how do you conduct a research study

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Conducting Research

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These OWL resources will help you conduct research using primary source methods, such as interviews and observations, and secondary source methods, such as books, journals, and the Internet. This area also includes materials on evaluating research sources.

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Research Process Steps: What they are + How To Follow

There are various approaches to conducting basic and applied research. This article explains the research process steps you should know. Whether you are doing basic research or applied research, there are many ways of doing it. In some ways, each research study is unique since it is conducted at a different time and place.

Conducting research might be difficult, but there are clear processes to follow. The research process starts with a broad idea for a topic. This article will assist you through the research process steps, helping you focus and develop your topic.

Research Process Steps

The research process consists of a series of systematic procedures that a researcher must go through in order to generate knowledge that will be considered valuable by the project and focus on the relevant topic.

To conduct effective research, you must understand the research process steps and follow them. Here are a few steps in the research process to make it easier for you:

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Finding an issue or formulating a research question is the first step. A well-defined research problem will guide the researcher through all stages of the research process, from setting objectives to choosing a technique. There are a number of approaches to get insight into a topic and gain a better understanding of it. Such as:

• A preliminary survey
• Case studies
• Interviews with a small group of people
• Observational survey

Step 2: Evaluate the Literature

A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process . It enables the researcher to identify the precise aspects of the problem. Once a problem has been found, the investigator or researcher needs to find out more about it.

This stage gives problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator about previous research, how they were conducted, and its conclusions. The researcher can build consistency between his work and others through a literature review. Such a review exposes the researcher to a more significant body of knowledge and helps him follow the research process efficiently.

Step 3: Create Hypotheses

Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step after narrowing down the research topic and defining it. A belief solves logical relationships between variables. In order to establish a hypothesis, a researcher must have a certain amount of expertise in the field. 

It is important for researchers to keep in mind while formulating a hypothesis that it must be based on the research topic. Researchers are able to concentrate their efforts and stay committed to their objectives when they develop theories to guide their work.

Step 4: The Research Design

Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and answering research questions. It outlines how to get the relevant information. Its goal is to design research to test hypotheses, address the research questions, and provide decision-making insights.

The research design aims to minimize the time, money, and effort required to acquire meaningful evidence. This plan fits into four categories:

• Exploration and Surveys
• Data Analysis
• Observation

Step 5: Describe Population

Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how technology is used in the business. In research, the term population refers to this study group. The research topic and purpose help determine the study group.

Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the community. In that case, the research could target a specific age group, males or females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group. A final step in a study’s design is to specify its sample or population so that the results may be generalized.

Step 6: Data Collection

Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information required to answer the research issue. Every research collected data, either from the literature or the people being studied. Data must be collected from the two categories of researchers. These sources may provide primary data.

• Questionnaire

Secondary data categories are:

• Literature survey
• Official, unofficial reports
• An approach based on library resources

Step 7: Data Analysis

During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the researcher analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step. The research findings are reviewed and reported.

Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages, such as setting up categories, applying these categories to raw data through coding and tabulation, and then drawing statistical conclusions. The researcher can examine the acquired data using a variety of statistical methods.

Step 8: The Report-writing

After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report detailing his findings. The report must be carefully composed with the following in mind:

• The Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments, and preface should be on the report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables, graphs, and charts if any.
• Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section should include the study’s scope and limits.
• Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations will follow the introduction. The findings should be summarized if they’re lengthy.
• Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken up into sections that are easy to understand.
• Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main text. It’s the final result.

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

The research process involves several steps that make it easy to complete the research successfully. The steps in the research process described above depend on each other, and the order must be kept. So, if we want to do a research project, we should follow the research process steps.

QuestionPro’s enterprise-grade research platform can collect survey and qualitative observation data. The tool’s nature allows for data processing and essential decisions. The platform lets you store and process data. Start immediately!

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Basic Steps in the Research Process

The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper. Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these steps.

Step 1: Identify and develop your topic

Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research assignment. Since this is the very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be done correctly. Here are some tips for selecting a topic:

• Select a topic within the parameters set by the assignment. Many times your instructor will give you clear guidelines as to what you can and cannot write about. Failure to work within these guidelines may result in your proposed paper being deemed unacceptable by your instructor.
• Select a topic of personal interest to you and learn more about it. The research for and writing of a paper will be more enjoyable if you are writing about something that you find interesting.
• Select a topic for which you can find a manageable amount of information. Do a preliminary search of information sources to determine whether existing sources will meet your needs. If you find too much information, you may need to narrow your topic; if you find too little, you may need to broaden your topic.
• Be original. Your instructor reads hundreds of research papers every year, and many of them are on the same topics (topics in the news at the time, controversial issues, subjects for which there is ample and easily accessed information). Stand out from your classmates by selecting an interesting and off-the-beaten-path topic.
• Still can't come up with a topic to write about? See your instructor for advice.

Once you have identified your topic, it may help to state it as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about the epidemic of obesity in the American population, you might pose the question "What are the causes of obesity in America ?" By posing your subject as a question you can more easily identify the main concepts or keywords to be used in your research.

Step 2 : Do a preliminary search for information

Before beginning your research in earnest, do a preliminary search to determine whether there is enough information out there for your needs and to set the context of your research. Look up your keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's Reference collection (such as encyclopedias and dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalog of books, periodical databases, and Internet search engines. Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings. You may find it necessary to adjust the focus of your topic in light of the resources available to you.

Step 3: Locate materials

With the direction of your research now clear to you, you can begin locating material on your topic. There are a number of places you can look for information:

If you are looking for books, do a subject search in One Search . A Keyword search can be performed if the subject search doesn't yield enough information. Print or write down the citation information (author, title,etc.) and the location (call number and collection) of the item(s). Note the circulation status. When you locate the book on the shelf, look at the books located nearby; similar items are always shelved in the same area. The Aleph catalog also indexes the library's audio-visual holdings.

Use the library's  electronic periodical databases  to find magazine and newspaper articles. Choose the databases and formats best suited to your particular topic; ask at the librarian at the Reference Desk if you need help figuring out which database best meets your needs. Many of the articles in the databases are available in full-text format.

Use search engines ( Google ,  Yahoo , etc.) and subject directories to locate materials on the Internet. Check the  Internet Resources  section of the NHCC Library web site for helpful subject links.

Step 4: Evaluate your sources

See the  CARS Checklist for Information Quality   for tips on evaluating the authority and quality of the information you have located. Your instructor expects that you will provide credible, truthful, and reliable information and you have every right to expect that the sources you use are providing the same. This step is especially important when using Internet resources, many of which are regarded as less than reliable.

Step 5: Make notes

Consult the resources you have chosen and note the information that will be useful in your paper. Be sure to document all the sources you consult, even if you there is a chance you may not use that particular source. The author, title, publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later when creating a bibliography.

Step 6: Write your paper

Begin by organizing the information you have collected. The next step is the rough draft, wherein you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will help you organize your ideas and determine the form your final paper will take. After this, you will revise the draft as many times as you think necessary to create a final product to turn in to your instructor.

Step 7: Cite your sources properly

Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.

Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references. The  MLA  and the  APA  Styles are two popular citation formats.

Failure to cite your sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable!

Step 8: Proofread

The final step in the process is to proofread the paper you have created. Read through the text and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Make sure the sources you used are cited properly. Make sure the message that you want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly stated.

Additional research tips:

• Work from the general to the specific -- find background information first, then use more specific sources.
• Don't forget print sources -- many times print materials are more easily accessed and every bit as helpful as online resources.
• The library has books on the topic of writing research papers at call number area LB 2369.
• If you have questions about the assignment, ask your instructor.
• If you have any questions about finding information in the library, ask the librarian.

Contact Information

Craig larson.

Librarian 763-424-0733 [email protected] Zoom:  myzoom   Available by appointment

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How to Conduct Scientific Research

Last Updated: August 13, 2024 Approved

This article was co-authored by Michael Simpson, PhD . Dr. Michael Simpson (Mike) is a Registered Professional Biologist in British Columbia, Canada. He has over 20 years of experience in ecology research and professional practice in Britain and North America, with an emphasis on plants and biological diversity. Mike also specializes in science communication and providing education and technical support for ecology projects. Mike received a BSc with honors in Ecology and an MA in Society, Science, and Nature from The University of Lancaster in England as well as a Ph.D. from the University of Alberta. He has worked in British, North American, and South American ecosystems, and with First Nations communities, non-profits, government, academia, and industry. There are 16 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. In this case, 90% of readers who voted found the article helpful, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 154,094 times.

If you want to contribute knowledge to the scientific community by conducting a scientific research project, you need to know the basic steps. There are many steps to doing research beginning with identifying a problem to solve. Thoroughly researching a topic and identifying gaps in knowledge is the best place to start with research. From there, you can design experiments, perform them, gather data, and submit your articles for publication!

Planning a Research Project

• Choose a subject that excites you or that you find yourself drawn to.
• Scientific research isn’t limited to just subjects like biology, chemistry, and physics. As long as you follow the scientific method to perform your study you are doing research.

• Do a brief literature search to familiarize yourself with what information is already out there and what unanswered questions there are. [2] X Research source
• Make sure you have the necessary resources available to you (funding and laboratory equipment) to work on the question.
• Talk to professors or other researchers and have them help you identify a question that you could work on.
• Many articles will state some of the unanswered questions and speculate on future directions or suggest experiments that will be necessary in the future. Use these as a springboard for your own ideas. [3] X Research source

• It is impossible to read every paper, but when performing research, you want to be an expert on the topic. You also don’t want to repeat experiments that have already been done.
• The literature search will help you design the experiments and determine the proper experimental conditions to use.
• Take detailed notes as you read through the literature. You will likely be writing a paper on this information after your study is complete and this information will be the basis of your introduction.

• Using your new knowledge, make your research question or questions more specific.
• An example of a hypothesis is, “The amount of sunlight a plant receives will affect its growth.”
• Another example is, “Sugar increases hyperactivity in children.”

• Who or what is the study population? Do you need ethical approvals to work with the necessary subjects?
• How will each experiment contribute to the answer to the question you’re asking?
• How is the data collected? How do you define success in a study?
• What type of statistics will you use to analyze the data?
• If an experiment will not produce data that you would include in a paper, is it necessary to the understanding of the problem? This is called negative data and can help you view your problem from a different perspective or be used as a reference to revise your experiment. [8] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source

Designing an Experiment

• To use a power analysis, you need to have an estimate of the effect size, an estimation of the variability within the data (standard deviation), the level of significance (standard convention is p<0.05), and power (the rate of false negatives you are willing to accept, generally set at 80%). [9] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• Running smaller pilot studies can help you gather the necessary information for a proper power analysis to calculate sample size.
• If you don’t have the means to do a pilot study, use some rough estimations based on information you have gathered from the literature.

• You may need to be trained on the equipment and develop the proper expertise before you can start your experiments. Keep this in mind when planning a timeline.
• If you don’t have access to the necessary equipment, you might consider working with collaborators who have the equipment and expertise. [10] X Research source

• Literature searches can help you identify time points, dosages, and treatment conditions relevant to your studies.

• When a known response is expected, it’s considered a positive control. When no response is expected, it’s considered a negative control.
• A proper experiment has only one variable and multiple controls to ensure that any changes seen in the results are due specifically to the variable that was changed.
• To test different variables, you will need to perform multiple experiments.

• The outcomes must be measurable with consistency or they will not produce usable data.
• All statistical analyses to be used for the study should be established before data collection.

• The more detailed you make the protocol, the easier it will be to follow and repeat the experiment later.

Conducting the Experiments

• Use a weekly or monthly calendar to schedule experiments, including time for analysis and interpretation of results.
• As you continue through experiments, some conditions may change or perhaps you will end up going in a different direction. This is normal, just be flexible with your schedule.

• Do as much of the small stuff as possible the day before such as labeling tubes and making solutions.

• The first time you do an experiment, it is extremely likely that you will make mistakes or things will go wrong. This is totally normal. Take notes and learn from your mistakes for the next experiment.
• Record your results in your laboratory notebook.

• If you were using a special kit from a company, contact them or seek out their troubleshooting information.
• Make sure all of the reagents used were not past their use-by date.
• Check to make sure all of your instruments were working properly that day.
• Double check all of your calculations and make sure the proper amounts and solution concentrations were used.

• Use all of the same reagents and instruments whenever possible to limit variability between experiments.

Analyzing and Publishing the Data

• Take care to avoid copying and pasting rows or columns of data incorrectly.

• Indicate significance where applicable on all of your figures and state the exact statistical values within the text of the manuscript.
• Use programs such as Graphpad Prism, R, and SAS for the analysis.

• Organize panels so that similar data is grouped together.
• Avoid using color within the figures as there are generally expensive fees associated with color figures. [18] X Research source

• Determine the journal you want to submit for publication before writing so you can follow their style guide.

• After the paper is reviewed by other knowledgeable professionals in the field, it will come back with comments that you will need to address.
• If the paper does not get submitted for review, you will need to submit it to a different journal. This may require revisions to adhere to the new journals style requirements.

• To address the comments, revise the manuscript and write a cover letter rebuttal stating how each comment was taken into account in the revised paper.

• Once your manuscript is accepted, you will be sent proofs to review and then it will be ready for publication! [23] X Trustworthy Source Science Direct Online archive of peer-reviewed research on scientific, technical and medical topics Go to source

Expert Q&A

• Keep up to date on all current research projects. Otherwise, you may find your research being done elsewhere. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ Michael Simpson, PhD. Registered Professional Biologist. Expert Interview. 8 September 2021.
• ↑ https://library.royalroads.ca/infoquest-tutorials/how-start/identifying-your-research-question
• ↑ https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20140912150946-275561203-6-very-useful-approaches-to-identify-research-gaps-and-generate-research-questions
• ↑ https://www.humankinetics.com/excerpts/excerpts/steps-of-the-research-process
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5088693/
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2876926/
• ↑ https://blogs.nature.com/soapboxscience/2013/06/13/research-2-0-2-how-research-is-conducted
• ↑ https://www.moresteam.com/toolbox/design-of-experiments.cfm#designguidelines
• ↑ https://www.longwood.edu/cleanva/images/sec6.designexperiment.pdf
• ↑ https://www.moresteam.com/toolbox/design-of-experiments.cfm
• ↑ https://iubmb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1539-3429.2001.tb00056.x
• ↑ https://www.stat.yale.edu/Courses/1997-98/101/expdes.htm
• ↑ https://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/statistics/tress2.html
• ↑ https://www.scidev.net/global/publishing/practical-guide/how-do-i-write-a-scientific-paper-.html
• ↑ https://sciencing.com/steps-procedures-conducting-scientific-research-6900127.html
• ↑ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351979714000838

About This Article

To conduct scientific research, start by identifying the problem that you want to solve, research the topic thoroughly, and create a hypothesis to base your experiments on. Next, write up a detailed protocol that includes every condition to be tested and all of the necessary calculations. Then, conduct your experiments multiple times and record the resulting data carefully. Finally, analyze the data and write a manuscript to describe your findings. For more tips on designing experiments, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to conduct a research study

Research studies and scientific research are being conducted in order to provide results that will help with social, professional and scientific evolution. Gathering data and information and analyzing them is the only way for a researcher to come to a conclusion. The process of conducting a research study starts by focusing on tested hunches and ideas. With the collection of all the necessary information, the results can come fast. Either positive or negative .

Conducting a research study has certain very, important steps that need to be taken in order for the research to be successful. Here are the 8 most important steps that you are going to take in order to conduct your own research study:

Step 1: Identifying the Subject

There is always a problem, subject, and issue or thematic that is being analyzed in a research study . Do you have a clear view of what yours is? Unless you have identified the subject of your research study, you cannot move on to the next step.

Step 2: Find the literature

What is the current information on the topic? Surely some research has already been conducted at some point. That research gave results, maybe answers to some of the questions. You need to find that research and those results. You need the current literature in order to create your own.

Step 3: Clarify the Subject

Once the literature has been reviewed and the details of the initial Subject have been identified it is time to clarify the subject. What is the scope of the study? If it is too big then it has to be broken down to categories and studied separately . There are many factors that can affect a subject and many variables . All of that need to be taken into account.

Step 4: Definition of Terms and Concepts

Every subject has terms and Concepts . Either scientific , cultural or social. These words and phrases are going to be used in the study constantly. You need to know exactly what they mean and how you should use them. Research studies are not simple papers. The words you use will affect the outcome of the paper itself and the way that people will understand the results and your ideas. So always define the terms and concepts before you start using them.

Step 5: What is your audience?

Your research study always has to do with an audience. Either directly or indirectly. It is your responsibility to define that audience. In the beginning, it can be rather confusing. Separating those that are immediately affected from the results of your study, from those that are not so connected with your results can help you clarify your audience and of course focus on the most important parts of the research study . After all working with a very large audience is not going to give you the results that you are looking for. The bigger the audience, the harder it will be for the study to be conducted.

Step 6: Instrumentation Plan

Consider this to be the roadmap for your entire study . It will specify some of the most important parts of the study like the participants, the main literature focus, the how, when and where the data is going to be collected and of course analyzed. Everything you will do will be based on this particular plan. You can choose when you are going to create it of course. However, the sooner you do it the better the process of the research study and the faster the results.

Step 7: Collecting the Data

After you have gathered the literature, found your audience and collected the original data of the subject, you will conduct your own ‘ ’experiments’’ to make sure that your results are the right ones. Those ‘’experiments’’ will give you data of their own. Collecting that data and analyzing it is a very important part of the process. You need to make sure that all that data will be safely stored and properly analyzed. This will happen after the completion of the instrumentation plan and during the start if the sturdy.

One important thing that you need to note here is where you are going to get the data from. Questionnaires and observation are always good places to start.

Step 8: Analyzing the Data

Last but not least is the analyzation of the data itself. That will be the last step that will give you the results and help you bind your research together. Take your time with it. Double or even triple check your analysis. Compare it over and over again. If a mistake is made here you will have to start over with the analyzation. That can take a long time and it is certainly not something that you will want to do. This is the last step to make sure that you will do it correctly.

By following these 8 steps , you will find that conducting a research study can be a lot easier than what you think. But certainly not easy. Take your time to familiarize yourselves with these steps. Do not rush into anything . Proper research studies require time to bring accurate and proper results. Always remember that these studies can affect your future as a scientist or a research either in a positive or negative way. The more attention you pay to them, while you conduct them, the more useful they will be for you and the future of your career!

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How to Conduct Research in Healthcare in 9 Steps

• March 13, 2023

Table of Contents

Conducting research is a complex and multi-step process. This guide will provide an overview of how to conduct healthcare research, including the steps involved and key considerations for each stage.

1: Define the Objectives of Your Research Study

The objectives of the research study should include both short-term and long-term goals . It is essential to have a solid plan with well-defined objectives and the right methods to ask the right questions to the right people. 

Research should also consider ethical issues and the steps needed to minimize harm to those who take part. Furthermore, potential benefits to users must be considered, and it’s important to include time frames, milestones, and communication strategies.

Analyze and interpret data collected from surveys or interviews to identify trends related to the impact on desired outcomes, such as changes in attitudes or behaviors over time and changes in policies or practices.

2: Identify Relevant Studies and Sources

Searching the literature helps ensure that the research will address an appropriate gap in the evidence and help refine the research question and choice of methods. Critiquing the methodology of other people’s work is key to building up a better understanding and justification for a research approach.

The search strategy can be developed and enriched using relevant terms and literature from MeSH , Medline Plus , Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE , CINAHL , HMIC , and Oxford Academic’s Research Evaluation databases. 

Screen all retrieved citations for eligibility based on your inclusion criteria and discard any that do not meet them (e.g., non-English language articles). Review the remaining articles for quality using appropriate assessment tools (e.g., QUADAS ).

Lastly, apply systematic review methodology (e.g., PRISMA ) to ensure transparency in reporting findings from each study reviewed in your review article or paper report.

? Learn more: Common Data Sources in HEOR

3: Consider Ethical Approval and Consent Requirements

Research teams should follow ethical guidelines and seek approval from a research ethics committee for their plan. The research should not involve any unnecessary harm or risk to the participants, and all possible measures should be taken to ensure their welfare and safety during the study period.

In addition, studies involving new medicines should have gone through a process to ensure they are ready for use with people before being tested on humans or animals in clinical trials or laboratory experiments, respectively.

Consent should also be obtained from all participants before they take part in the study, outlining what they can expect from it as well as any potential risks involved in taking part in it (if any).

4: Create a Study Plan and Timeline

After identifying the topic and research question, you would like to explore and review the eligibility criteria for each registry or study , as well as any additional requirements, such as consent forms or surveys, to determine which ones are suitable for your project goals and needs. 

Select one or more registries or studies that fit your needs best, then register with them if necessary by following their instructions on how to participate in their study.

Don’t forget to create a timeline for how long you will be involved in each study so you can keep track of progress toward completion of the project goals.

5: Construct a Questionnaire or Survey

Identify the purpose of the research and the target population and determine what information you are trying to gather, as well as who will be most affected by your research.

Create a survey or questionnaire that includes questions that are relevant to your purpose and can be answered by respondents in a way that is meaningful to them. Make sure it is clear, concise, and easy to understand for all ages and levels of education and language abilities.

Pilot-test your survey with a small group of people from your target population before rolling it out across the board for full use in research activities (e.g., interviews).

Finally, analyze responses using descriptive statistics (e.g., mean scores) or inferential statistics (for example, t-tests) as needed depending on what questions are being asked of participants in order to understand their experiences better or make comparisons between groups if applicable.

? Related: Biostatistics in HEOR

6: Write Your Research Proposal

The process of writing a research proposal can be broken down into six manageable steps.

• Introduce an educated idea arising from a clinical practice issue . The research topic should be rooted in a problem that affects medical practice; it should also provide motivation for completing the research and relevance for affecting medical practice changes and improvements.
• Conduct a systematic literature review before starting to write . This will help to inform the research idea and provide evidence to support the project from the beginning.
• Develop a conceptual framework . This will help to clarify the research question and ensure the proposed project is feasible and efficient.
• Seek advice from clinical experts, experienced researchers, relevant stakeholders , and even patients. This will enhance the research question’s relevance, feasibility, and efficiency in your document.
• Structure the research proposal . It should include background, objectives, methodology, outcomes, and dissemination. Additionally, include a section on ethical issues, service user involvement, and project management.
• Proofread the proposal carefully before submitting it to a funding body or ethical review panel. Consider having the proposal read by a consumer of health, colleague, or friend to ensure clarity and that jargon would be understood by a wider audience.

7: Collect Data Manually or Electronically

Determine the end goal of your research project and decide whether qualitative or quantitative data collection methods would be most beneficial for achieving your goal.

Select appropriate data collection methods, such as interviews, focus groups, observation for qualitative research, multiple choice surveys, or structured data analysis for quantitative research.

Analyze the collected data using specific tools and methods relevant to each data collection method (e.g., qualitative analysis software). This step should be done thoroughly to draw valid conclusions from the findings.

8: Elaborate on Conclusions and Report Results

First, identify the purpose of the research study and determine which outcomes are most relevant . Next, plan how to communicate results to study participants , including what information to provide, when it should be provided, and how it should be presented.

When possible, involve patients or other individuals who have participated in the study in developing feedback mechanisms that are meaningful to them.

At a minimum, provide participants with a summary of findings from their records that are clinically relevant (as determined by researchers) as well as an explanation of these findings in an understandable format.

In addition, you can consider providing additional information, such as data tables or graphs showing trends over time if applicable; this may help individuals better understand their healthcare situation more clearly. You can also provide opportunities for further discussion if needed.

9. Disseminate Your Findings

Depending on the size and scope of your research, disseminating your research could include media releases and interviews, conference presentations and posters, white papers, policy briefs, infographics, or other formats.

Follow best practices when communicating your findings. Consider the National Institutes of Health Guide, A Checklist for Communicating Science and Health Research to the Public , for tips on making research results accessible to a broad audience. 

Additionally, the Rural Health Research Gateway’s Dissemination Toolkit provides examples of fact sheets, policy briefs, and other dissemination formats, as well as general guidelines for sharing rural health research findings.

By taking the previous steps, you can ensure that your research is accurate and comprehensive and can be communicated thoroughly to all stakeholders. This will give you the confidence to present your findings in a meaningful way and disseminate them to the appropriate audiences.

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YSN Doctoral Programs: Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

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What is a literature review?

A literature review is an integrated analysis -- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
• Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

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1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

Your literature review should be guided by your central research question.  The literature represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor and your class mates.

2. Decide on the scope of your review

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

• This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search. 

Where to find databases:

• use the tabs on this guide
• Find other databases in the Nursing Information Resources web page
• More on the Medical Library web page
• ... and more on the Yale University Library web page

4. Conduct your searches to find the evidence. Keep track of your searches.

• Use the key words in your question, as well as synonyms for those words, as terms in your search. Use the database tutorials for help.
• Save the searches in the databases. This saves time when you want to redo, or modify, the searches. It is also helpful to use as a guide is the searches are not finding any useful results.
• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Check with your professor, or a subject expert in the field, if you are missing any key works in the field.
• Ask your librarian for help at any time.
• Use a citation manager, such as EndNote as the repository for your citations. See the EndNote tutorials for help.

Review the literature

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions.
• Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited? If so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
• Create a matrix of the studies for easy analysis, and synthesis, across all of the studies.
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How To Choose Your Research Methodology

Qualitative vs quantitative vs mixed methods.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA). Expert Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2021

Without a doubt, one of the most common questions we receive at Grad Coach is “ How do I choose the right methodology for my research? ”. It’s easy to see why – with so many options on the research design table, it’s easy to get intimidated, especially with all the complex lingo!

In this post, we’ll explain the three overarching types of research – qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods – and how you can go about choosing the best methodological approach for your research.

Overview: Choosing Your Methodology

Understanding the options – Qualitative research – Quantitative research – Mixed methods-based research

Choosing a research methodology – Nature of the research – Research area norms – Practicalities

1. Understanding the options

Before we jump into the question of how to choose a research methodology, it’s useful to take a step back to understand the three overarching types of research – qualitative , quantitative and mixed methods -based research. Each of these options takes a different methodological approach.

Qualitative research utilises data that is not numbers-based. In other words, qualitative research focuses on words , descriptions , concepts or ideas – while quantitative research makes use of numbers and statistics. Qualitative research investigates the “softer side” of things to explore and describe, while quantitative research focuses on the “hard numbers”, to measure differences between variables and the relationships between them.

Importantly, qualitative research methods are typically used to explore and gain a deeper understanding of the complexity of a situation – to draw a rich picture . In contrast to this, quantitative methods are usually used to confirm or test hypotheses . In other words, they have distinctly different purposes. The table below highlights a few of the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research – you can learn more about the differences here.

• Uses an inductive approach
• Is used to build theories
• Takes a subjective approach
• Adopts an open and flexible approach
• The researcher is close to the respondents
• Interviews and focus groups are oftentimes used to collect word-based data.
• Generally, draws on small sample sizes
• Uses qualitative data analysis techniques (e.g. content analysis , thematic analysis , etc)
• Uses a deductive approach
• Is used to test theories
• Takes an objective approach
• Adopts a closed, highly planned approach
• The research is disconnected from respondents
• Surveys or laboratory equipment are often used to collect number-based data.
• Generally, requires large sample sizes
• Uses statistical analysis techniques to make sense of the data

Mixed methods -based research, as you’d expect, attempts to bring these two types of research together, drawing on both qualitative and quantitative data. Quite often, mixed methods-based studies will use qualitative research to explore a situation and develop a potential model of understanding (this is called a conceptual framework), and then go on to use quantitative methods to test that model empirically.

In other words, while qualitative and quantitative methods (and the philosophies that underpin them) are completely different, they are not at odds with each other. It’s not a competition of qualitative vs quantitative. On the contrary, they can be used together to develop a high-quality piece of research. Of course, this is easier said than done, so we usually recommend that first-time researchers stick to a single approach , unless the nature of their study truly warrants a mixed-methods approach.

The key takeaway here, and the reason we started by looking at the three options, is that it’s important to understand that each methodological approach has a different purpose – for example, to explore and understand situations (qualitative), to test and measure (quantitative) or to do both. They’re not simply alternative tools for the same job. 

Right – now that we’ve got that out of the way, let’s look at how you can go about choosing the right methodology for your research.

2. How to choose a research methodology

To choose the right research methodology for your dissertation or thesis, you need to consider three important factors . Based on these three factors, you can decide on your overarching approach – qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. Once you’ve made that decision, you can flesh out the finer details of your methodology, such as the sampling , data collection methods and analysis techniques (we discuss these separately in other posts ).

The three factors you need to consider are:

• The nature of your research aims, objectives and research questions
• The methodological approaches taken in the existing literature
• Practicalities and constraints

Let’s take a look at each of these.

Factor #1: The nature of your research

As I mentioned earlier, each type of research (and therefore, research methodology), whether qualitative, quantitative or mixed, has a different purpose and helps solve a different type of question. So, it’s logical that the key deciding factor in terms of which research methodology you adopt is the nature of your research aims, objectives and research questions .

But, what types of research exist?

Broadly speaking, research can fall into one of three categories:

• Exploratory – getting a better understanding of an issue and potentially developing a theory regarding it
• Confirmatory – confirming a potential theory or hypothesis by testing it empirically
• A mix of both – building a potential theory or hypothesis and then testing it

As a rule of thumb, exploratory research tends to adopt a qualitative approach , whereas confirmatory research tends to use quantitative methods . This isn’t set in stone, but it’s a very useful heuristic. Naturally then, research that combines a mix of both, or is seeking to develop a theory from the ground up and then test that theory, would utilize a mixed-methods approach.

Let’s look at an example in action.

If your research aims were to understand the perspectives of war veterans regarding certain political matters, you’d likely adopt a qualitative methodology, making use of interviews to collect data and one or more qualitative data analysis methods to make sense of the data.

If, on the other hand, your research aims involved testing a set of hypotheses regarding the link between political leaning and income levels, you’d likely adopt a quantitative methodology, using numbers-based data from a survey to measure the links between variables and/or constructs .

So, the first (and most important thing) thing you need to consider when deciding which methodological approach to use for your research project is the nature of your research aims , objectives and research questions. Specifically, you need to assess whether your research leans in an exploratory or confirmatory direction or involves a mix of both.

The importance of achieving solid alignment between these three factors and your methodology can’t be overstated. If they’re misaligned, you’re going to be forcing a square peg into a round hole. In other words, you’ll be using the wrong tool for the job, and your research will become a disjointed mess.

If your research is a mix of both exploratory and confirmatory, but you have a tight word count limit, you may need to consider trimming down the scope a little and focusing on one or the other. One methodology executed well has a far better chance of earning marks than a poorly executed mixed methods approach. So, don’t try to be a hero, unless there is a very strong underpinning logic.

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Factor #2: The disciplinary norms

Choosing the right methodology for your research also involves looking at the approaches used by other researchers in the field, and studies with similar research aims and objectives to yours. Oftentimes, within a discipline, there is a common methodological approach (or set of approaches) used in studies. While this doesn’t mean you should follow the herd “just because”, you should at least consider these approaches and evaluate their merit within your context.

A major benefit of reviewing the research methodologies used by similar studies in your field is that you can often piggyback on the data collection techniques that other (more experienced) researchers have developed. For example, if you’re undertaking a quantitative study, you can often find tried and tested survey scales with high Cronbach’s alphas. These are usually included in the appendices of journal articles, so you don’t even have to contact the original authors. By using these, you’ll save a lot of time and ensure that your study stands on the proverbial “shoulders of giants” by using high-quality measurement instruments .

Of course, when reviewing existing literature, keep point #1 front of mind. In other words, your methodology needs to align with your research aims, objectives and questions. Don’t fall into the trap of adopting the methodological “norm” of other studies just because it’s popular. Only adopt that which is relevant to your research.

Factor #3: Practicalities

When choosing a research methodology, there will always be a tension between doing what’s theoretically best (i.e., the most scientifically rigorous research design ) and doing what’s practical , given your constraints . This is the nature of doing research and there are always trade-offs, as with anything else.

But what constraints, you ask?

When you’re evaluating your methodological options, you need to consider the following constraints:

• Data access
• Equipment and software
• Your knowledge and skills

Let’s look at each of these.

Constraint #1: Data access

The first practical constraint you need to consider is your access to data . If you’re going to be undertaking primary research , you need to think critically about the sample of respondents you realistically have access to. For example, if you plan to use in-person interviews , you need to ask yourself how many people you’ll need to interview, whether they’ll be agreeable to being interviewed, where they’re located, and so on.

If you’re wanting to undertake a quantitative approach using surveys to collect data, you’ll need to consider how many responses you’ll require to achieve statistically significant results. For many statistical tests, a sample of a few hundred respondents is typically needed to develop convincing conclusions.

So, think carefully about what data you’ll need access to, how much data you’ll need and how you’ll collect it. The last thing you want is to spend a huge amount of time on your research only to find that you can’t get access to the required data.

Constraint #2: Time

The next constraint is time. If you’re undertaking research as part of a PhD, you may have a fairly open-ended time limit, but this is unlikely to be the case for undergrad and Masters-level projects. So, pay attention to your timeline, as the data collection and analysis components of different methodologies have a major impact on time requirements . Also, keep in mind that these stages of the research often take a lot longer than originally anticipated.

Another practical implication of time limits is that it will directly impact which time horizon you can use – i.e. longitudinal vs cross-sectional . For example, if you’ve got a 6-month limit for your entire research project, it’s quite unlikely that you’ll be able to adopt a longitudinal time horizon. 

Constraint #3: Money

As with so many things, money is another important constraint you’ll need to consider when deciding on your research methodology. While some research designs will cost near zero to execute, others may require a substantial budget .

Some of the costs that may arise include:

• Software costs – e.g. survey hosting services, analysis software, etc.
• Promotion costs – e.g. advertising a survey to attract respondents
• Incentive costs – e.g. providing a prize or cash payment incentive to attract respondents
• Equipment rental costs – e.g. recording equipment, lab equipment, etc.
• Travel costs
• Food & beverages

These are just a handful of costs that can creep into your research budget. Like most projects, the actual costs tend to be higher than the estimates, so be sure to err on the conservative side and expect the unexpected. It’s critically important that you’re honest with yourself about these costs, or you could end up getting stuck midway through your project because you’ve run out of money.

Constraint #4: Equipment & software

Another practical consideration is the hardware and/or software you’ll need in order to undertake your research. Of course, this variable will depend on the type of data you’re collecting and analysing. For example, you may need lab equipment to analyse substances, or you may need specific analysis software to analyse statistical data. So, be sure to think about what hardware and/or software you’ll need for each potential methodological approach, and whether you have access to these.

Constraint #5: Your knowledge and skillset

The final practical constraint is a big one. Naturally, the research process involves a lot of learning and development along the way, so you will accrue knowledge and skills as you progress. However, when considering your methodological options, you should still consider your current position on the ladder.

Some of the questions you should ask yourself are:

• Am I more of a “numbers person” or a “words person”?
• How much do I know about the analysis methods I’ll potentially use (e.g. statistical analysis)?
• How much do I know about the software and/or hardware that I’ll potentially use?
• How excited am I to learn new research skills and gain new knowledge?
• How much time do I have to learn the things I need to learn?

Answering these questions honestly will provide you with another set of criteria against which you can evaluate the research methodology options you’ve shortlisted.

So, as you can see, there is a wide range of practicalities and constraints that you need to take into account when you’re deciding on a research methodology. These practicalities create a tension between the “ideal” methodology and the methodology that you can realistically pull off. This is perfectly normal, and it’s your job to find the option that presents the best set of trade-offs.

Recap: Choosing a methodology

In this post, we’ve discussed how to go about choosing a research methodology. The three major deciding factors we looked at were:

• Exploratory
• Confirmatory
• Combination
• Research area norms
• Hardware and software
• Your knowledge and skillset

If you have any questions, feel free to leave a comment below. If you’d like a helping hand with your research methodology, check out our 1-on-1 research coaching service , or book a free consultation with a friendly Grad Coach.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

Very useful and informative especially for beginners

Nice article! I’m a beginner in the field of cybersecurity research. I am a Telecom and Network Engineer and Also aiming for PhD scholarship.

I find the article very informative especially for my decitation it has been helpful and an eye opener.

Hi I am Anna ,

I am a PHD candidate in the area of cyber security, maybe we can link up

The Examples shows by you, for sure they are really direct me and others to knows and practices the Research Design and prepration.

I found the post very informative and practical.

I struggle so much with designs of the research for sure!

I’m the process of constructing my research design and I want to know if the data analysis I plan to present in my thesis defense proposal possibly change especially after I gathered the data already.

Thank you so much this site is such a life saver. How I wish 1-1 coaching is available in our country but sadly it’s not.

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The critical steps for successful research: The research proposal and scientific writing: (A report on the pre-conference workshop held in conjunction with the 64 th annual conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012)

Pitchai balakumar.

Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, 08100 Bedong. Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia

Mohammed Naseeruddin Inamdar

1 Department of Pharmacology, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh

2 Division of Cardiovascular and Renal Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, USA

An interactive workshop on ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing’ was conducted in conjunction with the 64 th Annual Conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012 at Chennai, India. In essence, research is performed to enlighten our understanding of a contemporary issue relevant to the needs of society. To accomplish this, a researcher begins search for a novel topic based on purpose, creativity, critical thinking, and logic. This leads to the fundamental pieces of the research endeavor: Question, objective, hypothesis, experimental tools to test the hypothesis, methodology, and data analysis. When correctly performed, research should produce new knowledge. The four cornerstones of good research are the well-formulated protocol or proposal that is well executed, analyzed, discussed and concluded. This recent workshop educated researchers in the critical steps involved in the development of a scientific idea to its successful execution and eventual publication.

INTRODUCTION

Creativity and critical thinking are of particular importance in scientific research. Basically, research is original investigation undertaken to gain knowledge and understand concepts in major subject areas of specialization, and includes the generation of ideas and information leading to new or substantially improved scientific insights with relevance to the needs of society. Hence, the primary objective of research is to produce new knowledge. Research is both theoretical and empirical. It is theoretical because the starting point of scientific research is the conceptualization of a research topic and development of a research question and hypothesis. Research is empirical (practical) because all of the planned studies involve a series of observations, measurements, and analyses of data that are all based on proper experimental design.[ 1 – 9 ]

The subject of this report is to inform readers of the proceedings from a recent workshop organized by the 64 th Annual conference of the ‘ Indian Pharmaceutical Congress ’ at SRM University, Chennai, India, from 05 to 06 December 2012. The objectives of the workshop titled ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing,’ were to assist participants in developing a strong fundamental understanding of how best to develop a research or study protocol, and communicate those research findings in a conference setting or scientific journal. Completing any research project requires meticulous planning, experimental design and execution, and compilation and publication of findings in the form of a research paper. All of these are often unfamiliar to naïve researchers; thus, the purpose of this workshop was to teach participants to master the critical steps involved in the development of an idea to its execution and eventual publication of the results (See the last section for a list of learning objectives).

THE STRUCTURE OF THE WORKSHOP

The two-day workshop was formatted to include key lectures and interactive breakout sessions that focused on protocol development in six subject areas of the pharmaceutical sciences. This was followed by sessions on scientific writing. DAY 1 taught the basic concepts of scientific research, including: (1) how to formulate a topic for research and to describe the what, why , and how of the protocol, (2) biomedical literature search and review, (3) study designs, statistical concepts, and result analyses, and (4) publication ethics. DAY 2 educated the attendees on the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper and thesis, and preparation of poster as well as oral presentations.

The final phase of the workshop was the ‘Panel Discussion,’ including ‘Feedback/Comments’ by participants. There were thirteen distinguished speakers from India and abroad. Approximately 120 post-graduate and pre-doctoral students, young faculty members, and scientists representing industries attended the workshop from different parts of the country. All participants received a printed copy of the workshop manual and supporting materials on statistical analyses of data.

THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH: THE KEY TO GETTING STARTED IN RESEARCH

A research project generally comprises four key components: (1) writing a protocol, (2) performing experiments, (3) tabulating and analyzing data, and (4) writing a thesis or manuscript for publication.

Fundamentals in the research process

A protocol, whether experimental or clinical, serves as a navigator that evolves from a basic outline of the study plan to become a qualified research or grant proposal. It provides the structural support for the research. Dr. G. Jagadeesh (US FDA), the first speaker of the session, spoke on ‘ Fundamentals in research process and cornerstones of a research project .’ He discussed at length the developmental and structural processes in preparing a research protocol. A systematic and step-by-step approach is necessary in planning a study. Without a well-designed protocol, there would be a little chance for successful completion of a research project or an experiment.

Research topic

The first and the foremost difficult task in research is to identify a topic for investigation. The research topic is the keystone of the entire scientific enterprise. It begins the project, drives the entire study, and is crucial for moving the project forward. It dictates the remaining elements of the study [ Table 1 ] and thus, it should not be too narrow or too broad or unfocused. Because of these potential pitfalls, it is essential that a good or novel scientific idea be based on a sound concept. Creativity, critical thinking, and logic are required to generate new concepts and ideas in solving a research problem. Creativity involves critical thinking and is associated with generating many ideas. Critical thinking is analytical, judgmental, and involves evaluating choices before making a decision.[ 4 ] Thus, critical thinking is convergent type thinking that narrows and refines those divergent ideas and finally settles to one idea for an in-depth study. The idea on which a research project is built should be novel, appropriate to achieve within the existing conditions, and useful to the society at large. Therefore, creativity and critical thinking assist biomedical scientists in research that results in funding support, novel discovery, and publication.[ 1 , 4 ]

Elements of a study protocol

Research question

The next most crucial aspect of a study protocol is identifying a research question. It should be a thought-provoking question. The question sets the framework. It emerges from the title, findings/results, and problems observed in previous studies. Thus, mastering the literature, attendance at conferences, and discussion in journal clubs/seminars are sources for developing research questions. Consider the following example in developing related research questions from the research topic.

Hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna and Apium graveolens on paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.

How is paracetamol metabolized in the body? Does it involve P450 enzymes? How does paracetamol cause liver injury? What are the mechanisms by which drugs can alleviate liver damage? What biochemical parameters are indicative of liver injury? What major endogenous inflammatory molecules are involved in paracetamol-induced liver damage?

A research question is broken down into more precise objectives. The objectives lead to more precise methods and definition of key terms. The objectives should be SMART-Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-framed,[ 10 ] and should cover the entire breadth of the project. The objectives are sometimes organized into hierarchies: Primary, secondary, and exploratory; or simply general and specific. Study the following example:

To evaluate the safety and tolerability of single oral doses of compound X in normal volunteers.

To assess the pharmacokinetic profile of compound X following single oral doses.

To evaluate the incidence of peripheral edema reported as an adverse event.

The objectives and research questions are then formulated into a workable or testable hypothesis. The latter forces us to think carefully about what comparisons will be needed to answer the research question, and establishes the format for applying statistical tests to interpret the results. The hypothesis should link a process to an existing or postulated biologic pathway. A hypothesis is written in a form that can yield measurable results. Studies that utilize statistics to compare groups of data should have a hypothesis. Consider the following example:

• The hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna is superior to that of Apium graveolens against paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.

All biological research, including discovery science, is hypothesis-driven. However, not all studies need be conducted with a hypothesis. For example, descriptive studies (e.g., describing characteristics of a plant, or a chemical compound) do not need a hypothesis.[ 1 ]

Relevance of the study

Another important section to be included in the protocol is ‘significance of the study.’ Its purpose is to justify the need for the research that is being proposed (e.g., development of a vaccine for a disease). In summary, the proposed study should demonstrate that it represents an advancement in understanding and that the eventual results will be meaningful, contribute to the field, and possibly even impact society.

Biomedical literature

A literature search may be defined as the process of examining published sources of information on a research or review topic, thesis, grant application, chemical, drug, disease, or clinical trial, etc. The quantity of information available in print or electronically (e.g., the internet) is immense and growing with time. A researcher should be familiar with the right kinds of databases and search engines to extract the needed information.[ 3 , 6 ]

Dr. P. Balakumar (Institute of Pharmacy, Rajendra Institute of Technology and Sciences, Sirsa, Haryana; currently, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Malaysia) spoke on ‘ Biomedical literature: Searching, reviewing and referencing .’ He schematically explained the basis of scientific literature, designing a literature review, and searching literature. After an introduction to the genesis and diverse sources of scientific literature searches, the use of PubMed, one of the premier databases used for biomedical literature searches world-wide, was illustrated with examples and screenshots. Several companion databases and search engines are also used for finding information related to health sciences, and they include Embase, Web of Science, SciFinder, The Cochrane Library, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Scopus, and Google Scholar.[ 3 ] Literature searches using alternative interfaces for PubMed such as GoPubMed, Quertle, PubFocus, Pubget, and BibliMed were discussed. The participants were additionally informed of databases on chemistry, drugs and drug targets, clinical trials, toxicology, and laboratory animals (reviewed in ref[ 3 ]).

Referencing and bibliography are essential in scientific writing and publication.[ 7 ] Referencing systems are broadly classified into two major types, such as Parenthetical and Notation systems. Parenthetical referencing is also known as Harvard style of referencing, while Vancouver referencing style and ‘Footnote’ or ‘Endnote’ are placed under Notation referencing systems. The participants were educated on each referencing system with examples.

Bibliography management

Dr. Raj Rajasekaran (University of California at San Diego, CA, USA) enlightened the audience on ‘ bibliography management ’ using reference management software programs such as Reference Manager ® , Endnote ® , and Zotero ® for creating and formatting bibliographies while writing a manuscript for publication. The discussion focused on the use of bibliography management software in avoiding common mistakes such as incomplete references. Important steps in bibliography management, such as creating reference libraries/databases, searching for references using PubMed/Google scholar, selecting and transferring selected references into a library, inserting citations into a research article and formatting bibliographies, were presented. A demonstration of Zotero®, a freely available reference management program, included the salient features of the software, adding references from PubMed using PubMed ID, inserting citations and formatting using different styles.

Writing experimental protocols

The workshop systematically instructed the participants in writing ‘ experimental protocols ’ in six disciplines of Pharmaceutical Sciences.: (1) Pharmaceutical Chemistry (presented by Dr. P. V. Bharatam, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab); (2) Pharmacology (presented by Dr. G. Jagadeesh and Dr. P. Balakumar); (3) Pharmaceutics (presented by Dr. Jayant Khandare, Piramal Life Sciences, Mumbai); (4) Pharmacy Practice (presented by Dr. Shobha Hiremath, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); (5) Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry (presented by Dr. Salma Khanam, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); and (6) Pharmaceutical Analysis (presented by Dr. Saranjit Singh, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab). The purpose of the research plan is to describe the what (Specific Aims/Objectives), why (Background and Significance), and how (Design and Methods) of the proposal.

The research plan should answer the following questions: (a) what do you intend to do; (b) what has already been done in general, and what have other researchers done in the field; (c) why is this worth doing; (d) how is it innovative; (e) what will this new work add to existing knowledge; and (f) how will the research be accomplished?

In general, the format used by the faculty in all subjects is shown in Table 2 .

Elements of a research protocol

Biostatistics

Biostatistics is a key component of biomedical research. Highly reputed journals like The Lancet, BMJ, Journal of the American Medical Association, and many other biomedical journals include biostatisticians on their editorial board or reviewers list. This indicates that a great importance is given for learning and correctly employing appropriate statistical methods in biomedical research. The post-lunch session on day 1 of the workshop was largely committed to discussion on ‘ Basic biostatistics .’ Dr. R. Raveendran (JIPMER, Puducherry) and Dr. Avijit Hazra (PGIMER, Kolkata) reviewed, in parallel sessions, descriptive statistics, probability concepts, sample size calculation, choosing a statistical test, confidence intervals, hypothesis testing and ‘ P ’ values, parametric and non-parametric statistical tests, including analysis of variance (ANOVA), t tests, Chi-square test, type I and type II errors, correlation and regression, and summary statistics. This was followed by a practice and demonstration session. Statistics CD, compiled by Dr. Raveendran, was distributed to the participants before the session began and was demonstrated live. Both speakers worked on a variety of problems that involved both clinical and experimental data. They discussed through examples the experimental designs encountered in a variety of studies and statistical analyses performed for different types of data. For the benefit of readers, we have summarized statistical tests applied frequently for different experimental designs and post-hoc tests [ Figure 1 ].

Conceptual framework for statistical analyses of data. Of the two kinds of variables, qualitative (categorical) and quantitative (numerical), qualitative variables (nominal or ordinal) are not normally distributed. Numerical data that come from normal distributions are analyzed using parametric tests, if not; the data are analyzed using non-parametric tests. The most popularly used Student's t -test compares the means of two populations, data for this test could be paired or unpaired. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to compare the means of three or more independent populations that are normally distributed. Applying t test repeatedly in pair (multiple comparison), to compare the means of more than two populations, will increase the probability of type I error (false positive). In this case, for proper interpretation, we need to adjust the P values. Repeated measures ANOVA is used to compare the population means if more than two observations coming from same subject over time. The null hypothesis is rejected with a ‘ P ’ value of less than 0.05, and the difference in population means is considered to be statistically significant. Subsequently, appropriate post-hoc tests are used for pairwise comparisons of population means. Two-way or three-way ANOVA are considered if two (diet, dose) or three (diet, dose, strain) independent factors, respectively, are analyzed in an experiment (not described in the Figure). Categorical nominal unmatched variables (counts or frequencies) are analyzed by Chi-square test (not shown in the Figure)

Research and publication ethics

The legitimate pursuit of scientific creativity is unfortunately being marred by a simultaneous increase in scientific misconduct. A disproportionate share of allegations involves scientists of many countries, and even from respected laboratories. Misconduct destroys faith in science and scientists and creates a hierarchy of fraudsters. Investigating misconduct also steals valuable time and resources. In spite of these facts, most researchers are not aware of publication ethics.

Day 1 of the workshop ended with a presentation on ‘ research and publication ethics ’ by Dr. M. K. Unnikrishnan (College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal University, Manipal). He spoke on the essentials of publication ethics that included plagiarism (attempting to take credit of the work of others), self-plagiarism (multiple publications by an author on the same content of work with slightly different wordings), falsification (manipulation of research data and processes and omitting critical data or results), gift authorship (guest authorship), ghostwriting (someone other than the named author (s) makes a major contribution), salami publishing (publishing many papers, with minor differences, from the same study), and sabotage (distracting the research works of others to halt their research completion). Additionally, Dr. Unnikrishnan pointed out the ‘ Ingelfinger rule ’ of stipulating that a scientist must not submit the same original research in two different journals. He also advised the audience that authorship is not just credit for the work but also responsibility for scientific contents of a paper. Although some Indian Universities are instituting preventive measures (e.g., use of plagiarism detecting software, Shodhganga digital archiving of doctoral theses), Dr. Unnikrishnan argued for a great need to sensitize young researchers on the nature and implications of scientific misconduct. Finally, he discussed methods on how editors and peer reviewers should ethically conduct themselves while managing a manuscript for publication.

SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION: THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL SELLING OF FINDINGS

Research outcomes are measured through quality publications. Scientists must not only ‘do’ science but must ‘write’ science. The story of the project must be told in a clear, simple language weaving in previous work done in the field, answering the research question, and addressing the hypothesis set forth at the beginning of the study. Scientific publication is an organic process of planning, researching, drafting, revising, and updating the current knowledge for future perspectives. Writing a research paper is no easier than the research itself. The lectures of Day 2 of the workshop dealt with the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper.

An overview of paper structure and thesis writing

Dr. Amitabh Prakash (Adis, Auckland, New Zealand) spoke on ‘ Learning how to write a good scientific paper .’ His presentation described the essential components of an original research paper and thesis (e.g., introduction, methods, results, and discussion [IMRaD]) and provided guidance on the correct order, in which data should appear within these sections. The characteristics of a good abstract and title and the creation of appropriate key words were discussed. Dr. Prakash suggested that the ‘title of a paper’ might perhaps have a chance to make a good impression, and the title might be either indicative (title that gives the purpose of the study) or declarative (title that gives the study conclusion). He also suggested that an abstract is a succinct summary of a research paper, and it should be specific, clear, and concise, and should have IMRaD structure in brief, followed by key words. Selection of appropriate papers to be cited in the reference list was also discussed. Various unethical authorships were enumerated, and ‘The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) criteria for authorship’ was explained ( http://www.icmje.org/ethical_1author.html ; also see Table 1 in reference #9). The session highlighted the need for transparency in medical publication and provided a clear description of items that needed to be included in the ‘Disclosures’ section (e.g., sources of funding for the study and potential conflicts of interest of all authors, etc.) and ‘Acknowledgements’ section (e.g., writing assistance and input from all individuals who did not meet the authorship criteria). The final part of the presentation was devoted to thesis writing, and Dr. Prakash provided the audience with a list of common mistakes that are frequently encountered when writing a manuscript.

The backbone of a study is description of results through Text, Tables, and Figures. Dr. S. B. Deshpande (Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India) spoke on ‘ Effective Presentation of Results .’ The Results section deals with the observations made by the authors and thus, is not hypothetical. This section is subdivided into three segments, that is, descriptive form of the Text, providing numerical data in Tables, and visualizing the observations in Graphs or Figures. All these are arranged in a sequential order to address the question hypothesized in the Introduction. The description in Text provides clear content of the findings highlighting the observations. It should not be the repetition of facts in tables or graphs. Tables are used to summarize or emphasize descriptive content in the text or to present the numerical data that are unrelated. Illustrations should be used when the evidence bearing on the conclusions of a paper cannot be adequately presented in a written description or in a Table. Tables or Figures should relate to each other logically in sequence and should be clear by themselves. Furthermore, the discussion is based entirely on these observations. Additionally, how the results are applied to further research in the field to advance our understanding of research questions was discussed.

Dr. Peush Sahni (All-India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi) spoke on effectively ‘ structuring the Discussion ’ for a research paper. The Discussion section deals with a systematic interpretation of study results within the available knowledge. He said the section should begin with the most important point relating to the subject studied, focusing on key issues, providing link sentences between paragraphs, and ensuring the flow of text. Points were made to avoid history, not repeat all the results, and provide limitations of the study. The strengths and novel findings of the study should be provided in the discussion, and it should open avenues for future research and new questions. The Discussion section should end with a conclusion stating the summary of key findings. Dr. Sahni gave an example from a published paper for writing a Discussion. In another presentation titled ‘ Writing an effective title and the abstract ,’ Dr. Sahni described the important components of a good title, such as, it should be simple, concise, informative, interesting and eye-catching, accurate and specific about the paper's content, and should state the subject in full indicating study design and animal species. Dr. Sahni explained structured (IMRaD) and unstructured abstracts and discussed a few selected examples with the audience.

Language and style in publication

The next lecture of Dr. Amitabh Prakash on ‘ Language and style in scientific writing: Importance of terseness, shortness and clarity in writing ’ focused on the actual sentence construction, language, grammar and punctuation in scientific manuscripts. His presentation emphasized the importance of brevity and clarity in the writing of manuscripts describing biomedical research. Starting with a guide to the appropriate construction of sentences and paragraphs, attendees were given a brief overview of the correct use of punctuation with interactive examples. Dr. Prakash discussed common errors in grammar and proactively sought audience participation in correcting some examples. Additional discussion was centered on discouraging the use of redundant and expendable words, jargon, and the use of adjectives with incomparable words. The session ended with a discussion of words and phrases that are commonly misused (e.g., data vs . datum, affect vs . effect, among vs . between, dose vs . dosage, and efficacy/efficacious vs . effective/effectiveness) in biomedical research manuscripts.

Working with journals

The appropriateness in selecting the journal for submission and acceptance of the manuscript should be determined by the experience of an author. The corresponding author must have a rationale in choosing the appropriate journal, and this depends upon the scope of the study and the quality of work performed. Dr. Amitabh Prakash spoke on ‘ Working with journals: Selecting a journal, cover letter, peer review process and impact factor ’ by instructing the audience in assessing the true value of a journal, understanding principles involved in the peer review processes, providing tips on making an initial approach to the editorial office, and drafting an appropriate cover letter to accompany the submission. His presentation defined the metrics that are most commonly used to measure journal quality (e.g., impact factor™, Eigenfactor™ score, Article Influence™ score, SCOPUS 2-year citation data, SCImago Journal Rank, h-Index, etc.) and guided attendees on the relative advantages and disadvantages of using each metric. Factors to consider when assessing journal quality were discussed, and the audience was educated on the ‘green’ and ‘gold’ open access publication models. Various peer review models (e.g., double-blind, single-blind, non-blind) were described together with the role of the journal editor in assessing manuscripts and selecting suitable reviewers. A typical checklist sent to referees was shared with the attendees, and clear guidance was provided on the best way to address referee feedback. The session concluded with a discussion of the potential drawbacks of the current peer review system.

Poster and oral presentations at conferences

Posters have become an increasingly popular mode of presentation at conferences, as it can accommodate more papers per meeting, has no time constraint, provides a better presenter-audience interaction, and allows one to select and attend papers of interest. In Figure 2 , we provide instructions, design, and layout in preparing a scientific poster. In the final presentation, Dr. Sahni provided the audience with step-by-step instructions on how to write and format posters for layout, content, font size, color, and graphics. Attendees were given specific guidance on the format of text on slides, the use of color, font type and size, and the use of illustrations and multimedia effects. Moreover, the importance of practical tips while delivering oral or poster presentation was provided to the audience, such as speak slowly and clearly, be informative, maintain eye contact, and listen to the questions from judges/audience carefully before coming up with an answer.

Guidelines and design to scientific poster presentation. The objective of scientific posters is to present laboratory work in scientific meetings. A poster is an excellent means of communicating scientific work, because it is a graphic representation of data. Posters should have focus points, and the intended message should be clearly conveyed through simple sections: Text, Tables, and Graphs. Posters should be clear, succinct, striking, and eye-catching. Colors should be used only where necessary. Use one font (Arial or Times New Roman) throughout. Fancy fonts should be avoided. All headings should have font size of 44, and be in bold capital letters. Size of Title may be a bit larger; subheading: Font size of 36, bold and caps. References and Acknowledgments, if any, should have font size of 24. Text should have font size between 24 and 30, in order to be legible from a distance of 3 to 6 feet. Do not use lengthy notes

PANEL DISCUSSION: FEEDBACK AND COMMENTS BY PARTICIPANTS

After all the presentations were made, Dr. Jagadeesh began a panel discussion that included all speakers. The discussion was aimed at what we do currently and could do in the future with respect to ‘developing a research question and then writing an effective thesis proposal/protocol followed by publication.’ Dr. Jagadeesh asked the following questions to the panelists, while receiving questions/suggestions from the participants and panelists.

• Does a Post-Graduate or Ph.D. student receive adequate training, either through an institutional course, a workshop of the present nature, or from the guide?
• Are these Post-Graduates self-taught (like most of us who learnt the hard way)?
• How are these guides trained? How do we train them to become more efficient mentors?
• Does a Post-Graduate or Ph.D. student struggle to find a method (s) to carry out studies? To what extent do seniors/guides help a post graduate overcome technical difficulties? How difficult is it for a student to find chemicals, reagents, instruments, and technical help in conducting studies?
• Analyses of data and interpretation: Most students struggle without adequate guidance.
• Thesis and publications frequently feature inadequate/incorrect statistical analyses and representation of data in tables/graphs. The student, their guide, and the reviewers all share equal responsibility.
• Who initiates and drafts the research paper? The Post-Graduate or their guide?
• What kind of assistance does a Post-Graduate get from the guide in finalizing a paper for publication?
• Does the guide insist that each Post-Graduate thesis yield at least one paper, and each Ph.D. thesis more than two papers, plus a review article?

The panelists and audience expressed a variety of views, but were unable to arrive at a decisive conclusion.

WHAT HAVE THE PARTICIPANTS LEARNED?

At the end of this fast-moving two-day workshop, the participants had opportunities in learning the following topics:

• Sequential steps in developing a study protocol, from choosing a research topic to developing research questions and a hypothesis.
• Study protocols on different topics in their subject of specialization
• Searching and reviewing the literature
• Appropriate statistical analyses in biomedical research
• Scientific ethics in publication
• Writing and understanding the components of a research paper (IMRaD)
• Recognizing the value of good title, running title, abstract, key words, etc
• Importance of Tables and Figures in the Results section, and their importance in describing findings
• Evidence-based Discussion in a research paper
• Language and style in writing a paper and expert tips on getting it published
• Presentation of research findings at a conference (oral and poster).

Overall, the workshop was deemed very helpful to participants. The participants rated the quality of workshop from “ satisfied ” to “ very satisfied .” A significant number of participants were of the opinion that the time allotted for each presentation was short and thus, be extended from the present two days to four days with adequate time to ask questions. In addition, a ‘hands-on’ session should be introduced for writing a proposal and manuscript. A large number of attendees expressed their desire to attend a similar workshop, if conducted, in the near future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We gratefully express our gratitude to the Organizing Committee, especially Professors K. Chinnasamy, B. G. Shivananda, N. Udupa, Jerad Suresh, Padma Parekh, A. P. Basavarajappa, Mr. S. V. Veerramani, Mr. J. Jayaseelan, and all volunteers of the SRM University. We thank Dr. Thomas Papoian (US FDA) for helpful comments on the manuscript.

The opinions expressed herein are those of Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh and do not necessarily reflect those of the US Food and Drug Administration

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

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How to Conduct Market Research: A Step-By-Step Guide

Figuring out how to do market research for the first time can be intimidating and confusing. There are so many categories and different methods to choose from. It often seems like an endless list of organizational tasks and preparations.

However cumbersome as it might seem, research has an irreplaceable value for every company, be it a startup or a big corporation. It’s an instrument that leaders must use to keep themselves informed and up-to-date with market changes and make smart choices.

By observing your customers, you gain valuable insights into their personalities, motivations, challenges, and consumer behavior.

Furthermore, the data you gather gives you a glimpse of the processes that control the marketplace. You can gain a strategic edge over seemingly random or meaningless situations by learning more about them.

To sum up, doing your research helps you make better data-based business choices. This leads to better products, satisfied customers, and crushed competition. Sounds good, right?

If you follow through with your research with precision and discipline, you will soon be able to scale your company’s success rate significantly.

Before you read this guide and start your efforts, we advise you to brush up on the basics first and go through our other articles on market research:

• Market Research 101: From Beginner to Advanced
• Conducting Market Research: 6 Methods to Explore
• 15 Essential Market Research Tips for Businesses

Digging deeper into the process will give you the necessary background and confidence to go forth without any concerns.

So, without further ado, let’s roll our sleeves and get started on how to conduct market research. Read on and take notes!

1. Define the Research Goal

The first step of the process is defining your goal. It is important to start with a clear idea of why you are doing the research and what you want to accomplish. If your motivation is vague, you risk straying from your objectives and becoming distracted by irrelevant information.

During your study, you may find other important topics that are not closely related to the problem you are addressing. You should record them and save them for later research in different projects.

Mixing questions regarding too many problems in one survey can confuse the respondents and affect the accuracy of their answers. It can also make the research results too inconsistent. And it’s hard to conclude a bunch of random facts.

By stating the purpose and the problems of your research, you can establish a clear goal guiding everyone throughout the process.

This way, you’ll concentrate your efforts, and, in the end, you’ll be able to make informed decisions based on data.

For example, if you are choosing the pricing model for a new SaaS product, you should perform market research to make sure you’ll pick out the best one for your business. In this case, it should be something like “ Find out the best pricing strategy for the product ”. Some of the objectives can be:

• Identify the target audience.
• Find out what products they are currently using.
• Learn how much they are paying for them.
• Understand how much they are willing to pay.
• Research how they are using similar products.
• Discover what features they’d pay more for.
• Compare your product to the competition, etc.

Ultimately, your goal should be what you want to see accomplished in the future. That’s why it’s best to focus on your plans and targets, rather than on your current problems. Otherwise, you risk being stuck with unsolvable issues rather than with creative solutions.

2. Create Client Personas

When doing market research, you need a group of people who’ll answer your questions and whose opinions are important to your business. To identify these people, you should first create profiles that fit your target audience.

Client personas, or buyer personas , are collective profiles representing your ideal customers’ common qualities. They can be based on your top buyers in an attempt to attract more people like them to your business, or if you are just starting, they can be the product of separate market research.

Every business should have market personas. If you have already created yours – way to go, you are one step ahead! If you have not yet done it, now is a good time.

When building the buyer persona’s profile, you should include the following basic information, and add other specific factors, if there are any:

• Demographic – Age, gender, location, etc.
• Personal Information – Family status, income, interests, etc.
• Work-related details – Company, position, decision-making level, etc.
• Pain Points – Work and personal life struggles, barriers to achieving goals, etc.

For further reference on how to build buyer persona profiles, you can read DevriX’s article:

An Advanced Guide to Creating and Using Buyer Personas to Convert Leads

3. Identify the Sample

A market research sample is a representative group of people who match your client persona profiles. Depending on the scope of the study, you might include in it people who fit one or multiple personas.

Ideally, if you want the results to be representative, you should focus on a single profile. However, if you feel that you will get more information from different types of customers, you can define separate samples for every participating persona and compare the results at the end.

Defining and identifying a representative sample is the foundation of accumulating accurate results. If your participants don’t match the profile you need, their answers will not be relevant to your goals.

Participants for samples can be identified in:

• Your customer database . Clients should be divided into groups matching your buyer persona profiles. If you haven’t already implemented the segmentation , doing it will help you sift through who to invite to participate in the research.
• Competitors’ clients. People who use products similar to yours and fit the profile, but are not currently your customers, are a great addition to your research. By learning about their opinions and preferences, you can attract them as clients in the future.
• Your lead database . Every lead you have in your email list or CRM tool can be a potential candidate for the survey sample. As with existing customers, leads should be segmented not only for research but also for better marketing.
• Social media profiles . Your network of followers on different social media platforms can be a valuable resource in every survey. By announcing the desired profiles participants should fit and encouraging people to share with acquaintances, you can reach many more potential participants.

Your sample must be large enough and also representative of the population you are targeting. Choosing an audience too small or an ill-targeted group of people can make the results of the research biased.

Although there is not a universal minimal number of people to include in your study, it is generally accepted amongst scientists that less than 100 people is insufficient to make up a statistically relevant conclusion. Therefore, to ensure you’ll reach this number, you’ll have to distribute your questions to at least 150 people.

However, if you want to research only your existing customers and they are less than 100 in total, you can still carry out your study but you’ll have to accept a larger error margin .

4. Perform Your Chosen Research Methods

Once your sample is clear, you can move forward to conducting market research. Depending on your goals, you can explore different methods, but we will be using a strategy combining a few of them for this article. This is usually the safest way to guarantee that your results will be comprehensible and on point.

Prep Your Questions

The goals and objectives you set in the initial stages of your research should be organized and formulated into questions you can ask your participants.

Although the phrasing and scope of these will probably change and be refined throughout the different stages of the research, you should consider testing them at the beginning on a small sample. This will allow you to eliminate rookie mistakes and save you some trouble further on in the research.

Do Secondary Research

Before you start studying your audience, you should consider doing secondary research to build a general idea of the market.

You can find paid and free data available in government databases, private research companies, educational institutions, and public libraries.

There is a chance that the information you go through has nothing to do with the goals of your particular research. But it can still help you identify market patterns at scale and configure your following moves.

Try Various Exploratory Methods

The next step is to dive into your specific target audience and see how things are. This can be done via different exploratory research methods.

1. Observation. At this stage, consider starting with observation. This will give you an idea of how your customers act in real-life situations in their natural environment.

2. Focus Group Meetings. You can continue by consolidating your initial impressions in focus group meetings. The moderator can ask the participants about the subjects that got their attention and the discussion that follows can give you additional insights.

3. Personal Interviews. Interviewing individual representatives of your sample will allow you to ask even more follow-up questions and have a chance to learn about your customers’ preferences, goals, and pain points.

Distribute Customer Surveys

You can leverage all the information you’ve gathered in the previous steps to design customer surveys . They will help you acquire the answers to your questions at scale and prove or disprove the hypothesis built in the exploratory stage.

The questions in the surveys should be as simple and easy to understand as possible. Avoid answers that lead the customer in the direction you’d like. This might influence their responses and compromise the results.

5. Analyze the Data and Organize It Into a Report

The data you obtain should be analyzed and organized at the end of every stage of your market research. These preliminary reports will serve you in the process of the study and will make building the final report easier.

Results from the research will be both qualitative and quantitative and should be properly visualized to make sense to everyone to whom they would be presented.

Cold statistics can be overwhelming, but presenting the data in an engaging format can make it more appealing and clear.

Some forms of reporting are customer journey maps and affinity diagrams . Even users who are not technically advanced can take advantage of modern data visualization tools and make research data interesting to the audience of their presentation.

Step-by-Step Market Research

Conducting market research is complicated. It takes a lot of preparation and can seem intimidating at first. But once you become familiar with the basics, you will be able to do it yourself and reap its success.

By using this guide, you can study different aspects of your target market, and get to know your audience on a different level. Leveraging the data and insights you gather will give you a strategic advantage and empower you to make more informed data-based decisions for your business.

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Team DevriX

This article is crafted by DevriX's seasoned marketing team, boasting over four decades of collective expertise in crafting sophisticated marketing funnels, devising comprehensive content frameworks and pillars, implementing engaging email campaigns, and creating impactful social media content designed for scalability.

Our marketing experts specialize in the complete spectrum of inbound marketing strategies. As an accredited HubSpot Agency Partner and a Semrush Partner, we engage in meticulous research, blending our extensive experience with the unique insights of our highly skilled team.

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College Info Geek

How to Do Research in 7 Simple Steps

C.I.G. is supported in part by its readers. If you buy through our links, we may earn an affiliate commission. Read more here.

It’s 2 am, and you’re on your fifth cup of coffee (or was it your sixth?). You’re crouched at a table in some dark corner of the library surrounded by fifteen open books. Equally as many tabs are open on your laptop, and you still haven’t written a word of the paper that’s due in 7 hours.

Many things can explain how you got to this point, including procrastination , poor organization , and a messy schedule .

Very often, however, the problem is a lack of research skills .

And it’s not your fault. High school does a poor job of teaching you how to do research, and most college classes do little better. It feels like you’re expected to figure it out through trial and error.

I think we can do better than that, however. In this guide, I’m going to show you the 7-step process for researching everything from a 10-page term paper to a final presentation. Not only will you learn how to do better research; you’ll also learn how to research more efficiently.

What Is Research?

Before we go any further, what  is  research?

At its core, research is an attempt to answer a question. This could be anything from “How can we reduce infant mortality rates?” to “Why does salt make food taste good?”

To answer your question, you consult books, academic papers, newspaper articles, historical records, or anything else that could be helpful. The broad term for these things is “sources.”

And, usually, once you’ve done the research, you present or summarize it in some way. In many cases, this means writing an essay or another type of scholarly paper, but it could also mean giving a presentation or even creating a YouTube video.

Even if you have no interest in academia, research is an extremely useful skill to learn. When you know how to do research, it’s much easier to improve your life and work more effectively . Instead of having to ask someone every time you have a question, research will help you solve problems yourself (and help others in turn).

Note:  Research can also mean conducting surveys, performing experiments, or going on archaeological digs. While these activities are crucial for advancing human knowledge, I won’t be discussing them here. This article focuses on the research you can do with only a library and an internet connection.

The 7 Steps of the Research Process

Research can feel overwhelming, but it’s more manageable when you break it down into steps. In my experience, the research process has seven main steps:

• Find a topic
• Refine your topic
• Find key sources
• Take notes on your sources
• Create your paper or presentation
• Do additional research as necessary
• Cite your sources

Let’s look at each of these steps in more detail.

1. Find a Topic

If you don’t have a topic, your research will be undirected and inefficient. You’ll spend hours reading dozens of sources, all because you didn’t take a few minutes to develop a topic.

How do you come up with a topic? My number one suggestion is to create a mind map.

A mind map is a visual way to generate ideas. Here’s how it works:

• Get a piece of paper and a pen. Make sure the paper isn’t too small — you want lots of room for your ideas.
• Draw an oval in the center of the paper.
• Inside that oval, write a super vague topic. Start with whatever your professor has assigned you.
• Draw lines from the oval towards the edges of the paper.
• Draw smaller ovals connected to each of these lines.
• Inside the smaller ovals, write more specific ideas/topics related to the central one.
• Repeat until you’ve found 3-5 topic ideas.

When I write it out step by step, it sounds kind of strange. But trust me, it works . Anytime I’m stuck on a writing assignment, this method is my go-to. It’s basically magic.

To see what mind mapping looks like in practice, check out this clip:

Want to create a digital mind map like the one Thomas uses in the video? Check out Coggle .

2. Refine Your Topic

Okay, so now you have a list of 3-5 topics. They’re all still pretty general, and you need to narrow them down to one topic that you can research in depth.

To do this, spend 15 minutes doing some general research on each topic. Specifically, take each topic and plug it into your library’s catalog and database search tools.

The details of this process will vary from library to library. This is where consulting a librarian can be super helpful. They can show you how to use the tools I mentioned, as well as point you to some you probably don’t know about.

Furthermore, I suggest you ask your professor for recommendations. In some cases, they may even have created a resource page specifically for your assignment.

Once you’ve found out where to search, type in your topic. I like to use a mixture of the library catalog, a general academic database like EBSCO Host , and a search on Google Scholar .

What exactly are you trying to find? Basically, you’re trying to find a topic with a sufficient quantity and variety of sources.

Ideally, you want something with both journal articles and books, as this demonstrates that lots of scholars are seriously engaging with the topic.

Of course, in some cases (if the topic is very cutting edge, for example), you may be only able to find journal articles. That’s fine, so long as there are enough perspectives available.

Using this technique, you’ll be able to quickly eliminate some topics. Be ruthless. If you’re not finding anything after 15 minutes, move on. And don’t get attached to a topic.

Tip: If you find two topics with equal numbers of sources available, ask your professor to help you break the tie. They can give you insight into which topic is super common (and thus difficult to write about originally), as well as which they find more interesting.

Now that you have your topic, it’s time to narrow down your sources.

3. Find Key Sources

If you’ve picked a good topic, then you probably have lots of sources to work with. This is both a blessing and a curse. A variety of sources shows that there’s something worth saying about your topic, and it also gives you plenty of material to cite.

But this abundance can quickly turn into a nightmare in which you spend hours reading dense, mind-numbing material without getting any closer to actually producing a paper.

How do you keep this from happening? Choose 3–5  key sources and focus on them intently. Sure, you may end up needing more sources, especially if this is a long paper or if the professor requires it. But if you start out trying to read 15 sources, you’re likely to get overwhelmed and frustrated.

Focusing on a few key sources is powerful because it:

• Lets you engage deeply with each source.
• Gives you a variety of perspectives.
• Points you to further resources.
• Keeps you focused.

4. Read and Take Notes

But what do you do with these sources, exactly? You need to read them the right way . Follow these steps to effectively read academic books and articles:

Go through the article and look at the section headings. If any words or terms jump out at you, make note of them. Also, glance at the beginning sentences of each section and paragraph to get an overall idea of the author’s argument.

The goal here isn’t to comprehend deeply, but to prime your mind for effective reading .

Write down any questions you have after skimming the article, as well as any general questions you hope the article can answer. Always keep your topic in mind.

Read Actively

Now, start reading. But don’t just passively go through the information like you’re scrolling through Tumblr. Read with a pen or pencil in hand , underlining any unfamiliar terms or interesting ideas.

Make notes in the margins about other sources or concepts that come to mind. If you’re reading a library book, you can make notes on a separate piece of paper.

Once you’ve finished reading, take a short break. Have a cup of tea or coffee. Go for a walk around the library. Stretch. Just get your mind away from the research for a moment without resorting to distracting, low-density fun .

Now come back to the article and look at the things you underlined or noted. Gather these notes and transfer them to a program like Evernote .

If you need to look up a term, do that, and then add that definition to your notes. Also, make note of any sources the author cites that look helpful.

But what if I’m reading a book?   Won’t this take forever?  No, because you’re not going to read the entire book.

For most research you’ll do in college, reading a whole academic book is overkill . Just skim the table of contents and the book itself to find chapters or sections that look relevant.

Then, read each of those in the same way you would read an article. Also, be sure to glance at the book’s bibliography, which is a goldmine for finding additional sources.

Note: The above method is a variation on the classic SQ3R method , adapted slightly since we’re not interested in taking notes from textbooks .

5. Create Your Paper or Presentation

“You can’t turn in raw research.”

Research is crucial to crafting a great paper or presentation, but it’s also a great way to procrastinate. I had classmates in college who would spend 8 hours researching a 5-page paper. That’s way too much!

At some point, you need to stop researching and start writing (or whatever method you’re using to present your research).

How do you decide when to stop researching? There’s no strict rule, but in general I wouldn’t spend more than 30 minutes per page of the final paper.

So if the final paper is supposed to be 10 pages, don’t spend more than 5 hours researching it.

6. Do Additional Research (As Necessary)

Once you’ve started writing the draft of your paper, you’ll probably find a few gaps. Maybe you realize that one scholar’s argument isn’t relevant to your paper, or that you need more information for a particular section. In this case, you are free to return to researching as necessary.

But again, beware the trap of procrastination masquerading as productivity! Only do as much additional research as you need to answer your question. Don’t get pulled into rabbit holes or dragged off on tangents. Get in there, do your research, and get back to writing .

To keep yourself focused, I suggest keeping a separate document or piece of paper nearby to note points that need additional research.

Every time you encounter such a point, make note of it in the document and then keep writing. Only stop when you can’t get any further without additional research.

It’s much better to get a full draft done first. Otherwise, you risk suffering a cognitive switching penalty , making it harder to regain your focus.

7. Cite Your Sources

Whether you’re creating an oral presentation, essay, or video, you’ll need to cite your sources. Plagiarism is a serious offense, so don’t take any chances.

How to cite your sources depends on the subject and the professor’s expectations. Chicago, MLA, and APA are the most common citation formats to use in college, but there are thousands more.

Luckily, you don’t need to painstakingly type each of your citations by hand or slog through a style manual. Instead, you can use a tool like Zotero to track and generate your citations. To make things even easier, install the Zotero Connector browser extension. It can automatically pull citation information from entries in an online library catalog.

Once you’ve collected all of your sources, Zotero can generate a properly formatted works cited page or bibliography at just the click of a button.

For help setting up and using Zotero, read this guide . If you need further assistance, ask a librarian.

Go Research With Confidence

I hope you now understand how to do research with more confidence. If you follow the procedures I’ve covered in this article, you’ll waste less time, perform more effective research, and ultimately have the material for a winning essay.

Curious about how to use your research to write a great research paper? Check out this guide .

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Home » Basic Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Basic Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Basic Research

Definition:

Basic Research, also known as Fundamental or Pure Research , is scientific research that aims to increase knowledge and understanding about the natural world without necessarily having any practical or immediate applications. It is driven by curiosity and the desire to explore new frontiers of knowledge rather than by the need to solve a specific problem or to develop a new product.

Types of Basic Research

Types of Basic Research are as follows:

Experimental Research

This type of research involves manipulating one or more variables to observe their effect on a particular phenomenon. It aims to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Observational Research

This type of research involves observing and documenting natural phenomena without manipulating any variables. It aims to describe and understand the behavior of the observed system.

Theoretical Research

This type of research involves developing and testing theories and models to explain natural phenomena. It aims to provide a framework for understanding and predicting observations and experiments.

Descriptive Research

This type of research involves describing and cataloging natural phenomena without attempting to explain or understand them. It aims to provide a comprehensive and accurate picture of the observed system.

Comparative Research

This type of research involves comparing different systems or phenomena to identify similarities and differences. It aims to understand the underlying principles that govern different natural phenomena.

Historical Research

This type of research involves studying past events, developments, and discoveries to understand how science has evolved over time. It aims to provide insights into the factors that have influenced scientific progress and the role of basic research in shaping our understanding of the world.

Data Collection Methods

Some common data collection methods used in basic research include:

• Observation : This involves watching and recording natural phenomena in a systematic and structured way. Observations can be made in a laboratory setting or in the field and can be qualitative or quantitative.
• Surveys and questionnaires: These are tools for collecting data from a large number of individuals about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and experiences. Surveys and questionnaires can be administered in person, by mail, or online.
• Interviews : Interviews involve asking questions to a person or a group of people to gather information about their experiences, opinions, and perspectives. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
• Experiments : Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables and observing their effect on a particular phenomenon. Experiments can be conducted in a laboratory or in the field and can be controlled or naturalistic.
• Case studies : Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, or phenomenon. Case studies can provide rich and detailed information about complex phenomena.
• Archival research : Archival research involves analyzing existing data, documents, and records to answer research questions. Archival research can be used to study historical events, trends, and developments.
• Simulation : Simulation involves creating a computer model of a particular phenomenon to study its behavior and predict its future outcomes. Simulation can be used to study complex systems that are difficult to study in the real world.

Data Analysis Methods

Some common data analysis methods used in basic research include:

• Descriptive statistics: This involves summarizing and describing data using measures such as mean, median, mode, and standard deviation. Descriptive statistics provide a simple and easy way to understand the basic properties of the data.
• Inferential statistics : This involves making inferences about a population based on data collected from a sample. Inferential statistics can be used to test hypotheses, estimate parameters, and quantify uncertainty.
• Qualitative analysis : This involves analyzing data that are not numerical in nature, such as text, images, or audio recordings. Qualitative analysis can involve coding, categorizing, and interpreting data to identify themes, patterns, and relationships.
• Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of text, images, or audio recordings to identify specific words, phrases, or themes. Content analysis can be used to study communication, media, and discourse.
• Multivariate analysis: This involves analyzing data that have multiple variables or factors. Multivariate analysis can be used to identify patterns and relationships among variables, cluster similar observations, and reduce the dimensionality of the data.
• Network analysis: This involves analyzing the structure and dynamics of networks, such as social networks, communication networks, or ecological networks. Network analysis can be used to study the relationships and interactions among individuals, groups, or entities.
• Machine learning : This involves using algorithms and models to analyze and make predictions based on data. Machine learning can be used to identify patterns, classify observations, and make predictions based on complex data sets.

Basic Research Methodology

Basic research methodology refers to the approach, techniques, and procedures used to conduct basic research. The following are some common steps involved in basic research methodology:

• Formulating research questions or hypotheses : This involves identifying the research problem and formulating specific questions or hypotheses that can guide the research.
• Reviewing the literature: This involves reviewing and synthesizing existing research on the topic of interest to identify gaps, controversies, and areas for further investigation.
• Designing the study: This involves designing a study that is appropriate for the research question or hypothesis. The study design can involve experiments, observations, surveys, case studies, or other methods.
• Collecting data: This involves collecting data using appropriate methods and instruments, such as observation, surveys, experiments, or interviews.
• Analyzing data: This involves analyzing the collected data using appropriate methods, such as descriptive or inferential statistics, qualitative analysis, or content analysis.
• Interpreting results : This involves interpreting the results of the data analysis in light of the research question or hypothesis and the existing literature.
• Drawing conclusions: This involves drawing conclusions based on the interpretation of the results and assessing their implications for the research question or hypothesis.
• Communicating findings : This involves communicating the research findings in the form of research reports, journal articles, conference presentations, or other forms of dissemination.

Applications of Basic Research

Some applications of basic research include:

• Medical breakthroughs : Basic research in fields such as biology, chemistry, and physics has led to important medical breakthroughs, including the discovery of antibiotics, vaccines, and new drugs.
• Technology advancements: Basic research in fields such as computer science, physics, and engineering has led to advancements in technology, such as the development of the internet, smartphones, and other electronic devices.
• Environmental solutions: Basic research in fields such as ecology, geology, and meteorology has led to the development of solutions to environmental problems, such as climate change, air pollution, and water contamination.
• Economic growth: Basic research can stimulate economic growth by creating new industries and markets based on scientific discoveries and technological advancements.
• National security: Basic research in fields such as physics, chemistry, and biology has led to the development of new technologies for national security, including encryption, radar, and stealth technology.

Examples of Basic Research

Here are some examples of basic research:

• Astronomy : Astronomers conduct basic research to understand the fundamental principles that govern the universe, such as the laws of gravity, the behavior of stars and galaxies, and the origins of the universe.
• Genetics : Geneticists conduct basic research to understand the genetic basis of various traits, diseases, and disorders. This research can lead to the development of new treatments and therapies for genetic diseases.
• Physics : Physicists conduct basic research to understand the fundamental principles of matter and energy, such as quantum mechanics, particle physics, and cosmology. This research can lead to new technologies and advancements in fields such as medicine and engineering.
• Neuroscience: Neuroscientists conduct basic research to understand the structure and function of the brain, including how it processes information and controls behavior. This research can lead to new treatments and therapies for neurological disorders and brain injuries.
• Mathematics : Mathematicians conduct basic research to develop and explore new mathematical theories, such as number theory, topology, and geometry. This research can lead to new applications in fields such as computer science, physics, and engineering.
• Chemistry : Chemists conduct basic research to understand the fundamental properties of matter and how it interacts with other substances. This research can lead to the development of new materials, drugs, and technologies.

Purpose of Basic Research

The purpose of basic research, also known as fundamental or pure research, is to expand knowledge in a particular field or discipline without any specific practical application in mind. The primary goal of basic research is to advance our understanding of the natural world and to uncover fundamental principles and relationships that underlie complex phenomena.

Basic research is often exploratory in nature, with researchers seeking to answer fundamental questions about how the world works. The research may involve conducting experiments, collecting and analyzing data, or developing new theories and hypotheses. Basic research often requires a high degree of creativity, innovation, and intellectual curiosity, as well as a willingness to take risks and pursue unconventional lines of inquiry.

Although basic research is not conducted with a specific practical outcome in mind, it can lead to significant practical applications in various fields. Many of the major scientific discoveries and technological advancements of the past century have been rooted in basic research, from the discovery of antibiotics to the development of the internet.

In summary, the purpose of basic research is to expand knowledge and understanding in a particular field or discipline, with the goal of uncovering fundamental principles and relationships that can help us better understand the natural world. While the practical applications of basic research may not always be immediately apparent, it has led to significant scientific and technological advancements that have benefited society in numerous ways.

When to use Basic Research

Basic research is generally conducted when scientists and researchers are seeking to expand knowledge and understanding in a particular field or discipline. It is particularly useful when there are gaps in our understanding of fundamental principles and relationships that underlie complex phenomena. Here are some situations where basic research might be particularly useful:

• Exploring new fields: Basic research can be particularly valuable when researchers are exploring new fields or areas of inquiry where little is known. By conducting basic research, scientists can establish a foundation of knowledge that can be built upon in future studies.
• Testing new theories: Basic research can be useful when researchers are testing new theories or hypotheses that have not been tested before. This can help scientists to gain a better understanding of how the world works and to identify areas where further research is needed.
• Developing new technologies : Basic research can be important for developing new technologies and innovations. By conducting basic research, scientists can uncover new materials, properties, and relationships that can be used to develop new products or technologies.
• Investigating complex phenomena : Basic research can be particularly valuable when investigating complex phenomena that are not yet well understood. By conducting basic research, scientists can gain a better understanding of the underlying principles and relationships that govern complex systems.
• Advancing scientific knowledge: Basic research is important for advancing scientific knowledge in general. By conducting basic research, scientists can uncover new principles and relationships that can be applied across multiple fields of study.

Characteristics of Basic Research

Here are some of the main characteristics of basic research:

• Focus on fundamental knowledge : Basic research is focused on expanding our understanding of the natural world and uncovering fundamental principles and relationships that underlie complex phenomena. The primary goal of basic research is to advance knowledge without any specific practical application in mind.
• Exploratory in nature: Basic research is often exploratory in nature, with researchers seeking to answer fundamental questions about how the world works. The research may involve conducting experiments, collecting and analyzing data, or developing new theories and hypotheses.
• Long-term focus: Basic research is often focused on long-term outcomes rather than immediate practical applications. The insights and discoveries generated by basic research may take years or even decades to translate into practical applications.
• High degree of creativity and innovation : Basic research often requires a high degree of creativity, innovation, and intellectual curiosity. Researchers must be willing to take risks and pursue unconventional lines of inquiry.
• Emphasis on scientific rigor: Basic research is conducted using the scientific method, which emphasizes the importance of rigorous experimental design, data collection and analysis, and peer review.
• Interdisciplinary: Basic research is often interdisciplinary, drawing on multiple fields of study to address complex research questions. Basic research can be conducted in fields ranging from physics and chemistry to biology and psychology.
• Open-ended : Basic research is open-ended, meaning that it does not have a specific end goal in mind. Researchers may follow unexpected paths or uncover new lines of inquiry that they had not anticipated.

Advantages of Basic Research

Here are some of the main advantages of basic research:

• Advancing scientific knowledge: Basic research is essential for expanding our understanding of the natural world and uncovering fundamental principles and relationships that underlie complex phenomena. This knowledge can be applied across multiple fields of study and can lead to significant scientific and technological advancements.
• Fostering innovation: Basic research often requires a high degree of creativity, innovation, and intellectual curiosity. By encouraging scientists to pursue unconventional lines of inquiry and take risks, basic research can lead to breakthrough discoveries and innovations.
• Stimulating economic growth : Basic research can lead to the development of new technologies and products that can stimulate economic growth and create new industries. Many of the major scientific and technological advancements of the past century have been rooted in basic research.
• Improving health and well-being: Basic research can lead to the development of new drugs, therapies, and medical treatments that can improve health and well-being. For example, many of the major advances in medical science, such as the development of antibiotics and vaccines, were rooted in basic research.
• Training the next generation of scientists : Basic research is essential for training the next generation of scientists and researchers. By providing opportunities for young scientists to engage in research and gain hands-on experience, basic research helps to develop the skills and expertise needed to advance scientific knowledge in the future.
• Encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration : Basic research often requires collaboration between scientists from different fields of study. By fostering interdisciplinary collaboration, basic research can lead to new insights and discoveries that would not be possible through single-discipline research alone.

Limitations of Basic Research

Here are some of the main limitations of basic research:

• Lack of immediate practical applications : Basic research is often focused on long-term outcomes rather than immediate practical applications. The insights and discoveries generated by basic research may take years or even decades to translate into practical applications.
• High cost and time requirements: Basic research can be expensive and time-consuming, as it often requires sophisticated equipment, specialized facilities, and large research teams. Funding for basic research can be limited, making it difficult to sustain long-term projects.
• Ethical concerns : Basic research may involve working with animal models or human subjects, raising ethical concerns around the use of animals or the safety and well-being of human participants.
• Uncertainty around outcomes: Basic research is often open-ended, meaning that it does not have a specific end goal in mind. This uncertainty can make it difficult to justify funding for basic research, as it is difficult to predict what outcomes the research will produce.
• Difficulty in communicating results : Basic research can produce complex and technical findings that may be difficult to communicate to the general public or policymakers. This can make it challenging to generate public support for basic research or to translate basic research findings into policy or practical applications.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Speaker 1: One of the most frequently asked questions that I am asked all the time across my social media platforms, across my YouTube, across my comments, is about the research process. So how do you start? Where do you even begin? You need to submit a dissertation, you need to submit a research proposal, you need to think of a hypothesis, you need to think of a problem statement, you need to find a gap in literature where do you even begin with the whole research process now it isn't as hard as it seems it's just one of those things that you're never told or you're never taught how to do it's one of those things that you just kind of figure out so hopefully in today's video i will be talking to you about the overview and kind of a quick beginner's guide to the research process, giving you the steps of how you get from zero to having something, having a question, having a hypothesis, having somewhere to start. I'm going to be making this into a bit of a series so in today's video I'm going to be giving you an overview as to the different chapters, the different sections of the process, how you get from nothing to something and then in the following videos I will be going through each of those sections in a bit more detail and hopefully if you are someone who is within one of those kind of parts you can just jump to that video and have a have a quick quick watch if you are someone who is just starting off then this is the best place for you to begin have a little think about how you're going to navigate your research process and how you're going to get from the start to the end it is not difficult but it does require a few steps, a few technicalities, which I'll talk you through today. I'll leave the timestamps down below so you feel free to go and jump to the different sections that you are interested in watching. And if you do enjoy this kind of video and you want to see the rest of the videos from me, then don't forget to subscribe to see more on my channel. So step number one is to choose a topic. Now this is the beginning of something beautiful. This is where you choose what you're actually going to be studying and when you're actually going to be reading about now it's really important that you have chosen a topic that you are interested in that there is an interest in within the research space that has something missing so you don't want to choose a topic that we know everything about you want to choose a topic that we don't know everything about and there are things that we want to try to find more about you want to choose a topic that is within your university guidelines so as much as i would love to do a research on the solar system about space well if my course is to do with cell biology well then i can't so you have to think about your limits think about what you are allowed to do within your university guidelines as well but you do need to think about taking that broad topic and making it into something a bit more narrow so it's not good enough to just say i want to do research on alzheimer's okay alzheimer's fine you've got a topic, but you now need to narrow it down. So what about it are you looking at? Are you looking at the risk factors? Are you looking at what happens once you have Alzheimer's? Are you looking at a specific group of people? Are you looking at a specific cell type? What is it that you are looking at? You need to narrow that down. In order to narrow it down, you need to do a bit of a literature search. So whilst choosing a topic, whilst in this first stage, you need to look at literature. So to find literature you want to go to different websites where you have literature and this could be for example Google Scholar is a good place to start, PubMed is a good place to start. These are places where you can find literature about that topic and kind of read around the subject and identify whether firstly is it something that you are actually interested in and secondly is there enough information for you to gather to be able to write your literature review in the future so that first step your first step of your research process is thinking about the topic because without a topic you there's nothing you can't do anything else so the first step has to always be to find a topic and think about it now once you've thought about a topic and you've narrowed it down to the thing that you're interested in at this stage you will then go to your supervisor to your lecturer to your professor to your mentor to your tutor and you will ask them do you think this is a good topic and that is where you will get some feedback and most likely you'll have to go back have another think or try to refine a bit more or try to think about it in a different way but that is always the first step. In the video that I make about finding a good topic we'll talk about it in a lot more depth but to start off with to introduce this is always the first step. So the second step is to identify a problem and this is what we like to call in as you know in research the gap in literature. So a problem slash gap in literature is the part of research that we that is missing. So when you do research in fact in order to graduate from a PhD you have to and this is one of the criteria you have to produce research it has to be in a thesis or in a in a published paper it has to be research it has to be a finding that is new something that we do not know before we did not know before your research right and that is the number one criteria for for actually getting a phd it is the fact that it has to be something new has to be something novel that you have discovered okay so you need to think about the gap in literature where is there a missing piece i understand this i understand that we know this we know that but what is there that we don't quite know and that is the bit that you are then going to try to identify during your research process right chosen a topic now we need to find the problem where is the missing information now in order to do this you need to have read a lot of papers around your topic. So that's why I said initially, you need to have had approval from your committee, from your tutor, your supervisor to say, right, that's okay. It's good for me to go there. Now you've got that topic that you're looking at. You then want to try to find the gap. Where are you going to slot in? What is it that you are going to provide in terms of knowledge? Now, the identifying a problem is actually quite an important and quite critical part of the research process it's almost impossible you to continue on with your research without having identified the problem because if you don't have a problem you don't know what it is you're looking at you don't know what methods you're using you don't know what your research question is going to be or your hypothesis so at this stage you have to have a very well-defined research problem and your question in order to continue on to the next steps so when i say research problem and we'll talk about this more in in the following video that i'm going to produce about it but when i talk about research problem it could be a number of different things so it could be that we understand or we have the knowledge of a certain situation but now you're comparing it to a different situation so it could be more theoretical where you're comparing two things to each other that haven't been compared before so that would be fine as long as what you have is something original or you may be trying to explore a specific relationship let's say for example in my case with my PhD I was looking at two different proteins and the relationship between them so that is one type of research that you can do as well and so just think about your topic and think about where the gap is in the literature you have to read a lot to be able to find this and a question I get a lot emailed to me and directed to me is about this problem so how do I find a problem like how do i find a gap in literature and it's almost impossible for me to to give you any answers because i have to have read all the papers within your topic in order to answer that question which is almost impossible so it's something that you have to do independently and you can always discuss with me you can discuss kind of trying to refine that question but for the most part you need to read around your subject yourself to get that question then step number three is to actually write down your research question now this is usually in the form maybe of a hypothesis or maybe it could be just a you know a standalone question so this is just you saying this is what i'm looking at so i'm looking at whether actin and myosin bind together to have an impact on the motility of the cortex like that is my question and then i'll have a hypothesis saying actin and myosin bind together and they do this so this is just my question and you're just following on from your problem so you've identified your topic you found the problem the gap in literature and then you write down what your question is so what it is exactly that you are looking for and this will be like your guiding star this will be the thing the question the statement that you have at the top you know at the top of your mind whenever you are looking at literature whenever you're writing a literature review whenever you speak to someone you have that question in mind and so that needs to be something that's really well defined it should also be really specific so it can't just be saying is obesity caused by i don't know fatty food i'm just giving a random example that is too vague is obesity in children in male in female different ages what fatty foods what like you need to be very very specific so specific that someone else should be able to pick up your research question and know what it is you're looking at they need to be able to know sort of what methods you're using is it qualitative or is it quantitative what type of research are you actually doing that should really be in the research question so a good research question is one where that is really well defined then step number four is to write a research design so this is where you're kind of creating a bit of a method a bit of a process within a process so you are now writing down and you're now thinking about how you're going to conduct this research so to follow this will be the research proposal but at this stage here you're just thinking about your research design so how are you going to get this research done what are the factors that you need to think about who are the people the participants that you may need are you doing a lab-based thing do you need cells are you you know what do you need humans do you need animals is it just a review paper so do you just need to think about researchers out there what kind of study are you going to conduct in order to find out the results and the answer to your question essentially the research design is a practical framework so it's giving laying out that frame for you in order to answer your research question. And here, it's more of a thinking process. It's more of a discussion. You might want to ask your supervisor, you might want to ask your tutor to talk about it. How are we going to get the answer to this question? And then to finish off the research process, you now want to write a research proposal. And I have a really good video about this, and I'll leave the link for it down below, where you are detailing all the steps for your research so you're detailing your the background of your research the literature review and you're justifying that there is a need for this research you then want to detail your methods your materials the aim your you know your timeline how long it's going to take you to do these things and then that document is what you take with you to your supervisor and say look this is my research proposal you might take it to a potential phd supervisor and say look this is what i've found and this is what i'm really interested in and here is the proposal and you have it all outlined there for you or it's a document that you're able to use in order to build upon your dissertation and so if you're writing an essay dissertation you are able to use that as well so with your research proposal you are detailing the context you are detailing the purpose the plan and your aims the whole process going from finding a topic finding a problem finding the research question defining the actual research and then now you're compiling all of that and you're putting it into a document called the research proposal and all of this information is in there someone should be able to pick that up see what you found find the review of the literature and say right this is a good study this is a good bit of research we are going to approve this and then you can go on and plan the rest of your research so i hope this video helped you summarizing the steps of the research process to begin with and as i mentioned i'm going to be doing each of these five steps as single videos so i can expand on them and i'll make it into a playlist so you're able to sort of follow up and click on the next couple videos but for now i hope this did help with thinking about the research process and thinking about maybe what stage you are at if you are at any of them if you do want further support you can contact me on thepagedoctor.com where i give support and we have a team of consultants top consultants and top editors that can support you through the process of writing your research proposal or even through the post process of thinking about how you're going to find a gap in literature how you're going to find you know your hypothesis and define that for you so don't forget to leave me a comment and let me know if this was helpful and don't forget to leave me a thumbs up and subscribe to see more from me and I'll see you in my next one. Bye.

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How to Conduct Surveys – Guide with Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 16th, 2021 , Revised On August 29, 2023

Surveys are a popular primary data collection method and can be used in various  types of research . A researcher formulates a survey that includes questions relevant to the research topic. The participants are selected, and the questionnaire is distributed among them, either online or offline. It consists of either open or close-ended questions.

Objectives and Uses of Survey 

• Surveys are conducted for the planning of national, regional, or local programs.
• They help to study the perceptions of the community related to the topic.
• Surveys are used in market research, social sciences, and commercial settings.
• They can also be used for various other disciplines, from business to anthropology.
• Surveys are frequently used in quantitative research .

Guidelines for Conducting a Survey

Before conducting a survey, you should follow these steps:

• Construct a clear and concise research problem statement  focusing on what is being investigated and why the research is carried out.
• Formulate clear and unbiased questions for the survey.
• Test the questions randomly on volunteer groups and make necessary changes f required.
• Determine the mode of survey distribution.
• Schedule the timing of the survey.
• Use a professional tone, a scholarly approach, and an academic format for your survey.
• Ensure the privacy and anonymity of the participants.
• Avoid offensive languages or biased questions.
• Take the opinion of the participants.
• Inform the participants about the survey.
• Calculate the time required for gathering data, analysing, and reporting it.

How to Conduct a Survey?

Following are the steps while conducting the surveys.

• Set the aims of your research
• Select the type of survey
• Prepare a list of questions
• Invite the participants
• Record the responses of the participants
• Distribute the survey questions
• Analyse the results
• Write your report

Step 1: Set the Aims of your Research

Before conducting research, you need to form a clear picture of the outcomes of your study.  Create a research question  and devise the goals of your research. Based on the requirements of your research, you need to select the participants. It would help if you decided whether your survey would be online or offline.

You need to select a specific group of participants for your research. The participants can be:

• A group of college students
• Hospital staff
• A group of people in public places
• Customers or employs a specific company
• A group of people based on their age, gender, and profession, etc.

Sometimes it’s impossible to survey the entire population individually if it’s a large population. It requires a lot of time and effort. In such cases, you can select a group of people from the selected community, and it’s called the  sample.

• 50 customers of a company
• 40 students of class 12
• 30 boys and 30 girls of age 14-15

You can also use an online survey if your target population is large. It helps in getting the maximum number of responses within a short time.

Useful reading: What is correlational research , a comprehensive guide for researchers.

Does your Research Methodology Have the Following?

• Great Research/Sources
• Perfect Language
• Accurate Sources

If not, we can help. Our panel of experts makes sure to keep the 3 pillars of Research Methodology strong.

Step 2: Select the Type of Survey

Example of the Rating Scale:

enjoy reading paper books more than reading e-books

How do you feel about your ability to find a career option according to your goals?

Step 3: Prepare a List of Questions

You can use various types of questions in your survey, such as open-ended, closed-ended, and multiple-choice questions. Most of the participants like short multiple-choice questions. Use simple and clear language to avoid misunderstanding. Avoid offensive language. 

If you are using checklists in your survey to get feedback on a specific feature, service, or product, then write the statements based on your evaluation aims.

Closed-ended Questions

• Questions with answers such as (yes/no, agree/disagree, true/ false)
• Rating scales with points or stars to measure the satisfaction of the people.
• A list of questions with multiple options with either a single answer option or various answers.

Open-ended Questions

Open-ended  questions require the participants’ individual answers according to their opinion, experience, and choice. The answers can be either one word or in sentences.

• Tell me about your relationship with your boss?
• Why did you choose this answer?
• What’s your opinion on women’s education?
• How do you see the future?
• What is a success, according to you?

Step 4: Invite the Participants

You can try out many ways to invite the participants to your survey. You can inform them through emails, texts. You can post your survey on social media or design a banner to display on websites to grab the respondents’ attention.

Step 5: Record the Responses of the Participants

One of the essential steps is to gather responses from the participants. In most cases, people don’t pay attention to the survey questions or leave them incomplete. You can offer some rewards to increase the response rates of your participants. You can also promise to share the outcomes with your participants to improve their response rate.

Step 6: Distribute the Survey Questions

You need to decide the sample size (number of participants and responses required) according to your research requirements. It will help if you determine whether you are going to conduct an online survey or offline. 

Step 7: Analyse the Results

You can store the data in tabulated forms, charts, graphs, or you can take out a print of the data in the form of a spreadsheet. You can use text analysis to analyse the findings of your questionnaire survey.  You can perform a thematic analysis  for the  interview  surveys. However, the information on the online surveys is stored automatically, and you can analyse it directly.

Step 8: Write your Report

The final step is to write a report for your survey. You need to ensure that you have met the objectives of your research or not. 

In the  introduction , you need to explain your survey’s whole procedure by mentioning the time and place of the survey conducted. Mention the methods of analysis you used in your survey.

A successful survey represents reliable feedback to the survey questions as evidence of your research. If you have online surveys, the responses will help you measure the participant’s satisfaction and positive or negative opinions.

In the section of discussion and conclusion, you can  explain your findings  by using supporting evidence and concluding the results by answering your research questions.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the basic steps to conduct the survey.

Basic steps to conduct a survey:

• Define objectives and target audience.
• Develop clear and concise questions.
• Choose survey method (online, phone, etc.).
• Pilot test to refine questions.
• Distribute to participants.
• Collect and analyze responses.
• Draw conclusions and share findings.

You May Also Like

Textual analysis is the method of analysing and understanding the text. We need to look carefully at the text to identify the writer’s context and message.

Content analysis is used to identify specific words, patterns, concepts, themes, phrases, or sentences within the content in the recorded communication.

A meta-analysis is a formal, epidemiological, quantitative study design that uses statistical methods to generalise the findings of the selected independent studies.

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Search the site, search suggestions, so you want to conduct research at harvard.

Calling all the curious! Calling all the team players!! Calling all those hungry for knowledge!!! I’m here to talk to y'all about pursuing research at Harvard and what my research experience has been like thus far. 

When I was in high school, I didn't pursue research at all really. I came here nervous about the possible challenges I would face, trying to begin my research career. What if I couldn’t find a professor that would want to work with me? What if I wasn't good at it? 

I was relieved to find that there are so many world-renowned professors and faculty that are at the forefront of their respective fields! More importantly, they are so eager and excited to talk about their work and to get to know students. 

You’ll be surprised to know that Harvard has more research opportunities than undergraduates to fill them!

Starting your freshman year you can do all kinds of research from science to psychology to sociology and so much more. Harvard has a ton of money set aside for undergraduates to do research. Students can participate in term-time research, summer research, and even go abroad to another country or continent. 

This past summer, I was able to conduct biomedical research in gene therapy at the Wyss Institute of Biologically Inspired Engineering. I applied to one of the many undergraduate research summer programs offered by Harvard either at the College or one of Harvard’s other schools: Medical School, Business School, Law School, School of Engineering & Applied Sciences, etc. The program I participated in was called the Research Undergraduate Experience through the School of Engineering & Applied Sciences. I spent ten weeks living on campus living my best life as a lab intern, paid nothing out of pocket, and yet was paid a great stipend. I worked on a really cool project that will hopefully revolutionize the field of gene therapy and drug delivery.

Here is virtual proof of my summer activities in case no one believes me: 

I honestly had the greatest time this past summer learning about new things in my lab and learning new things about myself. I strongly urge all of you to pursue research in whatever fields you’re interested in. It’s an amazing, eye-opening experience that I believe everyone can benefit from. 

To learn more about the research opportunities available at Harvard please visit http://uraf.harvard.edu/ . If you have any further questions please feel free to reach out to me!

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Do I Need IRB Approval?

Projects that meet the regulatory definition of human subjects research or a clinical investigation require IRB approval or certification of exemption BEFORE any human subjects research procedures are initiated.

What is Research?

Federal regulations define research as a systematic investigation, including development, testing, and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.  For example, some demonstration and service programs may include research activities .

Key components of this definition:

• Systematic investigation – data are collected in a systematic manner, in accordance with a plan or method.
• Including development, testing and evaluation – this means that a pilot study or a small project that is part of a larger study could be research if it involves a systematic investigation designed to contribute to generalizable knowledge.
• Designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge – those conducting the project will draw conclusions or make generalizations based on the information gathered and apply them to a broader population or setting (beyond the specific persons or setting from which data are gathered). The intent or purpose of research is to further scientific knowledge in a particular field of study.  Publication is often viewed as a defining factor, however many publications are based on non-research activities (e.g., medical case reports, reports of program evaluations, etc.).

Who is a Human Subject?

Federal regulations define a human subject as A living individual about whom an investigator (whether professional or student) conducting research:

• Obtains information or biospecimens through intervention or interaction with the individual, and uses, studies, or analyzes the information or biospecimens; or
• Obtains, uses, studies, analyzes, or generates identifiable private information or identifiable biospecimens.

The regulations further define:

• Intervention  includes both physical procedures by which information or biospecimens are gathered (e.g. venipuncture) and manipulations of the subject or the subject’s environment that are performed for research purposes
• Interaction  includes communication or interpersonal contact between investigator and subject.
• Private information  includes information about behavior that occurs in a context in which an individual can reasonably expect that no observation or recording is taking place, and information that has been provided for specific purposes by an individual and that the individual can reasonably expect will not be made public (e.g. medical record)
• Identifiable private information  is private information for which the identity of the subject is or may readily be ascertained by the investigator or associated with the information.
• Identifiable biospecimen  is a biospecimen for which the identity of the subject is or may readily be ascertained by the investigator or associated with the biospecimen.

What is a Clinical Investigation?

The FDA defines a Clinical Investigation as any experiment that involves a test article and one or more human subjects that is either subject to requirements for prior submission to the Food and Drug Administration under section 505(i), or 520(g) of the act, or is not subject to requirements for prior submission to the Food and Drug Administration under these sections of the act, but the results of which are intended to be submitted to, or held for inspection by the Food and Drug Administration as part of an application for a research or marketing permit.    A  test article  means any drug (including a biological product for human use), medical device for human use, human food additive, color additive, electronic product, or any other article subject to regulation under the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act  (21 CFR 50.3(j)) .

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Complete the online self-test in OneAegis (IRBManager) – Does My Study Require IRB Oversight

Decision Tree 1 :  Does Your Project Require IRB Approval? (updated 1-8-2019)

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Code of Ethics

You are here

*NEW* Thousands of you have since shared your ideas, needs, and feedback through surveys and focus groups. With that guidance, and led by extraordinary workgroups made up of Governing Board members, educators, faculty, researchers, partners, and advisors, we are honored to be able to launch a public comment period with draft versions of Code of Ethics for your review through November 15, 2024.  

English   Español

You are invited to engage in the process of collective revision with us. Here are three ways you can provide feedback during this time:   

1. Take a survey. NAEYC has prepared surveys for both statements, available in English and Spanish . In addition to offering general feedback opportunities, these surveys will help guide you towards some areas where we are seeking specific feedback on open or unresolved questions.   

English Survey   Encuesta en español

2. Email your reflections. NAEYC is committed to reading, and translating if needed, all comments that come our way, so feel free to send your thoughts, in your preferred language, directly to [email protected] .     

3. Participate in conferences and focus groups. NAEYC and many Affiliates and Interest Forums will be holding conferences, meetings, and focus groups exploring one or both of these position statement drafts this fall, providing you with opportunities to share feedback in person and/or virtually.   

Thank you for helping us shape these collective, shared resources that support early childhood educators, partnering with families, in creating joyful, equitable learning environments for all. 

Thank you to the workgroup members who have done tremendous heavy lifting in bringing us to this point. 

• Leah Austin, President and CEO, The National Black Child Development Institute 
• Raquel Diaz, Implementation Consultant for Triple P 
• Cynthia DiCarlo, Professor of Early Childhood Education, Louisiana State University 
• Christyn Dundorf, Co-director, Teaching Preschool Partners 
• Zeynep Isik-Ercan, President, National Association of Early Childhood Teacher Educators and Department Chair of Early Childhood, Rowan University 
• Benita Flores-Muñoz, Member of the NAEYC Commission on Early Childhood Higher Education Accreditation and Retired ECE faculty , Del Mar College 
• Robin Fox, Interim Provost, University of Wisconsin Whitewater 
• *Stacey French-Lee, NAEYC Governing Board Member, and Clinical Assistant Professor, Executive Director of the Campus Child Development Program, Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Georgia State University 
• Heidi Friedel, NAEYC Faith Based Interest Forum Facilitator, Early Childhood Consultant, and Staff Support Specialist for ECE Subhub 
• Eugene Geist, Associate Professor, Louisiana State University 
• Georgia Goldburn, Executive Director, Hope For New Haven and Co-founder,CERCLE 
• *Brian Johnson, NAEYC Governing Board Member, and Assistant Dean, James Madison College at Michigan State University 
• Sim Loh, Public Policy Specialist, First Up: Champions for Early Education 
• Andrea Maldonado, Director of Quality Assessment and Recognition, National Association for Family Child Care 
• Meir Muller, Associate Professor of Early Childhood Education,University of South Carolina 
• Ernesto Muñoz, Senior Project Manager of Curriculum Literacy, University of Texas 
• Richelle Patterson, Senior Policy Analyst,  National Education Association
• Anu Sachdev, President, ACCESS and Adjunct ECE Faculty, East Stroudsburg University 
• **Ian Schiefelbein, ECE Faculty, Central New Mexico Community College 
• Ashley Simpson, BIPOC Educator Recruitment and Retention Strategies Program Manager, Aurora Public School District 
• *Toni Sturdivant, NAEYC Governing Board Member, and Director of Early Learning, Mid-America Regional Council 
• Tracy Weston, GAEYC District 1 Representative and Co-Founder, Noah's Ark Preschool Academy of Terrell, Inc. 
• **Reginald Williams, Full Professor of Early Childhood Education, South Carolina State University 

*Current NAEYC Governing Board Members  **Former NAEYC Governing Board Members 

NAEYC is grateful to our funders and supporters who make this work possible, including those who have donated through the Marilyn M. Smith Applied Research Fund

*NUEVO* Miles de ustedes compartieron sus opiniones, necesidades y comentarios a través de encuestas y grupos de discusión. Con esa guía, y liderados por grupos de trabajo extraordinarios compuestos por miembros del Directorio, docentes, socios y asesores, nos honra poder lanzar un período abierto a comentarios del público con versiones borrador de El Código de Conducta Ética y Declaración de Compromiso revisada para su lectura.   

Inglés   Español

Están invitado a participar en el proceso de revisión colectiva con nosotros. Estas son tres maneras en las que puede enviar sus comentarios durante este período:   

1. Responda una encuesta: La NAEYC preparó encuestas para ambas declaraciones, disponibles en inglés y en español . Además de ofrecer oportunidades generales para hacer comentarios, estas encuestas sirven de ayuda para guiarlo hacia algunas áreas en las que buscamos recibir comentarios específicos o preguntas abiertas o sin respuesta.   

Encuesta en inglés   Encuesta en español

2. Envíe sus reflexiones por correo electrónico. La NAEYC asume el compromiso de leer, y traducir si es necesario, todos los comentarios que recibamos, de manera que puede enviar libremente sus ideas, en su idioma de preferencia, directamente a [email protected] .    

3. Participe en conferencias y grupos de discusión. La NAEYC y muchas Afiliadas y Foros de interés organizarán conferencias, reuniones y grupos de discusión y estudiarán uno o ambos borradores de esta declaración de posición durante este otoño y le ofrecerán oportunidades para compartir sus comentarios de manera presencial y/o virtual.

Gracias a ustedes por ayudarnos a dar forma a estos recursos colectivos y compartidos que apoyan a los docentes de educación inicial, en colaboración con las familias, para crear ambientes educativos, disfrutables e igualitarios para todos.  

Gracias a los miembros del grupo de trabajo que han hecho un tremendo trabajo para llegar a este punto. 

• Richelle Patterson, Senior Policy Analyst, National Education Association
• Anu Sachdev, President,  ACCESS and Adjunct ECE Faculty, East Stroudsburg University 

NAEYC agradece a nuestros financiadores y patrocinadores que hacen posible este trabajo, incluidos aquellos que han donado a través del Marilyn M. Smith Applied Research Fund.

Position Statements

(Reaffirmation and Updated, 2011)  

• NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct Brochure

Supplements

More ethics resources.

Teaching the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct: A Resource Guide, Revised Edition

Ethics and the Early Childhood Educator: Using the NAEYC Code, Second Edition

Sample Activities from Teaching the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct: A Resource Guide, Revised Edition

Why naeyc has updated the ethics position statements.

In May 2011, the NAEYC Governing Board reaffirmed the 2005 Code and updated this position statement to reflect consistency with the “Supplement for Early Childhood Program Administrators,” which was initially approved in July 2006. Specifically, Section III-C of the Code (Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues / Responsibilities to Employees) was deleted, as these Ideals and Principles are addressed in the Supplement. Other minor modifications were also made to ensure clarity and consistency. In addition, changes were made to Ideals and Principles that regard responsibilities to families to ensure alignment with current family engagement best practices in the field.

The “Supplement for Early Childhood Program Administrators” was also reaffirmed by the NAEYC Governing Board in May 2011, and changes were made to Ideals and Principles that regard responsibilities to families to ensure alignment with current family engagement best practices in the field. In addition, references to the Code of Ethical Conduct, Section III, Part C: Responsibilities to Employees were deleted, as Section III, Part C was deleted in the May 2011 update of the Code.

The University of Chicago The Law School

Federal criminal justice clinic—significant achievements for 2023-24.

The Federal Criminal Justice Clinic is the nation’s first legal clinic devoted to representing indigent clients charged with federal felonies, pursuing impact litigation through criminal cases in federal court, and spearheading systemic change within the federal criminal system to combat racial, economic, and other inequities. Professor Alison Siegler, the Clinic’s Founding Director, and Professor Judith Miller work together with students to advocate in these areas.

Freedom Denied Systemic Reform Project

Students working with Professor Siegler on the FCJC’s Freedom Denied Project have continued to drive systemic change nationally in the area of federal pretrial jailing and detention, building on the Clinic’s study, Freedom Denied: How the Culture of Detention Created a Federal Jailing Crisis (2022). In this report, the FCJC identified a federal jailing crisis and presented hard data to judges and other stakeholders about various ways in which people’s rights are violated during federal bail hearings. Since then, the FCJC has been pulling every possible lever to address this crisis, reduce federal jailing rates, and reduce the accompanying racial disparities.

In ten of the federal courts where the FCJC engaged in district-specific interventions, federal jailing rates decreased by fifteen percent on average. Over the five years since our work began, federal jailing rates have decreased by five percent nationwide. While it is difficult to know what part of the decrease is attributable to the Clinic’s efforts, many judges and policymakers have informed Professor Siegler that the Clinic’s work is fundamentally reshaping how the federal system addresses pretrial detention and release.

This year, the FCJC distributed a bound hard copy of our 300-page Freedom Denied report to 700 federal judges, including every Chief US District Court Judge and every US Magistrate Judge in the country who makes pretrial jailing decisions. We received many letters and emails from judges nationwide, thanking us and reflecting on our report as an excellent and practical resource for the judiciary. (The printing, binding, and mailing of the report was made possible by an additional and very generous gift from the Astor Street Foundation.)

In our report, the FCJC was the first to identify a massive access-to-justice problem, and our interventions on that issue are creating monumental change. Specifically, our investigation revealed that in one-quarter of the federal courts in this country, judges regularly detain people in jail without lawyers. This is a clear violation of federal laws that require the appointment of counsel during the first court hearing, known as the initial appearance.

The FCJC advocated to the Department of Justice and the Judicial Conference of the United States, and they responded by working with us to rectify the access-to-counsel problem. In 2023, the DOJ issued a new directive requiring federal prosecutors to recognize the statutory right to counsel. After that, FCJC students and Professor Siegler conducted an extensive additional investigation to identify the federal courts where the right-to-counsel crisis is most acute, and approached the Judicial Conference with our findings. In response, Judicial Conference committees ultimately issued a directive in March 2024 requiring federal judges to appoint counsel to represent every indigent defendant during their initial appearance hearing, stating: “Courts that do not currently ensure that every defendant has active representation by counsel during the initial appearance must comply with the governing statute and rules.” This is an enormous milestone.

While awaiting this directive, Professor Siegler published an op-ed in USA Today to further educate stakeholders about the crisis and spread nationwide attention and awareness, explaining: “Our [Clinic’s] findings document the shocking number of people denied public defenders at their first bail hearing, which virtually guarantees that they will be jailed rather than released home to their families.” In the wake of these changes, we have been heartened to learn that federal courts that for decades had an entrenched practice of locking defendants in jail without lawyers are now regularly appointing counsel.

The Clinic engaged in additional systemic change efforts to address the broader federal jailing crisis this year, including:

• Widely distributing the Clinic’s template motions for pretrial release via the Westlaw Forms database to ensure that federal criminal defense attorneys have access to effective legal tools.
• The centerpiece of this year’s trainings was a presentation at the Seventh Circuit Judicial Conference, an upcoming panel at the Tenth Circuit Judicial Conference, and a multi-day national bail workshop for Federal Public Defenders.
• Additional speeches included presentations at the National Association of Pretrial Services Agencies 50 th Annual Conference and Training, a presentation at the annual national conference of the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), and a speech at a conference organized by the Honorable Salvador Mendoza of the US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.

Retroactivity Project

Under Professor Judith Miller’s leadership, FCJC student teams represented four incarcerated clients in motions to have their sentences reduced under the newly passed Amendment 821 to the Sentencing Guidelines. The Sentencing Commission issued the retroactive Amendment in light of new data showing that two components of the Guidelines overstated certain individuals’ risk of recidivism. Under this Amendment, incarcerated individuals can ask the court to reduce their sentences to the low-end of their new, amended Guideline range. Once the court determines that the individual is eligible for a reduction, it applies the usual factors under the sentencing statute, 18 U.S.C. § 3553(a), to determine whether a reduction is warranted.

The FCJC recognized that the Clinic could play an important role by representing clients who might be eligible for release after the change in the law. In this project, Clinic students used their outstanding research, writing, and investigation skills to help individuals in need of counsel push novel legal and factual issues posed by the new Amendment. As of early July 2024, one client has been released, one client’s sentence has been reduced, and two cases are still pending.

Two of the Clinic’s four cases were ultimately uncontested. Of the uncontested cases, our released client is now home with her family, after receiving a twenty-one-month sentence reduction. This was an especially sweet victory as the Clinic had previously represented this client at trial in 2019. In the second case, student advocacy persuaded the government to agree to the reduction. If granted, the motion will reduce our client’s sentence by nearly a year, to his mandatory minimum sentence.

As for the two contested pending cases, both present fascinating and important legal issues. In the first, students successfully persuaded the Court to grant the client an eighteen-month sentence reduction. This victory was an uphill battle. Both Probation and the government initially concluded that the client was ineligible for relief. Students nonetheless persuaded Probation to change its position, and the government then conceded eligibility after reading the students’ motion.

The student team argued that our client’s sentence should be reduced to account for dramatic changes in sentencing law that robbed him of the benefit of his earlier bargain, among other things. Years before we began representing him, our client received an agreed 150-month sentence in exchange for the government dropping additional charges that could have led to a thirty-year mandatory minimum sentence. The student team argued that our client was eligible for relief under a recent Supreme Court case, contrary to the government’s claims. Clinic students extensively researched the legal issues, documented our client’s post-sentencing success in prison, worked closely with our Clinic’s social worker, delved into the social science of age and recidivism, and drafted the motion.

After reading the Clinic’s briefing, the Court quickly concluded that our client deserved a sentence reduction, highlighting the same points the students raised in their briefing. Among other things, the Court observed that our client had obtained jobs requiring “technical expertise and trust,” and “demonstrate[d] a strong network of family and friends who vouch for his character.” The team looks forward to celebrating our client’s freedom once he is released.

The second contested case raises a circuit split over our client’s eligibility for relief in the first place. Our motion argues that Seventh Circuit case law conclusively entitles our client to relief. The § 3553(a) factors likewise support reducing our client’s grossly unfair sentence—he was sentenced twice for the very same conduct. The original federal judge intended for our client to serve a 196-month sentence, but a subsequent state sentence added an unexpected twenty-four months on top of that. Clinic students investigated and documented the double-sentencing, strategized over how to frame the issue, researched the circuit split, and drafted the motion. If the Clinic’s motion is granted, our client will receive a twenty-five-month sentence reduction.

Advocacy in Stash House Cases

FCJC students under Professor Siegler’s supervision partnered with a team led by Professor Erica Zunkel and students in the Criminal and Juvenile Justice Clinic in filing a motion for compassionate release on behalf of a client currently serving a thirty-five-year sentence in a fake stash house case. This case builds on the Clinic’s prior federal impact litigation alleging unconstitutional racial discrimination in stash house cases in the Chicago area. The FCJC previously co-counseled cases on behalf of forty-three clients, nearly all of whom were released with time-served sentences. Additional people ensnared in the Chicago stash house operations were subsequently released thanks to compassionate release litigation led by Professor Zunkel.

Given these prior successes, the Clinics’ current client is one of just two people still serving a decades-long sentence for the stash house operation, which the federal government has now repudiated. He has already served seventeen years in federal prison. We are requesting his immediate release.

The Drugs on the Docket Podcast recently featured two episodes about the FCJC’s contributions to the stash house litigation. In Episode one , Professor Siegler discusses the Clinic’s pretrial litigation and how we ultimately helped shut down this racially discriminatory policing tactic nationwide. In Episode two , Professor Zunkel discusses the subsequent compassionate release litigation she led, which convinced judges to release eight other clients, most of whom were serving twenty-five-year sentences, sparing each approximately ten additional years in prison.