short essay on tribal life and culture

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3 General and specific characteristics of tribes

Vineet Verma

Table of Contents

Introduction

1.      Definition of Tribe

2.      Tribes in India

3.      Distinctive Characteristics of the Tribes in India

• Definite Common Topography/ Geographical isolation or semi-isolation
• Ethnic distinctiveness from the national society
• Sense of Unity
• Economic base tightly dependent on their, specific environment
• Communitarian basis of land holding
• Poor Literacy and Education among Tribal‟s
• Endogamous Group
• Common Dialect
• Ties of Blood-relationship
• Protection Awareness
• Distinct Political Organization
• Common Culture
• Importance of Kinship
• Egalitarian Values
• Rudimentary type of Religion/ Common religion and Common culture
• Distinct Psychological Bent for Enjoying Life/ Course of Tribal life and personality structure

Learning Objective

• To able to define the concept of tribe that has been made in Anthropology
• To determine the distinct general and specific characteristics of tribes in India
• To be able to define and distinguish between tribal and other civilised population
• To able to define the social structure of tribal population in India
• To able to describe the distinct spot of tribal life style

    Introduction

India is known to be a vast country with scanty population in the prehistoric age. During this period there were small groups of people scattered throughout the country in different spots. The Tribal culture blooms in the isolated highlands and forests of India. The tribal‟s are an integral part of the Indian population, their isolated ecology, economy, society, religious belief and centuries long association with the Indian society. The study of tribal‟s, has been one of the oldest of anthropological concerns. In fact, the genesis of anthropology can be traced to the attempts, made by European colonists, travelers, explorers, and missionaries to understand and describe the ways of life of the native people they found in Africa, Asia, Australia and the rest of the world. These forest and hill dwelling savages were called tribes to differentiate them from other civilized people.

1.     Definition of Tribe

A series of definition have been offered by the earlier Anthropologists like Morgan, Tylor, Perry, Rivers, and Lowie to cover a social group known as tribe . These definitions are, by no means complete and these professional Anthropologists have not been able to develop a set of precise indices to classify groups as „tribal‟ or „ non tribal ‟. The term generally refers to territorial communities living in the relative isolation in foot-hills and forests.

Many attempts have been made in anthropology to define and characterize on „tribe‟, but there is no consensus on defining characteristics. Territorially race, economy animism, political autonomy etc have been variously used. In fact it appears that the dozens of definition and characteristics of „tribe‟ floating around in anthropological literature are as diverse as the field situation encountered by those proposing the definitions.

Let us start with the orthodox definition of tribes revealed in the „Dictionary of Anthropology‟ which states: “Tribe is a social group, usually with a definite are, dialect, cultural homogeneity, and unifying social organization”. It may include several subs – groups, such as sibs or villages. It may and may have common ancestor as well as presiding deities. The families or small communities making up a tribe, are linked through economic, social, religious, or blood ties i.e. kingship bondage.

A tribe is a group of people, usually staying in jungle areas, in a small locality, absolutely illiterate poor, hardly clad in clothes, usually dark and frail, fully living within their own community whose marriage always takes place among themselves, engaged in hunting and searching for roots, shoots and fruits as their veg food and roasted animals as non-veg food, completely oblivious of the country‟s  political and economic condition, resisting all efforts of development and have a strong dislike for strangers and educated modern community.

• Dr Rivers added the criteria of „having single government and acting together for such common purposes as warfare‟
• Prof. Perry thinks that „a common dialect and a common territory „should be treated as the criteria for labelling a group as tribe .
• Prof S.C. Dube has remarked that “Partly because of the isolation and partly because of their limited world view, characterized by lack of historical depth and an overall tradition – orientation, they are integrated themes and special cultural focus give them a separate cultural identity and they often posses latent and manifest value attitude, and motivational system which are remarkably different from those of the other people”.
• The Tata Institute of Social Science has made following comment on this issue. “A tribe could be a collection of families without the existence of community in the scientific sense of the word. A tribe as a social organization is able to decide upon its own function or the need or otherwise of independence between its different components, units or groups. Economic backwardness is very relative.
• Prof. S.C. Sinha has tried to define the category „tribe‟ as essentially pre literate groups living in relative isolation in hills and forests or in the plains skirting the forests who are apparently outside the threshold of „Brabmanic hierarchic civilisation ‟.

     On the basis of certain universal characteristics contained in various definitions, Majumdar (1958) proposed a definition of tribe claiming that some of it would define a tribe anywhere.

“A tribe is a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous, with no specialization of function ruled by tribal officers, hereditary or otherwise, united in language or dialect, recognising social distance with other tribes, caste, without any social obloquy attaching to them as it does in the caste structure following tribal traditions, belief and customs illiberal of naturalization of ideas from alien sources, above all conscious of homogeneity of ethnic and territorial integration.”

In Indian context, too, the term is a British legacy. They classified as tribe such people who were beyond the pale of Hindu Varna system occupied inaccessible hills and forests and were of dark complexion. Neither Hindu nor any other Indian language has a corresponding term with exact connotation as „tribe‟. This in itself is a proof enough that Indian language have never conceptually set these people apart from the rest.

    2.   Tribes in India

India is home to one of the largest number of tribes in the world. Although there are 537 tribal communities in India, only 258 communities have been notified as tribes. STs as a category of India‟s population, constituting 8 percent of her‟ total population (Census, 2001), is “varied in terms of socio-economic and political development (Sharma, 2007). Tribes in India are not a homogeneous group as their culture and values are distinct from each other. The states of Maharashtra and Orissa share the largest number of tribes in India. There is high variation in the spatial distribution of tribes in India. Almost 82 percent of the tribes live in western and central states where only 11 percent of them are located in southern states. Regarding the growth rate of tribal population, it is obvious that the number of tribe has been growing over the years although the rate of growth of tribe population has been less than that of the general population.

3.     Distinctive Characteristics of the Tribes in India

The chief characteristics of a tribe are the following:

• Definite Common Topography/Geographical isolation or semi-isolation

   Tribal people live within a definite topography and it is a common place for all the members of a particular tribe occupying that region. In the absence of a common but definite living place, the tribal‟s will lose other characteristics of a tribal life, like common language, way of living and community sentiment etc.

The Indian tribal‟s are found to concentrate in a number of blocks, the most importance of which are-

a)    Assam Hills,

b)  Chotanagpur and Orissa hinterland,

c)  Chhattisgarh and the districts of Chhindwara, Mandla, Durg and Raipur

d)  The districts of east and west Khandesh, Nasik, Surat, Broach, and Panchmahal Thana, and Colaba, Mumbai.

Generally speaking, these tribal blocks differ in race, language and culture.

    Taking a lead from Guha Racial classification on Indian tribal

A)   The Negrito group: The characteristics physical features of this group are very short, pigmy stature, dark black skin colour, woolly and frizzly hair, broad nose, dolichocephalic head. The Andamanese, Onge, (of the Andaman‟s), the Kadar, Urails of South India belong to this physical type.

B)    The Proto – Australoid group: This group is characterised by medium stature dark brown skin colour, wavy and curly hair, thick lip, broad nose, and doilcho-mesocephalic head. The Gond of Bastar, the Bhil of Rajasthan, the Oraon, Munda, Santal of Chotanagpur, Chenchu of Andhra Pradesh, Juang of Orissa, Kharia, Bhumij, Ho of Singhbhum district of Bihar possesses the characteristics of the proto – Australoid.

C)   The Mongoloid group: This group is characterised by medium stature, yellowish brown skin colour, flat face, oblique eye – slit with epicanthic fold, scanty beard and moustache.

Their hair has the tendency to be straight. The tribal‟s of north eastern zone belonging to this racial type. The Naga, Khasi, Garo, Lepcha, Bhutia, Dafia, Abor, Mismi, and some other neighbouring tribes are having Mongoloid features.

D)   The Nordic group: The Toda of Nilgiri hills of south India are regarded as the solitary example of this racial type so far India is concerned They are characterised by tall stature, rosy – white skin colour, wavy hair, prominent fine nose, thin lip, and with plenty of facial and body hair.

   Unless and until, a group living in a particular area and using that area as a common residence, does not possess the sense of unity, it cannot be called a tribe. Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for a true tribal life. The very existence of a tribe depends upon the tribal‟s sense of unity during the times of peace and war. They have strong sense of unity and any stranger is attacked with bows and arrows.

    In many cases, tribes have highly advanced hunting and fishing economics and more adjusted to their physical environment than other developed economics. The evolution of the economy from non –  feudal to feudal and then to commercial conditions can take place during any stage of Tribal evolution. Little value on surplus accumulation on the use of capital and on market trading; largely or entirely independent of the national economic system; the sources of subsistence and livelihood are varied so far the Indian tribal‟s are concerned; starting from the pure and simple parasitic habit of the nomadic hunters and food gatherers who depend mostly on nature for the sources of subsistence to the settled agriculturists.

In general economic life of the tribal‟s is marked by the following features:

a)  Small economy

b)  Reciprocal exchange

c)  No surplus

d)  Division of labour

e)  Tribal markets

f)  Simple technology

g)  Slower innovation

h)  Importance of family and kingship

Tribes are the life line of India but poverty has plagued the lives of Tribal‟s folk. The unequal distribution of rural assets such as land along with failure in crops due to erratic rainfall and floods are causes of poverty in the country side. Lack of skills and education along with distress migration has been other causes of poverty. Poverty has its effects on overall human development. The poor are deprived of basic human necessity of nutrition, sanitation, health. Such situation has negative repercussion in the overall economy of the nation; also a major demography cannot be harness to its optimum potential.

   Each tribal group is often identified with a particular territory; therefore, some scholars also suggest that “a tribe is a territorial group”. Bearing a few exceptions of some nomadic tribes, the entire tribal group are found to have emotional attachment with their land and habitat. Because of their sentimental attachment with their land to the tribal‟s have always resisted any outside interference. Tribal resistance against interference in their habitat and land system is reflected in various tribal revolts in the past, as well as failures of several tribal resettlement schemes in different parts of the country.

• Poor Literacy and Education among Tribal’s

    Although most of the tribal people of India are agriculturists yet their economy basically remains at the subsistence level. As a result the tribal‟s at own, exert little effort to afford proper education. Whatever education the tribal‟s have received so far has been because of the efforts of the missionaries and the central and the respective state government. Among several tribes socio – cultural factors have been mainly responsible for low literacy rate, particularly among the girls. There are other socio-cultural factors as well, such as early marriage which prevents particularly a tribal girl child to receive proper education and stake her claim in the job.

    Tribal people generally do not marry outside their tribe and marriage within the tribe is highly appreciated and much applauded. But the pressing effects of changes following the forces of mobility have also changed the attitude of tribal‟s and now, inter-tribe marriages are becoming more and more common. A tribe is an endogamous group, as distinct from a clan who is exogamous, have common name and is engaged in worshipping strange objects, hunting of small animals, and resists entry of any outsiders inside their territory. All tribe members are related by blood, have their own political organization which has a chief who exercises authority over all the members, even recommending marriage of young boys with girls whom they have found suitable for marriage.

    Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect. This element further strengthens their sense of unity.

Blood-relation is the greatest bond and most powerful force inculcating sense of unity among the tribal‟s.

    Tribal people always need protection from intrusion and infiltration and for this a single political authority is established and all the powers are vested in this authority. The safety of the tribal is left to the skill and mental power of the person enjoying political authority. The tribal chief is aided by a tribal committee, in the events of contingencies. Tribe is divided into a number of small groups and each group is headed by its own leader. The chief of a group works according to the directives received by him from the tribal chief.

   The political life of the tribal‟s of India reflects a paradoxical situation in which democracy and monarchy co-exist. Every head of the community at different levels like clan, village and territory is generally honoured, obeyed and accepted as the head of the group. Every tribe has its own distinct political organisation which looks after the interests of tribal people. The whole political authority lies in the hands of a tribal chief. In some tribes, tribal committees exist to help the tribal chief in discharging his functions in the interests of the tribe. Absence of strong, complex, formal organization possessing leadership but no more national representation, and few, if any political rights.

   Common culture of a tribe springs out from the sense of unity, common language, common religion, and common political organisation. Common culture produces a life of homogeneity among the tribal‟s; unacculturated or partially acculturated into national society

Folk-art is part of the culture but not the whole of it. It includes folklore, i.e., myths, legends, tales, proverbs, riddles, ballads, and other songs, folk-dance, folk-music, folk- carvings etc.

  Kinship forms the basis of tribal social organization. Most tribes are divided into exogamous clans and lineages. The marriage among tribes is based on the rule of tribal endogamy. Marriage is viewed as a contract and there are no prohibition on divorce and remarriage; kinship as an instrument of social bonds.

  The tribal social organization is based on the egalitarian principle. Thus there are no institutionalized inequalities like the caste system or sex based inequalities. Thus men and women enjoyed equal status and freedom. However some degrees of social inequality may be found in case of tribal chiefs or tribal kings who enjoy a higher social status, exercise political power and posse‟s wealth. A lack of hierarchy among men and groups found among them.

• Rudimentary type of Religion/Common religion and Common culture

    Belief in the existence of superhuman or supernatural power is almost universal. Experiences of certain day to day sudden happenings, of disease, death and unexplainable, have led to the tribal people in to believing in other then material visible world, i.e. in the invisible spirit – world or the supernatural. They have established a kind of close relationship between themselves and this power. The dependence on the forces of nature like rains, natural calamities and displeasure of gods points the basic nature of religious belief prevalent in Tribal‟s society. The dependence on the natural forces and lack of proper reasoning and scientific outlook give rise to various superstitious beliefs among the people. Education and rational outlook can be a panacea for such ills. The religious beliefs dominate the intellectual and practical life of Tribal‟s people. Religion has permeated onto the cultural norms of the society. Religious beliefs also have influenced the folk songs, paintings, marriage customs and social festivals. Rituals provide sanctity to the religious codes and dominate the life of Tribal people.

Tribes believe in certain myths and a rudimentary type of religion. Further, they believe in totems signifying objects having mystic relationship with members of the tribe. Each tribe is guided by their own religion which is based on totemism, magic and fetishism i.e. believing in god being embedded in a special piece of stone, a special tree or a peculiar strange animal; lack of distinction between form and substance of religion

   The tribal as man is simple, humble and possesses a great amount of feeling for his co-villagers and kings man in particular and community members in general. They grow in the intimacy of the social atmosphere of his community. His close association with nature inspires him to lead a carefree life. They feel pleasure in roaming about hills, forests and fields. Nature makes him intimate with the environment. He often meets friends and visits his own relations on different festive occasions and in periodical new relations and association with people.

    Summary

The tribal have characteristics of their own. They differ from the common Indian population both in character and composition. On an all – India basis Indian non tribal population vary widely from place to place according to natural surroundings, economy, tradition and local history. On the other hand the tribal population of India has, more or less, similar natural environments of hill and forest, poor economy, and specific tradition which are ideal for the tribal to come up. The most obvious way to grasp a tribal village in India is to consider its geographical settings, settlement pattern and size on the one hand and the social settings including ethnic composition, on the other. In many cases, tribes have highly advanced hunting and fishing economics and more adjusted to their physical environment than other developed economics. It remains a great job for the State and Central Government to bring tribes into confidence, educate them, clad them, take health care and arrange for their living by developing skill. The tribal culture of India has undergone changes owing to several factors, such as impact of education introduce by missionaries or Government, development of various communication etc; nevertheless, the greatest impact has been that of industrialization and urbanization. The obvious reason for this has been that the tribal area throughout the country are very rich as for as the mineral and the industrial resources are concerned.

In general, however, the tribes in different parts of India passing through an accelerated phase of transformation and equilibrium in the traditional society has definitely been greatly disturbed; a phase of transformation marketing the meeting of the two worlds, traditional and modern, is in the process, it seems the different tribes or sections of a tribe will continue to respond the change differently, and thus the identity and variety of the tribal culture, of course in changed form, will be maintained.

SUGGESTED READING

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    INTERESTING FACTS

Almost 82 percent of the tribes live in western and central states where only 11 percent of them are located in southern states. Regarding the growth rate of tribal population, it is obvious that the number of tribe has been growing over the years although the rate of growth of tribe population has been less than that of the general population.