what is urban essay

Introductory essay

Written by the educators who created Ecofying Cities, a brief look at the key facts, tough questions and big ideas in their field. Begin this TED Study with a fascinating read that gives context and clarity to the material.

Right now, our economy operates as Paul Hawken said, "by stealing the future, selling it in the present and calling it GDP." And if we have another eight billion or seven billion people, living on a planet where their cities also steal the future, we're going to run out of future really fast. But if we think differently, I think that, in fact, we can have cities that are not only zero emissions, but have unlimited possibilities as well. Alex Steffen

The urgency of urban planning today

Within a few decades' time, we can expect the planet to become more crowded, resources more precious, and innovative urban planners increasingly important. By midcentury, the global population will likely top nine billion, and more than half will live in cities. What will these cities look like? Will we have the resources to power them and comfortably provide for their residents? Will global urbanization harmonize with efforts to curb climate change and secure a sustainable future, or are these forces hurtling towards a head-on collision?

The TED speakers featured in Ecofying Cities underscore the urgency, but also suggest that some optimism's in order as they outline the issues and offer imaginative solutions.

There's no single reason for or response to the complex environmental, economic and social challenges that are part of our future in cities. They call for multiple approaches, originating from different sources — individuals, communities, governments, businesses — and deployed at different levels — in the home, the neighborhood, the city, region, nation and across the globe — to respond to the challenges at hand. As Alex Steffen reminds the urban planners, architects, designers, elected leaders and others involved in the effort, "All those cities are opportunities."

Urbanism and the environment: A brief history

For centuries, successful city-building has required careful attention to the environmental consequences of urban development. Without this, as Jared Diamond demonstrated in Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed , a city inevitably ended up fouling its nest, thus entering a spiral of epidemics, economic hardship, decline and, ultimately, oblivion. Civilizations evolved different ways of dealing with environmental considerations — some with more success than others. For example, thanks to elaborate aqueducts and sewer systems, the Romans were able to build and sustain for centuries large cities that featured a reliable public water supply and state-of-the-art public health conditions.

In other civilizations, however, residents simply abandoned cities when they could no longer rely on their environment to supply the resources they needed. Often this was a direct result of their own activities: for example, deforestation and the attendant erosion of fertile soil, epidemics due to contaminated water and, with the advent of coal-fired industrialization, air pollution.

Urban planning got its start as a profession largely dedicated to averting different types of crises arising from urban growth and providing conditions for public health. This was particularly true in the many 19th century European and North American cities transformed by industrialization and unprecedented rates of population growth. Rapidly deteriorating air and water quality made it necessary to introduce regulations to protect the health of the residents of these cities.

The planners' first-generation improvements included sewers, water treatment and distribution, and improved air quality through building codes and increased urban green space. It's especially remarkable today to think that these interventions were adopted in response to observable health consequences, but without knowledge of the contamination mechanisms at work: germ theory didn't arrive on the scene until Louis Pasteur published his work in the 1860s. From the late 19th century onward Pasteur's findings bolstered the case for even more urban sanitation improvements, particularly those designed to improve water quality.

Starting in the 1950s, however, planners no longer narrowly targeted immediate health effects on urban residents as their chief environmental concern. Their work also absorbed and reflected Western society's deeper understanding of, and respect for, natural processes and growing awareness of the long-term environmental impacts of cities from the local to the planetary scale.

Rachel Carson is often credited as the first to popularize environmentalism. Published in 1962, her landmark book Silent Spring sounded a warning call about how pesticides endanger birds and entire ecological systems. Soon after, air pollution became a rallying point for environmentalists, as did the loss of large tracks of rural and natural land to accelerated, sprawling development. Today, sustainable development and smart growth, which largely overlap and address multiple environmental considerations, enjoy wide currency; most urban planning is now based on these principles.

Today, as we reckon with population growth, advancing rates of urbanization, and widespread recognition of climate change, we know that the cities of the future share a common destiny. The choices we make about how we build, inhabit and maintain these cities will have global and long-term effects.

Sustainable development: Two schools of thought

In modern urban planning, there are two general categories of sustainable development. The first doesn't challenge the present dynamics of the city, allowing them to remain largely low-density and automobile-oriented, but still makes them the object of measures aimed to reduce their environmental load (for example, green construction practices). Ian McHarg spearheaded this approach as a way to develop urban areas in harmony with natural systems; the planning principles he formulated gave special care to the preservation of water and green space. His lasting influence is visible in many of the more enlightened suburban developments of recent decades which respect the integrity of natural systems. Today, the Landscape Urbanism movement promotes these same ideas.

A second school of urban development focuses on increasing urban density and reducing reliance on the automobile. This approach advocates transit-oriented and mixed-use development along pedestrian-friendly "complete streets." On a regional scale, it aims to reduce sprawl by creating a network of higher-density multifunctional centers interconnected by public transit. Today, it's common for plans with a metropolitan scope to follow this approach.

Studying the city: About these materials

Cities are arguably the most complex human creation (with the possible exception of language) so it's not surprising that we study them at multiple scales and from diverse perspectives. We can approach cities through a narrow focus on an individual building or a neighborhood, expand the investigation to consider a metropolitan region in its entirety, or study the global system of cities and its interconnections. What's more, we can think about cities as built environments, social networks, modified ecologies, economic systems and political entities. Aware of the multiple ways that we engage with cities, the Romans had two words to refer to them: urbs referred to the physical city with its wall and buildings, and civitas , the city as a collection of residents.

Ecofying Cities explores urban areas at different scales. In some cases, the TED speaker focuses on a neighborhood project, like The High Line in Manhattan; others describe city-wide transformation, as in Curitiba, Brazil, or a regional or national initiative like China's plan for a network of eco-cities to house its growing urban population. Likewise, the talks explore cities from different disciplinary perspectives including urban planning, urban design, transportation planning, architecture, community organization and environmental science. What unites them all? A commitment to sustainability and a belief that sustainability is more about creating positive effects rather than reducing negative impacts.

The message emanating from Ecofying Cities is one of complexity, optimism and uncertainty. We can't be sure that the changes these speakers suggest will be enough to help us balance supply and demand in the sustainability equation. But we can expect that their ideas and efforts will improve the built environment — as well as quality of life — in cities, thereby providing hopeful perspectives for a sustainable future.

Let´s begin with writer and futurist Alex Steffen´s TEDTalk "The Sharable Future of Cities" for a look at the interplay between increasing urban density and energy consumption.

Alex Steffen

The shareable future of cities, relevant talks.

Ellen Dunham-Jones

Retrofitting suburbia.

Jaime Lerner

A song of the city.

James Howard Kunstler

The ghastly tragedy of the suburbs.

Majora Carter

Greening the ghetto.

Michael Pawlyn

Using nature's genius in architecture.

Robert Hammond

Building a park in the sky.

William McDonough

Cradle to cradle design.

Essay on Urbanization for Students and Children

500 words essay on urbanization.

Urbanization refers to the movement of the population from rural areas to urban areas. It is essentially the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas. Furthermore, urbanization is quite a popular trend in the contemporary world. Moreover, people mostly undertake urbanization due to more work opportunities and a better standard of living. According to the expert prediction, by 2050, 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized.

Causes of Urbanization

First of all, political causes play a big role in urbanization. Many people get forced to leave rural areas for urban areas due to political unrest. Therefore, many families go to urban areas in search of food, shelter, and employment .

Another important cause of urbanization is an economic cause. Furthermore, poverty is a widespread phenomenon in rural areas. Moreover, farmers are finding it very hard to earn enough money and make a living. Consequently, rural people move to urban areas in search of better job opportunities.

Education is a strong cause of urbanization. Urban areas offer opportunities for seeking high-quality education. Moreover, urbanization offers opportunities for studying at universities and technical colleges. Such handsome education opportunities attract many young people in rural areas to move to urban areas.

Environmental degradation also plays a part in contributing to urbanization. Deforestation destroys the natural habitat of many farming families. Furthermore, mining and industrial expansion also harm the natural habitat of farming families.

The social cause is another notable reason for urbanization. Many young rural people migrate to urban areas in order to seek a better lifestyle. Moreover, many young people want to escape the conservative culture of rural areas. Most noteworthy, urban areas offer a more easy-going liberal lifestyle. Furthermore, cities have clubs to attract youth.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Benefits of Urbanization

First of all, urban areas are much more efficient in providing resources than rural areas. Important and basic amenities like housing, clean water, and electricity are easily available in urban areas.

People in urban areas find it quite easy to access to various important services. Most noteworthy, these services are high-quality education, expert health care, convenient transportation, entertainment, etc. Furthermore, some or all of the services are unavailable in rural areas.

Urban areas offer better employment opportunities. Furthermore, these employment opportunities are the result of industrialization and commercialization.

Urban areas play a critical role as creators and disseminators of knowledge. This is because of the highly connected urbanized world. Most noteworthy, the geographical proximity of people in urban areas helps in the propagation of ideas.

Urban areas enjoy the benefits of technological development. Furthermore, many types of technologies get implemented in urban areas. Moreover, urban people quickly get in touch with the latest technology. In contrast, many rural individuals remain ignorant of many types of technologies.

To sum it up, urbanization is a process which is on a continuous rise. Furthermore, urbanization ensures the transformation of rural culture into urban culture. Moreover, the government must be vigilant to the rapidly increasing urbanization. A fully urbanized world looks like the ultimate destiny of our world.

FAQs on Urbanization

Q1 State any two causes for urbanization?

A1 Any two causes for urbanization are high-quality education and good job opportunities in urban areas.

Q2 Why urban areas offer better employment opportunities?

A2 Urban areas offer better employment opportunities due to high industrialization and commercialization.

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Essay on Urbanisation | Urbanisation Essay for Students and Children in English

February 14, 2024 by Prasanna

Essay on Urbanisation: Urbanization is the typical characteristic of human civilization and is the center of social life, economy, and politics. Urbanization is a term derived from a Latin word ‘urb’ which means city. The primary need for Urbanization is because it helps people under poverty and pushes them towards the progress of some industrialized urban centers. If the development is not administered aptly, it leads to the rise of pollution, crime, and slums.

Urbanization has demerits more than merits. With planned policies and sustainable land use, urban growth and development can thrive and minimize ecological degradation. Therefore, the government must create a well-developed plan of action and cannot ignore it.

You can read more  Essay Writing  about articles, events, people, sports, technology many more.

Long and Short Essays on Urbanisation for Students and Kids in English

We have mentioned two essays 500 words Long Essay and 200 words Short Essay. The long Essay on Urbanization consists of 400-500 words. The Long essay provides a framework that helps students with their competitive exams and assignments. The Short Essay on Urbanization is written for 200 words and is suitable for children and kids with their classwork.

Long Essay on Urbanization 500 words in English

Given below is a long Essay on Urbanization for aspirants of competitive exams and students belonging to classes 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. The Urbanization essay helps the students with their class assignments, comprehension tasks, and even for competitive examinations.

Urbanization is the movement of the population residing in rural regions to urban areas. Urbanization has become a popular trend in today’s world. It is one of the most common economic attributes and its gradual growth shifts to the surplus population and industrialization growth. Urbanization holds two conceptual meanings sociological and demographical. Demographically, Urbanization refers to the balance of a population of a region that resides in cities. The sociological reference for Urbanization relates to behavior, worldly things, or institutions that have an identity as an Urban origin.

Urbanization occurs due to the vast opportunities and better standards of living. Experts predict that by 2050, 84 percent of the developed nations and 64 percent of the developing countries will become urbanized. Urban development is highly essential for the national economic development of a society.

Employment is one major cause of Urbanization. The movement of people from rural to urban areas is mainly in search of job opportunities, shelter, and food. Political unrest also plays a vital role in Urbanization. Economic factors are another major cause of Urbanization. Due to the existence of poverty, and the plight of farmers living in rural regions, people move to the urban part looking for opportunities.

The next important cause of Urbanization is high-quality Education facilities. Urban areas offer opportunities for studying at technical colleges and universities that attract students from rural to urban. Ecological imbalance, environmental degradation, industrial expansion, and mining destroy the natural habitats of agriculture-dependent families and contribute to Urbanization.

The social cause is an essential reason for Urbanization. Many young people migrate from urban to rural to escape the conservative culture and seek a better lifestyle. Urban regions contain clubs and pubs, and an easy-going liberal way of living that attracts young people.

Benefits of Urbanization Essay

Urban regions provide efficient resources like clean water, electricity, housing, and other basic amenities than rural areas. The urbanization offers better access to essential services like transportation, entertainment, healthcare facilities, high-quality education, etc. Industrialization and commercialization are the end-products of Urbanization that provide better employment opportunities. Urbanizations are critical creators and disseminators of values and knowledge. The geographical proximity of diverse people aids the procreation of different ideas.

Urbanization holds the benefit of technological development and the implementation of different technologies. Urban people discover and experience the latest tech developments contradicting the rural individuals who remain ignorant of any newest event. Furthermore, some or all of the services remain unavailable in rural regions.

Effects of Urbanization Essay

Urbanization has made life affordable, which has to lead to an increase in population. The migration of people from rural regions to urban has lead to overcrowding and congestion of public spaces and transportation.

Population growth is one major factor that has led to unemployment with a high cost of living. Urbanization has, in turn, made fierce competition in every field to attain more senior positions. Urbanization has also led to elevated rental rates and the increase of slum accommodations.

Urbanization leads to inadequate facilities and contributes to problems such as typhoid, diarrhea, and plague. This has led to the elevation of crimes, kidnaps, thefts, rapes, murders, and hijackings. Traffic and road congestion is other main challenges faced by urban city people. Thus, Urbanization is a solution and harm to humanity. With is vast benefits, it also holds effects that cause the problem to man.

Short Essay on Urbanization 200 words in English

The 200 words short essay mentioned below is suitable for kids and children up to 6th standard. The essay is written to guide the children with their school works-assignments and comprehension exercises.

Urbanization means the movement of man from least developed parts in search of better facilities. Urbanization leads to the disappearance of forests and agricultural lands for modern buildings that lead to the migration of farmers into the cities.

A developed region facilitates resources like electricity, clean water, housing, and other necessities than rural areas. The urbanization offers better services like entertainment, transportation, high-quality education, healthcare facilities, etc. that fosters better lifestyle and living conditions.

The large-scale urban development has contributed to India’s economy. It expands the production system, thus paving the way to large scale manufacture of goods and services. The booming economic development leads to the growth of cities and towns.

Rapid Urbanization around the world has lead to the growth of severe causes in big cities. It has lead to an increase in population all around the world. The advancement in the field of science and medicine, have decreased death rates and increased birth rates. Thus, the population is a growing factor of Urbanization.

Rapid Urbanization and growth of expanding trade and businesses in India have lead to rural-urban migration. The extension of cities and towns has led to the destruction of many agricultural lands in rural regions.

Thus, Urbanization is a continuous rising process. It ensures the transformation of rural culture into the urban culture, and the government must be observant of the rapidly pacing Urbanization.

10 Lines on Urbanization Essay in English

• Urbanization is the transformation of rural areas into urban. It leads to the movement of people from rural to cities.
• Urbanization impacts the concentration of population towards the regions that provide higher income categories.
• Experts have stated that by 2050, 84 percent of the developed nations and 64 percent of the developing countries will become urbanized.
• Urbanization occurs mainly in search of job opportunities, shelter, and food.
• Urbanization leads to environmental degradation, industrial expansion, ecological imbalance, and mining.
• Urbanization leads to commercialization and industrialization and provides people with housing, electricity, and clean water.
• Urbanizations leads to overpopulation, unemployment, traffic, and congestion of public spaces.
• Urbanization has led to an increase in crimes, kidnaps, thefts, rapes, murders, and hijackings.
• The urban development increases the economic development of a country through higher though income capita.
• Creating awareness can resolve problems related to Urbanization.

FAQ’s on Urbanisation Essay

Question 1. What is meant by Urbanization?

Answer: Urbanization is the transformation into cities. This sees the movement of a particular section of the population from the rural regions migrating to urban areas.

Question 2. State a few critical causes of Urbanization.

Answer: Urbanization has led to high-quality education, excellent job opportunities, quick access to basic amenities, technological enhancements, etc.

Question 3. How does Urbanization benefit People?

Answer: Urbanization has led to the advancement of industries, thus providing people with resources like clean water, electricity, housing, transportation, entertainment, healthcare facilities, etc.

Question 4. What are the harmful effects faced due to Urbanization?

Answer: Urbanization causes a plethora of problems such as increased population growth, deforestation, traffic and road congestion, increased crime rates, a decrease in natural resources, pollution, etc.

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112 Urbanization Essay Topics, Questions, and Examples

🏆 best questions to ask about urbanization, ✍️ urbanization essay topics for college, 📌 discussion questions about urbanization, 👍 good research questions on urbanization, ❓ questions about urbanization.

• Advantages and Disadvantages of Urbanization Essay These resources are easily exploited because of the availability of facilities and labor in the cities, which leads to economic development and improvement of living standards of the city dwellers.
• Urbanization and the Environment Due to urbanization, the number, the size, the kind and the compactness of cities, in addition to the effectiveness of their management of the environment are major concerns for attainment of the international sustainability.
• Social, Economic and Environmental Challenges of Urbanization in Lagos However, the city’s rapid economic growth has led to high population density due to urbanization, creating social, economic, and environmental challenges the challenges include poverty, unemployment, sanitation, poor and inadequate transport infrastructure, congestion in the […]
• Urbanization Merits and Challenges Urbanization is in most cases associated with the human movement from the rural to the urban areas. This is as a result of increased population in the rural areas in relation to the lands and […]
• Urbanization Process in Mesopotamia History of the involvement of the cities in the world has different reasons that lead to the development and establishment of the towns.
• Technological Innovation Effect on Urbanization By the 20th century, as large-scale industrial production became effective, the idea of urbanization appeared, leading to the further growth of the world’s leading cities. As such, the idea of urbanization is the cornerstone of […]
• Urbanization and Environment The resources can be identified through the acquisition of knowledge about the environmental conditions of the areas in which urban development is expected to take place.
• Urbanization and Technological Development in Third-World Countries Extensive consolidation is necessary to get rid of poverty and improve the internal situation in third-world countries. It is essential to establish cooperation in all spheres of human life and competently use the resources of […]
• Urbanization in Hong Kong and Effects on Citizens However, “while the proportion of people living in small cities is expected to decline, the million-plus cities accounting for about 40% of the total urban population in 2011 is expected to increase to 47% percent […]
• Urbanization and Technological Development in the Philippines In the course of writing the material, not only data from previous works were used, but also static data that allowed us to track the dynamics of the development of Philippine in the last 15-20 […]
• Urban Economics: The Urbanization Process and its Effects However, the rate of urbanization started to increase in the late 20th century and by the beginning of the 21st century, a significant portion of the developing world’s population lived in urban settlements.
• Urbanization and Suburbanization Therefore, more people come to life in the city, in order to be able to take advantage of the many opportunities it offers.
• Agricultural Revolution and Changes to Ancient Societies in Terms of the State, Urbanization, and Labor This made the climate and soil more adaptable to plant growth and farming as some of the wild variants of barley and fruit began to grow in the region on their own.
• Is Taiwan Urbanization Rate Growing? Urban & Rural Areas The ratio of the urban population to the total population determines the degree of Taiwanian urbanization. There has been a decline in the agricultural industry and this could be one of the ways to revive […]
• Urbanization: Origins and Growth of Cities That is why there is no doubt that the emergence of social classes and the distribution of labor significantly contributed to the rise and growth of ancient cities.
• American Cities and Urbanization After the Civil War American cities’ central development and urbanization occurred in the years after the end of the Civil War. Firstly, the active development of urbanization was caused by the fact that people began to move to cities […]
• Demography, Urbanization and Environment The coefficients of migration, immigration, and emigration show the movements of people, which also change the number of people living in a particular territory.
• US Urbanization and Migration Trends at the End of the 19th Century It discussed the factors leading to successful urbanization, the challenges of urban life, and the effects this trend caused on the history of the state and its further development.
• Impacts of Immigration and Urbanization Urbanization is a special term that describes the decreasing proportion of people who live in rural areas, the population shift from rural to urban areas, and the possible ways of societies’ adaption to these changes. […]
• Technology and Migration in the Industrial Urbanization The history of the United States has a life-changing period between the end of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth – industrial urbanization.
• Information and History of Ecuador: Urbanization, Natural Resources and Politics Official Name: Republic of Ecuador Area: 272,046 square kilometers Official Language: Spanish Currency: US dollar Capital: Quito Largest City: Guayaquil Regime: Unitary presidentialconstitutional republic Constitution: August 10, 1998.
• United States History in 1864-1900 Years: Industrialization, Urbanization, and the Commercialization of Farming The Western frontier advanced in the years 1864 and 1900 by the establishment of democracy in America, industrialization, urbanization and the commercialization of farming.
• Urbanization and American Immigrant Myth The questions of urbanization and the growth of megacities have raised the significant attention of many people recently. The are several reasons for that, such as “the neoliberal globalization since 1978”, the wrong actions of […]
• Rapid Urbanization and Underdevelopment The essay through examples of the developing world and the developed world establishes the linkage between rapid urbanization and underdevelopment in both; the cities as well as the outlying peripheral areas.
• The Relationship Between the High Rate of Urbanization in Africa and AIDS Spread This movement results in to increase in the number of people in the towns and cities in a particular year. The increased social interaction of people in towns has led to increased HIV/AIDS infections in […]
• New Urbanism: The Problems of Urbanization The scales of differentiating private to public space include the following: spatial, degree of exclusivity and openness, and modes of social encounter.
• Rural Residents in “Rapid Urbanization” by Jennifer Weeks Research shows that many rural dwellers in developing nations move to towns and as cities struggle to accommodate the high growth, the rural residents often end up living in slums that are already teemed.
• Urbanization and Sub-Urbanization in the United States The exposition resulted in the creation of a beautiful urban space, and people acknowledged the benefits of city planning as well as the cooperation of different professionals.
• Urbanization Processes in Post-Socialist China To explain this phenomenon, this paper answers three questions what is the cost of forming this middle class what led to the emergence of this middle class how has the formation of the middle class […]
• Industrialization, Urbanization, and Migration The beginning of the Industrial Revolution is shown both in the article and the book focusing on terrible working conditions in the factories.
• Port-au-Prince, Haiti: Urbanization Challenges As documented in the literature, Port-au-Prince is faced with many urban challenges and problems, ranging from social and geographic segregation to elevated poverty levels and occurrence of natural disasters which compound the problem of poverty.
• China’s Success in the Urbanization Process The current paper aims at reflecting and analyzing the article to comprehend the reasons of why the challenges appear during the process of urbanization when it is so important for the society and becomes a […]
• How do Migration and Urbanization Bring About Urban Poverty in Developing Countries? When there is a high rate of rural to urban migration, there is pressure on the limited resources in the urban centers.
• History of Urbanization in Brazil in 1980 In addition, according to Morrison, “there is a disparity in term of salary or wage differentials, and therefore aspirations and lifestyles, among classes in the country”.
• Urbanization in Mexico Some services are available in the urban areas but most of the residents are not in the position to pay for them.
• Baseball and Urbanization For instance, at the very beginning of the nineteenth century, the urban population in the United States was 5% of the total population.
• Human Geography: Urbanization The high prices of food in some regions of the world make most of the people to starve. Most of the people in developed countries like in US, UK, Canada and Australia are well endowed […]
• The Pressures of Urbanization on the Environment
• Urbanization Problems And Sustainable Development
• The Urban Mortality Transition and Poor-Country Urbanization
• Urbanization and Agricultural Policy in Egypt
• Urbanization Has Negatively Affected Biological Diversity
• Urbanization and Food Security: Empirical Evidence from Households in Urban Southwest Nigeria
• Urbanization and Rural Development in the People’s Republic of China
• Urbanization Migration And Development In Asia Economics
• The Roles of Women in Urbanization vs the Challenges of Living in the Countryside
• Urbanization, the Creation of Cities and the Impacts on the Natural Environment
• Urbanization, Mortality, and Fertility in Malthusian England
• Urbanization Of Urbanization During The 19th Century
• Urbanization and Labor Market Informality in Developing Countries
• Urbanization in India: Evidence on Agglomeration Economies
• Relocating or Redefined: A New Perspective on Urbanization in China
• Wildlife and the Impact of Urbanization
• Urbanization and the Viability of Local Agricultural Economies
• Sustainable Development Policies Can Reduce Urbanization Problems
• The Causal Relationship between Urbanization, Economic Growth and Water Use Change in Provincial China
• Urbanization Of Poverty And The Sustainable Development Of Urban Areas In Chile
• Urbanization as a Fundamental Cause of Development
• The Affect of Industrialization and Urbanization After Civil War
• Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Beijing’s Urbanization Efficiency from 2005 to 2014
• Role of Landscape Architecture in Urbanization
• Urbanization, Gender, and Business Creation in the Informal Sector in India
• World Capitalism and Third World Urbanization
• The Major Problems Associated with Rapid Urbanization
• Urbanization Patterns, Information Diffusion and Female Voting in Rural Paraguay
• The Negative Impact of Urbanization on the Earth and Environment
• Urbanization, Lifestyle Changes and the Nutrition Transition
• The Role of the Demographic Transition in the Process of Urbanization
• Regional Differences in China’s Urbanization and its Determinants
• Urbanization in Romania During the Twentieth Century up to Today
• Urbanization Trends in Chicago Versus Houston
• What is the Role of Globalization on Urban Urbanization
• Technological Progress and the Urbanization Process
• Urbanization, Productivity and Innovation: Evidence from Investment in Higher Education
• The Relationship Between Urbanization And Industrialization
• Urbanization Is the Main Contributor to Disaster Occurrence in Developing Countries
• Urbanization, Inequality, and Poverty in the People’s Republic of China
• What Are the Economic Effects of Urbanization?
• Does Urbanization Increase Pollutant Emission and Energy Intensity?
• Does Urbanization Help Poverty Reduction in Rural Areas?
• What Is Urbanisation and Its Effects?
• Why Urbanization Is a Problem?
• What Are the Main Effects of Urbanization?
• What Is the Impact of Urbanization on the Environment?
• What Are the Three Main Causes of Urbanization?
• What Are the Negative Impacts of Urbanization on the Environment?
• What Are the Five Problems That Can Come Out of Urbanization?
• What Are the Effect of Urbanization on Society?
• How Does Urbanization Affect Population?
• How Does Urbanization Affect the Economy?
• How Does Urbanization Create Pollution?
• What Are the Six Environmental Impacts of Urbanization?
• What Are the Four Stages of Urbanization?
• What Is History of Urbanization?
• When Did Urbanization Become a Trend?
• Why Did Urbanization Become Popular?
• What Are the Three Reasons Why Urbanization Is Increasing?
• Does Population Mobility Contribute to Urbanization Convergence?
• How Has Urbanization Changed the World?
• What Is Evolution of Urbanization?
• Is Urbanization Increasing or Decreasing?
• What Are the Factors Affecting Urbanization?
• What Is the Most Important Feature of Urbanization?
• How Is the Pattern of Urbanization Changing?
• What Is the Pattern of Urbanization Around the World?
• What Is the Trend of Urbanization in India?
• What Is the Impact of Urbanization in India?
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Home — Essay Samples — Social Issues — Urbanization — Causes and Effects of Urbanisation

Causes and Effects of Urbanisation

• Categories: Urbanization

About this sample

Words: 1713 |

Published: Oct 11, 2018

Words: 1713 | Pages: 4 | 9 min read

Table of contents

Industrialisation, social benefits and services, modernization and changes in the mode of living, rural-urban transformation, technological and infrastructural advancements, housing problems, development of slums, traffic congestion, provision of essential services.

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Urbanization.

Urbanization is the process through which cities grow, and higher and higher percentages of the population come to live in the city.

Anthropology, Sociology, Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies

Crowded Tokyo Street

With more than 40 million residents, Tokyo, Japan, is a megacity. Another effect of urbanization is urban sprawl.

Photograph by Pola Damonte via Getty Images

Human populations have tended to increase over time. As more people were born, small groups of individuals found reasons to come together to form groups and, with the advent of agriculture , small sedentary communities. A small number of these settlements grew into what we now call cities. This kind of growth often corresponds with a shift from one way of organizing labor to another.

The world population has grown significantly and our economies have become more industrialized over the past few hundred years. As a result, many more people have moved into cities. This process is known as urbanization . Even after cities emerged, however, a large majority of people lived and worked in rural areas. It was not until large-scale industrialization began in the eighteenth century that cities really began to boom. Nearly half of all people now live in urban areas. They are attracted by jobs in manufacturing and the professions, as well as by increased opportunities for education and entertainment.

Urbanization is often discussed in reference to countries that are currently in the process of industrializing and urbanizing, but all industrialized nations have experienced urbanization at some point in their history. Moreover, urbanization is on the rise all over the globe.

One effect of this huge increase in people living in urban areas is the rise of the megacity , which is a city that has more than 10 million inhabitants. There are now cities with even more than that. Tokyo, Japan, for example, has nearly 40 million residents. Another effect of urbanization is urban sprawl . Urban sprawl is when the population of a city becomes dispersed over an increasingly large geographical area. This movement from higher density urban cores to lower density suburbs means that as cities expand, they often begin to take up significant tracts of land formerly used for agriculture . Sprawl also increases the need for travel infrastructure, such as roads, because people’s homes are likely to be farther away from where they work and the amenities they enjoy.

As we move forward in the 21st century, the global population is likely to continue growing. Urban areas will continue to grow with the population. This continual growth presents complex challenges as we prepare for the cities of the future. How we choose to manage urbanization will have consequences for our world for many years to come.

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Urbanization

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Urbanization is the process by which rural communities grow to form cities , or urban centers, and, by extension, the growth and expansion of those cities. Urbanization began in ancient Mesopotamia in the Uruk Period (4300-3100 BCE) for reasons scholars have not yet agreed on. It is speculated, however, that a particularly prosperous and efficient village attracted the attention of other, less prosperous, tribes who then attached themselves to the successful settlement.

The historian Lewis Mumford notes that:

...though permanent villages date only from Neolithic times, the habit of resorting to caves for the collective performance of magical ceremonies seems to date back to an earlier period…The outline of the city as both an outward form and an inward pattern of life might be found in such assemblages (1).

This process, then, gave rise to the densely populated centers which came to be known as 'cities'. The historian Helen Chapin Metz proposes that the growth of the cities in Mesopotamia was the result of the inhabitants struggling to cope with the environment. She writes:

The civilized life that emerged at Sumer was shaped by two conflicting factors: the unpredictability of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which at any time could unleash devastating floods that wiped out entire peoples, and the extreme fecundity of the river valleys, caused by centuries-old deposits of soil. Thus, while the river valleys of southern Mesopotamia attracted migrations of neighboring peoples and made possible, for the first time in history, the growing of surplus food, the volatility of the rivers necessitated a form of collective management to protect the marshy, low-lying land from flooding. As surplus production increased and as collective management became more advanced, a process of urbanization evolved and Sumerian civilization took root (2).

The Rise of the City

The earliest city to rise in the region of Mesopotamia is considered by modern-day scholars to be Uruk, around 4500 BCE, and then that of Ur around 3800 BCE, both of which were then situated in proximity to the banks of the Euphrates River. To the Sumerians , however, the first city was Eridu which was founded in 5400 BCE but probably was not a `city' in the same way that Uruk or Ur would be defined (see definition of City). In the myth of Inanna and the God of Wisdom, the dictates of civilization, known as the meh , are taken from Eridu to Uruk and it is thought the subject of this poem represents the shift in paradigm from a more pastoral way of life (symbolized by Eridu) to one more urbanized (represented by Uruk). The structure of the city, and the security of urban living, seems to have attracted the populace of the region to urban centers although the theory has been suggested that the populace was forcibly removed from agricultural holdings and re-located in the cities whose rulers then appropriated the lands for the state. This theory, however, fails to account for the continuation of urbanization throughout the history of Mesopotamia or its replication in other nations.

By the year 2600 BCE Ur was a thriving metropolis and, by 2900 BCE, was a walled city with a population of approximately 65,000. Urbanization, however, continued as the city expanded out from the center and, in time, the once fertile fields which fed the populace were depleted. The over-use of the land, combined with a mysterious shift in the Euphrates which drew the waters away from the city, resulted in the complex finally being abandoned around 500 BCE. Eridu, for perhaps similar reasons, was abandoned in 600 BCE and Uruk in 650 BCE. Though many factors no doubt contributed to the decline of cities such as Ur ( Sargon of Akkad plundered the city in 2340 BCE, for example, and repeated military excursions against the city persisted through the ages with the Elamites finally sacking the city in 1750 BCE), it has been suggested that urbanization and, especially, the over-use of the surrounding lands for farming, was a central cause.

Urbanization & Overuse of Resources

At the center of Ur, as with all of the cities in ancient Mesopotamia, was the great temple which was the locale of ceremonial, commercial and social functions. Religious activities, such as festivals, were the main social gatherings of the time and these occasions were often used to distribute surplus food and supplies to the populace of the city. The priests of the temple, who were also the rulers of the city from about 3400 BCE, were responsible for this distribution and relied heavily on the farmers of the region to supply such surplus as they needed (a role which would eventually be taken over by the king, as royalty superseded the priestly class in power in the third millennium BCE with the emergence of the warrior-king known as the 'Lugal', meaning “Big Man”). This excess production of the countryside not only supplied the population of the city with food but also increased long-distance trade with other cities along the Euphrates such as Tikrit and Eridu. As urbanization continued, however, the need for more and yet more raw materials depleted the natural resources of the region and, eventually, led to a lack of necessary assets and the abandonment of the city.

Egypt 's Answer to Urbanization

Urbanization spread from Mesopotamia to Egypt and, from there, to Greece and it seems, early on, that the lesson of the city of Ur, and others, was heeded by later urban centers. In Egypt, especially, great care was taken with the land to prevent the less desirable consequences of urbanization from toppling the great cities of Pharaoh so that focus could remain steady on cultural aspects such as the development of writing , architecture , laws, administration, sanitation, trade, and craftsmanship (all thought to have originated in Mesopotamia at Uruk). Professor George Modelski, of the University of Washington, writes:

Some students of the ancient era have been known to argue that, unlike Mesopotamia, Egypt lacked anything that could be regarded as cities in modern terms. That great country did have temples, palaces, and cemeteries, often of monumental proportions, as early as the fourth and third millennia, but its capitals seem to have lacked remarkable size and have left little evidence either of intellectual life or of commercial activity. As John A. Wilson put it: `For nearly three thousand years, until the founding of Alexandria , Ancient Egypt was a civilization without a single major city'.

This claim, however, is countered by Professor M.E. Smith of Arizona State University who claims that:

Because archaeologists have failed to find large cities in Egypt prior to Akhenaten 's capital at Amarna in the New Kingdom period (1350 BCE) Egypt has sometimes been contrasted to Mesopotamia as a `civilization without cities'. This label masks a distinctive form of urbanism, however…Egypt did not lack cities; rather its urban systems were structured differently from the more familiar form of Mesopotamian cities ( The Sage Encyclopedia of Urban Studies , 26).

Egypt, it seems, understood both the benefits and the costs of urbanization and opted for “dispersed urbanization characterized by smaller, more specialized urban settlements” (26). This same paradigm holds true for the urban centers of the Maya , at least in their planning, but the seemingly universal progression of urbanization led to the depletion of natural resources and, as Smith notes,

Nearly all ancient urban societies engaged in deforestation, often with disastrous consequences for soils and the water table. In temperate latitudes forests were cut down for firewood and construction materials…In tropical forest settings, forests were cleared for agricultural production. Most ancient cities were ultimately destroyed or abandoned (27).

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The rise & fall of cities.

The artificial environment of the city, which subjugated the surrounding natural environment to the needs of the populace, consistently is seen to eventually deplete and destroy the very resources which gave rise to the city. As urbanization increased, rural lands decreased and, as Mumford writes,

...the blind forces of urbanization, flowing along the lines of least resistance, show no aptitude for creating an urban and industrial pattern that will be stable, self-sustaining, and self-renewing. On the contrary, as congestion thickens and expansion widens, both the urban and the rural landscape undergo defacement and degradation, while the unprofitable investments in the remedies…serve only to promote more of the blight and disorder they seek to palliate (14).

This cycle of rise and fall of cities is seen repeatedly in many cultures around the world. Why it happened so frequently in some regions, such as Mesopotamia, and not in others, such as Greece, is a question still debated by scholars and historians. Some assert it is simply a matter of over-population (as in the case of the Maya) while others point to an overuse of the land (as at Ur and other Mesopotamian cities). Neither answer is completely satisfactory and most likely it is a combination of many factors, a lack of forethought among them, which led to the destruction or abandonment of so many ancient cities.

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Bibliography

• Helen Chapin Metz: Iraq - A Country Study , accessed 1 Dec 2016.
• The Natural History of Urbanization by Lewis Mumford, Chicago, 1956 , accessed 1 Dec 2016.
• Leick,G. The A to Z of Mesopotamia. Scarecrow Press, 2010.

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Cite This Work

Mark, J. J. (2014, April 07). Urbanization . World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/urbanization/

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Mark, Joshua J.. " Urbanization ." World History Encyclopedia . Last modified April 07, 2014. https://www.worldhistory.org/urbanization/.

Mark, Joshua J.. " Urbanization ." World History Encyclopedia . World History Encyclopedia, 07 Apr 2014. Web. 27 Aug 2024.

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Urbanisation Essay

500+ words urbanisation essay.

Urbanisation is an integral part of development. It is an index of transformation from traditional rural economies to modern industrial ones. The process of urbanisation started with the industrial revolution and resulted in economic development. Urban areas are an integral part of India’s development and growth. It accounts for two-thirds of India’s GDP. India’s urban population has increased rapidly over the past decade and this rapid urbanisation is set to continue in the future. This urbanisation essay discusses the opportunities that urban areas have and the major challenges faced by them. So, students must go through this essay to gather the information and then try to write the essay in their own words. They can also get the list of CBSE Essays on different topics to practise essays on various topics.

Meaning of Urbanisation

When people move from village or rural areas to towns/cities or urban areas for better job opportunities where they can get involved in non-agricultural occupations such as manufacturing industry, trade, management etc. is known as urbanisation. People mainly migrate to cities in search of jobs, new opportunities and to have a better lifestyle.

Urbanisation in India – History and Present Situation

Urbanisation in India is said to have begun somewhere around 600 B.C. culminating in the formation of early historical cities. During ancient and medieval periods of Indian history, the kings established various capital regions, which developed into towns. For example, Pataliputra (now Patna) and Vaishali developed as towns during the Magadh rule. Kanauj was the capital town of Harshavardhana in Uttar Pradesh. The establishment of the East India Company and the onset of British colonial control of India from the seventeenth century led to the growth of the urban centres of Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. These cities (except Delhi) developed along the seacoast in the respective regions where the British had established administrative systems in various provinces.

In the present scenario, the urban population is growing rapidly. Because of this, opportunities are also increasing. Urbanisation in India is mainly due to the expansion of cities and the migration of people. Investments are made in housing, urban transport, road network, water supply, smart cities, power-related infrastructure and other forms of urban management.

Consequences of Rapid Urbanisation

Rapid urbanisation often leads to both healthy and unhealthy consequences and aspects.

Positive Aspect of Urbanisation

Urbanisation resulted in the development and setting up of many industries in the cities. Manufacturing units and the service sector started to grow in the urban areas. This has created employment opportunities for the people. This has resulted in rural-urban migration and caused the “industrialisation urbanisation process” to set in. The growth of cities has given rise to external economies. Urbanisation results in changes in the attitudes and mindset of the urban people resulting in modernisation in behaviour. This indirectly helped the country to attain faster economic development.

Negative Aspect of Urbanisation

Growing urbanisation has increased the congestion in urban areas, which has resulted in problems like traffic jams and too much concentration of population. Too much population is another unhealthy aspect of urbanisation. It has created urban chaos related to housing, education, sanitation, pollution, medical facilities, growth of slums, unemployment, violence, inadequate water supply, overcrowding etc. All these resulted in deteriorating the quality of human life.

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Urban Life vs. Rural Life

Living in cities or the countryside gives different experiences. These are changed by things like how people live, buildings and community activities. Life in the city is famous for its quick-moving lifestyle, modern setup and different ways people live together. Living in the countryside is marked by a slow speed, basic design and tight-knit groups of people who are often similar. In social life, too, cities do better when they have a lot of different people and things happening all the time.

On the other hand, rural areas are good at having close friends in smaller groups. People living in cities have many services, while those in the country might need help getting some facilities. They sometimes need to travel for specific needs. The piece will look closer at these differences. It will show extraordinary things about living in a city and countryside life better.

In cities, people with different backgrounds live close to each other and share thoughts. This creates a busy environment with many social talks (Woolrych et al. 2021). The busy city life gives us energy for our everyday tasks. On the contrary, life in the rural areas is known for tight-knit groups. Here, people often have strong ties and share common beliefs. The strong connections in small towns make their society closer and more connected.

Urban and rural areas have very different levels of access to facilities. Cities, being full of life and energy, offer many services. Some are high-quality healthcare, while others include many fun activities. This city environment meets the different needs and likes of a mixed group of people. On the other hand, some services might be available in rural areas. People there must make trips for essential things like doctor visits or cultural events (Dey et al., 2020). This shows a balance between living in the city, where items are easy to get, and the peacefulness of country life, where some help might need extra work or going places.

Looking at how fast everyday life goes is also very important. Usually, people in cities have fast-paced schedules because of job opportunities and many events. The city’s constant excitement, work choices and possibilities make an exciting life that needs change and quick thinking (Kayanan, 2022). On the other hand, life in rural areas is slower and focuses on nature and simplicity. Living away from the city is suitable for a peaceful family life, where your community plays an important daily role.

Picking between living in a city or the countryside depends on what someone likes and thinks is important. Towns are full of choices and helpers for people who want busy places with all sorts of folks. On the other hand, living in the country provides a calm place with solid ties to neighbours. This attracts people who like quiet lives and want to be more linked up with nature. The choice shows what one believes in, balancing the fun and ease of living in cities against a peaceful life with close friends found outside.

Whether I used the point-by-point or block method

I decided to use the block plan for my essay. I carefully divided topics of social life, facilities and everyday speed in urban and rural areas. I could deeply look at each part separately for both places. Separating these critical parts with the block method made it simpler to see how city and country life are different in a transparent way. This made my reasons more understandable and helped make my essay easier for readers to read. This allowed the people to get familiar with extraordinary things about each place and compare them all together.

Ways in which writing a comparison/contrast essay differs from the Narrative essay in Touchstone 1

To make a comparison/contrast essay, one needs to sort details differently than when writing a story. I focused on telling a tale in time order in the story-writing piece. This included events from my viewpoint. Meanwhile, the comparison/contrast essay needed a more careful way. This involved carefully studying what is similar and different. Switching from telling a story to giving an unbiased review made the two essays very different.

Part of the draft that I struggled with

While writing, I faced some trouble smoothly connecting ideas between paragraphs. Making sure the thoughts flowed well and stayed clear when going from city to countryside themes was a bit tricky. I had to carefully create each transition to ensure readers could easily follow the switch without confusion. Also, finding the right amount of detail for each point without making it too much for the reader was an ongoing challenge. It took a few revisions for clarity and brevity to get it right.

Dey, B., Mathew, J., & Chee-Hua, C. (2020). Influence of destination attractiveness factors and travel motivations on rural homestay choice: the moderating role of need for uniqueness. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14(4), 639-666. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJCTHR-08-2019-0138/full/html

Kayanan, C. M. (2022). A critique of innovation districts: Entrepreneurial living and the burden of shouldering urban development. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 54(1), 50-66. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0308518X211049445

Woolrych, R., Sixsmith, J., Fisher, J., Makita, M., Lawthom, R., & Murray, M. (2021). Constructing and negotiating social participation in old age: experiences of older adults living in urban environments in the United Kingdom. Ageing & Society, 41(6), 1398-1420. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ageing-and-society/article/constructing-and-negotiating-social-participation-in-old-age-experiences-of-older-adults-living-in-urban-environments-in-the-united-kingdom/DFF7BE01F8E4D6766B6E252FA6B9F8FF

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urban planning

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urban planning , design and regulation of the uses of space that focus on the physical form, economic functions, and social impacts of the urban environment and on the location of different activities within it. Because urban planning draws upon engineering , architectural , and social and political concerns, it is variously a technical profession, an endeavour involving political will and public participation, and an academic discipline . Urban planning concerns itself with both the development of open land (“greenfields sites”) and the revitalization of existing parts of the city , thereby involving goal setting, data collection and analysis, forecasting, design, strategic thinking, and public consultation. Increasingly, the technology of geographic information systems ( GIS ) has been used to map the existing urban system and to project the consequences of changes. In the late 20th century the term sustainable development came to represent an ideal outcome in the sum of all planning goals. As advocated by the United Nations-sponsored World Commission on Environment and Development in Our Common Future (1987), sustainability refers to “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” While there is widespread consensus on this general goal, most major planning decisions involve trade-offs between subsidiary objectives and thus frequently involve conflict.

The modern origins of urban planning lie in a social movement for urban reform that arose in the latter part of the 19th century as a reaction against the disorder of the industrial city. Many visionaries of the period sought an ideal city, yet practical considerations of adequate sanitation, movement of goods and people, and provision of amenities also drove the desire for planning. Contemporary planners seek to balance the conflicting demands of social equity , economic growth , environmental sensitivity, and aesthetic appeal. The result of the planning process may be a formal master plan for an entire city or metropolitan area , a neighbourhood plan, a project plan, or a set of policy alternatives . Successful implementation of a plan usually requires entrepreneurship and political astuteness on the part of planners and their sponsors, despite efforts to insulate planning from politics. While based in government, planning increasingly involves private-sector participation in “public-private partnerships.”

Urban planning emerged as a scholarly discipline in the 1900s. In Great Britain the first academic planning program began at the University of Liverpool in 1909, and the first North American program was established at Harvard University in 1924. It is primarily taught at the postgraduate level, and its curriculum varies widely from one university to another. Some programs maintain the traditional emphasis on physical design and land use; others, especially those that grant doctoral degrees, are oriented toward the social sciences. The discipline’s theoretical core, being somewhat amorphous , is better defined by the issues it addresses than by any dominant paradigm or prescriptive approach. Representative issues especially concern the recognition of a public interest and how it should be determined, the physical and social character of the ideal city, the possibility of achieving change in accordance with consciously determined goals, the extent to which consensus on goals is attainable through communication , the role of citizens versus public officials and private investors in shaping the city, and, on a methodological level, the appropriateness of quantitative analysis and the “rational model” of decision making (discussed below). Most degree programs in urban planning consist principally of applied courses on topics ranging from environmental policy to transportation planning to housing and community economic development.

The development of urban planning

Evidence of planning has been unearthed in the ruins of cities in China , India , Egypt , Asia Minor , the Mediterranean world, and South and Central America . Early examples of efforts toward planned urban development include orderly street systems that are rectilinear and sometimes radial; division of a city into specialized functional quarters; development of commanding central sites for palaces, temples, and civic buildings; and advanced systems of fortification, water supply , and drainage. Most of the evidence is in smaller cities that were built in comparatively short periods as colonies. Often the central cities of ancient states grew to substantial size before they achieved governments capable of imposing controls.

For several centuries during the Middle Ages , there was little building of cities in Europe. Eventually towns grew up as centres of church or feudal authority, of marketing or trade. As the urban population grew, the constriction caused by walls and fortifications led to overcrowding, the blocking out of air and light, and very poor sanitation. Certain quarters of the cities, either by custom or fiat, were restricted to different nationalities, classes, or trades, as still occurs in many contemporary cities of the developing world.

The physical form of medieval and Renaissance towns and cities followed the pattern of the village, spreading along a street or a crossroads in circular patterns or in irregular shapes, though rectangular patterns tended to characterize some of the newer towns. Most streets were little more than footpaths—more a medium for communication than for transportation—and even in major European cities paving was not widely introduced before the 12th century (1184 in Paris , 1235 in Florence, and 1300 in Lübeck). As the population of the city grew, walls were often expanded, but few cities at the time exceeded a mile in length. Sometimes sites were changed, as in Lübeck, and many new cities emerged with increasing population—frequently about one day’s walk apart. Towns ranged in population from several hundred to perhaps 40,000 (as in London in the late 14th century, although London’s population had been as high as 80,000 before the arrival of the Black Death ). Paris and Venice were exceptions, reaching 100,000.

Conscious attempts to plan cities reemerged in Europe during the Renaissance . Although these efforts partly aimed at improving circulation and providing military defense, their prime objective was often the glorification of a ruler or a state. From the 16th century to the end of the 18th, many cities were laid out and built with monumental splendour. The result may have pleased and inspired the citizens, but it rarely contributed to their health, to the comfort of their homes, or to efficiency in manufacturing, distribution, and marketing.

The New World absorbed the planning concepts of European absolutism to only a limited degree. Pierre L’Enfant ’s grandiose plan for Washington, D.C. (1791), exemplified this transference, as did later City Beautiful projects, which aimed for grandeur in the siting of public buildings but exhibited less concern for the efficiency of residential, commercial, and industrial development. More influential on the layout of U.S. cities, however, was the rigid grid plan of Philadelphia, designed by William Penn (1682). This plan traveled west with the pioneers, since it was the simplest method of dividing surveyed territory. Although it took no cognizance of topography , it facilitated the development of land markets by establishing standard-sized lots that could be easily bought and sold—even sight unseen.

In much of the world, city plans were based on the concept of a centrally located public space. The plans differed, however, in their prescriptions for residential development. In the United States the New England town grew around a central commons ; initially a pasture, it provided a focus of community life and a site for a meetinghouse, tavern, smithy, and shops and was later reproduced in the central squares of cities and towns throughout the country. Also from the New England town came the tradition of the freestanding single-family house that became the norm for most metropolitan areas . The central plaza, place, or square provided a focal point for European city plans as well. In contrast to American residential development, though, European domestic architecture was dominated by the attached house, while elsewhere in the world the marketplace or bazaar rather than an open space acted as the cynosure of cities. Courtyard-style domiciles characterized the Mediterranean region, while compounds of small houses fenced off from the street formed many African and Asian settlements. ( See atrium .)

• A-Z Publications

Annual Review of Environment and Resources

Volume 42, 2017, review article, linking urbanization and the environment: conceptual and empirical advances.

• Xuemei Bai 1 , Timon McPhearson 2,3 , Helen Cleugh 4 , Harini Nagendra 5 , Xin Tong 6 , Tong Zhu 7 , and Yong-Guan Zhu 8,9
• View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: 1 Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia; email: [email protected] 2 Urban Systems Lab, The New School, New York, NY 10003, USA 3 Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, New York 12545, USA 4 Climate Science Centre, CSIRO, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia 5 School of Development, Azim Premji University, Bangalore 560100, India 6 Department of Urban and Economic Geography, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China 7 BIC-ESAT and SKL-ESPC, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China 8 Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China 9 Research Center for Eco-environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
• Vol. 42:215-240 (Volume publication date October 2017) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-061128
• First published as a Review in Advance on August 14, 2017
• © Annual Reviews

Urbanization is one of the biggest social transformations of modern time, driving and driven by multiple social, economic, and environmental processes. The impacts of urbanization on the environment are profound, multifaceted and are manifested at the local, regional, and global scale. This article reviews recent advances in conceptual and empirical knowledge linking urbanization and the environment, focusing on six core aspects: air pollution, ecosystems, land use, biogeochemical cycles and water pollution, solid waste management, and the climate. We identify several emerging trends and remaining questions in urban environmental research, including ( a ) increasing evidence on the amplified or accelerated environmental impacts of urbanization; ( b ) varying distribution patterns of impacts along geographical and other socio-economic gradients; ( c ) shifting focus from understanding and quantifying the impacts of urbanization toward understanding the processes and underlying mechanisms; ( d ) increasing focus on understanding complex interactions and interlinkages among different environmental, social, economic, and cultural processes; and ( e ) conceptual advances that call for articulating and using a systems approach in cities. In terms of governing the urban environment, there is an increasing focus on public participation and coproduction of knowledge with stakeholders. Cities are actively experimenting toward sustainability under a plethora of guiding concepts that manifests their aspirational goals, with varying levels of implementation and effectiveness.

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What makes a good city? Urban design, explained

First in a series of illustrated essays: Part 1: An introduction to urban design

“Why do the apartment buildings all look the same?”

“Why does South End look so boring?”

“Why is it so dense?”

“What about traffic?”

Questions like these have become common in Charlotte over the past several years. Charlotte neighborhoods such as Plaza Midwood, South End, Elizabeth and uptown have seen substantial redevelopment, and the quality of those projects has varied from very good to abysmal. Elected officials are tasked with approving or denying these projects, and to many observers, some decisions by the council and the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Planning Commission seem hard to understand.

I have sympathy for those appointed and elected officials. They are bombarded with conflicting opinions, hyped-up images from developers, real-estate jargon, and innumerable empty platitudes about “community, ” all while facing real community opposition to almost everything, and whether a good or a bad project makes little difference.

Amid this confusion, bias and hypocrisy, our appointed and elected officials are expected to distinguish objectively between good projects and bad ones. They should resist community opposition when it’s misplaced and withstand developers’ pressure to bend (or break) city policies so those developers can make more money. Elected officials are also supposed to ignore the large amounts of money developers contribute to their “war chests” for their campaigns. Within this maelstrom of conflict, our elected officials hold the ultimate power to grant or withhold legal rights on property. Their decisions alter the city’s landscape for decades – for better or worse.

A cloak of smog gives Fresno, California, a hazy look. Smog, a hybrid of the words "smoke" and "fog," is caused when sunlight reacts with airborne pollution, including ash, dust, and ground-level ozone.

Urban Threats

Urbanization spurs a unique set of issues to both humans and animals.

The promise of jobs and prosperity, among other factors, pulls people to cities. Half of the global population already lives in cities, and by 2050 two-thirds of the world's people are expected to live in urban areas. But in cities two of the most pressing problems facing the world today also come together: poverty and environmental degradation.

Poor air and water quality, insufficient water availability, waste-disposal problems, and high energy consumption are exacerbated by the increasing population density and demands of urban environments. Strong city planning will be essential in managing these and other difficulties as the world's urban areas swell.

• Intensive urban growth can lead to greater poverty, with local governments unable to provide services for all people.
• Concentrated energy use leads to greater air pollution with significant impact on human health.
• Automobile exhaust produces elevated lead levels in urban air.
• Large volumes of uncollected waste create multiple health hazards.
• Urban development can magnify the risk of environmental hazards such as flash flooding .
• Pollution and physical barriers to root growth promote loss of urban tree cover.
• Animal populations are inhibited by toxic substances, vehicles, and the loss of habitat and food sources.
• Combat poverty by promoting economic development and job creation.
• Involve local community in local government.
• Reduce air pollution by upgrading energy use and alternative transport systems.
• Create private-public partnerships to provide services such as waste disposal and housing.
• Plant trees and incorporate the care of city green spaces as a key element in urban planning.

Related Topics

• ENVIRONMENT AND CONSERVATION
• AIR POLLUTION
• URBAN PLANNING
• WASTE MANAGEMENT

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