolah Dasar (Sebuah Studi Pustaka). Jurnal Pendidikan Dasar Nusantara, 6(2), 42–51.

Malla, H. A. B., Misnah, M., & ... (2021). … as Prevention of Religious Radicalism in Poso, Central Sulawesi, IndonesiaImplementation of Multicultural Values in Islamic Religious Education Based Media …. International Journal of …. http://www.lifescienceglobalca.com/index.php/ijcs/article/view/7048

Malović, N., & Vujica, K. (2021). Multicultural society as a challenge for coexistence in Europe. Religions. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/12/8/615

Nugroho, M. A. (2019). Embedding multicultural values in Islamic education: A portrayal of contemporary Indonesian textbooks. … Islamika: Jurnal Pendidikan Islam. https://e-journal.uingusdur.ac.id/edukasiaislamika/article/view/1052

Ok, A. H., Al-Farabi, M., & ... (2022). Internalization of Multicultural Islamic Education Values In High School Students. … Pendidikan Islam. http://pasca.jurnalikhac.ac.id/index.php/munaddhomah/article/view/265

Patimah, S., Badarussyamsi, B., & ... (2022). Learning Islamic religious education with multicultural insights in strengthening harmony among students. Journal of Educational …. https://journal.centrism.or.id/index.php/jer/article/view/24

Rohmah, H., Rena, S., Pahrurraji, P., & ... (2023). Implementation of Multicultural Education Values in Senior High School. At-Tadzkir: Islamic …. http://at-tadzkir.pdtii.org/index.php/tadzkir/article/view/29

Rosniati, H., & Mahyudin, R. (2020). A STUDY OF RELIGION EDUCATION METHOD WITH MULTICULTURAL INSIGHT (Cek Similarity). eprints.umsb.ac.id. http://eprints.umsb.ac.id/81/

Saihu, M., Umar, N., Raya, A. T., & Shunhaji, A. (2022). Multicultural education based on religiosity to enhance social harmonization within students: A study in a public senior high school. Pegem Journal of Education …. https://pegegog.net/index.php/pegegog/article/view/1854

Sechandini, R. A., Ratna, R. D., Zakariyah, Z., & ... (2023). Multicultural-Based Learning of Islamic Religious Education for the Development of Students’ Social Attitudes. At-Tadzkir: Islamic …. http://at-tadzkir.pdtii.org/index.php/tadzkir/article/view/27

Siahaan, A., Wijaya, C., Ananda, R., & ... (2023). Islamic Education Management: A Study of Multicultural Paradigm. … Theory and Practice. http://repository.uinsu.ac.id/id/eprint/16908

Sulaiman, S., Imran, A., Hidayat, B. A., Mashuri, S., & ... (2022). Moderation religion in the era society 5.0 and multicultural society: Studies based on legal, religious, and social reviews. Linguistics and Culture …. http://lingcure.org/index.php/journal/article/view/2106

Sumarna, C., Djubaedi, D., Fatimah, S., Mas’ud, A., & ... (2021). Multicultural Value of Education in Forming the Community’s Religious Attitude. International Journal of ….

Wajdi, M. B. N., & Tobroni, T. (2020). Implications of Multiculturalism and Tolerance in Islamic Religious Education. EDUCATIO: Journal of …. https://ejournal.staimnglawak.ac.id/index.php/educatio/article/view/299

Warsah, I., Cahyani, D., & Pratiwi, R. (2019). Islamic integration and tolerance in community behaviour; Multiculturalism model in the Rejang Lebong district. … : Journal of Islamic …. http://repository.iaincurup.ac.id/id/eprint/341

Article Metrics

• There are currently no refbacks.

ISSN: 2615-3335

Hosted by Mason Publishing , part of the George Mason University Libraries .