case study lab report example

Lab Report Format: Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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In psychology, a lab report outlines a study’s objectives, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions, ensuring clarity and adherence to APA (or relevant) formatting guidelines.

A typical lab report would include the following sections: title, abstract, introduction, method, results, and discussion.

The title page, abstract, references, and appendices are started on separate pages (subsections from the main body of the report are not). Use double-line spacing of text, font size 12, and include page numbers.

The report should have a thread of arguments linking the prediction in the introduction to the content of the discussion.

This must indicate what the study is about. It must include the variables under investigation. It should not be written as a question.

Title pages should be formatted in APA style .

The abstract provides a concise and comprehensive summary of a research report. Your style should be brief but not use note form. Look at examples in journal articles . It should aim to explain very briefly (about 150 words) the following:

• Start with a one/two sentence summary, providing the aim and rationale for the study.
• Describe participants and setting: who, when, where, how many, and what groups?
• Describe the method: what design, what experimental treatment, what questionnaires, surveys, or tests were used.
• Describe the major findings, including a mention of the statistics used and the significance levels, or simply one sentence summing up the outcome.
• The final sentence(s) outline the study’s “contribution to knowledge” within the literature. What does it all mean? Mention the implications of your findings if appropriate.

The abstract comes at the beginning of your report but is written at the end (as it summarises information from all the other sections of the report).

Introduction

The purpose of the introduction is to explain where your hypothesis comes from (i.e., it should provide a rationale for your research study).

Ideally, the introduction should have a funnel structure: Start broad and then become more specific. The aims should not appear out of thin air; the preceding review of psychological literature should lead logically into the aims and hypotheses.

• Start with general theory, briefly introducing the topic. Define the important key terms.
• Explain the theoretical framework.
• Summarise and synthesize previous studies – What was the purpose? Who were the participants? What did they do? What did they find? What do these results mean? How do the results relate to the theoretical framework?
• Rationale: How does the current study address a gap in the literature? Perhaps it overcomes a limitation of previous research.
• Aims and hypothesis. Write a paragraph explaining what you plan to investigate and make a clear and concise prediction regarding the results you expect to find.

There should be a logical progression of ideas that aids the flow of the report. This means the studies outlined should lead logically to your aims and hypotheses.

Do be concise and selective, and avoid the temptation to include anything in case it is relevant (i.e., don’t write a shopping list of studies).

USE THE FOLLOWING SUBHEADINGS:

Participants

• How many participants were recruited?
• Say how you obtained your sample (e.g., opportunity sample).
• Give relevant demographic details (e.g., gender, ethnicity, age range, mean age, and standard deviation).
• State the experimental design .
• What were the independent and dependent variables ? Make sure the independent variable is labeled and name the different conditions/levels.
• For example, if gender is the independent variable label, then male and female are the levels/conditions/groups.
• How were the IV and DV operationalized?
• Identify any controls used, e.g., counterbalancing and control of extraneous variables.
• List all the materials and measures (e.g., what was the title of the questionnaire? Was it adapted from a study?).
• You do not need to include wholesale replication of materials – instead, include a ‘sensible’ (illustrate) level of detail. For example, give examples of questionnaire items.
• Include the reliability (e.g., alpha values) for the measure(s).
• Describe the precise procedure you followed when conducting your research, i.e., exactly what you did.
• Describe in sufficient detail to allow for replication of findings.
• Be concise in your description and omit extraneous/trivial details, e.g., you don’t need to include details regarding instructions, debrief, record sheets, etc.
• Assume the reader has no knowledge of what you did and ensure that he/she can replicate (i.e., copy) your study exactly by what you write in this section.
• Write in the past tense.
• Don’t justify or explain in the Method (e.g., why you chose a particular sampling method); just report what you did.
• Only give enough detail for someone to replicate the experiment – be concise in your writing.
• The results section of a paper usually presents descriptive statistics followed by inferential statistics.
• Report the means, standard deviations, and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for each IV level. If you have four to 20 numbers to present, a well-presented table is best, APA style.
• Name the statistical test being used.
• Report appropriate statistics (e.g., t-scores, p values ).
• Report the magnitude (e.g., are the results significant or not?) as well as the direction of the results (e.g., which group performed better?).
• It is optional to report the effect size (this does not appear on the SPSS output).
• Avoid interpreting the results (save this for the discussion).
• Make sure the results are presented clearly and concisely. A table can be used to display descriptive statistics if this makes the data easier to understand.
• DO NOT include any raw data.
• Follow APA style.

Use APA Style

• Numbers reported to 2 d.p. (incl. 0 before the decimal if 1.00, e.g., “0.51”). The exceptions to this rule: Numbers which can never exceed 1.0 (e.g., p -values, r-values): report to 3 d.p. and do not include 0 before the decimal place, e.g., “.001”.
• Percentages and degrees of freedom: report as whole numbers.
• Statistical symbols that are not Greek letters should be italicized (e.g., M , SD , t , X 2 , F , p , d ).
• Include spaces on either side of the equals sign.
• When reporting 95%, CIs (confidence intervals), upper and lower limits are given inside square brackets, e.g., “95% CI [73.37, 102.23]”
• Outline your findings in plain English (avoid statistical jargon) and relate your results to your hypothesis, e.g., is it supported or rejected?
• Compare your results to background materials from the introduction section. Are your results similar or different? Discuss why/why not.
• How confident can we be in the results? Acknowledge limitations, but only if they can explain the result obtained. If the study has found a reliable effect, be very careful suggesting limitations as you are doubting your results. Unless you can think of any c onfounding variable that can explain the results instead of the IV, it would be advisable to leave the section out.
• Suggest constructive ways to improve your study if appropriate.
• What are the implications of your findings? Say what your findings mean for how people behave in the real world.
• Suggest an idea for further research triggered by your study, something in the same area but not simply an improved version of yours. Perhaps you could base this on a limitation of your study.
• Concluding paragraph – Finish with a statement of your findings and the key points of the discussion (e.g., interpretation and implications) in no more than 3 or 4 sentences.

Reference Page

The reference section lists all the sources cited in the essay (alphabetically). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms, every time you refer to a psychologist’s name (and date), you need to reference the original source of information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is to use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

Psychology Lab Report Example

Quantitative paper template.

Quantitative professional paper template: Adapted from “Fake News, Fast and Slow: Deliberation Reduces Belief in False (but Not True) News Headlines,” by B. Bago, D. G. Rand, and G. Pennycook, 2020,  Journal of Experimental Psychology: General ,  149 (8), pp. 1608–1613 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000729 ). Copyright 2020 by the American Psychological Association.

Qualitative paper template

Qualitative professional paper template: Adapted from “‘My Smartphone Is an Extension of Myself’: A Holistic Qualitative Exploration of the Impact of Using a Smartphone,” by L. J. Harkin and D. Kuss, 2020,  Psychology of Popular Media ,  10 (1), pp. 28–38 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000278 ). Copyright 2020 by the American Psychological Association.

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A lab report documents the theory, methods, and results of your experiment to demonstrate your understanding of research and scientific methodology. In this article, we’ll tell you how to write a lab report with the help of some useful examples.

For many students, writing a lab report can be confusing: how to format it, what to include and not include, and so on. The questions are endless! Just remember that your lab report will allow others to reproduce your results and draw their own conclusions. This will help you write a lab report that’s well-formatted and organized.

In true Resource Center fashion, let’s start with the basics: What exactly is a lab report?

What is a lab report? 

A laboratory report is a document written to describe and analyze an experiment that addresses a scientific inquiry. A lab report helps you conduct an experiment and then systematically design a conclusion based on your hypothesis. 

Note: A lab report is not the same as a lab notebook. A notebook is a detailed log you keep throughout the study. A lab report is a concise summary that you submit after the study is done, usually for a final grade. 

A lab report typically follows this format:  

Introduction 

• Equipment/Materials 
• Discussion 
• References 

This is a broad list of sections you might have to include in your lab report, but by no means is this compulsory or exhaustive. You should always refer to the course or university guidelines to understand the desired format. 

How to Write a Lab Report

A lab report should be clear, concise, and well-organized, and it should include all the necessary information for others to replicate your experiment. Since the lab report format is designed to serve this purpose, you must follow it to the bone while writing your report.

Let’s start with learning how to title a lab report.

The title of your lab report should:

• Be clear, direct, and informative.
• Include keywords that clarify your objectives and involved variables.
• Be under ten words (ideally).

It’s a good idea to avoid phrasing the title as a question. Remember, your title doesn’t have to be witty or clever, just descriptive and to the point. Here are a few title examples that can clarify this for you:

• Unraveling the genetic code through gel electrophoresis.
• Hot and cold: How temperature affects enzymes yeast cells
• Impervious alloys of Aluminium
• How fast does Hydrogen Peroxide decompose?
• The speed of growth: An Analysis of bacterial growth rates in different culture media

Analysis of DNA fragment lengths using gel electrophoresis

The effects of temperature on enzyme activity in yeast cells

Investigating the corrosion resistance of Aluminum alloys

Study of chemical kinetics through the decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide

Quantifying bacterial growth rates in different culture media

While it’s not necessary to dedicate an entire page to the title, some universities might ask for a title page. If you’ve been asked to make this, include the following details:

• The experiment title 
• Your name and student details 
• Course and program details 
• Date and year of submission 

An abstract is a brief but comprehensive overview of the purpose, findings, and larger relevance of your experiment. It communicates the essential details of your study to your readers, whether it’s evaluators or peers.

Follow these tips to write a lab report abstract:

• Clearly state the topic of your experiment.
• Briefly describe the conditions of your study, the variables involved, and the method(s) used to collect data.
• Lay out the major findings of your study and your interpretations of them.
• Mention the relevance and importance of your study in brief.

An abstract is usually only a page long (typically between 100 and 250 words), so your writing must be concise and crisp.

Bonus tip: Although the abstract is the first section of your report, it’s best to write it toward the end. Much easier to summarize the report afte r it’s been written!

Lab report abstract example

This experiment aimed to investigate the corrosion resistance of two different aluminum alloys: 6061-T6 and 7075-T6. The experiment involved exposing samples of each alloy to a 3% NaCl solution for a period of 72 hours and then measuring the weight loss of the samples. The results showed that 6061-T6 had a weight loss of 0.10 g, while 7075-T6 had a weight loss of 0.25 g, indicating that 6061-T6 was more corrosion resistant. These findings suggest that the composition of the alloy has a significant impact on its resistance to corrosion. This information is important for industries that use aluminum alloys in environments that are prone to corrosion, such as marine applications or chemical processing. Further research could explore the specific mechanisms that contribute to the corrosion resistance of different aluminum alloys and could investigate the effects of other environmental factors on corrosion.

The lab report introduction provides your readers with background information on your experiment and its significance. It should be brief and to the point, so a few paragraphs is the maximum length recommended.

You can adopt either of two modes to write your introduction:

• Beginning with the research question and then adding context, ultimately closing with your purpose.
• Beginning with the broad topic and narrowing it down to your research question.

Follow these steps to write your lab report introduction:

• Begin with a brief overview of the broad research area and existing literature. 
• Include only essential background information and cite only highly relevant sources. 
• Clearly define any key terms or concepts that you’ll use in the report.
• State the specific purpose and objectives of your experiment.
• Mention the relevance and significance of your study.
• State a clear hypothesis and expected outcomes.
• Check with your instructor about adding the variables, results, and conclusions to the introduction.
• Refer to the university guidelines for instructions on labeling paragraphs in your introduction.
• Use the past tense when describing the purpose and other specifics of the experiment since it has already been carried out and is in the past. (“This experiment aimed to investigate the corrosion resistance of two different aluminum alloys.”)
• Use the present tense when describing the report, existing theories, and established facts. (“This information is important for industries that use aluminum alloys in environments prone to corrosion.”)

Make sure you use your own words rather than following a templatized format.

Lab report introduction example

Aluminum alloys are widely used in a variety of industrial applications due to their excellent strength-to-weight ratio, good corrosion resistance, and other desirable properties. However, the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys can vary depending on their composition, and understanding the factors that contribute to corrosion resistance is crucial for their effective use in harsh environments. In this experiment, we aim to investigate the corrosion resistance of two different aluminum alloys: 6061-T6 and 7075-T6.

These alloys were selected because they are commonly used in industrial applications and have different compositions, with 6061-T6 containing magnesium and silicon, while 7075-T6 contains zinc and copper. By exposing samples of each alloy to a 3% NaCl solution and measuring the weight loss of the samples over time, we can determine which alloy is more corrosion-resistant and gain insight into the factors that contribute to their corrosion resistance. This information is important for industries that use aluminum alloys in harsh environments, such as marine and aerospace applications, and can contribute to the development of more effective corrosion-resistant materials.

The lab report methods section documents the methods, subjects, materials, and equipment you used to collect data. This is a record of the steps you followed and not the steps as they were prescribed.

Follow these tips to write a lab report method section:

• List all materials and equipment used in the experiment, including their material specifications such as weight or amount. (Ex: 5 ml of 3% NaCl solution)
• In the case of elaborate lists and sets of steps, you may include them in the appendix section and refer to them in the methods section. (Check this with your instructor!)
• Detail the procedures you used to carry out the experiment step-by-step, including apparatus setup, mixing of reagents, and other technical processes.
• Explain how you collected and recorded the data as well as the involved analytical methods and calculations.
• Use the past tense to write this section.
• Discuss the limitations and margins of error and how you tried to minimize them.
• Where relevant, mention the safety precautions and protective equipment used during the experiment.

Your methods section should be accurate enough for other researchers to follow the instructions and obtain results similar to yours.

Lab report method example

• Two aluminum alloy samples: 6061-T6 and 7075-T6
• 3% NaCl solution
• Two beakers
• Two stirring rods
• Digital scale
• Vernier caliper
• Cut four aluminum alloy samples, two from each type of alloy, each with dimensions of 1 cm x 1 cm x 0.2 cm.
• Clean the samples thoroughly using ethanol to remove any impurities or oils.
• Weigh each sample accurately using a digital scale and record the initial weight.
• Prepare a 3% NaCl solution by dissolving 30 g of NaCl in 1000 mL of deionized water.
• Pour 250 mL of the 3% NaCl solution into each beaker.
• Submerge two samples of each aluminum alloy in separate beakers containing the NaCl solution.
• Use the stirring rods to stir the solutions gently to ensure uniformity.
• Allow the samples to remain in the solutions for 72 hours at room temperature (25°C).
• After 72 hours, carefully remove each sample from the solution and rinse with deionized water to remove any remaining salt.
• Dry each sample using a lint-free cloth and measure its weight using the digital scale.
• Record the final weight of each sample.
• Calculate the weight loss of each sample by subtracting the final weight from the initial weight.
• Use a Vernier caliper to measure the thickness of each sample, and record these measurements.
• Calculate the corrosion rate for each sample by dividing the weight loss by the surface area of the sample and the time of immersion in the solution.

Data Collection:

Weight loss and thickness measurements were recorded for each sample after the 72-hour immersion period. Corrosion rates were calculated using the weight loss, surface area, and time of immersion.

The experiment was conducted in a well-ventilated area with appropriate personal protective equipment, including gloves and goggles. Care was taken when handling the NaCl solution to avoid contact with the skin or eyes.

Limitations:

The experiment was conducted under controlled conditions, which may not reflect real-world scenarios. The NaCl solution concentration used may not be representative of all environmental conditions that aluminum alloys may encounter in industrial applications. Further research could explore a wider range of environmental factors to more accurately predict the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys.

The results section presents the findings of the experiment including the data you have collected and analyzed. In some cases, this section may be combined with the discussion section.

Put your findings into words and present relevant figures, tables, and graphs. You may also include the calculations you used to analyze the data.

Here are some guidelines on how to write a results section:

• Begin with a concise summary of your key findings in the form of a brief paragraph or bullet points.
• Present the data collected in the form of tables, graphs, or charts.
• Describe important data to highlight any patterns you have observed.
• Use descriptive statistics such as mean, median, and standard deviation, to summarize your data.

Add your raw data in the Appendices section and refer to it whenever required. Remember to use symbols and units of measurement correctly.

Lab report results example

The aluminum alloys tested have varying degrees of corrosion resistance. Table 1 shows the corrosion rates for each sample, calculated as the percentage weight loss over the duration of the experiment.

Table 1: Corrosion rates for aluminum alloy samples

Sample Corrosion rate (%)

As can be seen from Table 1, sample C had the lowest corrosion rate, indicating the highest resistance to corrosion among the four samples tested. Sample A had the highest corrosion rate, indicating the lowest corrosion resistance.

Figure 1 shows the corrosion morphology of the aluminum alloy samples after exposure to the saltwater solution for 7 days. The images were taken using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

The SEM images show that sample C had the least amount of corrosion, with only small pits visible on the surface. Samples A and B showed more severe corrosion, with visible pitting and cracking. Sample D showed moderate corrosion, with some surface roughening and small pits.

In conclusion, the results of this experiment indicate that the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys varies depending on the composition of the alloy. Sample C, which had the lowest corrosion rate and the least amount of corrosion morphology, showed the highest resistance to corrosion among the four samples tested. Further research could investigate the effect of different environmental conditions on the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys.

The discussion section of a lab report is where you interpret and analyze the results of your experiment in the context of the research question or hypothesis. This is the most important part of the lab report because this is your contribution to your field of study.

Follow these guidelines to write your discussion section:

• Begin with a brief summary of the main findings of the experiment.
• Interpret the results and explain how they relate to your research question or hypothesis.
• Compare the results to previous research in the field and analyze how they support or oppose existing theories or models.
• Discuss any limitations or sources of error in the experiment and how they can be improved upon.
• If applicable, include any additional analysis such as post-hoc tests or follow-up experiments.

Your discussion section shouldn’t simply repeat the results but offer a critical interpretation and analysis of them. Furthermore, it should also reflect upon the methods and procedures undertaken and take stock of whether you applied processes most favorable for your subject.

Lab report discussion example

The investigation into the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys has provided valuable insight into the behavior of these materials under various conditions. The results of the experiment indicated that the aluminum alloys tested had varying degrees of corrosion resistance depending on the specific alloy composition and environmental conditions.

Comparing the results to previous research in the field, the findings are consistent with the general understanding that aluminum alloys are susceptible to corrosion under certain circumstances. However, the exact mechanisms of corrosion and the specific factors that influence corrosion resistance are still subject to ongoing research.

One limitation of the experiment is the relatively short duration of exposure to the corrosive environment. Longer exposure times may have provided additional insights into the behavior of the aluminum alloys over time. Additionally, the use of only one type of corrosive environment may not accurately reflect the behavior of the materials in other environments.

The unexpected finding of pitting corrosion in Alloy B warrants further investigation to determine the underlying causes and potential solutions. Future research could also explore the effects of additional factors, such as temperature and humidity, on the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys.

Overall, the results of this experiment demonstrate the importance of considering the specific composition and environmental conditions when evaluating the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys. The findings have implications for the development of more durable and corrosion-resistant materials for various applications in industry and engineering.

The conclusion summarizes the experiment and its significance in your field of study. It’s usually one brief paragraph, and in some cases might be omitted altogether. Check with your instructor about whether or not you need to write a lab report conclusion.

Here’s how to write a lab report conclusion:

• State whether the experiment supported or opposed your hypothesis.
• Reflect upon the significance and implications of your study.
• Suggest avenues for future research.

Lab report conclusion example

The investigation into the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys demonstrated that the aluminum alloys tested had varying degrees of corrosion resistance, depending on their specific composition and the nature of the corrosive environment. The results of the experiment are consistent with previous research in the field, and the findings support the notion that aluminum alloys are susceptible to corrosion under certain conditions.

The experiment also revealed some unexpected findings, such as the pitting corrosion observed in Alloy B. This finding warrants further investigation to determine the underlying causes and potential solutions.

The experiment was limited by the relatively short exposure time to the corrosive environment and the use of only one type of corrosive environment. Future research could explore the effects of longer exposure times and different corrosive environments on the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys.

Overall, the results of this experiment provide important insights into the behavior of aluminum alloys and have implications for the development of more durable and corrosion-resistant materials for various applications in industry and engineering.

List all the sources you consulted while writing the lab report. Include the full bibliographic information in the appropriate format.

For lab reports in sciences and social sciences, the APA citation style is usually followed. Students of business, fine arts, and history will use Chicago style citations in their lab reports. In the rare event of a lab report under humanities, you’ll be expected to write your citations in MLA format .

Remember that failing to cite your sources is considered plagiarism and has serious consequences. Always give credit where credit is due!

Lab Report Example & Templates

A. basic lab report template.

b. Chemistry lab report example

c. Example of good labeling

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the primary purpose of writing a lab report, what should a lab report look like, how to write a lab report for biology, how long is a lab report, what is the longest part of a lab report.

Found this article helpful?

6 comments on “ How to Write a Lab Report: Examples from Academic Editors ”

Good info. Lucky me I came across your blog by chance. I’ve saved it for later!

Hi there, I don’t leave comments a lot but I must say, the lab report results part was quite well-written. Keep up the good work!

It’s quite well-written but you can improve the images maybe. Anyway, keep up writing.

You’ve explained each lab report section so easily! I appreciate the tips and example combination!

Honestly, the lab report examples could be better. But great work, super easy to read and informative

This information on lab report writing is so useful! Thanks for all the templates and examples, super helpful!

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Case Studies

EDTA-Induced Pseudothrombocytopenia up to 9 Months after Initial COVID-19 Infection Associated with Persistent Anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM/IgG Seropositivity 

A Novel Mutation of the Membrane Metallo-Endopeptidase Gene Related to Late-Onset Hereditary Polyneuropathy: Case Report and Review of the Literature

An African American Male Patient with Rare Type B Insulin Resistance Syndrome 

Unexpectedly Abnormal Electrolytes in a 60 Year Old Man with Dementia

Massive Transfusion Protocol in a 69 Year Old Woman with Alloantibodies

From A to AB: A Caucasian Mother with High Anti-B Titer Causing Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn

Achondroplasia—First Report from India of a Rare FGFR3 Gene Variant

Analysis of Multiple Bands on Serum Protein Immunofixation Electrophoresis: Challenge in Interpretation of Clonality in a Patient with Light Chain–Predominant Multiple Myeloma

Loss and Reappearance of A Antigen After Chemotherapy Leading to Blood Group Discrepancy in Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A Case Report

Sky High or Undetectable? A Patient with Discordant Hemoglobin A1c

Lymphocyte Aggregation in Low-Grade B-Cell Lymphoma

Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Newborn Caused by Maternal Autoantibody with Mimicking Anti-E Specificity

The Impact of Mass Spectrometry on Patients’ Medical and Nonmedical Lives

Daratumumab Interference in Flow Cytometry Producing a False Kappa Light Chain Restriction in Plasma Cells

Monocytic Acute Myeloid Leukemias with KM2TA Translocations to Chromosome 17q that May Clinically Mimic Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia

Detection of a Cryptic  EP300/ZNF384  Gene Fusion by Chromosomal Microarray and Next-Generation Sequencing Studies in a Pediatric Patient with B-Lymphoblastic Leukemia

A Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction Caused by an Unexpected Le b  Antibody

Cording in Disseminated  Mycobacterium chelonae Infection in an Immunocompromised Patient

Acute Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction Due to Pooled Platelets: A Rare but Serious Adverse Event

Unexpected Short-Tandem-Repeat Patterns in Posttransplant Chimerism Testing: Investigation of 3 Cases with Help from Forensic Science

Phenotypes Associated with 16p11.2 Copy Number Gains and Losses at a Single Institution

Severe Platelet Transfusion Refractoriness in Association with Antibodies Against CD36

Interference of M-protein on Thrombin Time Test: A Case Report

Paradoxical Hypercholesterolemia in an Otherwise Healthy Adult Man

Persistent Rivaroxaban Effect Due to Impaired Renal Clearance and Medication Effects

Pulmonary Coccidioidomycosis Mimicking Aspergillosis Fungus Ball

Post-Transfusion Purpura Mimicking Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura: A Case Report

Benign Pancreatic Hyperenzymemia, Also Known as Gullo’s Syndrome

Anti-M–Induced Delayed Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction

Mixed Phenotype Acute Leukemia that Evolved from Myelodysplastic Syndrome with Excess Blasts

Unexpectedly Weak Anti-B in 2 Group O Pediatric Patients on Parenteral Nutrition and Disease Specific Supplemental Enteral Feeds

α-1 Antitrypsin Genotype-Phenotype Discrepancy in a 42-Year-Old Man Who Carries the Null-Allele

A Novel Pathogenic  CALR  Exon 9 Mutation in a Patient with Essential Thrombocythemia

A 70-Year-Old Female with Unexpected Platelet Function Testing Results

Myelodysplastic Syndrome/Myeloproliferative Neoplasm with Ring Sideroblasts and Thrombocytosis with Cooccurrent  SF3B1  and  MPLGene Mutations: A Case Report and Brief Review of the Literature

BCR-ABL1-like B-Lymphoblastic Leukemia/Lymphoma with FOXP1-ABL1 Rearrangement: Comprehensive Laboratory Identification Allowing Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Use

A Case of Chronic Thrombocytopenia in a 17-Year-Old Female

Blood Donation During Pregnancy Due to Anti-Ku Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Newborn

Disseminated  Hormographiella aspergillata  Infection with Lung and Brain Involvement after Allogenic Hematopoietic Stem-Cell Transplantation in a 54-Year-Old Man

Cryoglobulinemia as a Possible Primer for TRALI: Report of a Case

Case Report and Literature Review of Nodular Hiradenoma, a Rare Adnexal Tumor That Mimics Breast Carcinoma, in a 20-Year-Old Woman

Monitoring Fondaparinux in the Setting of Antithrombin Deficiency

Iron Overload in an HFE Heterozygous Carrier: A Case Report and Literature Review

Differential Diagnosis of a Patient with Lysosomal Acid Lipase Deficiency: A Case Report

Severe Underestimation of Serum Na following IVIG Treatment

Interference by Rheumatoid Factor in Immunoglobulin M-Class Herpes Simplex Virus Types 1 + 2 Immunoassays

The Diagnostic Challenge of Acquired Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura in Children: Case Report and Review of the Literature

Rat Poisoning: A Challenging Diagnosis With Clinical and Psychological Implications

A Positive Urine Alcohol with Negative Urine Ethyl-Glucuronide

Critically Elevated Potassium in a 55-Year-Old Female With Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia

Establishing the Cause of Anemia in a Premature Newborn Infant

Lymph Node With Extensive Involvement by Cryptococcus Shortly Following Liver Transplantation

Acute Liver Failure in an Adolescent Male Induced by Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6): A Case Report With Literature Review

Developmental Defects Associated With DNA Copy Number Gain of Chromosome 2q33.1: A Case Report and Review of Literature

A Noninvasive Rhizopus Infection With a Bladder Fungal Ball in a Patient With Poorly Controlled Diabetes Mellitus

A Case of Hodgkin Lymphoma Mimicking Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis Diagnosed at Autopsy

Multiple Myeloma: The Case of the Disappearing Band

Detection of an Underlying 22q11.2 Duplication in a Female Neonate With Trisomy 18

Acute Myeloid Leukemia With a Rare t(7;14)(q21;q32) and Trisomy 4 With Poor Clinical Outcome: A Case Report

Histoplasmosis in Pleural Effusion in a 23-Year-Old Man With Mixed-Phenotype Acute Leukemia

R634W KIT Mutation in an Adult With Systemic Mastocytosis

Acute Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction Caused by a Red Cell Antibody That Was Missed by Pretransfusion Testing Using Tube Method

Intra-Pericardial Use of Recombinant Factor VIIa in a Patient With Acute Hemorrhagic Pericardial Effusion Following Transcutaneous Aortic Valve Replacement—A Case Report

A Food Debris–Like Component in the Urine Sediment From a Urostomy Pouch

Variable Potassium Concentrations: Which Is Right and Which Is Wrong?

What Clinical Laboratorians Should Do in Response to Extremely Low Hemoglobin A1c Results

Warm Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia and Direct Antiglobulin Testing With a False-Negative Result in a 53-Year-Old Man

A Case of Unexplained Cerebral Sinus Thrombosis in a 22-Year-Old Obese Caucasian Woman

Pasteurella multocida Bacteremia With Associated Knee Arthroplasty Infection in an 80-Year-Old Caucasian Man

A Case Report of May-Hegglin Anomaly in a 33-Year-Old White Woman

Clostridium Sordellii as an Uncommon Cause of Fatal Toxic Shock Syndrome in a Postpartum 33-Year-Old Asian Woman

Trichosporon loubieri Fungemia in a 39-Year-Old Caucasian Woman With B-Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Folate Insufficiency Due to Celiac Disease in a 49-Year-Old Woman of Southeast Asian-Indian Ethnicity

Rhizobium Radiobacter Infection in a 27-Year-Old African American Woman With Munchausen Syndrome

Naegleria fowleri That Induces Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis: Rapid Diagnosis and Rare Case of Survival in a 12-Year-Old Caucasian Girl

Leukemic Transdifferentiation of Follicular Lymphoma Into an Acute Histiocytic Leukemia in a 52-Year-Old Caucasian Woman

Skin Rash and Microscopic Hematuria in a 10-Year-Old Caucasian Male

Hematogones With Lambda Light Chain Restriction in a 4-Year-Old Boy With Burkitt Lymphoma: A Potential Diagnostic Pitfall

Reciprocal Microduplication of the Williams-Beuren Syndrome Chromosome Region in a 9-Year-Old Omani Boy

A Case of Sepsis in a 92-Year-Old Korean Woman Caused by Aerococcus urinae and Identified by Sequencing the 16S Ribosomal RNA Gene

Concurrent and Clonally Related Pediatric Follicular Lymphoma and Burkitt Lymphoma in a 5-Year-Old Boy

Sudden Development of Thrombocytopenia After Reversal of Anticoagulation for Surgery

Cervical FISH Testing for Triage and Support of Challenging Diagnoses: A Case Study of 2 Patients

Genotyping and Resolution of a Case of Osteomyelitis in a 16-Month-Old Boy of Hispanic/African American Ethnicity

Brodifacoum Inhalation and its Clinical Manifestations in a 21-Year-Old Caucasian Man

Selected Noninvasive Markers in Diagnosing Liver Diseases

Nitrous Oxide Abuse and Vitamin B12 Action in a 20-Year-Old Woman: A Case Report

Elevated CA125 Levels in a 72-Year-Old Ethnic Indian Patient: A Diagnostic Pointer Toward Tuberculosis?  

B Lymphoblastic Leukemia With a Novel t(11;15) (q23;q15) and Unique Burkittoid Morphologic and Immunophenotypic Findings in a 9-Year-Old Boy

Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma in a 33-Year-Old White Man

Invasive Paget Disease of the Nipple of Luminal-B Subtype With Axillary Lymph Node Metastasis in a 60-Year-Old White Woman

Trichosporon asahii  Infection in a Patient with Metastatic Prostate Cancer as an Example of an Emerging Fungal Pathogen  

Differentiation Between Sickle Cell Anemia and S/β 0  Thalassemia

Acute Precursor B-Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia in a 1-Year-Old White Male: Diagnostic Evaluation and Flow Cytometric Analysis  

Development and Detection of Kidd Antibodies

Low-Grade Adenosquamous Carcinoma of the Breast Developing Around a Localization Wire Fragment

Case Report of Autopsy and Placental Examination After Radiofrequency Ablation of an Acardiac Twin 

Persistent Human Chorionic Gonadotropin After Methotrexate Treatment and an Emergency Surgical Procedure for Ectopic Pregnancy  

Encrusted Cystitis Secondary to Corynebacterium glucuronolyticum in a 57-Year-Old Man Without Predisposing Factors

Thyroid Cancer and T Lymphoblastic Leukemia in Crohn Disease: A Case Report and Literature Review

A Nontoxic Case of Vitamin D Toxicity

An Unexpected Emergency Request for Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Testing in a 9-Year-Old African American Boy

Cytologic Features of Metanephric Adenoma of the Kidney: Case Report and Review of the Literature

Primary CNS T-Cell Lymphoma of the Spinal Cord: Case Report and Literature Review

Benzodiazepine in a Urine Specimen Without Drug Metabolites

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Study Design 101: Case Report

• Case Report
• Case Control Study
• Cohort Study
• Randomized Controlled Trial
• Practice Guideline
• Systematic Review
• Meta-Analysis
• Helpful Formulas
• Finding Specific Study Types
• Case Reports

An article that describes and interprets an individual case, often written in the form of a detailed story. Case reports often describe:

• Unique cases that cannot be explained by known diseases or syndromes
• Cases that show an important variation of a disease or condition
• Cases that show unexpected events that may yield new or useful information
• Cases in which one patient has two or more unexpected diseases or disorders

Case reports are considered the lowest level of evidence, but they are also the first line of evidence, because they are where new issues and ideas emerge. This is why they form the base of our pyramid. A good case report will be clear about the importance of the observation being reported.

If multiple case reports show something similar, the next step might be a case-control study to determine if there is a relationship between the relevant variables.

• Can help in the identification of new trends or diseases
• Can help detect new drug side effects and potential uses (adverse or beneficial)
• Educational - a way of sharing lessons learned
• Identifies rare manifestations of a disease

Disadvantages

• Cases may not be generalizable
• Not based on systematic studies
• Causes or associations may have other explanations
• Can be seen as emphasizing the bizarre or focusing on misleading elements

Design pitfalls to look out for

The patient should be described in detail, allowing others to identify patients with similar characteristics.

Does the case report provide information about the patient's age, sex, ethnicity, race, employment status, social situation, medical history, diagnosis, prognosis, previous treatments, past and current diagnostic test results, medications, psychological tests, clinical and functional assessments, and current intervention?

Case reports should include carefully recorded, unbiased observations.

Does the case report include measurements and/or recorded observations of the case? Does it show a bias?

Case reports should explore and infer, not confirm, deduce, or prove. They cannot demonstrate causality or argue for the adoption of a new treatment approach.

Does the case report present a hypothesis that can be confirmed by another type of study?

Fictitious Example

A physician treated a young and otherwise healthy patient who came to her office reporting numbness all over her body. The physician could not determine any reason for this numbness and had never seen anything like it. After taking an extensive history the physician discovered that the patient had recently been to the beach for a vacation and had used a very new type of spray sunscreen. The patient had stored the sunscreen in her cooler at the beach because she liked the feel of the cool spray in the hot sun. The physician suspected that the spray sunscreen had undergone a chemical reaction from the coldness which caused the numbness. She also suspected that because this is a new type of sunscreen other physicians may soon be seeing patients with this numbness.

The physician wrote up a case report describing how the numbness presented, how and why she concluded it was the spray sunscreen, and how she treated the patient. Later, when other doctors began seeing patients with this numbness, they found this case report helpful as a starting point in treating their patients.

Real-life Examples

Hymes KB. Cheung T. Greene JB. Prose NS. Marcus A. Ballard H. William DC. Laubenstein LJ. (1981). Kaposi's sarcoma in homosexual men-a report of eight cases. Lancet. 2 (8247),598-600.

This case report was published by eight physicians in New York city who had unexpectedly seen eight male patients with Kaposi's sarcoma (KS). Prior to this, KS was very rare in the U.S. and occurred primarily in the lower extremities of older patients. These cases were decades younger, had generalized KS, and a much lower rate of survival. This was before the discovery of HIV or the use of the term AIDS and this case report was one of the first published items about AIDS patients.

Wu, E. B., & Sung, J. J. Y. (2003). Haemorrhagic-fever-like changes and normal chest radiograph in a doctor with SARS. Lancet, 361 (9368), 1520-1521.

This case report is written by the patient, a physician who contracted SARS, and his colleague who treated him, during the 2003 outbreak of SARS in Hong Kong. They describe how the disease progressed in Dr. Wu and based on Dr. Wu's case, advised that a chest CT showed hidden pneumonic changes and facilitate a rapid diagnosis.

Related Terms

Case Series

A report about a small group of similar cases.

Preplanned Case-Observation

A case in which symptoms are elicited to study disease mechanisms. (Ex. Having a patient sleep in a lab to do brain imaging for a sleep disorder).

Now test yourself!

1. Case studies are not considered evidence-based even though the authors have studied the case in great depth.

2. When are Case reports most useful?

When you encounter common cases and need more information When new symptoms or outcomes are unidentified When developing practice guidelines When the population being studied is very large

Evidence Pyramid - Navigation

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• Next: Case Control Study >>

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How to write a laboratory-based case study for the Journal

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• 64(1):22-23

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20.2: Case Studies for the Final Lab Project

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• Page ID 122789

• Gary Kaiser
• Community College of Baltimore Country (Cantonsville)

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Case Study A

A 66-year old female with a history of recurring urinary tract infections and multiple antibiotic therapies presents with frequency and urgency of urination, dysuria, suprapubic discomfort, unilateral costovertebral angle (CVA) tenderness, fever and chills, and nausea. She currently has a temperature of 103°F. A complete blood count (CBC) shows leukocytosis with a left shift. A urine dipstick shows a positive leukocyte esterase test, a negative nitrite test. Microscopic examination of centrifuged urine shows 30 white blood cells, as well as 7 red blood cells and 18 bacteria per high-power field.

Assume that your unknown is from the urine of this patient.

Case Study B A 61-year old male who has type 2 diabetes, a history of alcoholism, and is a heavy smoker was admitted to the hospital with a leg wound that is not healing - for which he was previously treated for two weeks ago but was subsequently released against medical advice. He was brought to the ER by a brother who noticed he was febrile and appeared confused, disoriented, and anxious. He exhibits flushing and peripheral vasodilatation. He has a temperature of 102° F, a heart rate of 130 beats per minute, a respiration rate of 42 breaths per minute, a blood pressure of 90/40 mm Hg, a urine output of only 110 cc for the last 8 hours, and a total white blood cell count of 2500/µL with a marked left shift. Lactic acid levels measure 3.5 mmol/L.

Assume your unknown is from a blood sample.

Case Study C

A 78-year old female who for several days had a severe productive cough and chest pain when breathing deeply, is admitted to the hospital by her sister with whom she lives. Symptoms include confusion and agitation, difficulty in breathing, peripheral edema, and shaking and chills. She has a temperature of 96.1° F, a heart rate of 112 beats per minute, a respiration rate of 45 breaths per minute, a blood pressure of 105/60 mm Hg, and a total white blood cell count of 13,000/µL. chest X-ray reveals a right lower lobe infiltrate.

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How to Write a Lab Report – with Example/Template

April 11, 2024

Perhaps you’re in the midst of your challenging AP chemistry class in high school, or perhaps college you’re enrolled in biology , chemistry , or physics at university. At some point, you will likely be asked to write a lab report. Sometimes, your teacher or professor will give you specific instructions for how to format and write your lab report, and if so, use that. In case you’re left to your own devices, here are some guidelines you might find useful. Continue reading for the main elements of a lab report, followed by a detailed description of the more writing-heavy parts (with a lab report example/lab report template). Lastly, we’ve included an outline that can help get you started.

What is a lab report?

A lab report is an overview of your experiment. Essentially, it explains what you did in the experiment and how it went. Most lab reports end up being 5-10 pages long (graphs or other images included), though the length depends on the experiment. Here are some brief explanations of the essential parts of a lab report:

Title : The title says, in the most straightforward way possible, what you did in the experiment. Often, the title looks something like, “Effects of ____ on _____.” Sometimes, a lab report also requires a title page, which includes your name (and the names of any lab partners), your instructor’s name, and the date of the experiment.

Abstract : This is a short description of key findings of the experiment so that a potential reader could get an idea of the experiment before even beginning.

Introduction : This is comprised of one or several paragraphs summarizing the purpose of the lab. The introduction usually includes the hypothesis, as well as some background information.

Lab Report Example (Continued)

Materials : Perhaps the simplest part of your lab report, this is where you list everything needed for the completion of your experiment.

Methods : This is where you describe your experimental procedure. The section provides necessary information for someone who would want to replicate your study. In paragraph form, write out your methods in chronological order, though avoid excessive detail.

Data : Here, you should document what happened in the experiment, step-by-step. This section often includes graphs and tables with data, as well as descriptions of patterns and trends. You do not need to interpret all of the data in this section, but you can describe trends or patterns, and state which findings are interesting and/or significant.

Discussion of results : This is the overview of your findings from the experiment, with an explanation of how they pertain to your hypothesis, as well as any anomalies or errors.

Conclusion : Your conclusion will sum up the results of your experiment, as well as their significance. Sometimes, conclusions also suggest future studies.

Sources : Often in APA style , you should list all texts that helped you with your experiment. Make sure to include course readings, outside sources, and other experiments that you may have used to design your own.

How to write the abstract

The abstract is the experiment stated “in a nutshell”: the procedure, results, and a few key words. The purpose of the academic abstract is to help a potential reader get an idea of the experiment so they can decide whether to read the full paper. So, make sure your abstract is as clear and direct as possible, and under 200 words (though word count varies).

When writing an abstract for a scientific lab report, we recommend covering the following points:

• Background : Why was this experiment conducted?
• Objectives : What problem is being addressed by this experiment?
• Methods : How was the study designed and conducted?
• Results : What results were found and what do they mean?
• Conclusion : Were the results expected? Is this problem better understood now than before? If so, how?

How to write the introduction

The introduction is another summary, of sorts, so it could be easy to confuse the introduction with the abstract. While the abstract tends to be around 200 words summarizing the entire study, the introduction can be longer if necessary, covering background information on the study, what you aim to accomplish, and your hypothesis. Unlike the abstract (or the conclusion), the introduction does not need to state the results of the experiment.

Here is a possible order with which you can organize your lab report introduction:

• Intro of the intro : Plainly state what your study is doing.
• Background : Provide a brief overview of the topic being studied. This could include key terms and definitions. This should not be an extensive literature review, but rather, a window into the most relevant topics a reader would need to understand in order to understand your research.
• Importance : Now, what are the gaps in existing research? Given the background you just provided, what questions do you still have that led you to conduct this experiment? Are you clarifying conflicting results? Are you undertaking a new area of research altogether?
• Prediction: The plants placed by the window will grow faster than plants placed in the dark corner.
• Hypothesis: Basil plants placed in direct sunlight for 2 hours per day grow at a higher rate than basil plants placed in direct sunlight for 30 minutes per day.
• How you test your hypothesis : This is an opportunity to briefly state how you go about your experiment, but this is not the time to get into specific details about your methods (save this for your results section). Keep this part down to one sentence, and voila! You have your introduction.

How to write a discussion section

Here, we’re skipping ahead to the next writing-heavy section, which will directly follow the numeric data of your experiment. The discussion includes any calculations and interpretations based on this data. In other words, it says, “Now that we have the data, why should we care?”  This section asks, how does this data sit in relation to the hypothesis? Does it prove your hypothesis or disprove it? The discussion is also a good place to mention any mistakes that were made during the experiment, and ways you would improve the experiment if you were to repeat it. Like the other written sections, it should be as concise as possible.

Here is a list of points to cover in your lab report discussion:

• Weaker statement: These findings prove that basil plants grow more quickly in the sunlight.
• Stronger statement: These findings support the hypothesis that basil plants placed in direct sunlight grow at a higher rate than basil plants given less direct sunlight.
• Factors influencing results : This is also an opportunity to mention any anomalies, errors, or inconsistencies in your data. Perhaps when you tested the first round of basil plants, the days were sunnier than the others. Perhaps one of the basil pots broke mid-experiment so it needed to be replanted, which affected your results. If you were to repeat the study, how would you change it so that the results were more consistent?
• Implications : How do your results contribute to existing research? Here, refer back to the gaps in research that you mentioned in your introduction. Do these results fill these gaps as you hoped?
• Questions for future research : Based on this, how might your results contribute to future research? What are the next steps, or the next experiments on this topic? Make sure this does not become too broad—keep it to the scope of this project.

How to write a lab report conclusion

This is your opportunity to briefly remind the reader of your findings and finish strong. Your conclusion should be especially concise (avoid going into detail on findings or introducing new information).

Here are elements to include as you write your conclusion, in about 1-2 sentences each:

• Restate your goals : What was the main question of your experiment? Refer back to your introduction—similar language is okay.
• Restate your methods : In a sentence or so, how did you go about your experiment?
• Key findings : Briefly summarize your main results, but avoid going into detail.
• Limitations : What about your experiment was less-than-ideal, and how could you improve upon the experiment in future studies?
• Significance and future research : Why is your research important? What are the logical next-steps for studying this topic?

Template for beginning your lab report

Here is a compiled outline from the bullet points in these sections above, with some examples based on the (overly-simplistic) basil growth experiment. Hopefully this will be useful as you begin your lab report.

1) Title (ex: Effects of Sunlight on Basil Plant Growth )

2) Abstract (approx. 200 words)

• Background ( This experiment looks at… )
• Objectives ( It aims to contribute to research on…)
• Methods ( It does so through a process of…. )
• Results (Findings supported the hypothesis that… )
• Conclusion (These results contribute to a wider understanding about…)

3) Introduction (approx. 1-2 paragraphs)

• Intro ( This experiment looks at… )
• Background ( Past studies on basil plant growth and sunlight have found…)
• Importance ( This experiment will contribute to these past studies by…)
• Hypothesis ( Basil plants placed in direct sunlight for 2 hours per day grow at a higher rate than basil plants placed in direct sunlight for 30 minutes per day.)
• How you will test your hypothesis ( This hypothesis will be tested by a process of…)

4) Materials (list form) (ex: pots, soil, seeds, tables/stands, water, light source )

5) Methods (approx. 1-2 paragraphs) (ex: 10 basil plants were measured throughout a span of…)

6) Data (brief description and figures) (ex: These charts demonstrate a pattern that the basil plants placed in direct sunlight…)

7) Discussion (approx. 2-3 paragraphs)

• Support or reject hypothesis ( These findings support the hypothesis that basil plants placed in direct sunlight grow at a higher rate than basil plants given less direct sunlight.)
• Factors that influenced your results ( Outside factors that could have altered the results include…)
• Implications ( These results contribute to current research on basil plant growth and sunlight because…)
• Questions for further research ( Next steps for this research could include…)
• Restate your goals ( In summary, the goal of this experiment was to measure…)
• Restate your methods ( This hypothesis was tested by…)
• Key findings ( The findings supported the hypothesis because…)
• Limitations ( Although, certain elements were overlooked, including…)
• Significance and future research ( This experiment presents possibilities of future research contributions, such as…)
• Sources (approx. 1 page, usually in APA style)

Final thoughts – Lab Report Example

Hopefully, these descriptions have helped as you write your next lab report. Remember that different instructors may have different preferences for structure and format, so make sure to double-check when you receive your assignment. All in all, make sure to keep your scientific lab report concise, focused, honest, and organized. Good luck!

For more reading on coursework success, check out the following articles:

• How to Write the AP Lang Argument Essay (With Example)
• How to Write the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay (With Example)
• 49 Most Interesting Biology Research Topics
• 50 Best Environmental Science Research Topics
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Blog Business How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

Written by: Danesh Ramuthi Sep 07, 2023

Okay, let’s get real: case studies can be kinda snooze-worthy. But guess what? They don’t have to be!

In this article, I will cover every element that transforms a mere report into a compelling case study, from selecting the right metrics to using persuasive narrative techniques.

And if you’re feeling a little lost, don’t worry! There are cool tools like Venngage’s Case Study Creator to help you whip up something awesome, even if you’re short on time. Plus, the pre-designed case study templates are like instant polish because let’s be honest, everyone loves a shortcut.

Click to jump ahead: 

What is a case study presentation?

What is the purpose of presenting a case study, how to structure a case study presentation, how long should a case study presentation be, 5 case study presentation examples with templates, 6 tips for delivering an effective case study presentation, 5 common mistakes to avoid in a case study presentation, how to present a case study faqs.

A case study presentation involves a comprehensive examination of a specific subject, which could range from an individual, group, location, event, organization or phenomenon.

They’re like puzzles you get to solve with the audience, all while making you think outside the box.

Unlike a basic report or whitepaper, the purpose of a case study presentation is to stimulate critical thinking among the viewers. 

The primary objective of a case study is to provide an extensive and profound comprehension of the chosen topic. You don’t just throw numbers at your audience. You use examples and real-life cases to make you think and see things from different angles.

The primary purpose of presenting a case study is to offer a comprehensive, evidence-based argument that informs, persuades and engages your audience.

Here’s the juicy part: presenting that case study can be your secret weapon. Whether you’re pitching a groundbreaking idea to a room full of suits or trying to impress your professor with your A-game, a well-crafted case study can be the magic dust that sprinkles brilliance over your words.

Think of it like digging into a puzzle you can’t quite crack . A case study lets you explore every piece, turn it over and see how it fits together. This close-up look helps you understand the whole picture, not just a blurry snapshot.

It’s also your chance to showcase how you analyze things, step by step, until you reach a conclusion. It’s all about being open and honest about how you got there.

Besides, presenting a case study gives you an opportunity to connect data and real-world scenarios in a compelling narrative. It helps to make your argument more relatable and accessible, increasing its impact on your audience.

One of the contexts where case studies can be very helpful is during the job interview. In some job interviews, you as candidates may be asked to present a case study as part of the selection process.

Having a case study presentation prepared allows the candidate to demonstrate their ability to understand complex issues, formulate strategies and communicate their ideas effectively.

The way you present a case study can make all the difference in how it’s received. A well-structured presentation not only holds the attention of your audience but also ensures that your key points are communicated clearly and effectively.

In this section, let’s go through the key steps that’ll help you structure your case study presentation for maximum impact.

Let’s get into it. 

Open with an introductory overview 

Start by introducing the subject of your case study and its relevance. Explain why this case study is important and who would benefit from the insights gained. This is your opportunity to grab your audience’s attention.

Explain the problem in question

Dive into the problem or challenge that the case study focuses on. Provide enough background information for the audience to understand the issue. If possible, quantify the problem using data or metrics to show the magnitude or severity.

Detail the solutions to solve the problem

After outlining the problem, describe the steps taken to find a solution. This could include the methodology, any experiments or tests performed and the options that were considered. Make sure to elaborate on why the final solution was chosen over the others.

Key stakeholders Involved

Talk about the individuals, groups or organizations that were directly impacted by or involved in the problem and its solution. 

Stakeholders may experience a range of outcomes—some may benefit, while others could face setbacks.

For example, in a business transformation case study, employees could face job relocations or changes in work culture, while shareholders might be looking at potential gains or losses.

Discuss the key results & outcomes

Discuss the results of implementing the solution. Use data and metrics to back up your statements. Did the solution meet its objectives? What impact did it have on the stakeholders? Be honest about any setbacks or areas for improvement as well.

Include visuals to support your analysis

Visual aids can be incredibly effective in helping your audience grasp complex issues. Utilize charts, graphs, images or video clips to supplement your points. Make sure to explain each visual and how it contributes to your overall argument.

Pie charts illustrate the proportion of different components within a whole, useful for visualizing market share, budget allocation or user demographics.

This is particularly useful especially if you’re displaying survey results in your case study presentation.

Stacked charts on the other hand are perfect for visualizing composition and trends. This is great for analyzing things like customer demographics, product breakdowns or budget allocation in your case study.

Consider this example of a stacked bar chart template. It provides a straightforward summary of the top-selling cake flavors across various locations, offering a quick and comprehensive view of the data.

Not the chart you’re looking for? Browse Venngage’s gallery of chart templates to find the perfect one that’ll captivate your audience and level up your data storytelling.

Recommendations and next steps

Wrap up by providing recommendations based on the case study findings. Outline the next steps that stakeholders should take to either expand on the success of the project or address any remaining challenges.

Acknowledgments and references

Thank the people who contributed to the case study and helped in the problem-solving process. Cite any external resources, reports or data sets that contributed to your analysis.

Feedback & Q&A session

Open the floor for questions and feedback from your audience. This allows for further discussion and can provide additional insights that may not have been considered previously.

Closing remarks

Conclude the presentation by summarizing the key points and emphasizing the takeaways. Thank your audience for their time and participation and express your willingness to engage in further discussions or collaborations on the subject.

Well, the length of a case study presentation can vary depending on the complexity of the topic and the needs of your audience. However, a typical business or academic presentation often lasts between 15 to 30 minutes. 

This time frame usually allows for a thorough explanation of the case while maintaining audience engagement. However, always consider leaving a few minutes at the end for a Q&A session to address any questions or clarify points made during the presentation.

When it comes to presenting a compelling case study, having a well-structured template can be a game-changer. 

It helps you organize your thoughts, data and findings in a coherent and visually pleasing manner. 

Not all case studies are created equal and different scenarios require distinct approaches for maximum impact. 

To save you time and effort, I have curated a list of 5 versatile case study presentation templates, each designed for specific needs and audiences. 

Here are some best case study presentation examples that showcase effective strategies for engaging your audience and conveying complex information clearly.

1 . Lab report case study template

Ever feel like your research gets lost in a world of endless numbers and jargon? Lab case studies are your way out!

Think of it as building a bridge between your cool experiment and everyone else. It’s more than just reporting results – it’s explaining the “why” and “how” in a way that grabs attention and makes sense.

This lap report template acts as a blueprint for your report, guiding you through each essential section (introduction, methods, results, etc.) in a logical order.

Want to present your research like a pro? Browse our research presentation template gallery for creative inspiration!

2. Product case study template

It’s time you ditch those boring slideshows and bullet points because I’ve got a better way to win over clients: product case study templates.

Instead of just listing features and benefits, you get to create a clear and concise story that shows potential clients exactly what your product can do for them. It’s like painting a picture they can easily visualize, helping them understand the value your product brings to the table.

Grab the template below, fill in the details, and watch as your product’s impact comes to life!

3. Content marketing case study template

In digital marketing, showcasing your accomplishments is as vital as achieving them. 

A well-crafted case study not only acts as a testament to your successes but can also serve as an instructional tool for others. 

With this coral content marketing case study template—a perfect blend of vibrant design and structured documentation, you can narrate your marketing triumphs effectively.

4. Case study psychology template

Understanding how people tick is one of psychology’s biggest quests and case studies are like magnifying glasses for the mind. They offer in-depth looks at real-life behaviors, emotions and thought processes, revealing fascinating insights into what makes us human.

Writing a top-notch case study, though, can be a challenge. It requires careful organization, clear presentation and meticulous attention to detail. That’s where a good case study psychology template comes in handy.

Think of it as a helpful guide, taking care of formatting and structure while you focus on the juicy content. No more wrestling with layouts or margins – just pour your research magic into crafting a compelling narrative.

5. Lead generation case study template

Lead generation can be a real head-scratcher. But here’s a little help: a lead generation case study.

Think of it like a friendly handshake and a confident resume all rolled into one. It’s your chance to showcase your expertise, share real-world successes and offer valuable insights. Potential clients get to see your track record, understand your approach and decide if you’re the right fit.

No need to start from scratch, though. This lead generation case study template guides you step-by-step through crafting a clear, compelling narrative that highlights your wins and offers actionable tips for others. Fill in the gaps with your specific data and strategies, and voilà! You’ve got a powerful tool to attract new customers.

Related: 15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

So, you’ve spent hours crafting the perfect case study and are now tasked with presenting it. Crafting the case study is only half the battle; delivering it effectively is equally important. 

Whether you’re facing a room of executives, academics or potential clients, how you present your findings can make a significant difference in how your work is received. 

Forget boring reports and snooze-inducing presentations! Let’s make your case study sing. Here are some key pointers to turn information into an engaging and persuasive performance:

• Know your audience : Tailor your presentation to the knowledge level and interests of your audience. Remember to use language and examples that resonate with them.
• Rehearse : Rehearsing your case study presentation is the key to a smooth delivery and for ensuring that you stay within the allotted time. Practice helps you fine-tune your pacing, hone your speaking skills with good word pronunciations and become comfortable with the material, leading to a more confident, conversational and effective presentation.
• Start strong : Open with a compelling introduction that grabs your audience’s attention. You might want to use an interesting statistic, a provocative question or a brief story that sets the stage for your case study.
• Be clear and concise : Avoid jargon and overly complex sentences. Get to the point quickly and stay focused on your objectives.
• Use visual aids : Incorporate slides with graphics, charts or videos to supplement your verbal presentation. Make sure they are easy to read and understand.
• Tell a story : Use storytelling techniques to make the case study more engaging. A well-told narrative can help you make complex data more relatable and easier to digest.

Ditching the dry reports and slide decks? Venngage’s case study templates let you wow customers with your solutions and gain insights to improve your business plan. Pre-built templates, visual magic and customer captivation – all just a click away. Go tell your story and watch them say “wow!”

Nailed your case study, but want to make your presentation even stronger? Avoid these common mistakes to ensure your audience gets the most out of it:

Overloading with information

A case study is not an encyclopedia. Overloading your presentation with excessive data, text or jargon can make it cumbersome and difficult for the audience to digest the key points. Stick to what’s essential and impactful. Need help making your data clear and impactful? Our data presentation templates can help! Find clear and engaging visuals to showcase your findings.

Lack of structure

Jumping haphazardly between points or topics can confuse your audience. A well-structured presentation, with a logical flow from introduction to conclusion, is crucial for effective communication.

Ignoring the audience

Different audiences have different needs and levels of understanding. Failing to adapt your presentation to your audience can result in a disconnect and a less impactful presentation.

Poor visual elements

While content is king, poor design or lack of visual elements can make your case study dull or hard to follow. Make sure you use high-quality images, graphs and other visual aids to support your narrative.

Not focusing on results

A case study aims to showcase a problem and its solution, but what most people care about are the results. Failing to highlight or adequately explain the outcomes can make your presentation fall flat.

How to start a case study presentation?

Starting a case study presentation effectively involves a few key steps:

• Grab attention : Open with a hook—an intriguing statistic, a provocative question or a compelling visual—to engage your audience from the get-go.
• Set the stage : Briefly introduce the subject, context and relevance of the case study to give your audience an idea of what to expect.
• Outline objectives : Clearly state what the case study aims to achieve. Are you solving a problem, proving a point or showcasing a success?
• Agenda : Give a quick outline of the key sections or topics you’ll cover to help the audience follow along.
• Set expectations : Let your audience know what you want them to take away from the presentation, whether it’s knowledge, inspiration or a call to action.

How to present a case study on PowerPoint and on Google Slides?

Presenting a case study on PowerPoint and Google Slides involves a structured approach for clarity and impact using presentation slides :

• Title slide : Start with a title slide that includes the name of the case study, your name and any relevant institutional affiliations.
• Introduction : Follow with a slide that outlines the problem or situation your case study addresses. Include a hook to engage the audience.
• Objectives : Clearly state the goals of the case study in a dedicated slide.
• Findings : Use charts, graphs and bullet points to present your findings succinctly.
• Analysis : Discuss what the findings mean, drawing on supporting data or secondary research as necessary.
• Conclusion : Summarize key takeaways and results.
• Q&A : End with a slide inviting questions from the audience.

What’s the role of analysis in a case study presentation?

The role of analysis in a case study presentation is to interpret the data and findings, providing context and meaning to them. 

It helps your audience understand the implications of the case study, connects the dots between the problem and the solution and may offer recommendations for future action.

Is it important to include real data and results in the presentation?

Yes, including real data and results in a case study presentation is crucial to show experience,  credibility and impact. Authentic data lends weight to your findings and conclusions, enabling the audience to trust your analysis and take your recommendations more seriously

How do I conclude a case study presentation effectively?

To conclude a case study presentation effectively, summarize the key findings, insights and recommendations in a clear and concise manner. 

End with a strong call-to-action or a thought-provoking question to leave a lasting impression on your audience.

What’s the best way to showcase data in a case study presentation ?

The best way to showcase data in a case study presentation is through visual aids like charts, graphs and infographics which make complex information easily digestible, engaging and creative. 

Don’t just report results, visualize them! This template for example lets you transform your social media case study into a captivating infographic that sparks conversation.

Choose the type of visual that best represents the data you’re showing; for example, use bar charts for comparisons or pie charts for parts of a whole. 

Ensure that the visuals are high-quality and clearly labeled, so the audience can quickly grasp the key points. 

Keep the design consistent and simple, avoiding clutter or overly complex visuals that could distract from the message.

Choose a template that perfectly suits your case study where you can utilize different visual aids for maximum impact. 

Need more inspiration on how to turn numbers into impact with the help of infographics? Our ready-to-use infographic templates take the guesswork out of creating visual impact for your case studies with just a few clicks.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

Congrats on mastering the art of compelling case study presentations! This guide has equipped you with all the essentials, from structure and nuances to avoiding common pitfalls. You’re ready to impress any audience, whether in the boardroom, the classroom or beyond.

And remember, you’re not alone in this journey. Venngage’s Case Study Creator is your trusty companion, ready to elevate your presentations from ordinary to extraordinary. So, let your confidence shine, leverage your newly acquired skills and prepare to deliver presentations that truly resonate.

Go forth and make a lasting impact!

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CASE STUDIES

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Filter by: Clear Filters

This page offers a collection of interesting cases from the Penn Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine that are available to download as PDFs. To view specific case studies by organ system or subspecialty, use the filter checkboxes in the left sidebar.

56-year-old woman with 3.5 cm large right nasal mass, resected after 2 nondiagnostic biopsies

33-year-old man with complex ethmoid sinus mass and imaging concerning for a sinonasal malignancy, 34-year-old man with aml with sudden onset of headache and fever, 36-year-old woman presenting with hemoptysis, 65-year-old man with 2.3 cm right lower thyroid nodule, 56-year-old female presenting with a 3-month history of abdominal pain, 55-year-old male presenting with back pain, 62-year-old man with a right posterior nasal mass, 65-year-old female with a mass involving the maxillary sinus, 74-year-old female with an extradural tumor compressing the right frontal lobe, 35-year-old man with chronic rhinosinusitis and nasal septal perforation, 54-year-old man with a 3.6 cm right neck mass, 21-year-old man with asthma, chronic sinusitis, polyps, headache and proptosis, 57-year-old woman with a renal mass, 63-year-old man with history of iv drug use, 72-year-old man with polypoid esophageal mass, 20-year-old woman with 3 cm mass in the tail of pancreas, 40-year-old man with increasing frequency of hypoglycemic spells, 52-year-old woman with transient symptomatic hyperthyroidism, stay connected.

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MNHS: Health sciences case report

What is the purpose of a case report.

A case report in health sciences is a detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. In responding to a clinical scenario, case reports provide an opportunity for you to develop your critical thinking as they require you to question, analyse, evaluate and make judgements regarding how you would approach and respond to a patient-based scenario as a healthcare professional.

Tips for successfully writing a case report View

The following sample illustrates how some of these expectations may be met in a written case report. Throughout the sample a lecturer has provided constructive feedback to highlight areas that are well written and areas that require attention.

Your feedback matters

We want to hear from you! Let us know what you found most useful or share your suggestions for improving this resource.

Medical Laboratory Science: Find Case Studies/Case Reports

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Find Case Studies in Briggs Databases

• CINAHL: Below the three search boxes, scroll down to "Publication Type" (below "Journal Subset" on the right hand side) and click "Case Study." Put your keywords into the search box(es), and then search.
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Hepatitis A: A Case Report Example of a Growing Epidemiological Threat

Adam foster.

1 Emergency Medicine McLaren Macomb

Stephanie Hernandez

Hepatitis A is a common worldwide cause of acute hepatitis. It has been classically associated with epidemics and is increasingly prevalent in the developing world. Generally, the illness is self-limited and only requires supportive management, reassurance, and proper hygiene instructions. This case involves a male in his early 30s who presented non-emergently with jaundice and a weeklong history of fatigue, nausea, and flu-like symptoms. The patient underwent laboratory and radiological evaluation. Test results revealed a significant transaminitis, hyperbilirubinemia, and suggestion of cholecystitis. Further testing did reveal hepatitis A infection. This case illustrates the importance of clinicians having a high clinical suspicion for the disease based on individual risk factors as this disease can have a profound epidemiological impact in terms of local outbreaks and public health expenses.

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis is a generic term that refers to some manner of liver inflammation. The most common causes leading to such a diagnosis include viral infections and chronic alcohol abuse. 1 Other causes can include bacterial, fungal, parasitic, immunologic, and toxic exposures. Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) is a virus that is spread almost exclusively through the fecal-oral route, although there does exist a very rare ability for blood transmission. 1 HAV is an acute illness and there is no associated chronic carrier state (i.e., asymptomatic person capable of transmitting) such as seen with Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) or Hepatitis C Virus (HCV). Typically, cases occur in association with epidemics, as opposed to sporadic cases, with the most common risk factor for transmission being travel outside of the US. 1

The incubation period for HAV ranges from 14 to 45 days, with a relatively short duration of viremia (i.e., detectable virus in the blood) and maximum infectivity to others that is most prominent before symptom onset. 1 Differentiation of the cause of hepatitis generally requires a broad laboratory evaluation and thorough history and physical exam.

Although HAV is rarely diagnosed initially in the Emergency Department (ED) due to serology testing times, 1 a high clinical suspicion for the disease can lead to timely intervention including contact precautions and prevention of complications. Primary and secondary prophylaxis is available, however vaccination is not mandatory as the disease is rarely fatal, has no chronic carrier state, and has an overall low incidence in the United States. 2

Case Report

A Caucasian male in his early 30s presented to the ED with the chief complaint of yellowing of his skin and typically white sclera of his eyes. This was preceded by five days of progressive fatigue and flu-like symptoms. He also admitted to having produced several tan-colored bowel movements, dark urine, subjective fevers, and nausea. He denied any abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, hematuria, or rashes. He also denied having completed any recent travel, insect or chemical exposures, or any known sick contacts.

He did not recall any peculiar food exposures during the prior week. He denied ever having experienced symptoms like this in the past but did admit to current HIV prophylaxis medication for the reason of “being smart.” He did admit to previous intravenous drug use with last administration three years prior. He had a history of mild well-controlled asthma and denied any previous surgeries.

The patient’s immediate vitals revealed hemodynamic stability with heart rate of 106, respiratory rate of 18, temperature of 97.6 degrees axillary, blood pressure of 140/86, and oxygen saturation of 100% on room air. His physical exam revealed a well-nourished, diffusely jaundiced male in no acute distress. The patient was alert and oriented and answering all questions appropriately, albeit with short answers.

Further examination revealed prominent bilateral yellow discoloration of the eyes (i.e., scleral icterus) and abdominal examination demonstrated a mildly distended abdomen with mild tenderness in the right upper quadrant. There were no other indications of peritonitis and the remainder of the physical examination was within normal limits. The patient was provided with intravenous (IV) fluids and a broad laboratory evaluation and computerized axial tomography (CT) of the abdomen and pelvis with IV contrast was obtained.

CT of the abdomen and pelvis was interpreted as gall bladder contraction with wall edema and mucosal hyper-enhancement. (Figure 1) No gallstones were identified and the liver, common bile duct and pancreas were all within normal limits. Laboratory evaluation was obtained to evaluate for the degree of liver impairment and was pertinent for thrombocytopenia (88,000), hyperglycemia (451 mg/dL), hyperbilirubinemia (9.2 mg/dL), transaminitis (2238 U/L and 3806 U/L), and elevated PT-INR (i.e., prothrombin time-international normalized ratio) of 15.9 sec/1.54. (Table 1). These laboratory abnormalities suggested possible new-onset Diabetes Mellitus as well as significant liver dysfunction.

Given the radiological findings and suspicion for obstructive jaundice with possible gall bladder infection (i.e., cholecystitis), the authors discussed the case with general surgery. Orders for a magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) and a viral hepatitis panel were placed for suspected concomitant acute hepatitis. The patient was initiated on IV antibiotics for suspected cholecystitis.

The case was then discussed with the Gastroenterology (GI) service who had also recommended a MRCP, avoidance of hepatotoxic medications (e.g., acetaminophen and ciprofloxacin) and hepatitis panel. The patient was subsequently admitted to the hospital in hemodynamically stable status with MRCP and hepatitis panel pending. Gastrointestinal (GI), general surgery and endocrinology for suspected new-onset Diabetes Mellitus were consulted on the case.

During the patient’s two-day hospital course, he underwent a MRCP which showed no gallstones (i.e., cholelithiasis), intra or extra-hepatic biliary dilatation, choledocholithiasis, or pancreatic ductal dilatation. The patient’s newly diagnosed Diabetes Mellitus (Hemoglobin A1c of 9.2) was managed by Endocrinology. A hepatitis panel indicated no evidence of HBV or HCV reactivity but was reactive for anti-HAV immunoglobulin (IgM), suggesting acute HAV.

The patient was again evaluated by the same consulting services with further recommendations of no surgical intervention being required and trending of the hepatic function panel. On the patient’s hospital Day 2, his repeat hepatic function lab panel revealed improvement in the patient’s liver enzymes and function as well as his PT-INR. The patient was subsequently discharged after receiving medical clearance from the consultants with strict clinic-based follow-up. This entailed appropriate counseling with regards to risk factor modification as well as ensuring resolution of jaundice and viral shedding.

Patients affected by HAV can have a highly variable clinical presentation ranging from asymptomatic to fulminant (i.e., a severe sudden onset) liver failure. 1 A significant number of those patients affected are actually asymptomatic, but malaise, fever, and anorexia are the most common presenting symptoms if they occur. 1 These vague symptoms are generally followed by nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, and the eventual development of jaundice. 3 Fulminant HAV, on the other hand, is exceedingly rare occurring in only 1-2% of cases. 4 This is characterized by hepatic failure and progressive encephalopathy (i.e., brain pathology) over a period of days. 4

Patients may also present with rare and specific symptoms as in this case including pale (i.e., acholic) stools and dark urine, both of which are indicative of a conjugated hyperbilirubinemia. This suggests an inability of the liver to expel bilirubin from the bile ducts, either from intrinsic hepatocyte dysfunction or an external obstruction or both. This is compared to an unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia that would typically suggest an abundance of bilirubin being produced for a myriad of reasons. 3 Physical examination findings typically include scleral and/or cutaneous icterus, abdominal tenderness and palpable hepatomegaly. 3 Aside from fever, other vital sign abnormalities may be present, especially with concomitant vomiting, such as orthostatic hypotension and tachycardia.

When managing a patient presenting with jaundice and suspicion for hepatitis, it is especially important to gather a thorough history from the patient and their recent contacts if possible. This history should include any known sick contacts, travel history, illicit drug use, animal exposures, family history, or similar occurrences in the past. Any of these risk categories should lead clinicians to suspect some form of hepatitis as a cause of the patients’ presenting symptoms.

Clinicians being aware of current local epidemiological trends can also be of diagnostic benefit. As of the time of this writing, there had been a dramatic rise in the number of reported cases of acute HAV in Southeastern Michigan. The Michigan Department of Health and Human Services had reported that as of 3/21/18 (beginning 8/1/16) there have been 789 reported cases of HAV related to the outbreak. 5 This condition contributed to 635 hospitalizations (80.5%) and 25 deaths (3.2%).

Of note, Macomb County has the highest number of reported cases at 212 cases which is more than the city of Detroit (i.e, 166 cases). 5 The outbreak is believed to be linked to county-wide opioid and heroin use patterns as over half of the reported cases has some connection with this factor. As in this case, our patient admitted to a history of IV drug use and as was later determined during his hospitalization he also admitted to engaging in other high-risk behaviors including sex with other men. 6

The economic impact of HAV outbreaks has been reviewed both globally as well as on a national level. One 2003 study in particular looked at a Spokane, Washington outbreak and estimated each case of HAV cost $2,683. 7 Most of the expenditures were associated with hospital admissions and lost productivity in the community was also a major indirect factor. The expense of these endemics when compared to vaccination programs and other preventative public health initiatives continues to be an area of epidemiological interest. 8

A HAV diagnosis is typically not made in the ED but suspected cases can be managed expectantly (i.e., monitored closely before treatment) while definitive studies are pending. The differential diagnosis includes bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic, and alcoholic hepatitis. 1 Also included are causes of extra-hepatic obstruction such as cholelithiasis, cholecystitis, choledocholithiasis, and malignancy of the biliary and pancreatic tissue. 1 Diagnostic imaging is usually indicated in the form of a right upper quadrant ultrasound and possible CT of the abdomen and pelvis. 3

More advanced imaging may be indicated in the form of a MRCP to further distinguish biliary pathology and possibly intervene on a cause of obstruction. The most critical laboratory studies to obtain include a hepatic function panel to assess degree of liver enzyme elevation (transaminitis), hyperbilirubinemia, and PT-INR which serves as the most accurate representation of hepatic impairment. 4 Definitive studies for acute HAV (as well as HBV and HCV) can be obtained through a viral hepatitis panel. Acute HAV is indicated by positive Anti-HAV IgM whereas IgG indicates past exposure (when not co-existing with IgM). 9

Management of acute HAV includes IV fluids and electrolyte correction, anti-emetics, and avoidance of hepatotoxic medications (e.g., acetaminophen and ciprofloxacin) and alcohol intake. 1 Antiviral and antibiotic medications are not indicated in uncomplicated acute HAV. 1 Hospitalization is generally reserved for those with intractable vomiting, severe electrolyte or fluid imbalance, altered mental status, a PT-INR greater than 1.5, or any other evidence of fulminant disease. 1 Otherwise stable individuals can be safely discharged with a presumptive diagnosis and strict clinic-based gastroenterology follow-up. Patients should be instructed on strict hand hygiene and those working in the food industry should delay return to work until their jaundice has resolved. 6

According to the latest federal Centers for Disease Control (CDC) guidelines, unvaccinated persons who have been exposed recently to HAV should be administered one dose of the single-antigen HAV vaccine or immune globulin (IG) as soon as possible and within two weeks after exposure. 9 IG is preferred for those less than 12 months old and greater than 40 years old, immunocompromised persons with chronic liver disease, and those who are allergic to the vaccine. 9

As for primary prophylaxis, the CDC and the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommends that all children at one year of age, those at increased risk for infection or complications from HAV, and any person wishing to obtain immunity should receive the vaccination. 6 The HAV vaccine has been available since 1995 and has resulted in a 95% decline in the incidence of disease. 6 Despite the apparent success of the vaccine, mandatory administration is not the norm owing largely to the fact that the disease is rarely fatal, has no chronic carrier state, and has an overall low incidence in the United States. 2

CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, the authors reported on the presentation of a patient with an acute HAV infection. A presumptive diagnosis of hepatitis was made in the ED based on the patient’s historical risk factors with symptomatology, coupled with supporting laboratory findings. The case was complicated by the findings on imaging suggestive of acute cholecystitis. Appropriate lab value serologies were obtained and supportive care was provided which resulted in a short hospital admission with gradual improvement in symptoms and liver function. This case illustrates the importance of clinicians observing a broader differential diagnosis as well as having an understanding of the illness course and possible complications. This case report example further stresses the significance of clinicians considering local epidemiological trends and how this may aid in diagnosis and appropriate management thereafter.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Funding Statement

The authors report no external funding source for this study.

• Haines EJ, Oyama LC. Disorders of the Liver and Biliary Tract . (Walls RM, ed.). Elsevier; 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
• Vaccines.gov. Hepatitis A. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://www.vaccines.gov/diseases/hepatitis_a/index.html
• O’mara SR, Gebreyes K, et al. Hepatic Disorders. In: Tintinalli JE, ed. Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide . 8th ed. McGraw-Hill Education; 2016:525-531. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee HW, Chang DY, Moon HJ, Chang HY, Shin EC, Lee JS, et al. Clinical Factors and Viral Load Influencing Severity of Acute Hepatitis A. PLoS ONE . 2015;10(6). [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Michigan.gov. MDHHS Michigan Hepatitis A Outbreak. https://www.michigan.gov/mdhhs/0,5885,7-339-71550_2955_2976_82305_82310-447907--,00.html
• Cdc.gov. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Viral Hepatitis. http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/hav/havfaq.htm#general
• Bownds L, Lindekugel R, Stepak P. Economic impact of a hepatitis A epidemic in a mid-sized urban community: the case of Spokane. Washington J Community Health . 2003;28:233-246. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Franco E, Meleleo C, Serino L, Sorbara D, Zaratti L. Hepatitis A: Epidemiology and prevention in developing countries. World J Hepatol . 2012;4(3):68-73. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kingery JE, Matheny SC. Hepatitis A. Am Fam Physician . 2012;86(11):1027-1034. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

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A Case Report: Acute Myocardial Infarction in a 29-year-old Male

The heart score is a go-to tool in assessing the risk of an acute coronary syndrome. but in this case, a score of 3 did not mean the 29-year-old patient was safe..

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is currently the leading cause of death in both men and women across the United States. The term describes a group of diseases that includes coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, and heart failure. There are both modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors that can increase the risk of a person’s susceptibility to CVD. Non-modifiable risk factors include ethnicity, family history of CVD, sex, and age. Historically, studies regarding CVD use 40-45 years old as the lower limit defining a “young” patient with CVD. These studies have found that 5-10% of patients experiencing an MI are younger than 40. 1

When a patient presents to the ED with chest pain, the HEART score is often used to assess the risk of an acute coronary syndrome (ACS). The parameters of the HEART score include a suspicious h istory, ischemic E CG findings, a ge, number of cardiac r isk factors, and initial t roponin levels. Each category will receive a value of 0, 1, or 2 for a maximum score of 10; a patient under 45 years old receives 0 points for the age category. A patient’s total HEART score can classify their 6-week risk of a major cardiac event as low, moderate, or high. In the case below, the patient received a HEART score of 3, a low score representing 0.9-1.7% 2 risk of having a major cardiac event.

CASE REPORT A 29-year-old Caucasian male with history of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) treated with full body radiation, marrow transplant and chemotherapy 12 years ago, presents to the ER with acute chest pain and SOB that began 3.5 hours prior to arrival, while delivering food. He then walked into the local CVS to check his blood pressure, which was “150s/90s.” Although unable to describe the quality of the pain, he is writhing in pain on the stretcher and rates it a 10/10. Nothing seems to be giving him any relief. He denies any similar past episodes. The patient does is not currently on any medications, denies a history of smoking or illicit drug use. The patient’s father has a history of CAD in his 50s, and his mother’s health is unremarkable. The patient has been in complete remission from ALL for 12 years; he has no other medical conditions. 

Figure 1. Initial EKG Reading

The patient’s initial workup in the ED included an ECG, chest X-ray, complete blood count, comprehensive metabolic panel, cardiac enzymes, lipase, and coagulation studies. His initial vitals were unremarkable. His initial EKG (Figure 1) performed in triage, showed normal sinus rhythm with hyperacute T wave changes in V2-V6; his potassium was 4.3. His other labs were unremarkable except for a troponin-I of 0.41.

A repeat ECG (Figure 2) was obtained 1.5 hours after the first, which showed normal sinus rhythm with significant ST segment elevation in leads I, II, and V1 through V6, suggesting an anterolateral MI.

The patient was immediately given aspirin, morphine, nitroglycerin, and heparin and was taken for emergent cardiac catheterization. Upon catheterization, he was found to have a 100-percent occlusion along the middle portion of the left anterior descending (LAD) artery; no occlusions were found in the right coronary artery or the the circumflex artery.

Stents were placed along the first and second diagonal branches of the LAD. During the procedure, the patient had several episodes of ventricular tachycardia, which resolved with deep coughing, and also had an episode of ventricular fibrillation requiring cardioversion to sinus rhythm. The catheterization lab report also noted that patient had an anterolateral apical hypokinesia and a left ventricular function of 40%.

Following percutaneous coronary intervention, the patient was admitted to the intensive care unit for further monitoring.

Discussion As a patient with low CVD risk factors, is important to consider the history of pediatric cancer. When the patient presented to the ED, he had been in complete remission from ALL for 12 years. As a child, he had undergone numerous combinations of chemotherapy, radiation, and eventually a bone marrow transplant. Studies have examined the development of atherosclerosis in patients who have received radiation. 3 In pediatric cancer patients, individuals who live more than 5 years following their radiation have shown an eightfold increase in their risk of developing atherosclerosis compared to the general population later in their life. 3

Another factor to consider in an ECG of a patient complaining of chest pain is the T wave. The T wave in an ECG is a reflection of the repolarization of the ventricles of the heart. The majority of T waves have a positive direction and should be asymmetric with a slow upstroke and a rapid downstroke. 4 The T waves in the limb leads should be less than 5 mm, and those in the chest leads should be less than 10 mm. 4 Upon the initial ECG of this patient, it was important to rule out any abnormalities in T wave presentation that could reflect underlying pathology of the heart. No evidence of hyperkalemia in the form of peaked T waves that could lead to fatal arrhythmias were seen at the time. However, hyperacute T waves were seen in leads II and V2 through V6. Hyperacute T waves are often, but not always, known to precede ST segment elevation. They are the earliest available electrical event that can be detected on an ECG during an acute ischemic event and can rapidly progress into ST segment elevation. 4 While a hyperacute T wave is not always associated with ST elevation, if detected on an ECG, the emergency physician should consider ordering serial ECGs along with the cardiac biomarkers to look out for any acute cardiac event.

References 1. Azar RR. Coronary heart disease and myocardial infarction in young men and women . UptoDate. Accessed November 6, 2018. 2. Wilson PWF. Cardiovascular disease risk assessment for primary prevention: Risk calculators . UpToDate. Accessed November 6, 2018. 3. Haddy N, Diallo S, El-Fayech C, et al. Cardiac Diseases Following Childhood Cancer Treatment .  Circulation . 2016;133(1):31-38. 4. Prutkin JM. ECG Tutorial: ST and T wave changes . UpToDate. Accessed November 6, 2018.

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AI on Trial: Legal Models Hallucinate in 1 out of 6 (or More) Benchmarking Queries

A new study reveals the need for benchmarking and public evaluations of AI tools in law.

Artificial intelligence (AI) tools are rapidly transforming the practice of law. Nearly  three quarters of lawyers plan on using generative AI for their work, from sifting through mountains of case law to drafting contracts to reviewing documents to writing legal memoranda. But are these tools reliable enough for real-world use?

Large language models have a documented tendency to “hallucinate,” or make up false information. In one highly-publicized case, a New York lawyer  faced sanctions for citing ChatGPT-invented fictional cases in a legal brief;  many similar cases have since been reported. And our  previous study of general-purpose chatbots found that they hallucinated between 58% and 82% of the time on legal queries, highlighting the risks of incorporating AI into legal practice. In his  2023 annual report on the judiciary , Chief Justice Roberts took note and warned lawyers of hallucinations. 

Across all areas of industry, retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) is seen and promoted as the solution for reducing hallucinations in domain-specific contexts. Relying on RAG, leading legal research services have released AI-powered legal research products that they claim  “avoid” hallucinations and guarantee  “hallucination-free” legal citations. RAG systems promise to deliver more accurate and trustworthy legal information by integrating a language model with a database of legal documents. Yet providers have not provided hard evidence for such claims or even precisely defined “hallucination,” making it difficult to assess their real-world reliability.

AI-Driven Legal Research Tools Still Hallucinate

In a new  preprint study by  Stanford RegLab and  HAI researchers, we put the claims of two providers, LexisNexis (creator of Lexis+ AI) and Thomson Reuters (creator of Westlaw AI-Assisted Research and Ask Practical Law AI)), to the test. We show that their tools do reduce errors compared to general-purpose AI models like GPT-4. That is a substantial improvement and we document instances where these tools provide sound and detailed legal research. But even these bespoke legal AI tools still hallucinate an alarming amount of the time: the Lexis+ AI and Ask Practical Law AI systems produced incorrect information more than 17% of the time, while Westlaw’s AI-Assisted Research hallucinated more than 34% of the time.

Read the full study, Hallucination-Free? Assessing the Reliability of Leading AI Legal Research Tools

To conduct our study, we manually constructed a pre-registered dataset of over 200 open-ended legal queries, which we designed to probe various aspects of these systems’ performance.

Broadly, we investigated (1) general research questions (questions about doctrine, case holdings, or the bar exam); (2) jurisdiction or time-specific questions (questions about circuit splits and recent changes in the law); (3) false premise questions (questions that mimic a user having a mistaken understanding of the law); and (4) factual recall questions (questions about simple, objective facts that require no legal interpretation). These questions are designed to reflect a wide range of query types and to constitute a challenging real-world dataset of exactly the kinds of queries where legal research may be needed the most.

Figure 1: Comparison of hallucinated (red) and incomplete (yellow) answers across generative legal research tools.

These systems can hallucinate in one of two ways. First, a response from an AI tool might just be  incorrect —it describes the law incorrectly or makes a factual error. Second, a response might be  misgrounded —the AI tool describes the law correctly, but cites a source which does not in fact support its claims.

Given the critical importance of authoritative sources in legal research and writing, the second type of hallucination may be even more pernicious than the outright invention of legal cases. A citation might be “hallucination-free” in the narrowest sense that the citation  exists , but that is not the only thing that matters. The core promise of legal AI is that it can streamline the time-consuming process of identifying relevant legal sources. If a tool provides sources that  seem authoritative but are in reality irrelevant or contradictory, users could be misled. They may place undue trust in the tool's output, potentially leading to erroneous legal judgments and conclusions.

Figure 2:  Top left: Example of a hallucinated response by Westlaw's AI-Assisted Research product. The system makes up a statement in the Federal Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure that does not exist (and Kontrick v. Ryan, 540 U.S. 443 (2004) held that a closely related bankruptcy deadline provision was not jurisdictional). Top right: Example of a hallucinated response by LexisNexis's Lexis+ AI. Casey and its undue burden standard were overruled by the Supreme Court in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, 597 U.S. 215 (2022); the correct answer is rational basis review. Bottom left: Example of a hallucinated response by Thomson Reuters's Ask Practical Law AI. The system fails to correct the user’s mistaken premise—in reality, Justice Ginsburg joined the Court's landmark decision legalizing same-sex marriage—and instead provides additional false information about the case. Bottom right: Example of a hallucinated response from GPT-4, which generates a statutory provision that has not been codified.

RAG Is Not a Panacea

Figure 3: An overview of the retrieval-augmentation generation (RAG) process. Given a user query (left), the typical process consists of two steps: (1) retrieval (middle), where the query is embedded with natural language processing and a retrieval system takes embeddings and retrieves the relevant documents (e.g., Supreme Court cases); and (2) generation (right), where the retrieved texts are fed to the language model to generate the response to the user query. Any of the subsidiary steps may introduce error and hallucinations into the generated response. (Icons are courtesy of FlatIcon.)

Under the hood, these new legal AI tools use retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) to produce their results, a method that many tout as a potential solution to the hallucination problem. In theory, RAG allows a system to first  retrieve the relevant source material and then use it to  generate the correct response. In practice, however, we show that even RAG systems are not hallucination-free. 

We identify several challenges that are particularly unique to RAG-based legal AI systems, causing hallucinations. 

First, legal retrieval is hard. As any lawyer knows, finding the appropriate (or best) authority can be no easy task. Unlike other domains, the law is not entirely composed of verifiable  facts —instead, law is built up over time by judges writing  opinions . This makes identifying the set of documents that definitively answer a query difficult, and sometimes hallucinations occur for the simple reason that the system’s retrieval mechanism fails.

Second, even when retrieval occurs, the document that is retrieved can be an inapplicable authority. In the American legal system, rules and precedents differ across jurisdictions and time periods; documents that might be relevant on their face due to semantic similarity to a query may actually be inapposite for idiosyncratic reasons that are unique to the law. Thus, we also observe hallucinations occurring when these RAG systems fail to identify the truly binding authority. This is particularly problematic as areas where the law is in flux is precisely where legal research matters the most. One system, for instance, incorrectly recited the “undue burden” standard for abortion restrictions as good law, which was overturned in  Dobbs (see Figure 2). 

Third, sycophancy—the tendency of AI to agree with the user's incorrect assumptions—also poses unique risks in legal settings. One system, for instance, naively agreed with the question’s premise that Justice Ginsburg dissented in  Obergefell , the case establishing a right to same-sex marriage, and answered that she did so based on her views on international copyright. (Justice Ginsburg did not dissent in  Obergefell and, no, the case had nothing to do with copyright.) Notwithstanding that answer, here there are optimistic results. Our tests showed that both systems generally navigated queries based on false premises effectively. But when these systems do agree with erroneous user assertions, the implications can be severe—particularly for those hoping to use these tools to increase access to justice among  pro se and under-resourced litigants.

Responsible Integration of AI Into Law Requires Transparency

Ultimately, our results highlight the need for rigorous and transparent benchmarking of legal AI tools. Unlike other domains, the use of AI in law remains alarmingly opaque: the tools we study provide no systematic access, publish few details about their models, and report no evaluation results at all.

This opacity makes it exceedingly challenging for lawyers to procure and acquire AI products. The large law firm  Paul Weiss spent nearly a year and a half testing a product, and did not develop “hard metrics” because checking the AI system was so involved that it “makes any efficiency gains difficult to measure.” The absence of rigorous evaluation metrics makes responsible adoption difficult, especially for practitioners that are less resourced than Paul Weiss. 

The lack of transparency also threatens lawyers’ ability to comply with ethical and professional responsibility requirements. The bar associations of  California ,  New York , and  Florida have all recently released guidance on lawyers’ duty of supervision over work products created with AI tools. And as of May 2024,  more than 25 federal judges have issued standing orders instructing attorneys to disclose or monitor the use of AI in their courtrooms.

Without access to evaluations of the specific tools and transparency around their design, lawyers may find it impossible to comply with these responsibilities. Alternatively, given the high rate of hallucinations, lawyers may find themselves having to verify each and every proposition and citation provided by these tools, undercutting the stated efficiency gains that legal AI tools are supposed to provide.

Our study is meant in no way to single out LexisNexis and Thomson Reuters. Their products are far from the only legal AI tools that stand in need of transparency—a slew of startups offer similar products and have  made   similar   claims , but they are available on even more restricted bases, making it even more difficult to assess how they function. 

Based on what we know, legal hallucinations have not been solved.The legal profession should turn to public benchmarking and rigorous evaluations of AI tools. 

This story was updated on Thursday, May 30, 2024, to include analysis of a third AI tool, Westlaw’s AI-Assisted Research.

Paper authors: Varun Magesh is a research fellow at Stanford RegLab. Faiz Surani is a research fellow at Stanford RegLab. Matthew Dahl is a joint JD/PhD student in political science at Yale University and graduate student affiliate of Stanford RegLab. Mirac Suzgun is a joint JD/PhD student in computer science at Stanford University and a graduate student fellow at Stanford RegLab. Christopher D. Manning is Thomas M. Siebel Professor of Machine Learning, Professor of Linguistics and Computer Science, and Senior Fellow at HAI. Daniel E. Ho is the William Benjamin Scott and Luna M. Scott Professor of Law, Professor of Political Science, Professor of Computer Science (by courtesy), Senior Fellow at HAI, Senior Fellow at SIEPR, and Director of the RegLab at Stanford University. 

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