differenza tra problem solving e problem based learning

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PBL (PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING): CHE COS’È E COME VIENE APPLICATO.

• PBL (PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING): CHE COS’È…

Problem-Based Learning: Cosa, Come e Perché

Oggi ci immergiamo in un viaggio esplorativo nel mondo del Problem-Based Learning (PBL), un approccio didattico che sta rivoluzionando il modo in cui pensiamo e facciamo scuola. Ma cosa è esattamente il PBL? E come può essere utilizzato in classe? Prendete un caffè, mettetevi comodi e viaggiamo insieme in questa avventura educativa!

Che cos’è il Problem-Based Learning? Il PBL è un metodo di insegnamento in cui gli studenti imparano affrontando e risolvendo problemi reali e complessi. Dimenticate le lezioni frontali e i compiti standard: qui gli studenti sono protagonisti attivi, guidati dalla curiosità e dal desiderio di trovare soluzioni concrete.

Origini del PBL : Il PBL non è nato ieri. È un approccio che affonda le sue radici negli anni ’60 presso la McMaster University in Canada, dove è stato sviluppato per migliorare l’istruzione medica. L’idea era semplice ma rivoluzionaria: “Imparare facendo” e “Imparare dal problema”, anziché da lezioni teoriche astratte.

Ambiti di Utilizzo :

• Educazione Superiore : Inizialmente adottato nelle facoltà di medicina, oggi il PBL è presente in molti ambiti universitari, da ingegneria a psicologia.
• Scuole Primarie e Secondarie : Qui il PBL aiuta gli studenti a collegare ciò che apprendono con il mondo reale, sviluppando competenze trasversali importanti.
• Formazione Professionale e Corporate Training : Nel mondo del lavoro, il PBL viene utilizzato per sviluppare abilità pratiche e di problem-solving in situazioni aziendali reali.

Come Funziona il PBL :

• Identificazione del Problema : Gli studenti iniziano con un problema reale e rilevante da risolvere.
• Ricerca e Indagine : Conducendo ricerche, gli studenti acquisiscono le informazioni necessarie per capire e affrontare il problema.
• Soluzione del Problema : Gli studenti propongono e testano soluzioni, spesso attraverso un approccio sperimentale.
• Riflessione e Discussione : Dopo aver trovato una soluzione, gli studenti riflettono sull’apprendimento acquisito e discutono i risultati. Problem-Based Learning

Esempio Pratico di PBL : Immaginiamo una classe di biologia del liceo che affronta il problema della resistenza agli antibiotici. Gli studenti sono sfidati a capire perché questo è un problema crescente e cosa si può fare per contrastarlo. Iniziano conducendo ricerche, intervistando esperti e studiando dati reali. Poi, lavorano in gruppi per sviluppare possibili soluzioni, che possono includere campagne di sensibilizzazione, proposte per nuove politiche sanitarie o idee per la promozione di pratiche mediche più sostenibili. Infine, presentano le loro soluzioni, discutendo i pro e i contro di ciascuna.

Un esempio concreto di applicazione del Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in un contesto scolastico, per esempio in una classe di matematica di una scuola secondaria di primo grado.

Scenario : Lezione di Matematica sul Budget e la Pianificazione Finanziaria

Obiettivo dell’Insegnante : Insegnare agli studenti concetti di base di matematica finanziaria, come budget, spese e risparmi, attraverso un approccio pratico e coinvolgente.

Fase 1: Presentazione del Problema

• L’insegnante introduce uno scenario realistico: “Avete ricevuto un budget limitato per organizzare un evento scolastico. Come lo gestireste?”
• Gli studenti vengono stimolati a riflettere su come allocare le risorse in modo efficace.

Fase 2: Ricerca e Pianificazione Problem-Based Learning

• Gli studenti si dividono in gruppi, ciascuno con un aspetto diverso dell’evento da gestire (cibo, intrattenimento, decorazioni, ecc.).
• Ogni gruppo deve raccogliere informazioni sui costi e creare un piano di spesa dettagliato.

Fase 3: Applicazione di Concetti Matematici

• Gli studenti utilizzano concetti matematici come addizione, sottrazione, percentuali e proporzioni per creare il loro budget.
• Deve essere considerata anche la negoziazione e l’ottimizzazione delle risorse.

Fase 4: Presentazione delle Soluzioni

• Ogni gruppo presenta il proprio piano di budget, giustificando le scelte fatte e illustrando come hanno risolto problemi specifici.
• La classe discute i diversi approcci, confrontando le strategie e le soluzioni proposte.

Fase 5: Riflessione e Valutazione Problem-Based Learning

• Gli studenti riflettono sul processo di apprendimento, considerando cosa hanno imparato e come hanno applicato la matematica a un problema reale.
• L’insegnante valuta gli studenti non solo sulla correttezza matematica, ma anche sulla creatività, collaborazione e capacità di risolvere il problema.

Impatto del PBL su questo Scenario :

• Gli studenti imparano ad applicare la matematica in un contesto reale e rilevante, migliorando la comprensione e la ritenzione dei concetti.
• Sviluppano competenze trasversali come il pensiero critico, la pianificazione, la collaborazione e la comunicazione.
• Si impegnano attivamente nella soluzione di un problema, aumentando la motivazione e l’interesse per la materia.

Conclusione : Il PBL non è solo un metodo didattico, ma un viaggio alla scoperta dell’apprendimento attivo e significativo. Con il PBL, gli studenti non solo imparano informazioni; imparano a pensare, ad agire e a risolvere problemi che contano davvero. E voi, siete pronti ad accettare la sfida del Problem-Based Learning?

Spero questo articolo possa esserti stato d’aiuto. 

Potrebbe anche interessarti:  CHE COS’È L’INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING?

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Autore:  Leonardo Povia

Pedagogista, Psicologo clinico della riabilitazione, Insegnante di ruolo specializzato nel sostegno didattico, Formatore, Padre di Marco e Marilù, Autore, Blogger.

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Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

What is Problem-Based Learning (PBL)? PBL is a student-centered approach to learning that involves groups of students working to solve a real-world problem, quite different from the direct teaching method of a teacher presenting facts and concepts about a specific subject to a classroom of students. Through PBL, students not only strengthen their teamwork, communication, and research skills, but they also sharpen their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities essential for life-long learning.

See also: Just-in-Time Teaching

In implementing PBL, the teaching role shifts from that of the more traditional model that follows a linear, sequential pattern where the teacher presents relevant material, informs the class what needs to be done, and provides details and information for students to apply their knowledge to a given problem. With PBL, the teacher acts as a facilitator; the learning is student-driven with the aim of solving the given problem (note: the problem is established at the onset of learning opposed to being presented last in the traditional model). Also, the assignments vary in length from relatively short to an entire semester with daily instructional time structured for group work.

By working with PBL, students will:

• Become engaged with open-ended situations that assimilate the world of work
• Participate in groups to pinpoint what is known/ not known and the methods of finding information to help solve the given problem.
• Investigate a problem; through critical thinking and problem solving, brainstorm a list of unique solutions.
• Analyze the situation to see if the real problem is framed or if there are other problems that need to be solved.

How to Begin PBL

• Establish the learning outcomes (i.e., what is it that you want your students to really learn and to be able to do after completing the learning project).
• Find a real-world problem that is relevant to the students; often the problems are ones that students may encounter in their own life or future career.
• Discuss pertinent rules for working in groups to maximize learning success.
• Practice group processes: listening, involving others, assessing their work/peers.
• Explore different roles for students to accomplish the work that needs to be done and/or to see the problem from various perspectives depending on the problem (e.g., for a problem about pollution, different roles may be a mayor, business owner, parent, child, neighboring city government officials, etc.).
• Determine how the project will be evaluated and assessed. Most likely, both self-assessment and peer-assessment will factor into the assignment grade.

Designing Classroom Instruction

See also: Inclusive Teaching Strategies

• Take the curriculum and divide it into various units. Decide on the types of problems that your students will solve. These will be your objectives.
• Determine the specific problems that most likely have several answers; consider student interest.
• Arrange appropriate resources available to students; utilize other teaching personnel to support students where needed (e.g., media specialists to orientate students to electronic references).
• Decide on presentation formats to communicate learning (e.g., individual paper, group PowerPoint, an online blog, etc.) and appropriate grading mechanisms (e.g., rubric).
• Decide how to incorporate group participation (e.g., what percent, possible peer evaluation, etc.).

How to Orchestrate a PBL Activity

• Explain Problem-Based Learning to students: its rationale, daily instruction, class expectations, grading.
• Serve as a model and resource to the PBL process; work in-tandem through the first problem
• Help students secure various resources when needed.
• Supply ample class time for collaborative group work.
• Give feedback to each group after they share via the established format; critique the solution in quality and thoroughness. Reinforce to the students that the prior thinking and reasoning process in addition to the solution are important as well.

Teacher’s Role in PBL

See also: Flipped teaching

As previously mentioned, the teacher determines a problem that is interesting, relevant, and novel for the students. It also must be multi-faceted enough to engage students in doing research and finding several solutions. The problems stem from the unit curriculum and reflect possible use in future work situations.

• Determine a problem aligned with the course and your students. The problem needs to be demanding enough that the students most likely cannot solve it on their own. It also needs to teach them new skills. When sharing the problem with students, state it in a narrative complete with pertinent background information without excessive information. Allow the students to find out more details as they work on the problem.
• Place students in groups, well-mixed in diversity and skill levels, to strengthen the groups. Help students work successfully. One way is to have the students take on various roles in the group process after they self-assess their strengths and weaknesses.
• Support the students with understanding the content on a deeper level and in ways to best orchestrate the various stages of the problem-solving process.

The Role of the Students

See also: ADDIE model

The students work collaboratively on all facets of the problem to determine the best possible solution.

• Analyze the problem and the issues it presents. Break the problem down into various parts. Continue to read, discuss, and think about the problem.
• Construct a list of what is known about the problem. What do your fellow students know about the problem? Do they have any experiences related to the problem? Discuss the contributions expected from the team members. What are their strengths and weaknesses? Follow the rules of brainstorming (i.e., accept all answers without passing judgment) to generate possible solutions for the problem.
• Get agreement from the team members regarding the problem statement.
• Put the problem statement in written form.
• Solicit feedback from the teacher.
• Be open to changing the written statement based on any new learning that is found or feedback provided.
• Generate a list of possible solutions. Include relevant thoughts, ideas, and educated guesses as well as causes and possible ways to solve it. Then rank the solutions and select the solution that your group is most likely to perceive as the best in terms of meeting success.
• Include what needs to be known and done to solve the identified problems.
• Prioritize the various action steps.
• Consider how the steps impact the possible solutions.
• See if the group is in agreement with the timeline; if not, decide how to reach agreement.
• What resources are available to help (e.g., textbooks, primary/secondary sources, Internet).
• Determine research assignments per team members.
• Establish due dates.
• Determine how your group will present the problem solution and also identify the audience. Usually, in PBL, each group presents their solutions via a team presentation either to the class of other students or to those who are related to the problem.
• Both the process and the results of the learning activity need to be covered. Include the following: problem statement, questions, data gathered, data analysis, reasons for the solution(s) and/or any recommendations reflective of the data analysis.
• A well-stated problem and conclusion.
• The process undertaken by the group in solving the problem, the various options discussed, and the resources used.
• Your solution’s supporting documents, guests, interviews and their purpose to be convincing to your audience.
• In addition, be prepared for any audience comments and questions. Determine who will respond and if your team doesn’t know the answer, admit this and be open to looking into the question at a later date.
• Reflective thinking and transfer of knowledge are important components of PBL. This helps the students be more cognizant of their own learning and teaches them how to ask appropriate questions to address problems that need to be solved. It is important to look at both the individual student and the group effort/delivery throughout the entire process. From here, you can better determine what was learned and how to improve. The students should be asked how they can apply what was learned to a different situation, to their own lives, and to other course projects.

See also: Kirkpatrick Model: Four Levels of Learning Evaluation

I am a professor of Educational Technology. I have worked at several elite universities. I hold a PhD degree from the University of Illinois and a master's degree from Purdue University.

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Problem solving learning versus problem-based learning

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Medical students need problem solving training to improve patient safety

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Rapid Response:

Taking this axis into account, problem solving seems not to affect it whilst in determined context a pure PBL curriculum may do, especially in the morphophysiological stage. This exactly occurred in our medical school since 2002 onwards, leading from then on to the proposal of a hybrid format for ameliorating this failure1, 2, 3, 4

1. Carrera LI, Tellez TE, D¡¯Ottavio AE: Implementing a problem - based learning curriculum in an Argentinean medical school: implications for developing countries. Academic Medicine 78: 1-4, 2003

2. D¡¯Ottavio AE: Issues on curricular changes. Are they unique to Argentina? (Letter to the Editor) Singapore Medical Journal 48: 7: 704- 704, 2007

3. Carrera LI, Tellez TE, D¡¯Ottavio AE: A hybrid curriculum would be a more suitable format for developing countries (Response to Diana F Wood¡¯s Editorial: Problem based learning. BMJ 2008;336:971 (3 May) British Medical Journal on line 336 (7651), 3 may 2008

4. D¡¯Ottavio AE: Transformaciones curriculares: an¨¢lisis y reflexiones. Revista Elementos. 72 (15): 35-38, 2008

Competing interests: No competing interests

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Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning

Problem based learning.

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy based on the constructivist learning theory through collaboration and self-directed learning. With PBL, students create knowledge and comprehension of a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem without a defined solution. Rather than focusing on learning problem-solving, PBL allows for the development of self-directed knowledge acquisition, along with enhanced teamwork and communication skills. Although originally developed for medical education, its use has expanded to other disciplines.

With PBL, the instructor’s role is to guide and challenge the learning process, rather than provide knowledge, while students engage in knowledge construction through teamwork. In alignment with constructivist theory, PBL promotes lifelong learning through inquiry.

Advantages:

• Student-centered learning;
• Promotes self-learning and self-motivation;
• Focuses on comprehension and higher level learning, rather than facts;
• Enhances critical appraisal skills;
• Develops literature retrieval and evaluation skills;
• Develops interpersonal skills and teamwork; and
• Promotes lifelong learning

Disadvantages:

• Instructor comfort with removing themselves from the central role;
• Student lack of acceptance of a different format of learning;
• Need for assessments that measure new knowledge and skills, such as practical exams, essays, peer and self assessments; and
• Time necessary to prepare course materials and assess

During the PBL process, students work in groups of 10-15 students supported by a tutor. The students are presented with a problem and, through group collaboration, activate their prior knowledge. The group develops hypotheses to explain the problem and identify issues to be researched which will help them to construct a shared explanation of the problem. After the initial teamwork, students work independently to research the identified issues, followed by discussion with the group about their findings and creation of a final explanation of the problem based on what they learned. The cycle can be repeated as needed.

The seven steps in the Maastricht PBL process are:

• Discuss the case to ensure everyone understands the problem;
• Identify questions in need of answers to fully understand the problem;
• Brainstorm what prior knowledge the group already has and identify potential solutions;
• Analyze and structure the findings from the brainstorming session;
• Formulate learning objectives for any lacking knowledge;
• Independently, research the information necessary to achieve the learning objectives defined as a group; and
• Discuss the findings with the group to develop a collective explanation of the problem.

In PBL learning, students in the group all serve a role. The roles should alternate through students for different problems. The tutor role is typically held by a instructor or teaching assistant who facilitates learning.

• Facilitates learning by supporting and guiding;
• Monitors the learning process
• Aims to build students' confidence
• Checks group understanding
• Assesses performance
• Encourages all group members to participate
• Keeps group on topic
• Assists with group dynamics
• Assists with time keeping
• Ensures records kept by scribe are accurate
• Leads group through process
• Ensures group remains on topic
• Encourages members to participate
• Maintains group dynamics
• Ensures scribe can keep up with accurate documentation

Group Member

References and Resources:

Duch, Barbara J.; Groh, Susan; Allen, Deborah E. (2001).  The power of problem-based learning : a practical "how to" for teaching undergraduate courses in any discipline  (1st ed.). Sterling, VA: Stylus Pub.

Schmidt, Henk G; Rotgans, Jerome I; Yew, Elaine HJ (2011). "The process of problem-based learning: What works and why". Medical Education.  45  (8): 792–806.

Wood, D. F. (2003).  "ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Problem based learning"

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What is Problem-Based Learning? A Complete Guide for Educators

Published on: 11/30/2023

By Scott Winstead

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As an educator, you’re always looking for the most effective ways to help your students master the material and develop the skills they need to succeed. With so many different instructional approaches to choose from, it can be tough to decide which one is right for your class. One approach that has shown promise in a variety of educational settings is problem-based learning (PBL) — a method that involves having students work through real-world, open-ended problems and scenarios as a means of learning new concepts.

In fact, studies have shown that problem based learning is often more effective than traditional lecturing.

How can you use problem-based learning it as a teacher, instructional designer ,  course creator , or trainer? In the guide below, I’ll talk more what problem-based learning is, how it can be used in the classroom, its pros and cons, and more.

What is Problem-Based Learning?

With problem-based learning, students work on a real-world, open-ended problem or issue and try to solve it.

By challenging students to come up with solutions to real problems, they learn to think critically and creatively. They also learn to work together and communicate effectively.

This form of experienced-based education can help students better master the material and develop the skills they need to succeed in college and their careers.

In my experience, when students are engaged in problem-based learning, they tend to be more motivated and enthusiastic about learning. And they retain information better too.

When using PBL, the instructor’s role switches from the more conventional paradigm. The teacher gives relevant content, tells the class what has to be done, and offers excellent knowledge for solving a particular problem.

The instructor serves as a facilitator in PBL. The learning is student-driven, intending to address the issue (note: the problem is established at the onset of learning instead of being presented last in the traditional model). Furthermore, the tasks range from a few weeks to a semester, with daily instructional time dedicated to group work.

If you’re looking for a way to help your students learn more effectively, problem-based learning may be the answer.

How to Use Problem-Based Learning in the Classroom

There are a few different ways you can incorporate problem-based learning into your classroom.

One option is to have students work on problems individually or in small groups.

Another option is to use problem-based learning as a whole-class activity.

This is a great way to get all of your students engaged and involved in the lesson.

Before you can implement problem-based learning, you should:

• Identify what it is exactly that you want the students to learn
• Determine what real-world problem or issue you want them to solve that ties into the learning objective.
• Come up with a plan and rules for how the students will work together on the problem.
• Define how the assignment will be evaluated.

Once you have a plan in place, you can start incorporating problem-based learning into your lessons.

The Pros and Cons of Problem-Based Learning

When it comes to teaching, there’s no one-size-fits-all approach.

What works for one teacher in one classroom might not work for another teacher in a different classroom.

The same goes for problem-based learning. While this instructional approach has its benefits, there are also some potential drawbacks to consider.

Pros of Problem-Based Learning:

• Helps students learn how to think critically and solve problems
• Encourages students to be creative
• Teaches students how to work together
• Helps students learn how to communicate effectively

Cons of Problem-Based Learning:

• May be challenging for some teachers to implement
• May be too much for some students who struggle with problem-solving
• If not done correctly, can lead to students feeling overwhelmed or frustrated

Before you decide to use problem-based learning in your classroom, weigh the pros and cons to see if it’s the right instructional approach for you and your students.

Final Thoughts on Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered teaching method that encourages students to learn by actively solving real-world problems.

Unlike traditional instructional methods, PBL does not focus on delivering content but rather on facilitating student learning through problem-solving.

This type of learning has been shown to be particularly effective in promoting higher-order thinking skills such as critical thinking and creativity.

In addition, PBL can help to build students’ confidence and self-efficacy as they learn to tackle challenging problems.

For teachers, PBL can be a useful tool for differentiating instruction and meeting the needs of all learners.

When designed and implemented effectively, PBL can provide an engaging and rewarding learning experience for both teachers and students.

Other Useful Resources

• What is Adaptive Learning?
• What is Inquiry Based Learning?
• What is Just in Time Learning?
• What is Microlearning?
• What is Project Based Learning?
• What is Service Learning?

Do you have any experience using problem-based learning in your classroom? Share your thoughts by leaving a comment below.

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• Establishing Community Agreements and Classroom Norms
• Sample group work rubric
• Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse of Activities, University of Delaware

Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning  (PBL) is a student-centered approach in which students learn about a subject by working in groups to solve an open-ended problem. This problem is what drives the motivation and the learning. 

Why Use Problem-Based Learning?

Nilson (2010) lists the following learning outcomes that are associated with PBL. A well-designed PBL project provides students with the opportunity to develop skills related to:

• Working in teams.
• Managing projects and holding leadership roles.
• Oral and written communication.
• Self-awareness and evaluation of group processes.
• Working independently.
• Critical thinking and analysis.
• Explaining concepts.
• Self-directed learning.
• Applying course content to real-world examples.
• Researching and information literacy.
• Problem solving across disciplines.

Considerations for Using Problem-Based Learning

Rather than teaching relevant material and subsequently having students apply the knowledge to solve problems, the problem is presented first. PBL assignments can be short, or they can be more involved and take a whole semester. PBL is often group-oriented, so it is beneficial to set aside classroom time to prepare students to   work in groups  and to allow them to engage in their PBL project.

Students generally must:

• Examine and define the problem.
• Explore what they already know about underlying issues related to it.
• Determine what they need to learn and where they can acquire the information and tools necessary to solve the problem.
• Evaluate possible ways to solve the problem.
• Solve the problem.
• Report on their findings.

Getting Started with Problem-Based Learning

• Articulate the learning outcomes of the project. What do you want students to know or be able to do as a result of participating in the assignment?
• Create the problem. Ideally, this will be a real-world situation that resembles something students may encounter in their future careers or lives. Cases are often the basis of PBL activities. Previously developed PBL activities can be found online through the University of Delaware’s PBL Clearinghouse of Activities .
• Establish ground rules at the beginning to prepare students to work effectively in groups.
• Introduce students to group processes and do some warm up exercises to allow them to practice assessing both their own work and that of their peers.
• Consider having students take on different roles or divide up the work up amongst themselves. Alternatively, the project might require students to assume various perspectives, such as those of government officials, local business owners, etc.
• Establish how you will evaluate and assess the assignment. Consider making the self and peer assessments a part of the assignment grade.

Nilson, L. B. (2010).  Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors  (2nd ed.).  San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

• About IJPBL

Home > Libraries > LIBRARIESPUBLISHING > PUPOAJ > IJPBL > Vol. 1 (2006) > Iss. 1

Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions

John R. Savery Follow

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional approach that has been used successfully for over 30 years and continues to gain acceptance in multiple disciplines. It is an instructional (and curricular) learner-centered approach that empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem. This overview presents a brief history, followed by a discussion of the similarities and differences between PBL and other experiential approaches to teaching, and identifies some of the challenges that lie ahead for PBL.

Recommended Citation

Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1 (1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1002

Since May 22, 2006

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Project-Based Learning vs. Problem-Based Learning vs. X-BL

At the Buck Institute for Education (BIE), we've been keeping a list of the many types of "_____- based learning" we've run across over the years:

• Case-based learning
• Challenge-based learning
• Community-based learning
• Design-based learning
• Game-based learning
• Inquiry-based learning
• Land-based learning
• Passion-based learning
• Place-based learning
• Problem-based learning
• Proficiency-based learning
• Service-based learning
• Studio-based learning
• Team-based learning
• Work-based learning

. . . and our new fave . . .

• Zombie-based learning (look it up!)

Let's Try to Sort This Out

The term "project learning" derives from the work of John Dewey and dates back to William Kilpatrick, who first used the term in 1918. At BIE, we see project-based learning as a broad category which, as long as there is an extended "project" at the heart of it, could take several forms or be a combination of:

• Designing and/or creating a tangible product, performance or event
• Solving a real-world problem (may be simulated or fully authentic)
• Investigating a topic or issue to develop an answer to an open-ended question

So according to our "big tent" model of PBL, some of the newer "X-BLs" -- problem-, challenge- and design-based -- are basically modern versions of the same concept. They feature, to varying degrees, all of BIE's Essential Elements of PBL , although each has its own distinct flavor. (And by the way, each of these three, along with project-based learning, falls under the general category of inquiry-based learning -- which also includes research papers, scientific investigations, Socratic Seminars or other text-based discussions, etc. The other X-BLs might involve some inquiry, too, but now we're getting into the weeds . . .)

Other X-BLs are so named because they use a specific context for learning, such as a particular place or type of activity. They may contain projects within them, or have some of the 8 Essential Elements, but not necessarily. For example, within a community- or service-based learning experience, students may plan and conduct a project that improves their local community or helps the people in it, but they may also do other activities that are not part of a project. Conversely, students may learn content and skills via a game-based or work-based program that does not involve anything like what we would call a PBL-style project.

Problem-Based Learning vs. Project-Based Learning

Because they have the same acronym, we get a lot of questions about the similarities and differences between the two PBLs. We even had questions ourselves -- some years ago we created units for high school economics and government that we called "problem-based." But we later changed the name to " Project-Based Economics " and " Project-Based Government " to eliminate confusion about which PBL it was.

We decided to call problem-based learning a subset of project-based learning -- that is, one of the ways a teacher could frame a project is "to solve a problem." But problem-BL does have its own history and set of typically-followed procedures, which are more formally observed than in other types of projects. The use of case studies and simulations as "problems" dates back to medical schools in the 1960s, and problem-BL is still more often seen in the post-secondary world than in K-12, where project-BL is more common.

Problem-based learning typically follow prescribed steps:

• Presentation of an "ill-structured" (open-ended, "messy") problem
• Problem definition or formulation (the problem statement)
• Generation of a "knowledge inventory" (a list of "what we know about the problem" and "what we need to know")
• Generation of possible solutions
• Formulation of learning issues for self-directed and coached learning
• Sharing of findings and solutions

If you're a project-BL teacher, this probably looks pretty familiar, even though the process goes by different names. Other than the framing and the more formalized steps in problem-BL, there's really not much conceptual difference between the two PBLs -- it’s more a question of style and scope:

A Note on Math and the Two PBLs

Teachers at some K-12 schools that use project-BL as a primary instructional method, such as the New Technology Network and Envision Schools , have begun saying that they use problem-BL for math. Especially at the secondary level, teaching math primarily through multi-disciplinary projects has proved challenging. (Not that occasional multi-disciplinary projects including math are a bad idea!) By using problem-BL, these teachers feel they can design single-subject math projects -- aka "problems" -- that effectively teach more math content by being more limited in scope than many typical project-BL units. Tackling a "problem," for example, may not involve as much independent student inquiry, nor the creation of a complex product for presentation to a public audience.

How Does This Tale of Two PBLs End?

One could argue that completing any type of project involves solving a problem. If students are investigating an issue -- say, immigration policy -- the problem is deciding where they stand on it and how to communicate their views to a particular audience in a video. Or if students are building a new play structure for a playground, the problem is how to build it properly, given the users' wants and needs and the various constraints of safe, approved construction. Or even if they're writing stories for a book to be published about the Driving Question "How do we grow up?", the problem is how to express a unique, rich answer to the question.

So the semantics aren't worth worrying about, at least not for very long. The two PBLs are really two sides of the same coin. What type of PBL you decide to call your, er . . . extended learning experience just depends on how you frame it. The bottom line is the same: both PBLs can powerfully engage and effectively teach your students!

Problem-Based Learning and Case-Based Learning

• Reference work entry
• First Online: 17 December 2022
• pp 1235–1253
• Cite this reference work entry

• Joerg Zumbach 5 &
• Claudia Prescher 6  

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE))

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Problem-based learning (PBL) is a learner-centered small-group learning approach that supports active learning. This chapter provides core definitions of PBL and other forms of case-based learning. To be precise, several aspects of designing PBL are described, such as problem design, process structure, small-group learning, tutoring, and others. Research and evaluation of PBL compared to traditional approaches are summarized mostly based on meta-analyses.

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Zumbach, J., Prescher, C. (2023). Problem-Based Learning and Case-Based Learning. In: Zumbach, J., Bernstein, D.A., Narciss, S., Marsico, G. (eds) International Handbook of Psychology Learning and Teaching. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28745-0_58

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Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review

Azril shahreez abdul ghani.

1 Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Kulliyah of Medicine, Bandar Indera Mahkota Campus, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan, 25200 Pahang Malaysia

2 Department of Medical Education, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kota Bharu, 16150 Kelantan Malaysia

Ahmad Fuad Abdul Rahim

Muhamad saiful bahri yusoff, siti nurma hanim hadie.

3 Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, 16150 Kota Bharu, Kelantan Malaysia

Problem-based learning (PBL) emphasizes learning behavior that leads to critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaborative skills in preparing students for a professional medical career. However, learning behavior that develops these skills has not been systematically described. This review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in a PBL context, using the protocol by Arksey and O’Malley. The protocol identified the research question, selected relevant studies, charted and collected data, and collated, summarized, and reported results. We discovered three categories of elements—intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills—proven effective in the achievement of learning outcomes in PBL.

Introduction

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an educational approach that utilizes the principles of collaborative learning in small groups, first introduced by McMaster Medical University [ 1 ]. The shift of the higher education curriculum from traditional, lecture-based approaches to an integrated, student-centered approach was triggered by concern over the content-driven nature of medical knowledge with minimal clinical application [ 2 ]. The PBL pedagogy uses a systematic approach, starting with an authentic, real-life problem scenario as a context in which learning is not separated from practice as students collaborate and learn [ 3 ]. The tutor acts as a facilitator who guides the students’ learning, while students are required to solve the problems by discussing them with group members [ 4 ]. The essential aspect of the PBL process is the ability of the students to recognize their current knowledge, determine the gaps in their knowledge and experience, and acquire new knowledge to bridge the gaps [ 5 ]. PBL is a holistic approach that gives students an active role in their learning.

Since its inception, PBL has been used in many undergraduate and postgraduate degree programs, such as medicine [ 6 , 7 ], nursing [ 8 ], social work education [ 9 ], law [ 10 ], architecture [ 11 ], economics [ 12 ], business [ 13 ], science [ 14 ], and engineering [ 15 ]. It has also been applied in elementary and secondary education [ 16 – 18 ]. Despite its many applications, its implementation is based on a single universal workflow framework that contains three elements: problem as the initiator for learning, tutor as a facilitator in the group versions, and group work as a stimulus for collaborative interaction [ 19 ]. However, there are various versions of PBL workflow, such as the seven-step technique based on the Maastricht “seven jumps” process. The tutor’s role is to ensure the achievement of learning objectives and to assess students’ performance [ 20 , 21 ].

The PBL process revolves around four types of learning principles: constructive, self-directed, collaborative, and contextual [ 19 ]. Through the constructive learning process, the students are encouraged to think about what is already known and integrate their prior knowledge with their new understanding. This process helps the student understand the content, form a new opinion, and acquire new knowledge [ 22 ]. The PBL process encourages students to become self-directed learners who plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning, enabling them to become lifelong learners [ 23 ]. The contextualized collaborative learning process also promotes interaction among students, who share similar responsibilities to achieve common goals relevant to the learning context [ 24 ]. By exchanging ideas and providing feedback during the learning session, the students can attain a greater understanding of the subject matter [ 25 ].

Dolmans et al. [ 19 ] pointed out two issues related to the implementation of PBL: dominant facilitators and dysfunctional PBL groups. These problems inhibit students’ self-directed learning and reduce their satisfaction level with the PBL session. A case study by Eryilmaz [ 26 ] that evaluated engineering students’ and tutors’ experience of PBL discovered that PBL increased the students’ self-confidence and improved essential skills such as problem-solving, communications, critical thinking, and collaboration. Although most of the participants in the study found PBL satisfactory, many complained about the tutor’s poor guidance and lack of preparation. Additionally, it was noted that 64% of the first-year students were unable to adapt to the PBL system because they had been accustomed to conventional learning settings and that 43% of students were not adequately prepared for the sessions and thus were minimally involved in the discussion.

In a case study by Cónsul-giribet [ 27 ], newly graduated nursing professionals reported a lack of perceived theoretical basic science knowledge at the end of their program, despite learning through PBL. The nurses perceived that this lack of knowledge might affect their expertise, identity, and professional image.

Likewise, a study by McKendree [ 28 ] reported the outcomes of a workshop that explored the strengths and weaknesses of PBL in an allied health sciences curriculum in the UK. The workshop found that problems related to PBL were mainly caused by students, the majority of whom came from conventional educational backgrounds either during high school or their first degree. They felt anxious when they were involved in PBL, concerned about “not knowing when to stop” in exploring the learning needs. Apart from a lack of basic science knowledge, the knowledge acquired during PBL sessions remains unorganized [ 29 ]. Hence, tutors must guide students in overcoming this situation by instilling appropriate insights and essential skills for the achievement of the learning outcomes [ 30 ]. It was also evident that the combination of intention and motivation to learn and desirable learning behavior determined the quality of learning outcomes [ 31 , 32 ]. However, effective learning behaviors that help develop these skills have not been systematically described. Thus, this scoping review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in the PBL context.

Scoping Review Protocol

This scoping review was performed using a protocol by Arksey and O’Malley [ 33 ]. The protocol comprises five phases: (i) identification of research questions, (ii) identification of relevant articles, (iii) selection of relevant studies, (iv) data collection and charting, and (v) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results.

Identification of Research Questions

This scoping review was designed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior that can be generated from learning through PBL instruction. The review aimed to answer one research question: “What are the effective learning behavior elements related to PBL?” For the purpose of the review, an operational definition of effective learning behavior was constructed, whereby it was defined as any learning behavior that is related to PBL instruction and has been shown to successfully attain the desired learning outcomes (i.e., cognitive, skill, or affective)—either quantitatively or qualitatively—in any intervention conducted in higher education institutions.

The positive outcome variables include student viewpoint or perception, student learning experience and performance, lecturer viewpoint and expert judgment, and other indirect variables that may be important indicators of successful PBL learning (i.e., attendance to PBL session, participation in PBL activity, number of interactions in PBL activity, and improvement in communication skills in PBL).

Identification of Relevant Articles

An extensive literature search was conducted on articles published in English between 2015 and 2019. Three databases—Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed—were used for the literature search. Seven search terms with the Boolean combination were used, whereby the keywords were identified from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) databases. The search terms were tested and refined with multiple test searches. The final search terms with the Boolean operation were as follows: “problem-based learning” AND (“learning behavior” OR “learning behaviour”) AND (student OR “medical students” OR undergraduate OR “medical education”).

Selection of Relevant Articles

The articles from the three databases were exported manually into Microsoft Excel. The duplicates were removed, and the remaining articles were reviewed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. These criteria were tested on titles and abstracts to ensure their robustness in capturing the articles related to learning behavior in PBL. The shortlisted articles were reviewed by two independent researchers, and a consensus was reached either to accept or reject each article based on the set criteria. When a disagreement occurred between the two reviewers, the particular article was re-evaluated independently by the third and fourth researchers (M.S.B.Y and A.F.A.R), who have vast experience in conducting qualitative research. The sets of criteria for selecting abstracts and final articles were developed. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are listed in Table ​ Table1 1 .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Data Charting

The selected final articles were reviewed, and several important data were extracted to provide an objective summary of the review. The extracted data were charted in a table, including the (i) title of the article, (ii) author(s), (iii) year of publication, (iv) aim or purpose of the study, (v) study design and method, (iv) intervention performed, and (v) study population and sample size.

Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

A content analysis was performed to identify the elements of effective learning behaviors in the literature by A.S.A.G and S.N.H.H, who have experience in conducting qualitative studies. The initial step of content analysis was to read the selected articles thoroughly to gain a general understanding of the articles and extract the elements of learning behavior which are available in the articles. Next, the elements of learning behavior that fulfil the inclusion criteria were extracted. The selected elements that were related to each other through their content or context were grouped into subtheme categories. Subsequently, the combinations of several subthemes expressing similar underlying meanings were grouped into themes. Each of the themes and subthemes was given a name, which was operationally defined based on the underlying elements. The selected themes and subthemes were presented to the independent researchers in the team (M.S.B.Y and A.F.A.R), and a consensus was reached either to accept or reformulate each of the themes and subthemes. The flow of the scoping review methods for this study is illustrated in Fig.  1 .

The flow of literature search and article selection

Literature Search

Based on the keyword search, 1750 articles were obtained. Duplicate articles that were not original articles found in different databases and resources were removed. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria of title selection, the eligibility of 1750 abstracts was evaluated. The articles that did not fulfil the criteria were removed, leaving 328 articles for abstract screening. A total of 284 articles were screened according to the eligibility criteria for abstract selection. Based on these criteria, 284 articles were selected and screened according to the eligibility criteria for full article selection. Fourteen articles were selected for the final review. The information about these articles is summarized in Table ​ Table2 2 .

Studies characteristics

Study Characteristics

The final 14 articles were published between 2015 and 2019. The majority of the studies were conducted in Western Asian countries ( n  = 4), followed by China ( n  = 3), European countries ( n  = 2), Thailand ( n  = 2), Indonesia ( n  = 1), Singapore ( n  = 1), and South Africa ( n  = 1). Apart from traditional PBL, some studies incorporated other pedagogic modalities into their PBL sessions, such as online learning, blended learning, and gamification. The majority of the studies targeted a single-profession learner group, and one study was performed on mixed interprofessional health education learners.

Results of Thematic Analysis

The thematic analysis yielded three main themes of effective learning behavior: intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills. Intrinsic empowerment overlies four proposed subthemes: proactivity, organization, diligence, and resourcefulness. For entrustment, there were four underlying subthemes: students as assessors, students as teachers, feedback-giving, and feedback-receiving. The functional skills theme contains four subthemes: time management, digital proficiency, data management, and collaboration.

Theme 1: Intrinsic Empowerment

Intrinsic empowerment enforces student learning behavior that can facilitate the achievement of learning outcomes. By empowering the development of these behaviors, students can become lifelong learners [ 34 ]. The first element of intrinsic empowerment is proactive behavior. In PBL, the students must be proactive in analyzing problems [ 35 , 36 ] and their learning needs [ 35 , 37 ], and this can be done by integrating prior knowledge and previous experience through a brainstorming session [ 35 , 38 ]. The students must be proactive in seeking guidance to ensure they stay focused and confident [ 39 , 40 ]. Finding ways to integrate content from different disciplines [ 35 , 41 ], formulate new explanations based on known facts [ 34 , 35 , 41 ], and incorporate hands-on activity [ 35 , 39 , 42 ] during a PBL session are also proactive behaviors.

The second element identified is “being organized” which reflects the ability of students to systematically manage their roles [ 43 ], ideas, and learning needs [ 34 ]. The students also need to understand the task for each learning role in PBL, such as chairperson or leader, scribe, recorder, and reflector. This role needs to be assigned appropriately to ensure that all members take part in the discussion [ 43 ]. Similarly, when discussing ideas or learning needs, the students need to follow the steps in the PBL process and organize and prioritize the information to ensure that the issues are discussed systematically and all aspects of the problems are covered accordingly [ 34 , 37 ]. This team organization and systematic thought process is an effective way for students to focus, plan, and finalize their learning tasks.

The third element of intrinsic empowerment is “being diligent.” Students must consistently conduct self-revision [ 40 ] and keep track of their learning plan to ensure the achievement of their learning goal [ 4 , 40 ]. The students must also be responsible for completing any given task and ensuring good understanding prior to their presentation [ 40 ]. Appropriate actions need to be undertaken to find solutions to unsolved problems [ 40 , 44 ]. This effort will help them think critically and apply their knowledge for problem-solving.

The fourth element identified is “being resourceful.” Students should be able to acquire knowledge from different resources, which include external resources (i.e., lecture notes, textbooks, journal articles, audiovisual instructions, the Internet) [ 38 , 40 , 45 ] and internal resources (i.e., students’ prior knowledge or experience) [ 35 , 39 ]. The resources must be evidence-based, and thus should be carefully selected by evaluating their cross-references and appraising them critically [ 37 ]. Students should also be able to understand and summarize the learned materials and explain them using their own words [ 4 , 34 ]. The subthemes of the intrinsic empowerment theme are summarized in Table ​ Table3 3 .

 Intrinsic empowerment subtheme with the learning behavior elements

Theme 2: Entrustment

Entrustment emphasizes the various roles of students in PBL that can promote effective learning. The first entrusted role identified is “student as an assessor.” This means that students evaluate their own performance in PBL [ 46 ]. The evaluation of their own performance must be based on the achievement of the learning outcomes and reflect actual understanding of the content as well as the ability to apply the learned information in problem-solving [ 46 ].

The second element identified in this review is “student as a teacher.” To ensure successful peer teaching in PBL, students need to comprehensively understand the content of the learning materials and summarize the content in an organized manner. The students should be able to explain the gist of the discussed information using their own words [ 4 , 34 ] and utilize teaching methods to cater to differences in learning styles (i.e., visual, auditory, and kinesthetic) [ 41 ]. These strategies help capture their group members’ attention and evoke interactive discussions among them.

The third element of entrustment is to “give feedback.” Students should try giving constructive feedback on individual and group performance in PBL. Feedback on individual performance must reflect the quality of the content and task presented in the PBL. Feedback on group performance should reflect the ways in which the group members communicate and complete the group task [ 47 ]. To ensure continuous constructive feedback, students should be able to generate feedback questions beforehand and immediately deliver them during the PBL sessions [ 44 , 47 ]. In addition, the feedback must include specific measures for improvement to help their peers to take appropriate action for the future [ 47 ].

The fourth element of entrustment is “receive feedback.” Students should listen carefully to the feedback given and ask questions to clarify the feedback [ 47 ]. They need to be attentive and learn to deal with negative feedback [ 47 ]. Also, if the student does not receive feedback, they should request it either from peers or teachers and ask specific questions, such as what aspects to improve and how to improve [ 47 ]. The data on the subthemes of the entrustment theme are summarized in Table ​ Table4 4 .

Entrustment subtheme with the learning behavior elements

Theme 3: Functional Skills

Functional skills refer to essential skills that can help students learn independently and competently. The first element identified is time management skills. In PBL, students must know how to prioritize learning tasks according to the needs and urgency of the tasks [ 40 ]. To ensure that students can self-pace their learning, a deadline should be set for each learning task within a manageable and achievable learning schedule [ 40 ].

Furthermore, students should have digital proficiency, the ability to utilize digital devices to support learning [ 38 , 40 , 44 ]. The student needs to know how to operate basic software (e.g., Words and PowerPoints) and the basic digital tools (i.e., social media, cloud storage, simulation, and online community learning platforms) to support their learning [ 39 , 40 ]. These skills are important for peer learning activities, which may require information sharing, information retrieval, online peer discussion, and online peer feedback [ 38 , 44 ].

The third functional skill identified is data management, the ability to collect key information in the PBL trigger and analyze that information to support the solution in a problem-solving activity [ 39 ]. Students need to work either individually or in a group to collect the key information from a different trigger or case format such as text lines, an interview, an investigation, or statistical results [ 39 ]. Subsequently, students also need to analyze the information and draw conclusions based on their analysis [ 39 ].

The fourth element of functional skill is collaboration. Students need to participate equally in the PBL discussion [ 41 , 46 ]. Through discussion, confusion and queries can be addressed and resolved by listening, respecting others’ viewpoints, and responding professionally [ 35 , 39 , 43 , 44 ]. In addition, the students need to learn from each other and reflect on their performance [ 48 ]. Table ​ Table5 5 summarizes the data on the subthemes of the functional skills theme.

Functional skills subtheme with the learning behavior elements

This scoping review outlines three themes of effective learning behavior elements in the PBL context: intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills. Hence, it is evident from this review that successful PBL instruction demands students’ commitment to empower themselves with value-driven behaviors, skills, and roles.

In this review, intrinsic empowerment is viewed as enforcement of students’ internal strength in performing positive learning behaviors related to PBL. This theme requires the student to proactively engage in the learning process, organize their learning activities systematically, persevere in learning, and be intelligently resourceful. One of the elements of intrinsic empowerment is the identification and analysis of problems related to complex scenarios. This element is aligned with a study by Meyer [ 49 ], who observed students’ engagement in problem identification and clarification prior to problem-solving activities in a PBL session related to multiple engineering design. Rubenstein and colleagues [ 50 ] discovered in a semi-structured interview the importance of undergoing a problem identification process before proposing a solution during learning. It was reported that the problem identification process in PBL may enhance the attainment of learning outcomes, specifically in the domain of concept understanding [ 51 ].

The ability of the students to acquire and manage learning resources is essential for building their understanding of the learned materials and enriching discussion among team members during PBL. This is aligned with a study by Jeong and Hmelo-Silver [ 52 ], who studied the use of learning resources by students in PBL. The study concluded that in a resource-rich environment, the students need to learn how to access and understand the resources to ensure effective learning. Secondly, they need to process the content of the resources, integrate various resources, and apply them in problem-solving activities. Finally, they need to use the resources in collaborative learning activities, such as sharing and relating to peer resources.

Wong [ 53 ] documented that excellent students spent considerably more time managing academic resources than low achievers. The ability of the student to identify and utilize their internal learning resources, such as prior knowledge and experience, is also important. A study by Lee et al. [ 54 ] has shown that participants with high domain-specific prior knowledge displayed a more systematic approach and high accuracy in visual and motor reactions in solving problems compared to novice learners.

During the discussion phase in PBL, organizing ideas—e.g., arranging relevant information gathered from the learning resources into relevant categories—is essential for communicating the idea clearly [ 34 ]. This finding is in line with a typology study conducted by Larue [ 55 ] on second-year nursing students’ learning strategies during a group discussion. The study discovered that although the content presented by the student is adequate, they unable to make further progress in the group discussion until they are instructed by the tutor on how to organize the information given into a category [ 55 ].

Hence, the empowerment of student intrinsic behavior may enhance students’ learning in PBL by allowing them to make a decision in their learning objectives and instilling confidence in them to achieve goals. A study conducted by Kirk et al. [ 56 ] proved that highly empowered students obtain better grades, increase learning participation, and target higher educational aspirations.

Entrustment is the learning role given to students to be engaging and identify gaps in their learning. This theme requires the student to engage in self-assessment, prepare to teach others, give constructive feedback, and value the feedback received. One of the elements of entrustment is the ability to self-assess. In a study conducted by Mohd et al. [ 57 ] looking at the factors in PBL that can strengthen the capability of IT students, they discovered that one of the critical factors that contribute to these skills is the ability of the student to perform self-assessment in PBL. As mentioned by Daud, Kassim, and Daud [ 58 ], the self-assessment may be more reliable if the assessment is performed based on the objectives set beforehand and if the criteria of the assessment are understood by the learner. This is important to avoid the fact that the result of the self-assessment is influenced by the students’ perception of themselves rather than reflecting their true performance. However, having an assessment based on the learning objective only focuses on the immediate learning requirements in the PBL. To foster lifelong learning skills, it should also be balanced with the long-term focus of assessment, such as utilizing the assessment to foster the application of knowledge in solving real-life situations. This is aligned with the review by Boud and Falchikov [ 59 ] suggesting that students need to become assessors within the concept of participation in practice, that is, the kind that is within the context of real life and work.

The second subtheme of entrustment is “students as a teacher” in PBL. In our review, the student needs to be well prepared with the teaching materials. A cross-sectional study conducted by Charoensakulchai and colleagues discovered that student preparation is considered among the important factors in PBL success, alongside other factors such as “objective and contents,” “student assessment,” and “attitude towards group work” [ 60 ]. This is also aligned with a study conducted by Sukrajh [ 61 ] using focus group discussion on fifth-year medical students to explore their perception of preparedness before conducting peer teaching activity. In this study, the student in the focus group expressed that the preparation made them more confident in teaching others because preparing stimulated them to activate and revise prior knowledge, discover their knowledge gaps, construct new knowledge, reflect on their learning, improve their memory, inspire them to search several resources, and motivate them to learn the topics.

The next element of “student as a teacher” is using various learning styles to teach other members in the group. A study conducted by Almomani [ 62 ] showed that the most preferred learning pattern by the high school student is the visual pattern, followed by auditory pattern and then kinesthetic. However, in the university setting, Hamdani [ 63 ] discovered that students prefer a combination of the three learning styles. Anbarasi [ 64 ] also explained that incorporating teaching methods based on the student’s preferred learning style further promotes active learning among the students and significantly improved the long-term retrieval of knowledge. However, among the three learning styles group, he discovered that the kinesthetic group with the kinesthetic teaching method showed a significantly higher post-test score compared to the traditional group with the didactic teaching method, and he concluded that this is because of the involvement of more active learning activity in the kinesthetic group.

The ability of students to give constructive feedback on individual tasks is an important element in promoting student contribution in PBL because feedback from peers or teachers is needed to reassure themselves that they are on the right track in the learning process. Kamp et al. [ 65 ] performed a study on the effectiveness of midterm peer feedback on student individual cognitive, collaborative, and motivational contributions in PBL. The experimental group that received midterm peer feedback combined with goal-setting with face-to-face discussion showed an increased amount of individual contributions in PBL. Another element of effective feedback is that the feedback is given immediately after the observed behavior. Parikh and colleagues survey student feedback in PBL environments among 103 final-year medical students in five Ontario schools, including the University of Toronto, McMaster University, Queens University, the University of Ottawa, and the University of Western Ontario. They discovered that there was a dramatic difference between McMaster University and other universities in the immediacy of feedback they practiced. Seventy percent of students at McMaster reported receiving immediate feedback in PBL, compared to less than 40 percent of students from the other universities, in which most of them received feedback within one week or several weeks after the PBL had been conducted [ 66 ]. Another study, conducted among students of the International Medical University of Kuala Lumpur examining the student expectation on feedback, discovered that immediate feedback is effective if the feedback is in written form, simple but focused on the area of improvement, and delivered by a content expert. If the feedback is delivered by a content non-expert and using a model answer, it must be supplemented with teacher dialogue sessions to clarify the feedback received [ 67 ].

Requesting feedback from peers and teachers is an important element of the PBL learning environment, enabling students to discover their learning gaps and ways to fill them. This is aligned with a study conducted by de Jong and colleagues [ 68 ], who discovered that high-performing students are more motivated to seek feedback than low-performing students. The main reason for this is because high-performing students seek feedback as a tool to learn from, whereas low-performing students do so as an academic requirement. This resulted in high-performing students collecting more feedback. A study by Bose and Gijselaers [ 69 ] examined the factors that promote feedback-seeking behavior in medical residency. They discovered that feedback-seeking behavior can be promoted by providing residents with high-quality feedback to motivate them to ask for feedback for improvement.

By assigning an active role to students as teachers, assessors, and feedback providers, teachers give them the ownership and responsibility to craft their learning. The learner will then learn the skills to monitor and reflect on their learning to achieve academic success. Furthermore, an active role encourages students to be evaluative experts in their own learning, and promoting deep learning [ 70 ].

Functional skills refer to essential abilities for competently performing a task in PBL. This theme requires the student to organize and plan time for specific learning tasks, be digitally literate, use data effectively to support problem-solving, and work together efficiently to achieve agreed objectives. One of the elements in this theme is to have a schedule of learning tasks with deadlines. In a study conducted by Tadjer and colleagues [ 71 ], they discovered that setting deadlines with a restricted time period in a group activity improved students’ cognitive abilities and soft skills. Although the deadline may initially cause anxiety, coping with it encourages students to become more creative and energetic in performing various learning strategies [ 72 , 73 ]. Ballard et al. [ 74 ] reported that students tend to work harder to complete learning tasks if they face multiple deadlines.

The students also need to be digitally literate—i.e., able to demonstrate the use of technological devices and tools in PBL. Taradi et al. [ 75 ] discovered that incorporating technology in learning—blending web technology with PBL—removes time and place barriers in the creation of a collaborative environment. It was found that students who participated in web discussions achieved a significantly higher mean grade on a physiology final examination than those who used traditional methods. Also, the incorporation of an online platform in PBL can facilitate students to develop investigation and inquiry skills with high-level cognitive thought processes, which is crucial to successful problem-solving [ 76 ].

In PBL, students need to work collaboratively with their peers to solve problems. A study by Hidayati et al. [ 77 ] demonstrated that effective collaborative skills improve cognitive learning outcomes and problem-solving ability among students who undergo PBL integrated with digital mind maps. To ensure successful collaborative learning in PBL, professional communication among students is pertinent. Research by Zheng and Huang [ 78 ] has proven that co-regulation (i.e., warm and responsive communication that provides support to peers) improved collaborative effort and group performance among undergraduate and master’s students majoring in education and psychology. This is also in line with a study by Maraj and colleagues [ 79 ], which showed the strong team interaction within the PBL group leads to a high level of team efficacy and academic self-efficacy. Moreover, strengthening communication competence, such as by developing negotiation skills among partners during discussion sessions, improves student scores [ 80 ].

PBL also includes opportunities for students to learn from each other (i.e., peer learning). A study by Maraj et al. [ 79 ] discovered that the majority of the students in their study perceived improvement in their understanding of the learned subject when they learned from each other. Another study by Lyonga [ 81 ] documented the successful formation of cohesive group learning, where students could express and share their ideas with their friends and help each other. It was suggested that each student should be paired with a more knowledgeable student who has mastered certain learning components to promote purposeful structured learning within the group.

From this scoping review, it is clear that functional skills equip the students with abilities and knowledge needed for successful PBL. Studies have shown that strong time management skills, digital literacy, data management, and collaborative skills lead to positive academic achievement [ 77 , 82 , 83 ].

Limitation of the Study

This scoping review is aimed to capture the recent effective learning behavior in problem-based learning; therefore, the literature before 2015 was not included. Without denying the importance of publication before 2015, we are relying on Okoli and Schabram [ 84 ] who highlighted the impossibility of retrieving all the published articles when conducting a literature search. Based on this ground, we decided to focus on the time frame between 2015 and 2019, which is aligned with the concepts of study maturity (i.e., the more mature the field, the higher the published articles and therefore more topics were investigated) by Kraus et al. [ 85 ]. In fact, it was noted that within this time frame, a significant number of articles have been found as relevant to PBL with the recent discovery of effective learning behavior. Nevertheless, our time frame did not include the timing of the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic outbreak, which began at the end of 2019. Hence, we might miss some important elements of learning behavior that are required for the successful implementation of PBL during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Surprisingly, the results obtained from this study are also applicable for the PBL sessions administration during the COVID-19 pandemic situation as one of the functional skills identified is digital proficiency. This skill is indeed important for the successful implementation of online PBL session.

This review identified the essential learning behaviors required for effective PBL in higher education and clustered them into three main themes: (i) intrinsic empowerment, (ii) entrustment, and (iii) functional skills. These learning behaviors must coexist to ensure the achievement of desired learning outcomes. In fact, the findings of this study indicated two important implications for future practice. Firstly, the identified learning behaviors can be incorporated as functional elements in the PBL framework and implementation. Secondly, the learning behaviors change and adaption can be considered to be a new domain of formative assessment related to PBL. It is noteworthy to highlight that these learning behaviors could help in fostering the development of lifelong skills for future workplace challenges. Nevertheless, considerably more work should be carried out to design a solid guideline on how to systematically adopt the learning behaviors in PBL sessions, especially during this COVID-19 pandemic situation.

This study was supported by Postgraduate Incentive Grant-PhD (GIPS-PhD, grant number: 311/PPSP/4404803).

Declarations

The study has received an ethical approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia.

No informed consent required for the scoping review.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Principles of problem-based learning (pbl) in stem education: using expert wisdom and research to frame educational practice.

1. Introduction

• Building teacher knowledge, skills, and confidence in STEM teaching and learning, and
• Implementing useful and useable models of STEM education that focus on the pedagogical practices that underpin STEM as an integrated, cohesive, and meaningful approach to learning is something that is missing in the current educational landscape.

2. Literature Review

2.1. stem education.

STEM education is an interdisciplinary approach to learning which removes the traditional barriers separating the four disciplines of science, technology, engineering and mathematics and integrates them into real-world, rigorous, relevant learning experiences for students. (p. 4)

2.2. Origins of Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

• construct an extensive and flexible knowledge base,
• develop effective problem-solving skills,
• develop self-directed lifelong learning skills,
• become effective collaborators, and
• become intrinsically motivated to learn [ 12 ].

2.3. Summary—Linking PBL and STEM Education

3. methodology, 3.1. participant recruitment and selection, 3.2. approach.

• Why use PBL? (Why is it important? What does it have to offer?)
• What makes a good problem for PBL?
• When planning a PBL experience, what needs to be considered? (Is a team-teaching approach necessary? How should groups be formed? How do you anticipate resources that will be needed?)
• What are the important roles for the teacher and the student when engaging in PBL?
• What are some of the challenges in implementing PBL?
• As educators, we often talk about engagement from a cognitive, affective and behavioural perspective. What does PBL have to offer in terms of student and teacher engagement?
• What outcomes could be expected from engaging in a PBL process?
• What would be the success indicators for a successful PBL experience?
• We are developing a pedagogical framework for PBL in STEM education for years 6–10 (ages 11–15 years). The siloed nature of the school curriculum can present many barriers to implementing PBL. How might such barriers be overcome? What else should we consider in developing a pedagogical framework for PBL in school-based STEM education?

4.1. Theme 1: The Nature of Learning in PBL

4.1.1. learning as a process.

“It’s (PBL) more about the process of how they approach the learning, and not the product. So, understanding that problems are not something that you can solve step by step, but rather it’s something that you can try to understand first, and then when you understand it you start trying different things to approach the problem. And that reflection on what you’re doing and the result and what you need to do next, and where to find information, and what questions to ask... that’s what helps with this as a learning strategy.” (Focus Group 1)

“...a scenario (in medicine)…is the trigger for learning…they go to the doctor and they have a sore throat and various other symptoms. And what you are trying to figure out is not only what is wrong with them but…also learn about the throat and airways or something and maybe viruses and bacteria at the same time… trying to see this as a whole system. And the whole intent is that students would go to the library, seek out information, come back, have another meeting and try to resolve this issue. It may take three or four meetings before they get to the point when they go Ah ha! we’ve got this! And in the process, they have taught each other a whole lot about the scenario.” (Focus Group 2)

“The problem-based (approach) was more about a problem that you could deal with in a short space of time… the reality of engineering was a much larger project that took time and needed that time in order to be able to solve the problem …moving towards a project.” (Focus Group 2)

“And sometimes the problem would take two class periods…So, it was a much smaller, much more defined problem, but it would use the same process of looking at the problem, trying to work out what it was that they were trying to do as a team. Breaking up, going away, doing a bit of research. Which might only have been 15 min, and coming back and sharing that with the rest of the team, looking at how that helped them solve the problem that they had.” (Focus Group 2)

“It takes a long time to get the students to understand what this is. They need to understand the process of working with PBL and that takes time. So, I think patience is very important. It’s not necessarily going to be what you expect it to be the first time. …that takes a long time to make it really work, make it like a good program… be patient with the results, the outcome, what you actually expect to see.” (Focus Group 1)

4.1.2. Active Learning

“I think PBL works because it helps students connect to all the things that they know and that they’re familiar with. And when you’re able to bring previous experiences, developing learning is easier.” (Focus Group 1)

“PBL is also a way of empowering kids and students into thinking about how can I have agency in terms of these new complex problems that arise? And we do not know all the answers, for sure. And in many ways, young people have more innovative approaches to some of these problems.” (Focus Group 1)

4.1.3. Learning as ‘Looped’

“You’ve got, first of all, a loop of ‘Do I really understand that problem?’ You’ve actually then got another loop, which is ‘How do I design a solution to this problem?’ Quite apart from ‘What do I need to know that I haven’t learned in classes or that I’ve forgotten in classes?’” (Focus Group 2)

“And that’s a very different dichotomy, and the one that you’ve described really clearly, that two loop thing.…the focus [usually] is too much on the second loop. And they miss the first loop, which is the learning, that inherent knowledge base, going through that thought process.” (Focus Group 2)

4.2. Theme 2: PBL Requires a Rich Problem

4.2.1. relevant and authentic contexts.

“We work with what we call ‘real problems’ when we work with PBL, which I think is both relevant for the students no matter what age….it makes them more motivated. They choose maybe the problem themselves, they know what they want to do. It’s student-centred, which gives them a lot of opportunities.” (Focus Group 1)

“I suppose, it’s about maintaining engagement with what students are learning in STEM……. I think success criteria would be that it helps students contextualise why they learn the things they learn and they can see how it actually helps build that picture of the world around them.” (Focus Group 2)

4.2.2. Open-Ended, Complex Problems

“A certain amount of open-endedness, so that every group can engage differently with it and come up with a different solution. As long as it’s well argued and well thought through. Whereas, if it’s so convergent that everybody is hunting for the same answer, …. students lose interest, because they just go, ‘Ah, well, that groups already found the answer. So, why are we bothering?’ But, if everybody’s contributing something unique to the topic… then it’s really rich and then you discover that the whole class has got a much richer view of the story than any single group within the class.” (Focus Group 2)

“And there’s not one right or one wrong, and we may have three or four different designs that all turn out to be really valuable, and we may have one design that ended up to be a flop, but it had such great ideas as part of it that this group got an idea from that group.” (Focus Group 1)

“Students got really grumpy, because they didn’t understand that they had to ask questions. They thought that they were given an assignment, the assignment would be self-contained. They would just go away and do it and bring back the answer... they really needed to ask clarifying questions, and they didn’t realise they needed to ask clarifying questions. They just felt stuck. So, learning the process is really important.” (Focus Group 2)

“How tightly scoped does it need to be, how open-ended does it need to be? … there is a sweet spot for ensuring that it’s open enough, but still keeps them on the task that you want them to actually achieve.” (Focus Group 2)

“But if we can design curriculum where they actually can take small action steps that do empower them to feel like they can be part of a solution, even on whatever level they are…if that can be part of a curriculum to some actionable steps that they can take as individuals, then that just makes their learning and their ownership that much better.” (Focus Group 1)

4.2.3. Requires Collaboration

“...collaboration …would be a huge part of any work related to good problems that can take a team of people trying to figure things out...the sharing of the ideas of design, whatever we’re designing, to say, ‘Oh, here’s what we’re thinking, and here’s a picture, here’s materials. We’re trying to build this.’ Or, ‘These are ideas right now.’ And every group is thinking about it differently and they’re sharing and they’re giving each other feedback and they’re saying, ‘Oh, what about that? Is that going to be a problem?’ Or, ‘Oh, here’s an idea for you.’” (Focus Group 1)

“Something that is really central…what I have found really valuable for students on many levels is the sharing of the ideas of design…whatever we design…to say ‘here is what we’re thinking’…every group is thinking about it differently and their sharing, and their giving each other feedback.” (Focus Group 2)

“To create this community of learners, we have a problem we’re working on, we have different ideas, we’re going to try to pursue it differently, but we’re really collaborating and we’re not competing, we’re really collaborating to see which design is going to be most effective for what we’re trying to learn. And there’s not one right or one wrong, and we may have three or four different designs that all turn out to be really valuable, and we may have one design that ended up to be a flop, but it had such great ideas as part of it that this group got an idea from that group. …. they can be a valuable part of other people’s learning, not just the teacher as the valuable part of people’s learning.” (Focus Group 1)

4.3. Theme 3: Pedagogical Implications

4.3.1. effective scaffolding.

“It sounds quite boring, but it’s more about the structure than it is about the problem, in a sense. As long as that problem is something of interest to them and engages them [the students], their enthusiasm and their creativity and they can find a niche within it that they want to explore, you’re still going to have a very scaffolded and structured program sitting behind it. And I think that’s some of the downfalls of some of the projects we’ve seen that didn’t do that.” (Focus Group 2)

“Because students at different levels of development will have different capacity to cope with open-ended questions to a different degree. So, I think that question is really one of scaffolding. I think you have to think of the learners in the age group that you’re dealing with and their prior experience and where you’re wanting them to go. So, it’s a continuum rather than a single juncture in learning. So, it has to be a scaffolded experience.” (Focus Group 2)

4.3.2. Integrating Learning

“You’ve got to have those three levels of learning, like that surface level, the knowledge stuff, the in-between stuff which is being able to do the sort of deep level thinking where you link synoptically different things from different subject areas. And then the transfer level, which is the ability to extrapolate beyond the scenario kind of stuff. And I think you have to build that within a good project. You need the knowledge, you need the application across disciplines and you need the transferability. And you have to build a project, I think, that has those three elements.” (Focus Group 2)

“Curriculum coherence is really important for teachers. I think the curriculum needs to be coherent and I think teachers need to have this understanding of coherent. So, this idea of reading the curriculum before to get the big picture and understand that with that, with PBL that the act of construction of ideas, and that this idea of learning over time and building understanding takes time. And so, if you have a coherent curriculum that you can connect back and forth with, that it’s not something as a teacher that, ‘Oh, this week they need to understand this and this and this,’ but that it takes time. So, the idea of curriculum coherence and tying that with pedagogy.” (Focus Group 1)

“Get a clear problem statement. And that might be the first one or two weeks where students are just learning about the problem and getting successively better statements of what the problem is to be solved…. what’s the problem to be solved here? Interesting question that might take us several weeks. Then to say, ‘Oh, but then we can start to dig into what do the solutions look like to that problem.’ And that can take several weeks… So, you can do it in a very structured way, where in a sense you’ve got a cascade of problems of different layers.” (Focus Group 2)

4.3.3. Reconsidering Assessment

“I think this is where we go wrong with PBL. I think we’re very focused on learning objectives…we should not be talking about behavioural learning. We should be talking about intentions of learning…otherwise you’re locking us into a curriculum which is not creative, which is not collaborative. And that’s what the problem with objectives is—that they are too behavioural…you’re closing the learning down.” (Focus Group 1)

“I can see students in terms of the joy of learning, the persistence because of the challenge and the joy of the challenge, and also that there’s a true interest in solving this problem or whatever we’re doing, so that to me is the engagement part. And then this idea of an indicator is that they want to continue, they want to do more, they want to go on in science or in STEM because of what has taken place in their experiences.” (Focus Group 1)

5. Discussion

5.1. principles of a pbl model of school based stem education.

• Problems embedded in rich and relevant learning contexts.
• Flexible knowledge, skills, and capabilities.
• Active and strategic metacognitive reasoning.
• Collaboration based on intrinsic motivation.

5.1.1. Problems Embedded in Rich and Relevant Learning Contexts

5.1.2. flexible knowledge, skills and capabilities, 5.1.3. active and strategic metacognitive reasoning, 5.1.4. collaboration based on intrinsic motivation, 5.1.5. interconnectedness of pbl principles, 5.2. pbl in school-based stem education, 6. conclusions and implications, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest, abbreviations.

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Smith, K.; Maynard, N.; Berry, A.; Stephenson, T.; Spiteri, T.; Corrigan, D.; Mansfield, J.; Ellerton, P.; Smith, T. Principles of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in STEM Education: Using Expert Wisdom and Research to Frame Educational Practice. Educ. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 728. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12100728

Smith K, Maynard N, Berry A, Stephenson T, Spiteri T, Corrigan D, Mansfield J, Ellerton P, Smith T. Principles of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in STEM Education: Using Expert Wisdom and Research to Frame Educational Practice. Education Sciences . 2022; 12(10):728. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12100728

Smith, Kathy, Nicoleta Maynard, Amanda Berry, Tanya Stephenson, Tabetha Spiteri, Deborah Corrigan, Jennifer Mansfield, Peter Ellerton, and Timothy Smith. 2022. "Principles of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in STEM Education: Using Expert Wisdom and Research to Frame Educational Practice" Education Sciences 12, no. 10: 728. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12100728

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Brainstorming e Problem Solving: l’università riparte dalla pratica!

Arriva un nuovo metodo di insegnamento: il Problem-based learning (PBL)! Le lezioni basate su questa nuova tipologia di insegnamento si basano sul br

Arriva un nuovo metodo di insegnamento: il Problem-based learning (PBL)!

Le lezioni basate su questa nuova tipologia di insegnamento si basano sul brainstorming (un confronto di idee che vengono proposte liberamente all’interno di un gruppo), e sul problem solving (la ricerca della migliore soluzione per la risoluzione di una problematica).

Il PBL non è altro che una modernizzazione dell’approccio costruttivista: la conoscenza, secondo il costruttivismo, parte dall’esperienza concreta.

L’idea di rinnovare le lezioni universitarie nasce in Canada negli anni Sessanta, all’interno delle facoltà di Medicina. Questo metodo infatti è una realtà presente soprattutto nell’ambito medico, ma ha ormai preso piede anche in altre facoltà, e addirittura in alcune scuole secondarie superiori (ad esempio in Malesia e a Singapore).

L’Università di Aalborg, in Danimarca, è famosa per gli insegnamenti basati sul brainstorming e sul problem solving.  In Italia , invece, il metodo costruttivista è utilizzato negli Istituti Tecnici Professionali, che secondo i dati MIUR funzionano molto bene: la maggior parte dei neodiplomati trova lavoro.

Ma cosa succede all’interno di una classe che impara attraverso il PBL?

Gli studenti si dividono in gruppi, nei quali ognuno ha un compito diverso ma tutti hanno lo stesso obiettivo: risolvere in modo concreto i vari problemi che gli vengono presentati dai docenti. Questa tipologia di insegnamento esce sicuramente fuori dagli schemi, in quanto ci sono meno lezioni teoriche, e il professore assume il ruolo di tutor, ma è molto efficace e stimolante.  Rende gli alunni i veri protagonisti delle lezioni, incoraggiandoli a lavorare in gruppo, e a trovare delle soluzioni creative e personalizzate.

Inoltre le scuole intraprendono progetti con vere e proprie aziende , tutto ciò viene poi inserito nei curriculum degli studenti. Ciò è avvenuto, ad esempio, nel 2016: un gruppo di studenti ha ideato un modello di app Android per aiutare i giovani atleti a mantenere l’equilibrio veglia-sonno.

La teoria serve… per essere messa in pratica!

Di Chiara Monaldo

Author: redattore.

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