1 Yay! Welcome!
2 A journal club is when a group of scientists get together to discuss a paper. Usually one person leads the discussion and presents all of the data. The group discusses their own interpretations and the authors’ interpretation.
In written communication, the reader and the writer are equally important. Both influence the final outcome: in this case, your scientific understanding! After identifying your goal, think about the author’s goal for sharing this project. This will help you interpret the data and understand the author’s interpretation of the data. However, this requires some understanding of who the author(s) are (e.g., what are their scientific interests?), the scientific field in which they work (e.g., what techniques are available in this field?), and how this paper fits into the author’s research (e.g., is this work building on an author’s longstanding project or controversial idea?). This information may be hard to glean without experience and a history of reading. But don’t let this be a discouragement to starting the process; it is by the act of reading that this experience is gained!
A good step toward understanding the goal of the author(s) is to ask yourself: What kind of article is this? Journals publish different types of articles, including methods, review, commentary, resources, and research articles as well as other types that are specific to a particular journal or groups of journals. These article types have different formatting requirements and expectations for content. Knowing the article type will help guide your evaluation of the information presented. Is the article a methods paper, presenting a new technique? Is the article a review article, intended to summarize a field or problem? Is it a commentary, intended to take a stand on a controversy or give a big picture perspective on a problem? Is it a resource article, presenting a new tool or data set for others to use? Is it a research article, written to present new data and the authors’ interpretation of those data? The type of paper, and its intended purpose, will get you on your way to understanding the author’s goal.
When reading, ask yourself: (1) What do the author(s) want to know (motivation)? (2) What did they do (approach/methods)? (3) Why was it done that way (context within the field)? (4) What do the results show (figures and data tables)? (5) How did the author(s) interpret the results (interpretation/discussion)? (6) What should be done next? (Regarding this last question, the author(s) may provide some suggestions in the discussion, but the key is to ask yourself what you think should come next.)
Each of these questions can and should be asked about the complete work as well as each table, figure, or experiment within the paper. Early on, it can take a long time to read one article front to back, and this can be intimidating. Break down your understanding of each section of the work with these questions to make the effort more manageable.
Scientists write original research papers primarily to present new data that may change or reinforce the collective knowledge of a field. Therefore, the most important parts of this type of scientific paper are the data. Some people like to scrutinize the figures and tables (including legends) before reading any of the “main text”: because all of the important information should be obtained through the data. Others prefer to read through the results section while sequentially examining the figures and tables as they are addressed in the text. There is no correct or incorrect approach: Try both to see what works best for you. The key is making sure that one understands the presented data and how it was obtained.
For each figure, work to understand each x- and y-axes, color scheme, statistical approach (if one was used), and why the particular plotting approach was used. For each table, identify what experimental groups and variables are presented. Identify what is shown and how the data were collected. This is typically summarized in the legend or caption but often requires digging deeper into the methods: Do not be afraid to refer back to the methods section frequently to ensure a full understanding of how the presented data were obtained. Again, ask the questions in Rule 3 for each figure or panel and conclude with articulating the “take home” message.
Just like the overall intent of the article (discussed in Rule 2), the intent of each section within a research article can guide your interpretation. Some sections are intended to be written as objective descriptions of the data (i.e., the Results section), whereas other sections are intended to present the author’s interpretation of the data. Remember though that even “objective” sections are written by and, therefore, influenced by the authors interpretations. Check out Table 2 to understand the intent of each section of a research article. When reading a specific paper, you can also refer to the journal’s website to understand the formatting intentions. The “For Authors” section of a website will have some nitty gritty information that is less relevant for the reader (like word counts) but will also summarize what the journal editors expect in each section. This will help to familiarize you with the goal of each article section.
Section | Content |
---|---|
Title | The “take home” message of the entire project, according to the authors. |
Author list | These people made significant scientific contributions to the project. Fields differ in the standard practice for ordering authors. For example, as a general rule for biomedical sciences, the first author led the project’s implementation, and the last author was the primary supervisor to the project. |
Abstract | A brief overview of the research question, approach, results, and interpretation. This is the road map or elevator pitch for an article. |
Introduction | Several paragraphs (or less) to present the research question and why it is important. A newcomer to the field should get a crash course in the field from this section. |
Methods | What was done? How was it done? Ideally, one should be able to recreate a project by reading the methods. In reality, the methods are often overly condensed. Sometimes greater detail is provided within a “Supplemental” section available online (see below). |
Results | What was found? Paragraphs often begin with a statement like this: “To do X, we used approach Y to measure Z.” The results should be objective observations. |
Figures, tables, legends, and captions | The data are presented in figures and tables. Legends and captions provide necessary information like abbreviations, summaries of methods, and clarifications. |
Discussion | What do the results mean and how do they relate to previous findings in the literature? This is the perspective of the author(s) on the results and their ideas on what might be appropriate next steps. Often it may describe some (often not all!) strengths and limitations of the study: Pay attention to this self-reflection of the author(s) and consider whether you agree or would add to their ideas. |
Conclusion | A brief summary of the implications of the results. |
References | A list of previously published papers, datasets, or databases that were essential for the implementation of this project or interpretation of data. This section may be a valuable resource listing important papers within the field that are worth reading as well. |
Supplemental material | Any additional methods, results, or information necessary to support the results or interpretations presented in the discussion. |
Supplemental data | Essential datasets that are too large or cumbersome to include in the paper. Especially for papers that include “big data” (like sequencing or modeling results), this is often where the real, raw data is presented. |
Research articles typically contain each of these sections, although sometimes the “results” and “discussion” sections (or “discussion” and “conclusion” sections) are merged into one section. Additional sections may be included, based on request of the journal or the author(s). Keep in mind: If it was included, someone thought it was important for you to read.
Published papers are not truths etched in stone. Published papers in high impact journals are not truths etched in stone. Published papers by bigwigs in the field are not truths etched in stone. Published papers that seem to agree with your own hypothesis or data are not etched in stone. Published papers that seem to refute your hypothesis or data are not etched in stone.
Science is a never-ending work in progress, and it is essential that the reader pushes back against the author’s interpretation to test the strength of their conclusions. Everyone has their own perspective and may interpret the same data in different ways. Mistakes are sometimes published, but more often these apparent errors are due to other factors such as limitations of a methodology and other limits to generalizability (selection bias, unaddressed, or unappreciated confounders). When reading a paper, it is important to consider if these factors are pertinent.
Critical thinking is a tough skill to learn but ultimately boils down to evaluating data while minimizing biases. Ask yourself: Are there other, equally likely, explanations for what is observed? In addition to paying close attention to potential biases of the study or author(s), a reader should also be alert to one’s own preceding perspective (and biases). Take time to ask oneself: Do I find this paper compelling because it affirms something I already think (or wish) is true? Or am I discounting their findings because it differs from what I expect or from my own work?
The phenomenon of a self-fulfilling prophecy, or expectancy, is well studied in the psychology literature [ 2 ] and is why many studies are conducted in a “blinded” manner [ 3 ]. It refers to the idea that a person may assume something to be true and their resultant behavior aligns to make it true. In other words, as humans and scientists, we often find exactly what we are looking for. A scientist may only test their hypotheses and fail to evaluate alternative hypotheses; perhaps, a scientist may not be aware of alternative, less biased ways to test her or his hypothesis that are typically used in different fields. Individuals with different life, academic, and work experiences may think of several alternative hypotheses, all equally supported by the data.
The author(s) are human too. So, whenever possible, give them the benefit of the doubt. An author may write a phrase differently than you would, forcing you to reread the sentence to understand it. Someone in your field may neglect to cite your paper because of a reference count limit. A figure panel may be misreferenced as Supplemental Fig 3E when it is obviously Supplemental Fig 4E. While these things may be frustrating, none are an indication that the quality of work is poor. Try to avoid letting these minor things influence your evaluation and interpretation of the work.
Similarly, if you intend to share your critique with others, be extra kind. An author (especially the lead author) may invest years of their time into a single paper. Hearing a kindly phrased critique can be difficult but constructive. Hearing a rude, brusque, or mean-spirited critique can be heartbreaking, especially for young scientists or those seeking to establish their place within a field and who may worry that they do not belong.
To truly understand a scientific work, you often will need to look up a term, dig into the supplemental materials, or read one or more of the cited references. This process takes time. Some advisors recommend reading an article three times: The first time, simply read without the pressure of understanding or critiquing the work. For the second time, aim to understand the paper. For the third read through, take notes.
Some people engage with a paper by printing it out and writing all over it. The reader might write question marks in the margins to mark parts (s)he wants to return to, circle unfamiliar terms (and then actually look them up!), highlight or underline important statements, and draw arrows linking figures and the corresponding interpretation in the discussion. Not everyone needs a paper copy to engage in the reading process but, whatever your version of “printing it out” is, do it.
Talking about an article in a journal club or more informal environment forces active reading and participation with the material. Studies show that teaching is one of the best ways to learn and that teachers learn the material even better as the teaching task becomes more complex [ 4 – 5 ]; anecdotally, such observations inspired the phrase “to teach is to learn twice.”
Beyond formal settings such as journal clubs, lab meetings, and academic classes, discuss papers with your peers, mentors, and colleagues in person or electronically. Twitter and other social media platforms have become excellent resources for discussing papers with other scientists, the public or your nonscientist friends, or even the paper’s author(s). Describing a paper can be done at multiple levels and your description can contain all of the scientific details, only the big picture summary, or perhaps the implications for the average person in your community. All of these descriptions will solidify your understanding, while highlighting gaps in your knowledge and informing those around you.
One approach we like to use for communicating how we build on the scientific literature is by starting research presentations with an image depicting a wall of Lego bricks. Each brick is labeled with the reference for a paper, and the wall highlights the body of literature on which the work is built. We describe the work and conclusions of each paper represented by a labeled brick and discuss each brick and the wall as a whole. The top brick on the wall is left blank: We aspire to build on this work and label this brick with our own work. We then delve into our own research, discoveries, and the conclusions it inspires. We finish our presentations with the image of the Legos and summarize our presentation on that empty brick.
Whether you are reading an article to understand a new topic area or to move a research project forward, effective learning requires that you integrate knowledge from multiple sources (“click” those Lego bricks together) and build upwards. Leveraging published work will enable you to build a stronger and taller structure. The first row of bricks is more stable once a second row is assembled on top of it and so on and so forth. Moreover, the Lego construction will become taller and larger if you build upon the work of others, rather than using only your own bricks.
Build on the article you read by thinking about how it connects to ideas described in other papers and within own work, implementing a technique in your own research, or attempting to challenge or support the hypothesis of the author(s) with a more extensive literature review. Integrate the techniques and scientific conclusions learned from an article into your own research or perspective in the classroom or research lab. You may find that this process strengthens your understanding, leads you toward new and unexpected interests or research questions, or returns you back to the original article with new questions and critiques of the work. All of these experiences are part of the “active reading”: process and are signs of a successful reading experience.
In summary, practice these rules to learn how to read a scientific article, keeping in mind that this process will get easier (and faster) with experience. We are firm believers that an hour in the library will save a week at the bench; this diligent practice will ultimately make you both a more knowledgeable and productive scientist. As you develop the skills to read an article, try to also foster good reading and learning habits for yourself (recommendations here: [ 6 ] and [ 7 ], respectively) and in others. Good luck and happy reading!
Thank you to the mentors, teachers, and students who have shaped our thoughts on reading, learning, and what science is all about.
MAC was supported by the PhRMA Foundation's Postdoctoral Fellowship in Translational Medicine and Therapeutics and the University of Virginia's Engineering-in-Medicine seed grant, and KLS was supported by the NIH T32 Global Biothreats Training Program at the University of Virginia (AI055432). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
research paper length
You may be wondering how long your research paper should be? Well, you are not alone. Many students are always asking about the optimal term paper length. This challenge can be further heightened when your instructor has not provided you with the page limit or word count.
Research papers are quite complex because they are academic writings based on your original research on a specific topic. This is why getting our paper writing help can be useful to get that A.
No matter the method you choose, your paper should contain your analysis and interpretation of the findings to be complete.
When considering all those factors, students often wonder how long their research papers should be. Let’s explore this in detail.
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Ideally, the most optimal length of a research paper is around 5 pages for short papers and 10 pages for long ones. However, the exact length of your term paper is best determined by your instructor and his instructions.
The same is determined by a number of factors, including the extent and depth of your subject.
The question of how long a research paper should be can be difficult to respond to because it depends on several factors. The most important factors that determine the length of your term paper include;
All those factors held constant; it is possible to estimate the length of a less complex research paper if it is demarcated into sections that include the outline, introduction, individual paragraphs, conclusion, and reference page.
Those are the basic components of a typical research paper . Let’s have a look at how long each section should be.
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An outline is an important part of your research paper. It provides the structure of your paper. It organizes the contents of your term paper into sections.
However, the outline does not contain details about your paper. It only highlights the topics to be covered and the issues to be tackled within those topics.
A format of an outline should include the following;
There are brief full-sentence descriptions under the five sections that act as guidelines for your research paper. Therefore, the outline should not exceed 2 pages for short research papers and between 4 to 5 pages for longer papers with 15 to 20 pages.
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As we have noted, the length of your term paper depends on the topic and its contents. This applies to the introduction. For a typical 5-page research paper, your introduction should not exceed half a page.
However, if you are writing a long essay of 15 pages or more, the introduction may span to a page or several paragraphs. Since most of the research papers given to undergraduate college students are not lengthy, the introduction should not exceed a page.
Even though no definitive rules determine the length of individual paragraphs in a paper, the most recommended length is between 90 words and 130 words. Any paragraph below 90 words is deemed too short to sustain an argument, while one with over 130 words is deemed over-argued.
At the same, it is important to note that the length of the paper determines its length. When the paper is short, then the paragraphs should be short.
If the research paper is long, then the paragraphs should be longer. However, a paragraph should contain more than four sentences. For some topics like childhood obesity , the paragraphs may take longer to incorporate data and statistics in your paper.
Since individual paragraphs should focus on one idea, the length of the paragraph should be determined by the supporting text.
If your idea requires a lot of support in the form of illustrations, examples, statistics, paraphrases, quotes, definitions, causes, and effects, then the paragraph will be longer.
In case the idea presented by the individual paragraph is straightforward and does not require a lot of supporting evidence, then it will be shorter.
The paragraphs add content to the outline. The outline provides topics, subtopics, and guidelines, while the paragraphs add content and further explanations.
A conclusion is a very important part of your research paper. This is because you, as the author of your paper, are wrapping up everything you have discussed in your paper.
Basically, the length of the conclusion is determined by your paper’s length.
The longer the paper, the longer the conclusion, and the shorter it is, the shorter the conclusion. A conclusion should not be below 3 sentences. It will take a few hours to write all these components of your paper.
Even though this is the case, an effective conclusion should have the following characteristics.
From this, it is evident that the conclusion is very important in your research paper. You may not include all of the above, but it is important to restate your paper’s topic, thesis, and main points. Check our research paper writing guide to learn more about how to write these parts.
The reference page length completely depends on the number of sources you have used in your paper. Your paper may be lengthy with few sources, while others can be shorter with more.
A good term paper should have a reference page listing all your information sources. Provided that you list the sources in the right referencing format, like APA and MLA , the length of the reference page is not definitive.
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How long should a term paper be for high school.
Most teachers in high schools require their students to submit 3 to 5-page research papers. Those are the normal research papers assigned within the semester. However, final research papers like the English 102 papers are between 5 and 7 pages.
Even though the topic of the graduate paper determines its length, such papers are considerably longer. This is because they tackle complex topics requiring in-depth explanations, citations, examples, etc. They can be between 7 and 15 pages. They can also exceed the count.
The research papers written by students in middle school are considerably shorter than those given to college or graduate school students. The normal papers written within the semester are between 1 and 2 pages, while the final papers are between 2 and 4.
The length of a literature review depends on the purpose and the audience of the term paper. In most of the research papers in college, the literature review should not exceed two pages. For longer papers of more than 10 pages, it can be between 2 and 3 pages.
To write a research paper fast, begin by selecting a topic. This is followed by researching the topic and working on a thesis. Write the structure of your paper by creating an outline.
Follow the outline and write the paper by beginning with an introduction and ending with a conclusion. Finally, proofread your paper to correct errors. Read our checklist on how to revise your paper to a final copy.
You must select a specific style when formatting a research or term paper. The most common formats for research papers are MLA, APA, Chicago, and Harvard.
Each format dictates the style of the paper, the spacing, the in-text citation style, and the reference page style. You can get all these done if you get someone to write your homework at a very reasonable cost.
Most academic journal articles span 20 to 25 pages when they have a one-and-half line spacing. If the academic journals are double-spaced, they can be between 25 and 30 pages. The journal’s word count ranges from 4000 to 7000 words.
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Published on August 7, 2022 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on August 15, 2023.
A research paper outline is a useful tool to aid in the writing process , providing a structure to follow with all information to be included in the paper clearly organized.
A quality outline can make writing your research paper more efficient by helping to:
A research paper outline can also give your teacher an early idea of the final product.
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Research paper outline example, how to write a research paper outline, formatting your research paper outline, language in research paper outlines.
The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:
Follow these steps to start your research paper outline:
There are three different kinds of research paper outline: alphanumeric, full-sentence and decimal outlines. The differences relate to formatting and style of writing.
An alphanumeric outline is most commonly used. It uses Roman numerals, capitalized letters, arabic numerals, lowercase letters to organize the flow of information. Text is written with short notes rather than full sentences.
Essentially the same as the alphanumeric outline, but with the text written in full sentences rather than short points.
A decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline, but with a different numbering system: 1, 1.1, 1.2, etc. Text is written as short notes rather than full sentences.
To write an effective research paper outline, it is important to pay attention to language. This is especially important if it is one you will show to your teacher or be assessed on.
There are four main considerations: parallelism, coordination, subordination and division.
Parallel structure or parallelism is the repetition of a particular grammatical form within a sentence, or in this case, between points and sub-points. This simply means that if the first point is a verb , the sub-point should also be a verb.
Your chosen subheadings should hold the same significance as each other, as should all first sub-points, secondary sub-points, and so on.
Subordination refers to the separation of general points from specific. Your main headings should be quite general, and each level of sub-point should become more specific.
Division: break information into sub-points.
Your headings should be divided into two or more subsections. There is no limit to how many subsections you can include under each heading, but keep in mind that the information will be structured into a paragraph during the writing stage, so you should not go overboard with the number of sub-points.
Ready to start writing or looking for guidance on a different step in the process? Read our step-by-step guide on how to write a research paper .
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
Gahan, C. (2023, August 15). How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example. Scribbr. Retrieved August 1, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/outline/
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What determines the length of a literature review, structure and organization, lengths in different kinds of literature reviews.
A literature review is an essential part of many academic papers and research projects. It provides a comprehensive overview of existing research on a particular topic, allowing the researcher to identify gaps, build on previous work, and position their study within the broader academic context. The length of a literature review can vary significantly depending on the context, purpose, and research scope . In this article, we will explore the factors that influence the length of a literature review and provide guidelines to help you determine the appropriate length for your work.
The length of a literature review is influenced by multiple factors, including the type of review, the research aims, the scope of the topic, and institutional guidelines. Writing a literature review involves synthesizing existing research and providing a critical analysis, which varies depending on the depth and breadth of the subject. Additionally, a literature review involves evaluating and summarizing scholarly sources to support the research objectives. Understanding these factors is crucial for researchers to effectively plan and structure their reviews, ensuring they meet academic standards and adequately cover the relevant literature.
In most literature reviews, the length largely depends on the context and purpose of your research. Here are some common scenarios to consider:
Undergraduate research papers : Typically concise, these reviews range from 1,000 to 3,000 words (4-12 pages) and provide a basic overview of the existing literature. They are usually integrated into the introduction or background section of the paper.
Master's theses : More detailed and comprehensive, literature reviews for master's theses usually span 3,000 to 10,000 words (10-40 pages). They demonstrate the student's understanding of the field and justify the research question.
Doctoral dissertations : The literature review can be extensive for postgraduate dissertations, often ranging from 8,000 to 20,000 words (30-80 pages). These reviews need to cover a wide range of studies and theories, providing a thorough background for the research and highlighting gaps the dissertation aims to address.
Journal articles : Concise and focused, literature reviews in journal articles typically range from 2,000 to 5,000 words (8-20 pages), depending on the journal's guidelines. They concentrate on recent and relevant studies that directly inform the research question.
Grant proposals : Brief and focused, literature reviews in grant proposals are usually around 1,000 to 2,000 words (4-8 pages). Their purpose is to provide a quick overview of the current state of research and justify the need for the proposed study.
The breadth and depth of the literature you need to cover will also affect the length of your review. If your research focuses on a specific niche or well-defined topic, your literature review might be shorter, around 1,000 to 3,000 words. This is because there may be fewer studies to review, allowing you to focus on the most relevant ones. For topics that span multiple disciplines or have a vast body of literature, the review will be longer, potentially exceeding 10,000 words. A broader scope requires a more extensive review to ensure all relevant research is covered.
Always check the guidelines provided by your institution, advisor, or the journal to which you are submitting. These guidelines often specify the expected length and format for the literature review. Adhering to these requirements is crucial for ensuring your review meets academic standards and is accepted for publication or evaluation.
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A well-structured literature review typically includes the following sections, which can influence its length:
Provides an overview of the topic and the review's purpose. This section usually accounts for 5-10% of the total word count. In a 3,000-word review, the introduction might be around 150-300 words.
Discusses key themes, theories, and findings in the literature. This section is the core of the review and can be divided into sub-sections based on themes, methodologies, or chronological order. It usually makes up 70-80% of the total word count. For example, in a 3,000-word review, the main body might be around 2,100-2,400 words.
Summarizes the key findings and highlights gaps or areas for future research. This section usually accounts for 10-15% of the total word count. In a 3,000-word review, the conclusion might be around 300-450 words.
Different methods of conducting literature reviews affect the length. The length of a literature review depends on several factors, including the chosen approach, institutional guidelines, and the specific requirements of the research project. Systematic reviews are usually the most extensive due to their rigorous and comprehensive nature, while narrative reviews are more flexible and shorter. Scoping reviews provide a broad overview without the detailed synthesis required by systematic reviews, placing them in the middle range of length. Umbrella reviews and realist reviews vary in length but generally provide a comprehensive synthesis of existing reviews or focus on the mechanisms of interventions.
Understanding these differences helps researchers select the appropriate approach and determine the optimal length for their literature review, ensuring it meets academic standards and contributes meaningfully to the field of study.
The length of a literature review is influenced by several factors, including the type of review, the scope of the research topic, and institutional guidelines. Most literature reviews vary in length depending on the specific requirements of the research project. The process of literature review writing is crucial for determining length, as it involves synthesizing research articles, current research, and existing scholarship to adequately cover the topic. For instance, a thesis literature review tends to be more extensive compared to a literature review for a research paper or journal article.
When determining how long a literature review should be, it's essential to consider the need to address current theories and provide a critical analysis of scholarly sources. Systematic reviews are typically more detailed and extensive, often requiring a substantial number of pages, while narrative reviews may only span a few pages. The length is also shaped by the research aims and the depth of coverage needed for the original research. Creating an annotated bibliography also affects the length of the review. Adhering to institutional guidelines is crucial, as they often provide specific directions on the expected length and structure of the review.
Ultimately, the length of a literature review is dictated by the comprehensive coverage required to support the research aims and the specific nature of the research project. Whether it's a thesis literature review, a journal article, or part of a larger research paper, the goal is to ensure the review is thorough, insightful, and aligned with the objectives of the current project. By understanding these factors, researchers can determine the optimal length for their literature review, ensuring it meets academic standards and effectively contributes to the field of study.
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Journal articles are the academic's stock in trade, t he basic means of communicating research findings to an audience of one’s peers. That holds true across the disciplinary spectrum, so no matter where you land as a concentrator, you can expect to rely on them heavily.
Regardless of the discipline, moreover, journal articles perform an important knowledge-updating function .
Textbooks and handbooks and manuals will have a secondary function for chemists and physicists and biologists, of course. But in the sciences, articles are the standard and preferred publication form.
In the social sciences and humanities , where knowledge develops a little less rapidly or is driven less by issues of time-sensitivity , journal articles and books are more often used together.
Not all important and influential ideas warrant book-length studies, and some inquiry is just better suited to the size and scope and concentrated discussion that the article format offers.
Journal articles sometimes just present the most appropriate solution for communicating findings or making a convincing argument. A 20-page article may perfectly fit a researcher's needs. Sustaining that argument for 200 pages might be unnecessary -- or impossible.
The quality of a research article and the legitimacy of its findings are verified by other scholars, prior to publication, through a rigorous evaluation method called peer-review . This seal of approval by other scholars doesn't mean that an article is the best, or truest, or last word on a topic. If that were the case, research on lots of things would cease. Peer review simply means other experts believe the methods, the evidence, the conclusions of an article have met important standards of legitimacy, reliability, and intellectual honesty.
Searching the journal literature is part of being a responsible researcher at any level: professor, grad student, concentrator, first-year. Knowing why academic articles matter will help you make good decisions about what you find -- and what you choose to rely on in your work.
Think of journal articles as the way you tap into the ongoing scholarly conversation , as a way of testing the currency of a finding, analysis, or argumentative position, and a way of bolstering the authority (or plausibility) of explanations you'll offer in the papers and projects you'll complete at Harvard.
Except where otherwise noted, this work is subject to a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , which allows anyone to share and adapt our material as long as proper attribution is given. For details and exceptions, see the Harvard Library Copyright Policy ©2021 Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College.
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The new recombinant shingles vaccine ‘Shingrix’ is associated with a reduced risk of dementia compared to an earlier shingles vaccine, according to a major new study published in Nature Medicine . It is also more protective than vaccines against other infections.
A study of more than 200,000 people by researchers at the University of Oxford funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Oxford Health Biomedical Research Centre (OH BRC) found at least a 17% reduction in dementia diagnoses in the six years after the new recombinant shingles vaccination, equating to 164 or more additional days lived without dementia.
The benefit was seen in both sexes but was greater in women, and the findings suggest that the recombinant shingles vaccine may have additional value in terms of protection against dementia.
Shingles is a painful and serious condition afflicting many elderly people. It is caused by the Herpes zoster virus that can flare up in people who previously had chicken pox. After the introduction of a vaccine against shingles (Zostavax) in 2006, several studies have suggested that the risk of dementia might be lower in people who had received the vaccine, although results were not conclusive. In many countries, including the UK and USA, Zostavax has now been withdrawn and replaced by a much more effective vaccine (Shingrix). In the UK, Shingrix is being offered by the NHS to all elderly people and certain other groups.
In the new study, researchers at the University of Oxford and NIHR OH BRC used the USA TriNetX electronic health records network. In the USA, there was a switchover between Zostavax and Shingrix in October 2017. This allowed the researchers to compare the risk of dementia in the six years following Shingrix compared to otherwise similar people who had received Zostavax. More than 100,000 people were in each group. Shingrix was also compared to people who had received vaccines against other infections (flu and tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis).
Shingrix was associated with 17% lower risk of dementia than Zostavax, and 23-27% less than with the other vaccines. This equates to 5-9 more months lived without dementia for those who had been given the Shingrix vaccine compared to the other vaccines. The beneficial effects were present in both sexes but greater in women than in men.
Various additional analyses showed that these findings are robust but the researchers say further research is needed before any suggestion is made that the shingles vaccine should be used to help prevent or delay dementia onset.
Dr Maxime Taquet , NIHR Academic Clinical Lecturer in the Department of Psychiatry at Oxford, who led the study said: 'The size and nature of this study makes these findings convincing, and should motivate further research. They support the hypothesis that vaccination against shingles might prevent dementia. If validated in clinical trials, these findings could have significant implications for older adults, health services, and public health.'
John Todd , Professor of Precision Medicine at the University of Oxford’s Nuffield Department of Medicine, said: 'A key question is, how does the vaccine produce its apparent benefit in protecting against dementia? One possibility is that infection with the Herpes zoster virus might increase the risk of dementia, and therefore by inhibiting the virus the vaccine could reduce this risk. Alternatively, the vaccine also contains chemicals which might have separate beneficial effects on brain health.'
Paul Harrison , Professor of Psychiatry and OH BRC Theme lead for Molecular Targets, who supervised the study, said: 'The findings are intriguing and encouraging. Anything that might reduce the risk of dementia is to be welcomed, given the large and increasing number of people affected by it.'
The paper ‘ The recombinant shingles vaccine is associated with a lower risk of dementia ’ is published in Nature Medicine .
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Strategic HR Review
ISSN : 1475-4398
Article publication date: 8 July 2024
This paper aims to explore the impact of peer recognition points (PRP) on employee engagement and motivation within organizations. It investigates whether PRP systems genuinely satisfy employees’ need for appreciation and how they can be effectively implemented to enhance employee performance and retention.
This study uses a comprehensive literature review and analysis of existing peer recognition platforms alongside case studies of organizations implementing PRP systems. Surveys and qualitative interviews with employees and HR professionals provide additional insights into the practical application and effectiveness of PRP.
The research indicates that PRP systems significantly boost employee engagement and motivation by fulfilling the psychological need for recognition. Organizations with robust PRP programs experience lower voluntary turnover rates and higher employee satisfaction. The study also identifies and addresses potential challenges, such as lack of interest or shy employees, for implementing PRP systems effectively.
While the study offers substantial insights into PRP's benefits, it acknowledges the limitations of generalizability due to the primary focus on IT companies. Future research should examine a more diverse range of industries and consider long-term effects. Additionally, the study emphasizes the need for continuous monitoring and adjustment of PRP systems to sustain their effectiveness.
The most important value of the paper is the actionable strategies provided for managers and organizations to integrate PRP into various work cultures and systems. These strategies focus on enhancing team morale and productivity, ensuring adaptability across different industries and organizational structures. The findings serve as a practical guide for fostering a more appreciative and motivated workplace culture.
By promoting a culture of recognition and appreciation, PRP systems contribute to a more positive and supportive work environment. This, in turn, can lead to improved employee well-being, job satisfaction and a sense of belonging, ultimately enhancing the overall social dynamics within the workplace.
This paper contributes to the understanding of nonmonetary recognition strategies in HR management. It highlights the psychological benefits of peer recognition and provides practical recommendations for organizations seeking to improve their employee engagement through PRP systems. The findings offer valuable insights for HR practitioners aiming to foster a more appreciative and motivated workplace culture.
Rusin, N. and Szandała, T. (2024), "The power of peer recognition points: does it really boost employee engagement?", Strategic HR Review , Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/SHR-06-2024-0040
Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2024, Natalia Rusin and Tomasz Szandała.
Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial & non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
Organizations worldwide strive to build an environment where employees feel appreciated. An adequate salary or social benefits may be the keys; however, the answer may be even more straightforward. It turns out that 84% of people think it is essential to receive rewards for their efforts ( Reward Gateway, 2022 ). While rewards themselves are important, recognition is what really drives employee engagement and productivity. Even 78% of employees looking to leave their job said they would stay if the company offered more recognition and reward ( Reward Gateway, 2022 ). Employees who feel appreciated and valued are more likely to stay engaged and motivated to contribute their best work.
Unsurprisingly, positive affirmation from line managers or higher management undeniably validates one’s efforts, enhancing the prospects of job security, promotions or salary increments. However, according to a survey by QuantumWorkplace, 41% of employees value acknowledgment from their peers or even those lower on the organizational chart just as much as they do from their superiors. It means that the source of praise does not diminish its impact, as the joy of being recognized transcends organizational structure and is fulfilling regardless of who delivers it. The challenge is to provide all the employees with an equal and efficient possibility to freely recognize each other's contributions, help and hard work. Organizations can fulfill this need by introducing a peer recognition system, such as peer recognition points (PRP). Popular peer recognition platforms include Kudos or Applauz, which allow staff members to praise their peers by giving each other points or virtual tokens that can be later spent on chosen awards. Are these PRP another superficial answer to the need for appreciation, or are they genuinely satisfying for the employees?
This study will answer this question by discussing the impact of recognition, the concept of PRP and how self-motivation is connected with PRP. Most importantly, we will indicate how organizations can use it to boost employee engagement effectively.
Adrian Gostick and Chester Elton, authors of Leading with Gratitude, found that 67% of managers think they are above average in offering praise and recognition to their employees. However, only 23% of their subordinates agree. The discrepancy is significant, indicating that the need for recognition is much higher than the managers expect. Increasing the frequency of acknowledging employees’ efforts can positively impact engagement and productivity. Bersin and associates found that companies with a strong culture of recognition have a 31% lower voluntary turnover rate. Peer recognition can be a powerful tool to fulfill employees’ need for appreciation without introducing complex processes. However, how much impact can it have?
According to a study by Globoforce, companies that use peer recognition have a 14% higher employee engagement rate than those that do not. Additionally, a survey by Achievers found that 92% of employees surveyed felt more engaged with their work when they received recognition from their peers. Peer recognition has been successfully applied in many institutions and organizations. For instance, Keck Medicine of (University of Southern California) USC provides staff with opportunities for on-the-spot, peer-to-peer recognition with Trojan Bucks and Trojan Points. As a result, employee engagement was boosted by 16% ( Ryan, 2016 ). The University of British Columbia saw an even more significant increase after implementing a peer-to-peer recognition program called “Applause”, where employees awarded contributions with digital badges. The initiative positively impacted engagement ( Figure 1 ), with a 23% increase and a 26% gain in recognition messages sent ( Gallup, 2019 ).
One of the ways of including peer recognition in daily work is by introducing the idea of PRP. The general concept is to give employees some points each period which can be given to co-workers to show appreciation for their hard work on a project, help or various initiatives. For instance, regardless of experience or seniority, every employee gets 2,000 points each quarter; however, they cannot use them for themselves. The only possible operation is to award peers by transferring a selected number of points and a note of appreciation. They can be donated either publicly or privately, and they can also be given anonymously.
Moreover, some platforms allow users to make a quick, additional donation for those employees that received public recognition if they feel it is worth further appreciation. The time when employees can transfer their points to other peers is limited. If not all points are donated within a given timeframe, they expire. The points an employee has collected from peers can be exchanged for awards such as vouchers, electronics and virtual goods, and there is no time limit for collecting the awards. Sometimes an employee can collect the gift even after finishing their job at a company.
In some cases, the managers might give additional points outside their personal pool for outstanding contributions to the company or participation in a contest or hackathon. The admin can usually access statistics of PRP. Many platforms implement the idea of PRP, such as Kudos, Motivosity, Reward Gateway, Applauz and Bonusly. They may differ slightly, but the general concept remains the same, regardless of the system the company is using.
Understanding the psychological factors behind motivation is essential for maximizing the effectiveness of PRP. At its core, peer recognition taps into employees’ intrinsic motivation by aligning with their desire for autonomy and empowerment. Longing for a sense of achievement or personal growth are key drivers of intrinsic motivation. By recognizing peers, employees feel more connected to their work and team, boosting their self-motivation.
The principles of autonomy, mastery and relatedness, as proposed by self-determination theory, align with the practice of peer recognition. Autonomy is fostered as employees have control over whom they recognize and why. Mastery is encouraged by promoting the recognition of skills and growth within the workplace. Relatedness is built through the strengthening of interpersonal connections and the cultivation of a positive team environment. The connection between self-motivation and PRP reveals an exciting path toward employee satisfaction, engagement and overall well-being. By understanding these psychological factors, organizations can design and implement peer recognition programs that resonate with their employees’ innate desires and drive them to excel in their roles.
Show, do not tell : Actions, through awarding points, resonate more than mere words, demonstrating genuine appreciation.
Catalyze the movement : Giving and receiving points can inspire emulation of positive behaviors, spotlighting valued actions.
Celebrate progress : Recognize small wins and growth, not just significant achievements, fostering an environment of continuous encouragement.
Change the narrative : Recognitions can emphasize collaboration and connection over mere business outcomes, transforming workplace conversations.
Anchor through artifacts : Visual representations of points, like leaderboards or awards, serve as reminders of the value of human connections.
Demonstrate the value : The data from these recognition points can tangibly showcase the economic and cultural merits of close-knit workplace relationships.
Incorporating PRP amplifies the principles of “Elevating the Human Experience” but also addresses core psychological aspects of motivation, creating an environment of intrinsic drive and deepened connections. In summary, from a psychological point of view with PRP organizations can craft a workspace where individuals feel seen, appreciated and invigorated to contribute their best.
There are several advantages to introducing PRP, as they benefit employees and organizations simultaneously.
The most prominent asset of PRP lies in the root of their idea. It aims to encourage employees to take notice of their colleagues’ contributions and accomplishments. By recognizing mutual work, employees are more likely to feel a sense of belonging and camaraderie, strengthening the team’s bounds. Moreover, in this situation, the principle of hope for favor return comes into play as employees will recognize their peers, hoping that somebody could acknowledge their efforts back.
Furthermore, PRP are an effective tool that helps organizations fulfill employees’ need for recognition. They provide instant feedback and gratification, boosting morale and motivation. The cycle of donating and receiving points repeats; therefore positive impact can be sustained in the long term. There are no negative points, so the possibility of discouragement is limited. Notably, the risk of conflict or jealousy is low as the points are donated by all peers, not just the managers.
PRP are a low-cost and easily scalable way to recognize employees’ contributions and initiatives ( Figure 2 ). The system only requires a little attention from HR departments or managers, apart from monitoring possible pathologies, which are discussed later. In many organizations, the efforts are recognized only periodically, e.g. annually or during special events or competitions. This way decreases significantly the number of awarded people and gratitude to only a small group of top performers. With PRP, it is possible to show appreciation for all contributions daily, which makes recognition more accessible to everyone.
Another benefit is spending the points according to the employee’s desire. This approach can accidentally train people to accumulate assets, as some rewards may require more points. At the same time, the need to collect more expensive awards can mean the employee will keep working in the organization.
In the context of the article “How to Create Belonging for Remote Workers” ( Fosslien and West-Duffy, 2019 ), addressing the challenge of fostering a sense of belonging among remote employees is essential. In the post-COVID era, as remote work happens daily and face-to-face interactions are minimized, the PRP system encourages employees to take more exposed and noteworthy actions, ensuring their work does not go unnoticed in a virtual environment. The pursuit of recognition is a reason to facilitate teamwork and collaboration, strengthening bonds among remote colleagues. The PRP system becomes a strategic tool for maintaining cohesion and community in an increasingly dispersed work world, effectively responding to the challenges and opportunities of the new normal.
Finally, points can be an additional factor for motivating people to perform their duties on time, like doing mandatory training or submitting reviews and documents required by company’s policy ( Black, 2023 ). Finally, it can act later during an employee’s salary or annual incentive review evaluation as a measurable factor. It can be considered from multiple angles: is this person recognized only from inside their team or from others? Are donors the same people each period or different? The statistics provided by PRP systems can be helpful for managers to observe how the teams interact internally and as a whole organization.
Despite having many benefits, there are also potential drawbacks and reasons why only some companies embrace PRP. We have surveyed people ( Figure 3 ): why is your company not using PRP to engage employees? Respondents had to specify their role: ordinary employee, manager or director and HR specialist and could give several reasons. Furthermore, they were able to justify the shared concern.
Over one-third of employees and almost two-thirds of managers were unaware of such systems. This implies the importance of PRP popularization efforts like this article.
The big concern, mainly for HR departments, is the cost for the company. While the value of a single point can be freely adjusted by the company individually, it is worth mentioning that PRP generates costs when they can be exchanged for rewards. This is also tied to the complexity of tax payments, especially nowadays, as many companies hire internationally, so different policies apply. We can address this by simplifying awards, for instance by limiting them only to vouchers that do not require an individual approach. Furthermore, management raised concerns regarding complexity of such systems as they fear that PRP might be included in periodic reviews of employees. Organizations would have to carefully adjust the value of the points in comparison to other factors to minimize this issue. Still, PRP systems provided by third-party companies come with built-in tracking systems that can facilitate the process rather than be an obstacle, as they could provide insight into employees’ cooperation and activity inside the company.
Other concerns focus on the pathologies of PRP. The first one, mainly raised by employees, is the quantity over quality of recognition. This leads to the “gaming” mentality, where employees are more concerned with earning points than recognizing meaningful contributions. Another related issue is the risk of creating the custom of points swapping, noticed by HR specialists, especially near the end of the period. Because the unused points expire, some employees might agree to donate them to one another without any significant reason. This aspect can be addressed effectively by limiting the maximum number of points an employee can transfer to a particular person within a period. Finally, people who are shy or introverted might have a more challenging time getting recognized for their valuable work. It may be a setback in the case of peer recognition, as a genuinely deserving person might be omitted due to not being prominent. On the other hand, this issue is not specific to only PRP, as research suggests that introverted individuals can face difficulties in recognition and promotion in the workplace even when they perform well (The Hidden Advantages of Quiet Bosses, HBR 2013). A suggested approach to counter this issue is to allow for rewarding the whole team working on a particular project, not just an individual.
Our study also confirms other studies that demonstrate people acknowledge the recognition, regardless of its source, as less than one in ten respondents valued only managers’ recognition as an essential factor against introducing PRP.
On the other hand, there is the lack of interest of employees in PRP. All three groups of respondents notice it as a severe obstacle. Some employees may feel uncomfortable giving or receiving recognition from their peers. Among the reasons for this behavior, we can list personality traits or simply a lack of interest in participation in the program. A reluctant approach might also be caused by cultural differences or a solid attachment to a company's hierarchical structure. To minimize negative responses to PRP, a behavioral prediction analysis should be performed to evaluate potential risks, e.g. a summary of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis. No matter how well the system is designed and easy to maintain, it is up to the employees to fully embrace its potential and benefits. Most importantly, the PRP may not effectively address deeper employee engagement and motivation issues, such as workload, job design or leadership. If all the mentioned aspects are lacking, PRP will not be a satisfactory solution to an organization’s problems. The crucial thing is constant monitoring, reviewing and adjusting rules of PRP to satisfy all employees, management and HR in having a healthy working environment.
There are several good practices that organizations should follow to make the most of PRP.
Align peer recognition with company values : Peer recognition should become a custom tied to the organization’s core values and goals. Additionally, the acknowledged effort should be linked to a particular company value so that employees can understand how their actions align with the company’s principles. A green-energy investment bank dedicated to financing environmentally sustainable projects can recognize the importance of aligning internal practices with its mission of ecological responsibility. Employees should be encouraged to identify peers who demonstrated exemplary eco-friendly behaviors, such as organizing carpooling, reducing paper usage and proposing or participating in community green initiatives, by giving them a certain amount of points. By doing so, they become a way to strengthen the company’s mission and culture without overwhelming the employee. A good example can be Salesforce’s Ohana program, where employees are encouraged to perform peer-supportive actions like carsharing during work commuting. Each trip can be recognized with e-Thanks redeemable for small vouchers to Amazon.
Encourage frequent appreciation : Peer recognition should be encouraged regularly. Organizations can achieve it through regular reminders, prompts and by integrating peer recognition into daily workflows. PRP can help foster frequent appreciation as they often expire after a certain period. For instance, employees of MultiMedia LLC are granted hundred points per month to be spent within that period. By doing so, employees can freely recognize each other’s efforts without worrying about the lack of points to give. As the points expire after a month, frequent reminders are shared on the company’s social channels like Slack or Gmail.
Recognize all efforts : The concept should be inclusive and recognize all contributions, big or small. It aids in creating a culture of appreciation and recognition, which is essential for building a positive workplace and boosting engagement. PRP are an efficient tool to help achieve this as they can easily be implemented into daily workflows like code review in IT companies. Pink Identity proposed such a solution in their product PinkDataGovernance. If a code review had been accepted, all employees who contributed to this process would have been automatically given points.
Measure and track : Organizations should monitor PRP to understand their impact on employee engagement and productivity. A multitude of third-party SaaS tools provides a visible recognition dashboard. Such a solution was used in a company Vonage, wherein the tool Applauze employees could browse the list of recent recognitions and the number of points granted in each donation. To minimize the risk of rivalry, the total amount of points each employee collected was not available publicly. However, this tool provided detailed statistics to HR departments to help make improvements and adjust the program to ensure it is relevant and timely.
Be precise : When introducing the recognition system, emphasize the need for specific details about acknowledged actions. It is crucial to tailor the note of appreciation to the person and avoid a generic message that has been used numerous times. Nokia encourages such an approach in their Everyday Excellence program, where providing a custom comment is obligatory when sending e-thanks for recognizing employees’ efforts with points. Giving explicit recognition has a positive impact, making employees 2.5 times more likely to repeat their behavior ( Globoforce, 2018 Employee Recognition Report).
The success of PRP relies heavily on the organization’s culture. If introduced properly, the system can boost employee engagement, but the positive impact might be limited without proper care, supervision and encouragement.
Numerous pieces of research prove that employees must be recognized for their efforts and contributions. PRP are an efficient and scalable solution that, when introduced correctly, can effectively boost employee engagement while fulfilling the need for acknowledgment ( Figure 4 ). Aligning the recognition process with the company’s values can increase awareness of an organization’s mission. It can be a great tool to spark employee creativity while looking for new ways to be recognized. Furthermore, it teaches the importance of valuing all kinds of efforts, not only the big ones. By including this concept in daily workflows, organizations can encourage employees to appreciate each other’s contributions and strengthen workplace culture. PRP differ from traditional recognition methods. At the same time, they fulfill the natural desire for connection and growth, making them a unique and valuable approach to maintaining a positive and engaged workplace.
Statistics about peer recognition impact on organization
Balance between peer recognition investments and return
Survey results among employees, managers and HR specialists
Summary of benefits from peer recognition points
Black , P.W. ( 2023 ), “ The effect of peer-to-peer recognition systems on helping behavior: the influence of rewards and group affiliation ”, Accounting, Organizations and Society , Vol. 109 .
Fosslien , L. and West-Duffy , M. ( 2019 ), “ How to create belonging for remote workers ”, MIT Sloan Management Review .
Gallup ( 2019 ), “ Why peer-to-Peer recognition Is powerful ”, available at: www.gallup.com/workplace/242230/why-peer-peer-recognition-powerful.aspx
Globoforce ( 2018 ), “ SHRM/globoforce employee recognition report ”, available at: www.shrm.org/hr-today/trends-and-forecasting/research-and-surveys/pages
Reward Gateway ( 2022 ), “ 2022 Reward gateway summit ”, available at: www.rewardgateway.com/uk/resource/summit-digital-experience-2022
Ryan , C. ( 2017 ), “ Sustaining and growing a winning culture ”, Journal of Healthcare Management , Vol. 62 No. 6 , pp. 361 - 365 .
Achievers ( 2020 ), “ The state of employee recognition ”, available at: www.achievers.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/2020-State-of-Employee-Recognition-Report.pdf
QuantumWorkplace ( 2023 ), “ The importance of employee recognition: statistics and research ”, available at: www.quantumworkplace.com/future-of-work/importance-of-employee-recognition
Bersin & Associate ( 2013 ), “ The state of employee recognition in 2012 ”.
Gostick , A. and Elton , C. ( 2020 ), Leading with Gratitude: Eight Leadership Practices for Extraordinary Business Results , HarperCollins .
Grant , A.M. , Gino , F. and Hofmann , D.A. ( 2010 ), “ The hidden advantages of quiet bosses ”, Harvard Business Review , Vol. 88 No. 12 , p. 28 .
Wang , P. ( 2023 ), “ When peer recognition backfires: the impact of peer information on subsequent helping behavior ”, Accounting Perspectives – May 2023 .
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MINNEAPOLIS / ST. PAUL (07/25/2024) — Engineering researchers at the University of Minnesota Twin Cities have demonstrated a state-of-the-art hardware device that could reduce energy consumption for artificial intelligent (AI) computing applications by a factor of at least 1,000.
The research is published in npj Unconventional Computing , a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature. The researchers have multiple patents on the technology used in the device.
With the growing demand of AI applications, researchers have been looking at ways to create a more energy efficient process, while keeping performance high and costs low. Commonly, machine or artificial intelligence processes transfer data between both logic (where information is processed within a system) and memory (where the data is stored), consuming a large amount of power and energy.
A team of researchers in the University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering demonstrated a new model where the data never leaves the memory, called computational random-access memory (CRAM).
“This work is the first experimental demonstration of CRAM, where the data can be processed entirely within the memory array without the need to leave the grid where a computer stores information,” said Yang Lv, a University of Minnesota Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering postdoctoral researcher and first author of the paper.
The International Energy Agency (IEA) issued a global energy use forecast in March of 2024, forecasting that energy consumption for AI is likely to double from 460 terawatt-hours (TWh) in 2022 to 1,000 TWh in 2026. This is roughly equivalent to the electricity consumption of the entire country of Japan.
According to the new paper’s authors, a CRAM-based machine learning inference accelerator is estimated to achieve an improvement on the order of 1,000. Another example showed an energy savings of 2,500 and 1,700 times compared to traditional methods.
This research has been more than two decades in the making,
“Our initial concept to use memory cells directly for computing 20 years ago was considered crazy” said Jian-Ping Wang, the senior author on the paper and a Distinguished McKnight Professor and Robert F. Hartmann Chair in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Minnesota.
“With an evolving group of students since 2003 and a true interdisciplinary faculty team built at the University of Minnesota—from physics, materials science and engineering, computer science and engineering, to modeling and benchmarking, and hardware creation—we were able to obtain positive results and now have demonstrated that this kind of technology is feasible and is ready to be incorporated into technology,” Wang said.
This research is part of a coherent and long-standing effort building upon Wang’s and his collaborators’ groundbreaking, patented research into Magnetic Tunnel Junctions (MTJs) devices, which are nanostructured devices used to improve hard drives, sensors, and other microelectronics systems, including Magnetic Random Access Memory (MRAM), which has been used in embedded systems such as microcontrollers and smart watches.
The CRAM architecture enables the true computation in and by memory and breaks down the wall between the computation and memory as the bottleneck in traditional von Neumann architecture, a theoretical design for a stored program computer that serves as the basis for almost all modern computers.
“As an extremely energy-efficient digital based in-memory computing substrate, CRAM is very flexible in that computation can be performed in any location in the memory array. Accordingly, we can reconfigure CRAM to best match the performance needs of a diverse set of AI algorithms,” said Ulya Karpuzcu, an expert on computing architecture, co-author on the paper, and Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Minnesota. “It is more energy-efficient than traditional building blocks for today’s AI systems.”
CRAM performs computations directly within memory cells, utilizing the array structure efficiently, which eliminates the need for slow and energy-intensive data transfers, Karpuzcu explained.
The most efficient short-term random access memory, or RAM, device uses four or five transistors to code a one or a zero but one MTJ, a spintronic device, can perform the same function at a fraction of the energy, with higher speed, and is resilient to harsh environments. Spintronic devices leverage the spin of electrons rather than the electrical charge to store data, providing a more efficient alternative to traditional transistor-based chips.
Currently, the team has been planning to work with semiconductor industry leaders, including those in Minnesota, to provide large scale demonstrations and produce the hardware to advance AI functionality.
In addition to Lv, Wang, and Karpuzcu, the team included University of Minnesota Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering researchers Robert Bloom and Husrev Cilasun; Distinguished McKnight Professor and Robert and Marjorie Henle Chair Sachin Sapatnekar; and former postdoctoral researchers Brandon Zink, Zamshed Chowdhury, and Salonik Resch; along with researchers from Arizona University: Pravin Khanal, Ali Habiboglu, and Professor Weigang Wang
This work was supported by grants from the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and Cisco Inc. Research including nanodevice patterning was conducted in collaboration with the Minnesota Nano Center and simulation/calculation work was done with the Minnesota Supercomputing Institute at the University of Minnesota.
To read the entire research paper entitled, “Experimental demonstration of magnetic tunnel junction-based computational random-access memory,” visit the npj Unconventional Computing website.
Rhonda Zurn, College of Science and Engineering, [email protected]
University Public Relations, [email protected]
Find more news and feature stories on the CSE news page .
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1- The median length of a research paper is 4,133 words (equivalent to 166 sentences or 34 paragraphs), excluding the abstract and references, with 90% of papers being between 2,023 and 8,284 words. 2- A typical article is divided in the following way: Introduction section: 14.6% of the total word count.
By refining your focus, you can produce a thoughtful and engaging paper that effectively communicates your ideas to your readers. 5. Write a thesis statement. A thesis statement is a one-to-two-sentence summary of your research paper's main argument or direction.
An Overview. . In short, research paper's average length can range from 1,500 words for research proposals and case studies - all the way to 100,000 words for large dissertations. Research, by its nature of being complex, requires a careful and thorough elucidation of facts, notions, information, and the like - which is all reflected in its ...
Choose a research paper topic. Conduct preliminary research. Develop a thesis statement. Create a research paper outline. Write a first draft of the research paper. Write the introduction. Write a compelling body of text. Write the conclusion. The second draft.
You can write Research Paper by the following guide: Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable. ... Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social ...
Then, writing the paper and getting it ready for submission may take me 3 to 6 months. I like separating the writing into three phases. The results and the methods go first, as this is where I write what was done and how, and what the outcomes were. In a second phase, I tackle the introduction and refine the results section with input from my ...
Writing research papers does not come naturally to most of us. The typical research paper is a highly codified rhetorical form [1, 2]. Knowledge of the rules—some explicit, others implied—goes a long way toward writing a paper that will get accepted in a peer-reviewed journal. Primacy of the research question
Research that has a thesis statement only requires 2 to 3 arguments to be proved and will be summed up in 500 to 700 words. After providing the introduction and a little background on the research, you can directly shift to mentioning the arguments and claims so you may prove the statement and complete the research.
Step 4: Create a Research Paper Outline. Outlining is a key part of crafting an effective essay. Your research paper outline should include a rough introduction to the topic, a thesis statement, supporting details for each main idea, and a brief conclusion. You can outline in whatever way feels most comfortable for you.
How Long Should a Research Paper Be. A research paper typically ranges from 6,000 to 8,000 words, equivalent to approximately 15 to 20 pages, double-spaced.However, the specific length can vary depending on factors such as the academic discipline, journal requirements, and the topic's complexity.
When scientists start writing a research paper, they already have their files with data, lab notes with materials and experimental designs, some visuals, and tables with results. ... Therefore, you should be explicit and clear in describing the benefit of the paper. The Introduction should not be long. Indeed, for most journals, this is a very ...
Rule 4: Write a data management plan. In 2020, 2 Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) papers in leading medical journals were retracted after major concerns about the data were raised [ 42 ]. Today, raw data are more often recognized as a key outcome of research along with the paper.
High school papers may range from 5-20 pages, college-level papers from 10-30 pages, and graduate theses can be significantly longer, even reaching 100+ pages for Ph.D. dissertations. The spacing, citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago), and number of words also affect the paper's length.
The length of your literature review depends on several factors, including the scope and purpose of your research. In general, the length of the review should be proportionate to your overall paper. For example, if you're writing a fifty-thousand-word dissertation, then your literature review will likely be an entire chapter comprising about ...
Essay length guidelines. Type of essay. Average word count range. Essay content. High school essay. 300-1000 words. In high school you are often asked to write a 5-paragraph essay, composed of an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. College admission essay. 200-650 words.
How long is a short research paper? A short research paper can be between 2000 to 3000 words long. These are often seen in high school research papers mentioned above. In fewer cases, they can be for college studies. How long is a research paper: length guide. The length of a research paper varies depending on the stage of education, course of ...
1. You are new to reading scientific papers. 1. For each panel of each figure, focus particularly on the questions outlined in Rule 3. 2. You are entering a new field and want to learn what is important in that field.
This applies to the introduction. For a typical 5-page research paper, your introduction should not exceed half a page. However, if you are writing a long essay of 15 pages or more, the introduction may span to a page or several paragraphs. Since most of the research papers given to undergraduate college students are not lengthy, the ...
Your paper's length. A good rule of thumb is that you should make your introduction 10% of how long is a research paper. Consequently, for a 1000-word paper, your introduction should not exceed 100 words. This rule is not a standard but rather a tip to make your introduction more compelling. Your paper's topic and scope.
How to write a research paper outline. Follow these steps to start your research paper outline: Decide on the subject of the paper. Write down all the ideas you want to include or discuss. Organize related ideas into sub-groups.
Many of my papers took anywhere from 2 to 6 months to publish, and that's just the article submission, peer review, rejection, resubmission, acceptance, and final publication cycle. The actual writing of the paper could be several months too. Some were bashed out quickly (a couple of months) but from conception to publication it's more like 9 ...
Undergraduate research papers: Typically concise, these reviews range from 1,000 to 3,000 words (4-12 pages) and provide a basic overview of the existing literature. They are usually integrated into the introduction or background section of the paper. ... When determining how long a literature review should be, it's essential to consider the ...
In some fields, especially the sciences, where knowledge accrues rapidly, and where lab or research findings must be disseminated quickly, journal articles reign supreme. Textbooks and handbooks and manuals will have a secondary function for chemists and physicists and biologists, of course.
A study of more than 200,000 people by researchers at the University of Oxford funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Oxford Health Biomedical Research Centre (OH BRC) found at least a 17% reduction in dementia diagnoses in the six years after the new recombinant shingles vaccination, equating to 164 or more additional days lived without dementia.
General circulation models (GCMs) are the foundation of weather and climate prediction1,2. GCMs are physics-based simulators that combine a numerical solver for large-scale dynamics with tuned ...
Future research should examine a more diverse range of industries and consider long-term effects. Additionally, the study emphasizes the need for continuous monitoring and adjustment of PRP systems to sustain their effectiveness.,The most important value of the paper is the actionable strategies provided for managers and organizations to ...
These investment strategies can help retirees balance risk and return to protect capital and generate income. Kate Stalter and Brian O'Connell July 22, 2024 10 Best Growth Stocks to Buy for 2024
Energy consumption from artificial intelligence could be reduced by a factor of at least 1,000 with this deviceMINNEAPOLIS / ST. PAUL (07/25/2024) — Engineering researchers at the University of Minnesota Twin Cities have demonstrated a state-of-the-art hardware device that could reduce energy consumption for artificial intelligent (AI) computing applications by a factor of at least 1,000.The ...
This paper presents the retrospective reflective accounts of three master's alumni and their tutor who openly shared their thoughts on their experience of engaging in online peer-led group reflective practice through the 'Share Your Research Ideas' (SYRI) project. This project ran at the University of Manchester during the second half of the academic year 2019-2020, a time of the COVID ...