conclusion of air pollution presentation

Conclusion of Air Pollution | How to Write | With Example

Air pollution is a critical issue that affects the health and well-being of people and the environment. As such, conducting a thorough research project or essay on air pollution is crucial for understanding its causes, consequences, and potential solutions.

One key section of any air pollution essay is the conclusion. The conclusion section serves an important purpose in summarizing the findings and insights gathered throughout the study, and it is essential for providing closure and clarity to the research.

What is the purpose of conclusion in air pollution essay?

The conclusion section of an air pollution essay or project file is a crucial part of the overall document, as it brings together all the data, analysis, and discussions presented in the research. It enables the researcher to draw out key takeaways and implications, as well as offer recommendations for addressing the issue of air pollution. This section also provides an opportunity to reflect on the study’s limitations and suggest avenues for future research.

The importance of the conclusion section extends beyond the main content. It serves as a valuable resource for policymakers, environmental organizations, and other stakeholders who seek to understand the implications of the study and take action to mitigate air pollution. The conclusion section plays a pivotal role in communicating the significance of the research and advocating for change in policy and behavior to address air pollution effectively.

How to write conclusion of air pollution?

When writing the conclusion of air pollution, it is important to summarize the key findings and insights from the research. The conclusion should also restate the purpose of the document and provide a clear and concise ending to the report. To achieve this, follow these steps:

Summarize the main points: Begin the conclusion by summarizing the key findings and insights. This will remind the readers of the important information discussed in the report and reinforce the significance of the research.

Restate the purpose: Remind the readers of the main purpose of the project or essay, and how it was addressed throughout the report. This will help reinforce the importance of the research and its implications for addressing air pollution.

Discuss the implications: Consider the potential implications of the findings on air pollution and its effects on the environment and public health. This will demonstrate the significance of the research and its potential impact on addressing air pollution in the future.

Recommend actions: Offer recommendations for potential actions that can be taken to address air pollution based on the findings of past research. This can include policy changes, technological advancements, or public awareness campaigns.

Tie to the introduction: Connect the conclusion back to the introduction by highlighting how the essay has addressed the initial questions or hypotheses.

When writing the conclusion, it is important to maintain a tone that is authoritative and insightful. Use language that conveys confidence in the research and its implications, while also being respectful and considerate of the potential impact of air pollution on the environment and public health. Avoid using overly emotional or sensational language, and instead focus on presenting the conclusions in a clear and objective manner.

Additionally, be mindful of the length of the conclusion, aiming to be concise while still effectively summarizing the key points and insights from the project. A well-written conclusion will leave the readers with a strong understanding of the research and its potential impact on addressing air pollution.

Sampel conclusion of air pollution

In conclusion, air pollution is a pressing issue that requires immediate attention and action. The detrimental effects of air pollution on human health, the environment, and the economy are well-documented and cannot be ignored. It is imperative that governments, industries, and individuals take proactive measures to reduce air pollution and protect the well-being of current and future generations. This can be achieved through the implementation of stringent regulations on emissions, the promotion of sustainable energy sources, and the adoption of cleaner technologies.

Additionally, public awareness and education on the impact of air pollution are crucial in catalyzing widespread support and behavioral change. Individuals can also play a part in combatting air pollution by making conscious choices in their daily activities, such as reducing energy consumption, using public transportation, and supporting environmentally-friendly products. Collaboration and collective efforts across all sectors of society are vital in addressing the complex and interconnected issues associated with air pollution.

While the task of mitigating air pollution may seem daunting, it is not insurmountable if there is a shared commitment to prioritize the health of the planet and its inhabitants. Every small step towards reducing air pollution contributes to a healthier and more sustainable future for all. It is imperative that we work together to combat air pollution and safeguard the quality of the air that we breathe.

Conclusion for air pollution project example

The findings of this research project highlight the pressing need to address air pollution in our city. The data analysis clearly shows that particulate matter levels exceed healthy standards, putting residents at risk of respiratory illness and other health effects. Children and the elderly are especially vulnerable to the impacts of poor air quality.

To mitigate air pollution, a multi-pronged approach is required. Stricter regulations on industrial emissions are needed to reduce pollution from factories and other facilities. Providing incentives for public transit, carpooling, and electric vehicles can lessen automobile emissions. Urban planning strategies like increasing green spaces and tree cover will also help improve air quality.

On an individual level, residents can reduce their exposure to pollutants by checking air quality forecasts and limiting outdoor activities on high pollution days. Civic engagement and advocacy for stronger air pollution policies are also impactful. Together, through collaborative systemic and personal efforts, our city can work towards cleaner, healthier air.

The findings of this air pollution project highlight an urgent public health issue. Concerted efforts are required to enact solutions that will improve air quality and protect the wellbeing of all residents. This research provides a meaningful contribution towards that goal.

The costs, health and economic impact of air pollution control strategies: a systematic review

Siyuan Wang 1 ,
Rong Song 2 ,
Zhiwei Xu 3 ,
Mingsheng Chen 4 , 5 ,
Gian Luca Di Tanna 6 ,
Laura Downey 1 ,
Stephen Jan 1 &
Lei Si 7 , 8

Global Health Research and Policy volume 9 , Article number: 30 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Air pollution poses a significant threat to global public health. While broad mitigation policies exist, an understanding of the economic consequences, both in terms of health benefits and mitigation costs, remains lacking. This study systematically reviewed the existing economic implications of air pollution control strategies worldwide.

A predefined search strategy, without limitations on region or study design, was employed to search the PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, Embase, Web of Science, and CEA registry databases for studies from their inception to November 2023 using keywords such as “cost–benefit analyses”, “air pollution”, and “particulate matter”. Focus was placed on studies that specifically considered the health benefits of air pollution control strategies. The evidence was summarized by pollution control strategy and reported using principle economic evaluation measurements such as net benefits and benefit–cost ratios.

The search yielded 104 studies that met the inclusion criteria. A total of 75, 21, and 8 studies assessed the costs and benefits of outdoor, indoor, and mixed control strategies, respectively, of which 54, 15, and 3 reported that the benefits of the control strategy exceeded the mitigation costs. Source reduction (n = 42) and end-of-pipe treatments (n = 15) were the most commonly employed pollution control methodologies. The association between particulate matter (PM) and mortality was the most widely assessed exposure-effect relationship and had the largest health gains (n = 42). A total of 32 studies employed a broader benefits framework, examining the impacts of air pollution control strategies on the environment, ecology, and society. Of these, 31 studies reported partially or entirely positive economic evidence. However, despite overwhelming evidence in support of these strategies, the studies also highlighted some policy flaws concerning equity, optimization, and uncertainty characterization.

Conclusions

Nearly 70% of the reviewed studies reported that the economic benefits of implementing air pollution control strategies outweighed the relative costs. This was primarily due to the improved mortality and morbidity rates associated with lowering PM levels. In addition to health benefits, air pollution control strategies were also associated with other environmental and social benefits, strengthening the economic case for implementation. However, future air pollution control strategy designs will need to address some of the existing policy limitations.

Air pollution is a major environmental and public health problem affecting millions of people worldwide [ 1 ]. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), it is among the leading causes of mortality, with exposure to indoor and outdoor air pollution associated with approximately 6.7 million premature deaths in 2019 [ 2 ]. In addition to its health impacts, air pollution has environmental, ecological, and economic consequences [ 3 ]. For example, one economic impact relates to the substantial costs associated with treating and managing air pollution-induced illnesses [ 4 , 5 ], as well as indirect societal expenditures resulting from the loss of productivity due to reduced working days [ 6 ]. The World Bank estimated that the overall cost of air pollution on health and well-being was approximately $8.1 trillion U.S. dollars, or 6.1% of GDP, in 2019 [ 7 ].

The need to reduce the environmental and health impacts of air pollution has been recognized for several decades. Many developed countries have implemented comprehensive multi-pollutant control strategies aimed at mitigating the health effects of key pollutants, including particulate matter (PM), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide [ 8 , 9 ]. In recent years, developing countries with large populations have also begun tightening air quality standards. For example, China implemented the National Clean Air Action Plan (2013–2017) and followed it with the Three-Year Action Plan for Clean Air starting in 2018 to jointly lower emissions from various pollution sources [ 10 , 11 ]. Health assessment studies have consistently highlighted the substantial health and economic benefits associated with reducing air pollution through these measures [ 12 , 13 , 14 ].

Despite the substantial health benefits of air quality control strategies, their implementation comes at a cost. The magnitude of benefits and costs is primarily dependent on the relative nature of the control strategy, the size and setting of the intervention, the specific exposure and health endpoints considered, and the assumptions of the underlying economic evaluation [ 15 ]. Some high-income countries require a regular assessment of the relative costs and benefits of proposed environmental regulations, including air pollution regulations. For example, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been required by law to conduct several comprehensive cost–benefit analyses of the Clean Air Act [ 16 ].

On a global scale, there is a gap in the systematic analysis of the costs and health benefits of air pollution control strategies. While the evidence base strongly supports that lowering exposure to air pollution is beneficial to health and reduces the burden on health systems, air pollution control strategies often come at significant costs. Thus, there is an imperative need to understand the relative costs and benefits of such interventions to ensure evidence-based air policies, particularly in resource limited settings. This study sought to fill this gap by systematically reviewing the economic impact of air pollution control strategies. The objective was to identify successful pollution control strategies, summarize economic evaluation methodologies, and highlight existing policy limitations. The findings are intended to inform the design of more optimal and targeted air policies, particularly in low- and middle-income country (LMIC) settings where there is a critical need to deliver cost-effective interventions to control pollution.

Search strategy

Six databases, including PubMed, Scopus, The Cochrane Library, Embase, Web of Science, and the CEA registry, were searched using a predefined strategy developed by combining keywords such as “air pollution”, “particle matter”, and “cost–benefit analyses”. The searches included the period from each database's inception to November 2023, without limitations on study design or region. Detailed summaries of the strategy search strategies are shown in Online Appendix 1.

Study selection, eligibility, and exclusion criteria

The database searches identified studies that explored the public health impact of air pollution control strategies, focusing on those that specifically assessed health benefits as part of the cost–benefit evaluation. Studies were included in the analysis if they: 1) were economic evaluation studies (cost–benefit analysis) of air pollution control strategies; 2) reported health and economic benefits of air pollution control strategies; and 3) were published in English. Studies that were not peer-reviewed articles, such as government reports or conference abstracts, were excluded.

Data extraction

Two reviewers (SW and RS) independently screened the title, abstract, and full text of each study. Conflicts were resolved through consultations with a third reviewer (LS). Information from the final included studies was gathered using a data extraction sheet developed following the initial phase of the literature review. The following data elements were extracted: study identification information (authors, year of publication, and country of conduct), study design (perspective, scope, and settings), type of intervention (outdoor intervention, indoor intervention, or mixed intervention), pollution control method (source reduction methods or end-of-pipe treatments), pollution control strategy category, pollutant type targeted, study methodologies (methodologies that modeled emissions, estimated costs, and estimated benefits), cost estimates, benefit estimates, cost–benefit estimates and sensitivity analysis estimates. A full list of the extracted elements is provided in Online Appendix 2.

A narrative synthesis was used to summarize the findings. Economic evidence were summarized using standard cost–benefit measurements that define an intervention as effective if the net benefit (total benefit minus total cost) is positive or the benefit–cost ratio (total benefit divided by total cost) is > 1 [ 17 ]. We followed the general principles for evidence synthesis reviews and reported the findings using PRISMA reporting guidelines (Online Appendix 3) [ 18 ].

Quality appraisal and risk of bias assessment

The Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards 2022 (CHEERS 2022) reporting guidance for economic evaluations was used to conduct a risk of bias assessment [ 19 ]. CHEERS 2022 includes 28 items, all of which were used to assess the quality of the included studies. We assessed the quality of evidence following the reporting guidance from the CHEERS 2022 Explanation and Elaboration report [ 20 ]. In the absence of a validated scoring system for the checklist, a qualitative assessment of the completeness of reporting for each item was conducted [ 19 ].

Characteristics of the included studies

The search strategy yielded 4966 records across the six databases, from which 4,402 unique records were identified for title, abstract, and full-text screening. A total of 104 studies were ultimately found to meet the inclusion criteria. The selection process, developed using the PRISMA flowchart, is shown in Fig. 1 .

PRISMA flow diagram of study selection

Economic evaluation studies were identified that examined the cost–benefit ratio of several air pollution control strategies across various countries, with some dating back over 50 years. Overall, there was a relatively balanced distribution of studies conducted in low- and middle-income settings as well as high-income settings (n = 48 and 47, respectively), and most studies were published within the last decade (n = 74). Outdoor interventions, which sought to reduce local or ambient air pollution, were the most common type of pollution control strategy (n = 75; 72%). Meanwhile, 21 studies assessed the cost–benefit ratio of indoor interventions that aimed to lower exposure at the individual or household level. A total of eight studies evaluated control strategies that incorporated both indoor and outdoor interventions. Most pollution control strategies sought to mitigate emissions or pollutants directly from their origin (n = 42), while others employed end-of-pipe treatments to reduce pollution after its release, often through the use of filtration systems, scrubbers, or other pollution control devices (n = 15). A table of the included studies is shown in Online Appendix 4 and the study characteristics are summarized in Table 1 .

Pollution control strategies by category

Pollution control strategies involving a variety of control methods aimed at reducing both outdoor and indoor pollution were identified. Specific examples of outdoor interventions included transitions to cleaner energy and fuel sources [ 21 , 22 ], tighter vehicle emission regulations [ 23 ], and improved agriculture practices and technologies such as intercropping and low-emissions animal housing systems [ 24 , 25 ]. Another type of outdoor pollution control method was the use of end-of-pipe treatments for high-emission sources, such as retrofitting coal-fired power plants with scrubbers [ 26 ] or using particle filters and oxidation catalysts for diesel vehicles [ 27 ]. Common indoor pollution control strategies included interventions that encourage the use of cleaner and improved stoves [ 28 , 29 ], and promoting clean air ventilators in workplaces and households [ 30 ]. Air pollution control strategies grouped by intervention type and pollution control methodology are summarized in Table 2 .

Economic evaluation modeling of air pollution control strategies

The Impact Pathway Approach (IPA) [ 114 ], which connects interrelated modules for different aspects of the evaluation process, was commonly used to evaluate the effects of ambient air pollution on human health. This is a multistep approach that establishes links between emissions, exposure, and effects by estimating pollutant emissions and dispersion, then modeling exposure of the target population to assess health impacts, quantify the costs, and compare the benefits and mitigation costs. While methodologies for estimating costs and benefits varied by intervention and study context, most studies employed dose–response parameters to assess health gains from reduced pollution exposure. Subsequently, economic evaluation modeling techniques, such as the Value of Statistical Life (VSL) or Cost of Illness (COI), were employed to quantify the economic health benefits. A summary of the evaluation process, including the emissions, chemical transport, and health assessment models, as well as the cost–benefit assessment, are shown in Fig. 2 .

Analytical sequence for the economic evaluation of air pollution control strategies

The IPA also uses Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) to assess the health impacts of a broad range of policy scenarios or technological interventions. IAMs incorporate geographical, populational, and industry-specific data to estimate the emission and dispersion of primary and secondary pollutants and model populational exposure to assess health and economic impacts. The choice of modules was largely dependent on the specific setting of the study, as well as the control policy being considered. For example, the Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM) and the Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies (GAINS) model were two commonly used IAMs for estimating the impact of both air pollution and climate change-related policies on emissions. In addition, the Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extension (CAMx) and the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model were often used to model pollutant atmospheric concentrations, while the Benefits Mapping and Analysis Program (BENMAP) was used to assess health impacts.

Costs associated with air pollution interventions encompass several elements. These include initial investment costs, such as research and development of cleaner technologies [ 84 ], as well as operating and maintenance expenses, such as heavy vehicle inspection and maintenance programs [ 43 ]. Finally, mitigation costs are compared against intervention benefits using standard economic evaluation metrics such as computing net benefits or benefit–cost ratios.

Health benefit assessment

Most studies used dose–response parameters to predict health outcomes from changes in exposure and then compared the money saved by health gains to the costs of mitigation. However, the choice of parameters varied depending on the nature of the exposure, the setting of the study, and the selected health endpoints. Most of the studies focused on evaluating the economic benefit of lowering particulate matter (n = 84), which is considered the most important factor affecting human health. Other hazardous gases, including NO X , SO X , and O 3 (n = 34, 32, 19, respectively), were also considered. Premature deaths, cardiovascular diseases, and respiratory diseases (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and ischaemic heart disease) were the most widely assessed health endpoints (n = 53, 43, and 44, respectively). Some studies also considered the benefit of increased productivity from a drop in the number of restricted working days (n = 18). In studies evaluating the economic health benefit of reducing premature deaths, the VSL approach was the most common methodology used. The Willingness to Pay (WTP) and COI methods were also used to quantify disease burden, and the Human Capital (HC) approach was used to evaluate losses in productivity.

Economic impact of air pollution control strategies

There was widespread economic evidence in support of implementing air pollution controls. Table 3 summarizes the cost-benefit results by pollution control category. Of the 104 studies analyzed, 72 (69%) reported that the benefits of the control strategy outweighed the costs. Most studies evaluated outdoor interventions, with 54 of 75 finding positive evidence in favor of these interventions. Of the 21 studies assessing indoor interventions, 15 showed positive results. Eight studies examined the cost–benefit ratio of both outdoor and indoor interventions, of which three reported net positive results. The number of studies that reported benefits exceeding costs, benefits exceeding costs for parts of the intervention, and costs exceeding benefits are presented in Table 1 . Except for transport regulations, the pollution control categories showed consistently positive economic results. Of the 13 studies assessing transport regulations, only three reported positive outcomes, while six indicated mixed results and four reported negative cost–benefit outcomes. In 41 studies investigating the impact of uncertainties on cost–benefit outcomes, several key variables were consistently analyzed, including discount rates, VSL figures, cost parameters, and dose–response models. In some instances, adopting lower VSL figures and projecting higher mitigation costs helped to shift the economic assessment of the intervention from cost-beneficial to non-cost-beneficial [ 22 , 48 , 58 , 115 , 116 ].

Social, environmental, and ecological benefits

A total of 32 studies [ 14 , 25 , 29 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 42 , 47 , 48 , 52 , 60 , 61 , 73 , 84 , 87 , 92 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 ] considered the broader social, environmental, or ecological benefits of pollution control strategies. Of these, 16 studies [ 25 , 29 , 33 , 42 , 47 , 48 , 52 , 84 , 100 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 120 ] estimated the environmental benefits of reducing CO 2 emissions by employing a carbon market price or CO 2 abatement cost. Other studies (n = 18) valued the additional morbidity improvements and productivity gains from reducing the number of restricted days and increasing the number of working days. Krewitt et al. [ 117 ] used exposure–response functions from open-top chamber experiments to quantify the economic benefit of increased crop yield from reduced SO 2 emission. Partially positive or positive cost–benefit results were demonstrated in 31 of the 32 studies. In addition, nine out of 10 studies showed that environmental policies, particularly long-term policies aimed at mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, may also have short-term secondary air pollution benefits, contributing to positive economic evidence in support of the policy.

Risk of bias assessment and quality appraisal of evidence

The results of the quality assessment under the CHEERS 2022 framework are shown in Online Appendix 5. All studies reported on items 6 and 7, providing relevant contextual information regarding the setting, location, and intervention or scenario of consideration. Most studies (n = 60, 74, 85, 72, respectively) adhered to the reporting criteria for items 1, 2, 3, and 9 (title, abstract, background, and time horizon). Additionally, a total of 85, 100, 99 and 88 studies reported on the selection, measurement and valuation of outcomes and costs (items 11, 12, 13 and 14, respectively). Few studies (n = 6, 2) considered the heterogeneity and distributional effects of the outcomes (items 18 and 19). No studies reported on items 8, 21, and 25 (perspective, engagement with patient, and effects of engagement with patients). Meanwhile, a total of 44 and 41 studies characterized and reported on uncertainty (items 20 and 24), and a total of 59 and 42 studies disclosed the funding source and competing interests, respectively (items 27 and 28).

Our review of the economic evidence suggests that economic assessments of air pollution control strategies face several key uncertainties at each stage of the evaluation process, including emissions projection, exposure modeling, and quantification of the benefits and costs. Cost uncertainties primarily stemmed from the cost data, the cost model, and the choice of discounting factors for operating and maintenance costs. The uncertainties relating to benefit estimation were considerably larger. Two commonly acknowledged factors across all studies were the choice of an appropriate Concentration Response Function (CRF) to estimate the health effects of exposure and the selection of a VSL figure to monetize health gains. Differences in air pollutant composition, population age structure, and the quality of public health systems contributed to varying exposure-effect relationships across different populations and regions. Thus, it is critical to select concentration–response functions that are tailored to the specific context of each study. The choice of appropriate VSL and CRF proved particularly challenging for many studies conducted in low- and middle-income settings that lack supporting epidemiologic and economic evidence. Many of these studies used the benefits transfer method to estimate an approximate figure by adjusting VSL estimates from developed countries, despite existing literature showing the limitations of this approach [ 109 ]. Other studies used concentration–response functions established from epidemiologic studies in developed countries that may not reflect the appropriate populational or environmental context. The choice of valuation methods also greatly influences the benefits estimation. For example, studies employing contingent valuation estimates may inadvertently overstate the economic benefits, while those utilizing the COI approach may not fully encompass all economic benefits [ 122 ].

We find that studies measuring both economic and health benefits were more likely to report positive economic results from the control strategies. However, the methods varied in the types and sizes of social and environmental benefits considered. For example, the environmental benefits from reduced carbon dioxide emissions and time savings associated with indoor cooking interventions generally outweighed the corresponding health benefits. This was not typically the case for outdoor interventions. In some studies [ 101 ], the standalone health benefits were insufficient to cover mitigation costs, while the addition of social benefits resulted in net positive results. These findings highlight the importance of an integrated or holistic approach in the evaluation framework.

While this study highlighted overwhelming economic evidence in support of various air pollution control strategies, it also revealed a need to address policy limitations and barriers. This includes ensuring equality among different socioeconomic and geographical populations. Air pollution is a major cause of health inequalities worldwide, particularly for women, elders, and people of low socioeconomic status [ 123 , 124 , 125 ]. Thus, future control policies and policy evaluations will need to target these priority groups. Despite the epidemiologic evidence demonstrating the disproportionate health impacts of air pollution on elders and infants, only six of the 104 studies included in this review considered the distributional effects and heterogeneity of outcomes on different subpopulations [ 124 , 126 ]. While air pollution has a similar impact on the health of men and women, particular occupational or social norms can lead to disproportionately high levels of exposure among some groups of women, such as housewives who are using inefficient stoves in low- and middle-income settings. This suggests a need for targeted interventions and evaluations in this population [ 28 ]. Despite overall net positive outcomes for society, specific cohorts, particularly rural populations, or people living in regions of low socioeconomic status, may experience net economic losses due to disproportionately high mitigation costs [ 93 ]. Clean air has substantial positive health and social benefits that spill over to society. However, without government subsidies, costs are disproportionately borne by individuals or private sectors, posing challenges to implementation [ 105 ]. Thus, economic evaluations should consider assessing the private and social cost-benefits separately.

This study had a few limitations. First, the review was limited to peer-reviewed articles, potentially omitting relevant grey literature. The lack of all available information, including government documents that evaluate environmental air interventions, may contribute to a biased or incomplete interpretation of the full economic evidence. Second, this study has potential publication bias, including funding biases from governments or organizations with vested interests and the selective reporting of studies with positive health and economic outcomes. These biases may skew the overall economic results in favor of certain policies and underrepresent alternative approaches or outcomes. Third, due to variability in outcome measurements and analytical methodologies used by the included studies, it was not feasible to conduct a meta-analysis or otherwise quantitatively synthesize the overall economic evidence.

This study systematically reviewed economic evidence on the costs and benefits of air pollution control strategies across different countries and timeframes. Nearly 70% of the studies reported data in support of the control policies, with particularly strong economic evidence identified by those using a broader benefits framework. While there was broad economic support for air pollution control in general, the findings also underscore the scarcity of economic and epidemiological evidence needed to substantiate such economic evaluations, particularly within LMICs. In addition, there is a pressing need to prioritize environmental and economic equity in the development of targeted interventions, especially among vulnerable populations in LMICs who are at higher risk for air pollution-related illness due to existing geographical, health, or socioeconomic disparities. The insights gained from this review will help to inform the design of future air pollution control policies and the economic evaluations of related interventions.

Availability of data and materials

The data used and/or analyzed during the current study are extracted from included studies and are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Environmental Protection Agency

Impact Pathway Approach

Integrated Assessment models

Global Change Assessment Model

Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies

Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extension

Community Multiscale Air Quality model

Benefits Mapping and Analysis Program

Local Air Pollution

Global Climate Change

Value of Statistical Life

Concentration Response Function

Willingness to pay

Cost of Illness

Human Capital

Low- and middle-income countries

High income countries

Particle matter

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

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This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Number: 71874086, 72174093). SW receives the University of New South Wales University Postgraduate Award (UPA Award).

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Wang, S., Song, R., Xu, Z. et al. The costs, health and economic impact of air pollution control strategies: a systematic review. glob health res policy 9 , 30 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41256-024-00373-y

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by Chris Woodford . Last updated: November 22, 2022.

Photo: Air pollution is obvious when it pours from a smokestack (chimney), but it's not always so easy to spot. This is an old photo of the kind of smoke that used to come from coal-fired power plants and, apart from soot (unburned carbon particles), its pollutants include sulfur dioxide and the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Thanks to tougher pollution controls, modern power plants produce only a fraction as much pollution. Modern pollution made by traffic consists of gases like nitrogen dioxide and "particulates" (microscopic soot and dust fragments) that are largely invisible.

What is air pollution?

Air pollution is a gas (or a liquid or solid dispersed through ordinary air) released in a big enough quantity to harm the health of people or other animals, kill plants or stop them growing properly, damage or disrupt some other aspect of the environment (such as making buildings crumble), or cause some other kind of nuisance (reduced visibility, perhaps, or an unpleasant odor).

Natural air pollution

Photo: Forest fires are a completely natural cause of air pollution. We'll never be able to prevent them breaking out or stop the pollution they cause; our best hope is to manage forests, where we can, so fires don't spread. Ironically, that can mean deliberately burning areas of forest, as shown here, to create firebreaks. Forests are also deliberately burned to regenerate ecosystems. Photo by courtesy of US Fish and Wildlife Service .

Top-ten kinds of air pollution Photo: Flying molecules—if you could see air pollution close up, this is what it would look like. Image courtesy of US Department of Energy. Any gas could qualify as pollution if it reached a high enough concentration to do harm. Theoretically, that means there are dozens of different pollution gases. It's important to note that not all the things we think of as pollution are gases: some are aerosols (liquids or solids dispersed through gases). In practice, about ten different substances cause most concern: Sulfur dioxide : Coal, petroleum, and other fuels are often impure and contain sulfur as well as organic (carbon-based) compounds. When sulfur (spelled "sulphur" in some countries) burns with oxygen from the air, sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is produced. Coal-fired power plants are the world's biggest source of sulfur-dioxide air pollution, which contributes to smog, acid rain, and health problems that include lung disease. [5] Large amounts of sulfur dioxide are also produced by ships, which use dirtier diesel fuel than cars and trucks. [6] Carbon monoxide : This highly dangerous gas forms when fuels have too little oxygen to burn completely. It spews out in car exhausts and it can also build up to dangerous levels inside your home if you have a poorly maintained gas boiler , stove, or fuel-burning appliance. (Always fit a carbon monoxide detector if you burn fuels indoors.) [7] Carbon dioxide : This gas is central to everyday life and isn't normally considered a pollutant: we all produce it when we breathe out and plants such as crops and trees need to "breathe" it in to grow. However, carbon dioxide is also a greenhouse gas released by engines and power plants. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, it's been building up in Earth's atmosphere and contributing to the problem of global warming and climate change . [8] Nitrogen oxides : Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and nitrogen oxide (NO) are pollutants produced as an indirect result of combustion, when nitrogen and oxygen from the air react together. Nitrogen oxide pollution comes from vehicle engines and power plants, and plays an important role in the formation of acid rain, ozone and smog. Nitrogen oxides are also "indirect greenhouse gases" (they contribute to global warming by producing ozone, which is a greenhouse gas). [9] Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) : These carbon-based (organic) chemicals evaporate easily at ordinary temperatures and pressures, so they readily become gases. That's precisely why they're used as solvents in many different household chemicals such as paints , waxes, and varnishes. Unfortunately, they're also a form of air pollution: they're believed to have long-term (chronic) effects on people's health and they play a role in the formation of ozone and smog. VOCs are also released by tobacco smoke and wildfires. [10] Particulates : There are many different kinds of particulates, from black soot in diesel exhaust to dust and organic matter from the desert. Airborne liquid droplets from farm pollution also count as particulates. Particulates of different sizes are often referred to by the letters PM followed by a number, so PM 10 means soot particles of less than 10 microns (10 millionths of a meter or 10µm in diameter, roughly 10 times thinner than a thick human hair). The smaller ("finer") the particulates, the deeper they travel into our lungs and the more dangerous they are. PM 2.5 particulates are much more dangerous (they're less than 2.5 millionths of a meter or about 40 times thinner than a typical hair). In cities, most particulates come from traffic fumes. [11] Ozone : Also called trioxygen, this is a type of oxygen gas whose molecules are made from three oxygen atoms joined together (so it has the chemical formula O 3 ), instead of just the two atoms in conventional oxygen (O 2 ). In the stratosphere (upper atmosphere), a band of ozone ("the ozone layer") protects us by screening out harmful ultraviolet radiation (high-energy blue light) beaming down from the Sun. At ground level, it's a toxic pollutant that can damage health. It forms when sunlight strikes a cocktail of other pollution and is a key ingredient of smog (see box below). [12] Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) : Once thought to be harmless, these gases were widely used in refrigerators and aerosol cans until it was discovered that they damaged Earth's ozone layer. We discuss this in more detail down below. [13] Unburned hydrocarbons : Petroleum and other fuels are made of organic compounds based on chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms. When they burn properly, they're completely converted into harmless carbon dioxide and water ; when they burn incompletely, they can release carbon monoxide or float into the air in their unburned form, contributing to smog. Lead and heavy metals : Lead and other toxic "heavy metals" can be spread into the air either as toxic compounds or as aerosols (when solids or liquids are dispersed through gases and carried through the air by them) in such things as exhaust fumes and the fly ash (contaminated waste dust) from incinerator smokestacks. [14] What are the causes of air pollution?

Photo: Even in the age of electric cars, traffic remains a major cause of air pollution. Photo by Warren Gretz courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (NREL photo id#46361).

Photo: Brown smog lingers over Denver, Colorado. Photo by Warren Gretz courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (NREL photo id#56919).

Chart: Most of the world's major cities routinely exceed World Health Organization (WHO) air pollution guidelines, though progress is being made: you can see that the 2022 figures (green) show a marked improvement on the 2016 ones (orange) in almost every case. This chart compares annual mean PM 2.5 levels in 12 representative cities around the world with the recently revised (2021) WHO guideline value of 5μg per cubic meter (dotted line). PM 2.5 particulates are those smaller than 2.5 microns and believed to be most closely linked with adverse health effects. For more about this chart and the data sources used, see note [22] .

Photo: Smokestacks billowing pollution over Moscow, Russia in 1994. Factory pollution is much less of a problem than it used to be in the world's "richer" countries—partly because a lot of their industry has been exported to nations such as China, India, and Mexico. Photo by Roger Taylor courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) .

What effects does air pollution have?

Photo: Air pollution can cause a variety of lung diseases and other respiratory problems. This chest X ray shows a lung disease called emphysema in the patient's left lung. A variety of things can cause it, including smoking and exposure to air pollution. Photo courtesy of National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) and National Institutes of Health.

" In 2016, 91% of the world population was living in places where the WHO air quality guidelines levels were not met." World Health Organization , 2018

Photo: For many years, the stonework on the Parthenon in Athens, Greece has been blackened by particulates from traffic pollution, but other sources of pollution, such as wood-burning stoves, are increasingly significant. Photo by Michael M. Reddy courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey .

How air pollution works on different scales

Indoor air pollution.

Photo: Air freshener—or air polluter?

How can we solve the problem of air pollution?

Photo: Pollution solution: an electrostatic smoke precipitator helps to prevent air pollution from this smokestack at the McNeil biomass power plant in Burlington, VT. Photo by Warren Gretz courtesy of US DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).

What can you do to help reduce air pollution?

Photo: Buying organic food reduces the use of sprayed pesticides and other chemicals, so it helps to reduce air (as well as water) pollution.

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Breathless by Chris Woodford paperback book cover rendered as dummy book.

Breathless: Why Air Pollution Matters—and How it Affects You by Chris Woodford. Icon, 2021. My new book explores the problem in much more depth than I've been able to go into here. You can also read a bonus chapter called Angels with dirty faces: How air pollution blackens our buildings and monuments .
The Invisible Killer: The Rising Global Threat of Air Pollution and How We Can Fight Back by Gary Fuller. Melville House, 2018.
Reducing Pollution and Waste by Jen Green. Raintree/Capstone, 2011. A 48-page introduction for ages 9–12. The emphasis here is on getting children to think about pollution: where it comes from, who makes it, and who should solve the problem.
Pollution Crisis by Russ Parker. Rosen, 2009. A 32-page guide for ages 8–10. It starts with a global survey of the problem; looks at air, water, and land pollution; then considers how we all need to be part of the solution.
Earth Matters by Lynn Dicks et al. Dorling Kindersley, 2008. This isn't specifically about pollution. Instead, it explores how a range of different environmental problems are testing life to the limit in the planet's major biomes (oceans, forests, and so on). I wrote the section of this book that covers the polar regions.
State of Global Air : One of the best sources of global air pollution data.
American Lung Association: State of the Air Report : A good source of data about the United States.
European Environment Agency: Air quality in Europe : A definitive overview of the situation in the European countries.
World Health Organization (WHO) Ambient (outdoor) air pollution in cities database : A spreadsheet of pollution data for most major cities in the world (a little out of date, but a new version is expected soon).
Our World in Data : Accessible guides to global data from Oxford University.
The New York Times Topics: Air Pollution
The Guardian: Pollution
Wired: Pollution
'Invisible killer': fossil fuels caused 8.7m deaths globally in 2018, research finds by Oliver Milman. The Guardian, February 9, 2021. Pollution of various kinds causes something like one in five of all deaths.
Millions of masks distributed to students in 'gas chamber' Delhi : BBC News, 1 November 2019.
90% of world's children are breathing toxic air, WHO study finds by Matthew Taylor. The Guardian, October 29, 2018. The air pollution affecting billions of children could continue to harm their health throughout their lives.
Pollution May Dim Thinking Skills, Study in China Suggests by Mike Ives. The New York Times, August 29, 2018. Long-term exposure to air pollution seems to cause a decline in cognitive skills.
Global pollution kills 9m a year and threatens 'survival of human societies' by Damian Carrington. The Guardian, October 19, 2017. Air, water, and land pollution kill millions, cost trillions, and threaten the very survival of humankind, a new study reveals.
India's Air Pollution Rivals China's as World's Deadliest by Geeta Anand. The New York Times, February 14, 2017. High levels of pollution could be killing 1.1 million Indians each year.
More Than 9 in 10 People Breathe Bad Air, WHO Study Says by Mike Ives. The New York Times, September 27, 2016. New WHO figures suggest the vast majority of us are compromising our health by breathing bad air.
Study Links 6.5 Million Deaths Each Year to Air Pollution by Stanley Reed. The New York Times, June 26, 2016. Air pollution deaths are far greater than previously supposed according to a new study by the International Energy Agency.
UK air pollution 'linked to 40,000 early deaths a year' by Michelle Roberts, BBC News, February 23, 2016. Diesel engines, cigarette smoke, and even air fresheners are among the causes of premature death from air pollution.
This Wearable Detects Pollution to Build Air Quality Maps in Real Time by Davey Alba. Wired, November 19, 2014. A wearable pollution gadget lets people track their exposure to air pollution through a smartphone app.
Air pollution and public health: emerging hazards and improved understanding of risk by Frank J. Kelly and Julia C. Fussell, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2015
Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect by C.A. Pope and D.W. Dockery. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 2006
Ambient and household air pollution: complex triggers of disease by Stephen A. Farmer et al, Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 2014

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Air Pollution

Our overview of indoor and outdoor air pollution.

By: Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser

This article was first published in October 2017 and last revised in February 2024.

Air pollution is one of the world's largest health and environmental problems. It develops in two contexts: indoor (household) air pollution and outdoor air pollution.

In this topic page, we look at the aggregate picture of air pollution – both indoor and outdoor. We also have dedicated topic pages that look in more depth at these subjects:

Indoor Air Pollution

Look in detail at the data and research on the health impacts of Indoor Air Pollution, attributed deaths, and its causes across the world

Outdoor Air Pollution

Look in detail at the data and research on exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution, its health impacts, and attributed deaths across the world

Look in detail at the data and research on energy consumption, its impacts around the world today, and how this has changed over time

See all interactive charts on Air Pollution ↓

Other research and writing on air pollution on Our World in Data:

Air pollution: does it get worse before it gets better?
Data Review: How many people die from air pollution?
Energy poverty and indoor air pollution: a problem as old as humanity that we can end within our lifetime
How many people do not have access to clean fuels for cooking?
What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?
What the history of London’s air pollution can tell us about the future of today’s growing megacities
When will countries phase out coal power?

Air pollution is one of the world's leading risk factors for death

Air pollution is responsible for millions of deaths each year.

Air pollution – the combination of outdoor and indoor particulate matter and ozone – is a risk factor for many of the leading causes of death, including heart disease, stroke, lower respiratory infections, lung cancer, diabetes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), in its Global Burden of Disease study, provides estimates of the number of deaths attributed to the range of risk factors for disease. 1

In the visualization, we see the number of deaths per year attributed to each risk factor. This chart shows the global total but can be explored for any country or region using the "change country" toggle.

Air pollution is one of the leading risk factors for death. In low-income countries, it is often very near the top of the list (or is the leading risk factor).

Air pollution contributes to one in ten deaths globally

In recent years, air pollution has contributed to one in ten deaths globally. 2

In the map shown here, we see the share of deaths attributed to air pollution across the world.

Air pollution is one of the leading risk factors for disease burden

Air pollution is one of the leading risk factors for death. But its impacts go even further; it is also one of the main contributors to the global disease burden.

Global disease burden takes into account not only years of life lost to early death but also the number of years lived in poor health.

In the visualization, we see risk factors ranked in order of DALYs – disability-adjusted life years – the metric used to assess disease burden. Again, air pollution is near the top of the list, making it one of the leading risk factors for poor health across the world.

Air pollution not only takes years from people's lives but also has a large effect on the quality of life while they're still living.

Who is most affected by air pollution?

Death rates from air pollution are highest in low-to-middle-income countries.

Air pollution is a health and environmental issue across all countries of the world but with large differences in severity.

In the interactive map, we show death rates from air pollution across the world, measured as the number of deaths per 100,000 people in a given country or region.

The burden of air pollution tends to be greater across both low and middle-income countries for two reasons: indoor pollution rates tend to be high in low-income countries due to a reliance on solid fuels for cooking, and outdoor air pollution tends to increase as countries industrialize and shift from low to middle incomes.

A map of the number of deaths from air pollution by country can be found here .

How are death rates from air pollution changing?

Death rates from air pollution are falling – mainly due to improvements in indoor pollution.

In the visualization, we show global death rates from air pollution over time – shown as the total air pollution – in addition to the individual contributions from outdoor and indoor pollution.

Globally, we see that in recent decades, the death rates from total air pollution have declined: since 1990, death rates have nearly halved. But, as we see from the breakdown, this decline has been primarily driven by improvements in indoor air pollution.

Death rates from indoor air pollution have seen an impressive decline, while improvements in outdoor pollution have been much more modest.

You can explore this data for any country or region using the "change country" toggle on the interactive chart.

Interactive charts on air pollution

Murray, C. J., Aravkin, A. Y., Zheng, P., Abbafati, C., Abbas, K. M., Abbasi-Kangevari, M., ... & Borzouei, S. (2020). Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 . The Lancet , 396 (10258), 1223-1249.

Here, we use the term 'contributes,' meaning it was one of the attributed risk factors for a given disease or cause of death. There can be multiple risk factors for a given disease that can amplify one another. This means that in some cases, air pollution was not the only risk factor but one of several.

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Air Pollution: Everything You Need to Know

How smog, soot, greenhouse gases, and other top air pollutants are affecting the planet—and your health.

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What is air pollution?

What causes air pollution, effects of air pollution, air pollution in the united states, air pollution and environmental justice, controlling air pollution, how to help reduce air pollution, how to protect your health.

Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the air—pollutants that are detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) , each year, indoor and outdoor air pollution is responsible for nearly seven million deaths around the globe. Ninety-nine percent of human beings currently breathe air that exceeds the WHO’s guideline limits for pollutants, with those living in low- and middle-income countries suffering the most. In the United States, the Clean Air Act , established in 1970, authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to safeguard public health by regulating the emissions of these harmful air pollutants.

“Most air pollution comes from energy use and production,” says John Walke , director of the Clean Air team at NRDC. Driving a car on gasoline, heating a home with oil, running a power plant on fracked gas : In each case, a fossil fuel is burned and harmful chemicals and gases are released into the air.

“We’ve made progress over the last 50 years in improving air quality in the United States, thanks to the Clean Air Act. But climate change will make it harder in the future to meet pollution standards, which are designed to protect health ,” says Walke.

Air pollution is now the world’s fourth-largest risk factor for early death. According to the 2020 State of Global Air report —which summarizes the latest scientific understanding of air pollution around the world—4.5 million deaths were linked to outdoor air pollution exposures in 2019, and another 2.2 million deaths were caused by indoor air pollution. The world’s most populous countries, China and India, continue to bear the highest burdens of disease.

“Despite improvements in reducing global average mortality rates from air pollution, this report also serves as a sobering reminder that the climate crisis threatens to worsen air pollution problems significantly,” explains Vijay Limaye , senior scientist in NRDC’s Science Office. Smog, for instance, is intensified by increased heat, forming when the weather is warmer and there’s more ultraviolet radiation. In addition, climate change increases the production of allergenic air pollutants, including mold (thanks to damp conditions caused by extreme weather and increased flooding) and pollen (due to a longer pollen season). “Climate change–fueled droughts and dry conditions are also setting the stage for dangerous wildfires,” adds Limaye. “ Wildfire smoke can linger for days and pollute the air with particulate matter hundreds of miles downwind.”

The effects of air pollution on the human body vary, depending on the type of pollutant, the length and level of exposure, and other factors, including a person’s individual health risks and the cumulative impacts of multiple pollutants or stressors.

Smog and soot

These are the two most prevalent types of air pollution. Smog (sometimes referred to as ground-level ozone) occurs when emissions from combusting fossil fuels react with sunlight. Soot—a type of particulate matter —is made up of tiny particles of chemicals, soil, smoke, dust, or allergens that are carried in the air. The sources of smog and soot are similar. “Both come from cars and trucks, factories, power plants, incinerators, engines, generally anything that combusts fossil fuels such as coal, gasoline, or natural gas,” Walke says.

Smog can irritate the eyes and throat and also damage the lungs, especially those of children, senior citizens, and people who work or exercise outdoors. It’s even worse for people who have asthma or allergies; these extra pollutants can intensify their symptoms and trigger asthma attacks. The tiniest airborne particles in soot are especially dangerous because they can penetrate the lungs and bloodstream and worsen bronchitis, lead to heart attacks, and even hasten death. In 2020, a report from Harvard’s T.H. Chan School of Public Health showed that COVID-19 mortality rates were higher in areas with more particulate matter pollution than in areas with even slightly less, showing a correlation between the virus’s deadliness and long-term exposure to air pollution.

These findings also illuminate an important environmental justice issue . Because highways and polluting facilities have historically been sited in or next to low-income neighborhoods and communities of color, the negative effects of this pollution have been disproportionately experienced by the people who live in these communities.

Hazardous air pollutants

A number of air pollutants pose severe health risks and can sometimes be fatal, even in small amounts. Almost 200 of them are regulated by law; some of the most common are mercury, lead , dioxins, and benzene. “These are also most often emitted during gas or coal combustion, incineration, or—in the case of benzene—found in gasoline,” Walke says. Benzene, classified as a carcinogen by the EPA, can cause eye, skin, and lung irritation in the short term and blood disorders in the long term. Dioxins, more typically found in food but also present in small amounts in the air, is another carcinogen that can affect the liver in the short term and harm the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems, as well as reproductive functions. Mercury attacks the central nervous system. In large amounts, lead can damage children’s brains and kidneys, and even minimal exposure can affect children’s IQ and ability to learn.

Another category of toxic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are by-products of traffic exhaust and wildfire smoke. In large amounts, they have been linked to eye and lung irritation, blood and liver issues, and even cancer. In one study , the children of mothers exposed to PAHs during pregnancy showed slower brain-processing speeds and more pronounced symptoms of ADHD.

Greenhouse gases

While these climate pollutants don’t have the direct or immediate impacts on the human body associated with other air pollutants, like smog or hazardous chemicals, they are still harmful to our health. By trapping the earth’s heat in the atmosphere, greenhouse gases lead to warmer temperatures, which in turn lead to the hallmarks of climate change: rising sea levels, more extreme weather, heat-related deaths, and the increased transmission of infectious diseases. In 2021, carbon dioxide accounted for roughly 79 percent of the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions, and methane made up more than 11 percent. “Carbon dioxide comes from combusting fossil fuels, and methane comes from natural and industrial sources, including large amounts that are released during oil and gas drilling,” Walke says. “We emit far larger amounts of carbon dioxide, but methane is significantly more potent, so it’s also very destructive.”

Another class of greenhouse gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) , are thousands of times more powerful than carbon dioxide in their ability to trap heat. In October 2016, more than 140 countries signed the Kigali Agreement to reduce the use of these chemicals—which are found in air conditioners and refrigerators—and develop greener alternatives over time. (The United States officially signed onto the Kigali Agreement in 2022.)

Pollen and mold

Mold and allergens from trees, weeds, and grass are also carried in the air, are exacerbated by climate change, and can be hazardous to health. Though they aren’t regulated, they can be considered a form of air pollution. “When homes, schools, or businesses get water damage, mold can grow and produce allergenic airborne pollutants,” says Kim Knowlton, professor of environmental health sciences at Columbia University and a former NRDC scientist. “ Mold exposure can precipitate asthma attacks or an allergic response, and some molds can even produce toxins that would be dangerous for anyone to inhale.”

Pollen allergies are worsening because of climate change . “Lab and field studies are showing that pollen-producing plants—especially ragweed—grow larger and produce more pollen when you increase the amount of carbon dioxide that they grow in,” Knowlton says. “Climate change also extends the pollen production season, and some studies are beginning to suggest that ragweed pollen itself might be becoming a more potent allergen.” If so, more people will suffer runny noses, fevers, itchy eyes, and other symptoms. “And for people with allergies and asthma, pollen peaks can precipitate asthma attacks, which are far more serious and can be life-threatening.”

More than one in three U.S. residents—120 million people—live in counties with unhealthy levels of air pollution, according to the 2023 State of the Air report by the American Lung Association (ALA). Since the annual report was first published, in 2000, its findings have shown how the Clean Air Act has been able to reduce harmful emissions from transportation, power plants, and manufacturing.

Recent findings, however, reflect how climate change–fueled wildfires and extreme heat are adding to the challenges of protecting public health. The latest report—which focuses on ozone, year-round particle pollution, and short-term particle pollution—also finds that people of color are 61 percent more likely than white people to live in a county with a failing grade in at least one of those categories, and three times more likely to live in a county that fails in all three.

In rankings for each of the three pollution categories covered by the ALA report, California cities occupy the top three slots (i.e., were highest in pollution), despite progress that the Golden State has made in reducing air pollution emissions in the past half century. At the other end of the spectrum, these cities consistently rank among the country’s best for air quality: Burlington, Vermont; Honolulu; and Wilmington, North Carolina.

No one wants to live next door to an incinerator, oil refinery, port, toxic waste dump, or other polluting site. Yet millions of people around the world do, and this puts them at a much higher risk for respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, neurological damage, cancer, and death. In the United States, people of color are 1.5 times more likely than whites to live in areas with poor air quality, according to the ALA.

Historically, racist zoning policies and discriminatory lending practices known as redlining have combined to keep polluting industries and car-choked highways away from white neighborhoods and have turned communities of color—especially low-income and working-class communities of color—into sacrifice zones, where residents are forced to breathe dirty air and suffer the many health problems associated with it. In addition to the increased health risks that come from living in such places, the polluted air can economically harm residents in the form of missed workdays and higher medical costs.

Environmental racism isn't limited to cities and industrial areas. Outdoor laborers, including the estimated three million migrant and seasonal farmworkers in the United States, are among the most vulnerable to air pollution—and they’re also among the least equipped, politically, to pressure employers and lawmakers to affirm their right to breathe clean air.

Recently, cumulative impact mapping , which uses data on environmental conditions and demographics, has been able to show how some communities are overburdened with layers of issues, like high levels of poverty, unemployment, and pollution. Tools like the Environmental Justice Screening Method and the EPA’s EJScreen provide evidence of what many environmental justice communities have been explaining for decades: that we need land use and public health reforms to ensure that vulnerable areas are not overburdened and that the people who need resources the most are receiving them.

In the United States, the Clean Air Act has been a crucial tool for reducing air pollution since its passage in 1970, although fossil fuel interests aided by industry-friendly lawmakers have frequently attempted to weaken its many protections. Ensuring that this bedrock environmental law remains intact and properly enforced will always be key to maintaining and improving our air quality.

But the best, most effective way to control air pollution is to speed up our transition to cleaner fuels and industrial processes. By switching over to renewable energy sources (such as wind and solar power), maximizing fuel efficiency in our vehicles, and replacing more and more of our gasoline-powered cars and trucks with electric versions, we'll be limiting air pollution at its source while also curbing the global warming that heightens so many of its worst health impacts.

And what about the economic costs of controlling air pollution? According to a report on the Clean Air Act commissioned by NRDC, the annual benefits of cleaner air are up to 32 times greater than the cost of clean air regulations. Those benefits include up to 370,000 avoided premature deaths, 189,000 fewer hospital admissions for cardiac and respiratory illnesses, and net economic benefits of up to $3.8 trillion for the U.S. economy every year.

“The less gasoline we burn, the better we’re doing to reduce air pollution and the harmful effects of climate change,” Walke explains. “Make good choices about transportation. When you can, ride a bike, walk, or take public transportation. For driving, choose a car that gets better miles per gallon of gas or buy an electric car .” You can also investigate your power provider options—you may be able to request that your electricity be supplied by wind or solar. Buying your food locally cuts down on the fossil fuels burned in trucking or flying food in from across the world. And most important: “Support leaders who push for clean air and water and responsible steps on climate change,” Walke says.

“When you see in the news or hear on the weather report that pollution levels are high, it may be useful to limit the time when children go outside or you go for a jog,” Walke says. Generally, ozone levels tend to be lower in the morning.
If you exercise outside, stay as far as you can from heavily trafficked roads. Then shower and wash your clothes to remove fine particles.
The air may look clear, but that doesn’t mean it’s pollution free. Utilize tools like the EPA’s air pollution monitor, AirNow , to get the latest conditions. If the air quality is bad, stay inside with the windows closed.
If you live or work in an area that’s prone to wildfires, stay away from the harmful smoke as much as you’re able. Consider keeping a small stock of masks to wear when conditions are poor. The most ideal masks for smoke particles will be labelled “NIOSH” (which stands for National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) and have either “N95” or “P100” printed on it.
If you’re using an air conditioner while outdoor pollution conditions are bad, use the recirculating setting to limit the amount of polluted air that gets inside.

This story was originally published on November 1, 2016, and has been updated with new information and links.

This NRDC.org story is available for online republication by news media outlets or nonprofits under these conditions: The writer(s) must be credited with a byline; you must note prominently that the story was originally published by NRDC.org and link to the original; the story cannot be edited (beyond simple things such as grammar); you can’t resell the story in any form or grant republishing rights to other outlets; you can’t republish our material wholesale or automatically—you need to select stories individually; you can’t republish the photos or graphics on our site without specific permission; you should drop us a note to let us know when you’ve used one of our stories.

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Table Of Contents

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air pollution , release into the atmosphere of various gases , finely divided solids, or finely dispersed liquid aerosols at rates that exceed the natural capacity of the environment to dissipate and dilute or absorb them. These substances may reach concentrations in the air that cause undesirable health, economic, or aesthetic effects.

Major air pollutants

Criteria pollutants.

Clean, dry air consists primarily of nitrogen and oxygen —78 percent and 21 percent respectively, by volume. The remaining 1 percent is a mixture of other gases, mostly argon (0.9 percent), along with trace (very small) amounts of carbon dioxide , methane , hydrogen , helium , and more. Water vapour is also a normal, though quite variable, component of the atmosphere, normally ranging from 0.01 to 4 percent by volume; under very humid conditions the moisture content of air may be as high as 5 percent.

There are six major air pollutants that have been designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as “criteria” pollutants — criteria meaning that the concentrations of these pollutants in the atmosphere are useful as indicators of overall air quality. The sources, acceptable concentrations, and effects of the criteria pollutants are summarized in the table.

Criteria air pollutants
pollutant	common sources	maximum acceptable concentration in the atmosphere	environmental risks	human health risks
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
carbon monoxide (CO)	automobile emissions, fires, industrial processes	35 ppm (1-hour period); 9 ppm (8-hour period)	contributes to smog formation	exacerbates symptoms of heart disease, such as chest pain; may cause vision problems and reduce physical and mental capabilities in healthy people
nitrogen oxides (NO and NO )	automobile emissions, electricity generation, industrial processes	0.053 ppm (1-year period)	damage to foliage; contributes to smog formation	inflammation and irritation of breathing passages
sulfur dioxide (SO )	electricity generation, fossil-fuel combustion, industrial processes, automobile emissions	0.03 ppm (1-year period); 0.14 ppm (24-hour period)	major cause of haze; contributes to acid rain formation, which subsequently damages foliage, buildings, and monuments; reacts to form particulate matter	breathing difficulties, particularly for people with asthma and heart disease
ozone (O )	nitrogen oxides (NO ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from industrial and automobile emissions, gasoline vapours, chemical solvents, and electrical utilities	0.075 ppm (8-hour period)	interferes with the ability of certain plants to respire, leading to increased susceptibility to other environmental stressors (e.g., disease, harsh weather)	reduced lung function; irritation and inflammation of breathing passages
particulate matter	sources of primary particles include fires, smokestacks, construction sites, and unpaved roads; sources of secondary particles include reactions between gaseous chemicals emitted by power plants and automobiles	150 μg/m (24-hour period for particles <10 μm); 35 μg/m (24-hour period for particles <2.5 μm)	contributes to formation of haze as well as acid rain, which changes the pH balance of waterways and damages foliage, buildings, and monuments	irritation of breathing passages, aggravation of asthma, irregular heartbeat
lead (Pb)	metal processing, waste incineration, fossil-fuel combustion	0.15 μg/m (rolling three-month average); 1.5 μg/m (quarterly average)	loss of biodiversity, decreased reproduction, neurological problems in vertebrates	adverse effects upon multiple bodily systems; may contribute to learning disabilities when young children are exposed; cardiovascular effects in adults

The gaseous criteria air pollutants of primary concern in urban settings include sulfur dioxide , nitrogen dioxide , and carbon monoxide ; these are emitted directly into the air from fossil fuels such as fuel oil , gasoline , and natural gas that are burned in power plants, automobiles, and other combustion sources. Ozone (a key component of smog ) is also a gaseous pollutant; it forms in the atmosphere via complex chemical reactions occurring between nitrogen dioxide and various volatile organic compounds (e.g., gasoline vapours).

Airborne suspensions of extremely small solid or liquid particles called “particulates” (e.g., soot, dust, smokes, fumes, mists), especially those less than 10 micrometres (μm; millionths of a metre) in size, are significant air pollutants because of their very harmful effects on human health. They are emitted by various industrial processes, coal- or oil-burning power plants, residential heating systems, and automobiles. Lead fumes (airborne particulates less than 0.5 μm in size) are particularly toxic and are an important pollutant of many diesel fuels .

Except for lead, criteria pollutants are emitted in industrialized countries at very high rates, typically measured in millions of tons per year. All except ozone are discharged directly into the atmosphere from a wide variety of sources. They are regulated primarily by establishing ambient air quality standards, which are maximum acceptable concentrations of each criteria pollutant in the atmosphere, regardless of its origin. The six criteria pollutants are described in turn below.

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Air pollution.

Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the air that can harm the health of humans, animals, and plants. It also damages buildings.

Biology, Ecology, Earth Science, Geography

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Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the air that can harm the health of humans, animals, and plants. It also damages buildings. Pollutants in the air take many forms. They can be gases , solid particles, or liquid droplets. Sources of Air Pollution Pollution enters the Earth's atmosphere in many different ways. Most air pollution is created by people, taking the form of emissions from factories, cars, planes, or aerosol cans . Second-hand cigarette smoke is also considered air pollution. These man-made sources of pollution are called anthropogenic sources . Some types of air pollution, such as smoke from wildfires or ash from volcanoes , occur naturally. These are called natural sources . Air pollution is most common in large cities where emissions from many different sources are concentrated . Sometimes, mountains or tall buildings prevent air pollution from spreading out. This air pollution often appears as a cloud making the air murky. It is called smog . The word "smog" comes from combining the words "smoke" and " fog ." Large cities in poor and developing nations tend to have more air pollution than cities in developed nations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) , some of the worlds most polluted cities are Karachi, Pakistan; New Delhi, India; Beijing, China; Lima, Peru; and Cairo, Egypt. However, many developed nations also have air pollution problems. Los Angeles, California, is nicknamed Smog City. Indoor Air Pollution Air pollution is usually thought of as smoke from large factories or exhaust from vehicles. But there are many types of indoor air pollution as well. Heating a house by burning substances such as kerosene , wood, and coal can contaminate the air inside the house. Ash and smoke make breathing difficult, and they can stick to walls, food, and clothing. Naturally-occurring radon gas, a cancer -causing material, can also build up in homes. Radon is released through the surface of the Earth. Inexpensive systems installed by professionals can reduce radon levels. Some construction materials, including insulation , are also dangerous to people's health. In addition, ventilation , or air movement, in homes and rooms can lead to the spread of toxic mold . A single colony of mold may exist in a damp, cool place in a house, such as between walls. The mold's spores enter the air and spread throughout the house. People can become sick from breathing in the spores. Effects On Humans People experience a wide range of health effects from being exposed to air pollution. Effects can be broken down into short-term effects and long-term effects . Short-term effects, which are temporary , include illnesses such as pneumonia or bronchitis . They also include discomfort such as irritation to the nose, throat, eyes, or skin. Air pollution can also cause headaches, dizziness, and nausea . Bad smells made by factories, garbage , or sewer systems are considered air pollution, too. These odors are less serious but still unpleasant . Long-term effects of air pollution can last for years or for an entire lifetime. They can even lead to a person's death. Long-term health effects from air pollution include heart disease , lung cancer, and respiratory diseases such as emphysema . Air pollution can also cause long-term damage to people's nerves , brain, kidneys , liver , and other organs. Some scientists suspect air pollutants cause birth defects . Nearly 2.5 million people die worldwide each year from the effects of outdoor or indoor air pollution. People react differently to different types of air pollution. Young children and older adults, whose immune systems tend to be weaker, are often more sensitive to pollution. Conditions such as asthma , heart disease, and lung disease can be made worse by exposure to air pollution. The length of exposure and amount and type of pollutants are also factors. Effects On The Environment Like people, animals, and plants, entire ecosystems can suffer effects from air pollution. Haze , like smog, is a visible type of air pollution that obscures shapes and colors. Hazy air pollution can even muffle sounds. Air pollution particles eventually fall back to Earth. Air pollution can directly contaminate the surface of bodies of water and soil . This can kill crops or reduce their yield . It can kill young trees and other plants. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide particles in the air, can create acid rain when they mix with water and oxygen in the atmosphere. These air pollutants come mostly from coal-fired power plants and motor vehicles . When acid rain falls to Earth, it damages plants by changing soil composition ; degrades water quality in rivers, lakes and streams; damages crops; and can cause buildings and monuments to decay . Like humans, animals can suffer health effects from exposure to air pollution. Birth defects, diseases, and lower reproductive rates have all been attributed to air pollution. Global Warming Global warming is an environmental phenomenon caused by natural and anthropogenic air pollution. It refers to rising air and ocean temperatures around the world. This temperature rise is at least partially caused by an increase in the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases trap heat energy in the Earths atmosphere. (Usually, more of Earths heat escapes into space.) Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that has had the biggest effect on global warming. Carbon dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels (coal, gasoline , and natural gas ). Humans have come to rely on fossil fuels to power cars and planes, heat homes, and run factories. Doing these things pollutes the air with carbon dioxide. Other greenhouse gases emitted by natural and artificial sources also include methane , nitrous oxide , and fluorinated gases. Methane is a major emission from coal plants and agricultural processes. Nitrous oxide is a common emission from industrial factories, agriculture, and the burning of fossil fuels in cars. Fluorinated gases, such as hydrofluorocarbons , are emitted by industry. Fluorinated gases are often used instead of gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs have been outlawed in many places because they deplete the ozone layer . Worldwide, many countries have taken steps to reduce or limit greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming. The Kyoto Protocol , first adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997, is an agreement between 183 countries that they will work to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions. The United States has not signed that treaty . Regulation In addition to the international Kyoto Protocol, most developed nations have adopted laws to regulate emissions and reduce air pollution. In the United States, debate is under way about a system called cap and trade to limit emissions. This system would cap, or place a limit, on the amount of pollution a company is allowed. Companies that exceeded their cap would have to pay. Companies that polluted less than their cap could trade or sell their remaining pollution allowance to other companies. Cap and trade would essentially pay companies to limit pollution. In 2006 the World Health Organization issued new Air Quality Guidelines. The WHOs guidelines are tougher than most individual countries existing guidelines. The WHO guidelines aim to reduce air pollution-related deaths by 15 percent a year. Reduction Anybody can take steps to reduce air pollution. Millions of people every day make simple changes in their lives to do this. Taking public transportation instead of driving a car, or riding a bike instead of traveling in carbon dioxide-emitting vehicles are a couple of ways to reduce air pollution. Avoiding aerosol cans, recycling yard trimmings instead of burning them, and not smoking cigarettes are others.

Downwinders The United States conducted tests of nuclear weapons at the Nevada Test Site in southern Nevada in the 1950s. These tests sent invisible radioactive particles into the atmosphere. These air pollution particles traveled with wind currents, eventually falling to Earth, sometimes hundreds of miles away in states including Idaho, Utah, Arizona, and Washington. These areas were considered to be "downwind" from the Nevada Test Site. Decades later, people living in those downwind areascalled "downwinders"began developing cancer at above-normal rates. In 1990, the U.S. government passed the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act. This law entitles some downwinders to payments of $50,000.

Greenhouse Gases There are five major greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere.

water vapor
carbon dioxide
nitrous oxide

London Smog What has come to be known as the London Smog of 1952, or the Great Smog of 1952, was a four-day incident that sickened 100,000 people and caused as many as 12,000 deaths. Very cold weather in December 1952 led residents of London, England, to burn more coal to keep warm. Smoke and other pollutants became trapped by a thick fog that settled over the city. The polluted fog became so thick that people could only see a few meters in front of them.

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Published: 22 August 2024

Influence of meteorological conditions on the variability of indoor and outdoor particulate matter concentrations in a selected Polish health resort

Beata Merenda 1 , 4 ,
Anetta Drzeniecka-Osiadacz 2 ,
Izabela Sówka 1 ,
Tymoteusz Sawiński 2 &
Lucyna Samek 3

Scientific Reports volume 14 , Article number: 19461 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Environmental sciences

The article evaluates air pollution by particulate matter (PM) in indoor and outdoor air in one of the Polish health resorts, where children and adults with respiratory diseases are treated. The highest indoor PM concentrations were recorded during the winter season. Therefore, the maximum average daily concentration values in indoor air for the PM 10 , PM 2.5 , and PM 1 fractions were 50, 42 and 23 µg/m 3 , respectively. In the case of outdoor air, the highest average daily concentrations of PM 2.5 reached a value of 40 µg/m 3 . The analyses and backward trajectories of episodes of high PM concentrations showed the impact of supra-regional sources and the influx of pollutants from North Africa on the variability of PM concentrations. The correlation between selected meteorological parameters and PM concentrations shows the relationship between PM concentrations and wind speed. For example, the correlation coefficients between PM 1 (I) and PM 1 (O) concentrations and wind speed were − 0.8 and − 0.7 respectively. These factors determined episodes of high PM concentrations during winter periods in the outdoor air, which were then transferred to the indoor air. Elevated concentrations in indoor air during summer were also influenced by chimney/gravity ventilation and the appearance of reverse chimney effect.

Introduction

Air pollution is the cause of an increase in the morbidity of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and an increased risk of cancer and premature death 1 , 2 , 3 . These hazards should be considered in terms of both outdoor and indoor air quality, due to the amount of time (70–90% of life) humans spend indoors 4 , 5 , 6 . According to the WHO's global air quality guidelines, the permissible daily concentration should not exceed for PM 2.5 and for PM 10 values of 15 and 45 µg/m 3 , respectively 3 . These standards are recommended for outdoor air, as well as indoor air 7 . The air in rooms depends on several factors, both those that affect the emission inside and outside, as well as the dispersion conditions 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 . Publications on indoor air pollution focus mainly on public facilities, especially schools, hospitals, and sports facilities 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 . However, there is a lack of studies on air pollution in health resorts. Appropriate air quality is necessary for the effective treatment of patients in a health resort 17 , 18 , 19 and is one of the factors taken into account when assessing treatment conditions in a health resort 4 , 20 , 21 . Due to the length of stay of patients in such facilities (up to 21 days), there is exposure to short-term air pollution 22 , 23 . The effects of short-term exposure to PM are usually temporary and range from simple discomfort to more serious conditions such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and heart problems. These problems can be exacerbated by long-term exposure to PM pollutants, which are harmful to the neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems and cause cancer and even, rarely, death 1 .

Health resorts treatment is carried out in facilities that in many cases (e.g. Szczawno-Zdrój) date back to the 19th or early twentieth century. These facilities most often have natural ventilation, are under conservation protection, i.e., they are not subject to thermal modernisation, insulation, or replacement with tight windows, which in turn has a significant impact on the infiltration or migration of pollutants from the outside to the inside. Meteorological conditions (e.g. wind speed, pressure) can also affect the amount of PM pollution migration 16 , 24 , 25 . The difference in pressure inside and outside the building contributes to the so-called chimney effect, which promotes air exchange 26 , 27 , 28 . In relation to buildings, differences in air density (and thus the pressure exerted by it), caused by differences in air temperature between the interior of buildings and their surroundings, should be considered the main force generating air exchange. At the same time, studies show that there is a direct relationship between type of ventilation and indoor air quality 29 , 30 , 31 .

Taking into account the great importance of indoor and outdoor air quality in the treatment process of patients in health resorts 32 , 33 , with particular reference to rooms where patients stay and receive treatments, the aim of the study was to analyse the variability of particulate matter fractions (PM 1 , PM 2.5 , PM 10 ) in a selected health resort and to assess the relationship between indoor and outdoor PM concentration.

Moreover, correlations and the impact of meteorological factors (including air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and pressure) on the amount and type of PM pollutants in outdoor and indoor air were identified. The influx of particulate matter from the Sahara and the temperature inversion situations have also been taken into account.

Air quality as a condition for effective spa treatment

Most Polish spa facilities are located in small towns with access to low-emission heat sources, in areas with diverse topography. As a result, increased emissions from municipal and residential sources and less favourable dispersion conditions contribute to a higher frequency of poor and very poor outdoor air quality 32 . The health resorts in Poland play a special role because they ensure continuity and completeness of treatment and also contribute to reducing morbidity and prevention 34 . As a rule, people who belong to the so-called vulnerable groups, with reduced immunity, including chronically ill, the elderly, and children 35 . Thus, they are more susceptible to the health effects of exposure to air pollution, including particulate matter, than the general population 2 , 33 . Kinesitherapy treatments performed in the health resort's facilities cause increased physical activity, which is associated with an increase in respiratory frequency. If the need for oxygen is even greater, the respiratory frequency increases 15 , 21 . As a consequence, not only fine particles (smaller than approximately 2 μm), but also larger particles are carried to deeper areas of the airways (i.e., tracheobronchial) or parts of the lungs 36 , 37 , 38 . The Szczawno-Zdrój health resort is used by patients with respiratory diseases and other diseases, whose results of treatment depend on the aerosanitary condition. In addition, it is a foothills health resort, located in a hollow area with a treatment base organized in infrastructural facilities typical of numerous Polish health resorts. Thus, given the above, especially its therapeutic profile and location, Szczawno-Zdrój can be treated as a model case for spa treatment facilities.

To present the problem of air pollution in terms of particulate matter in Polish health resorts, for the initial analysis, six spa towns with different geographical locations were selected (foothill areas: Szczawno-Zdrój, Rymanów-Zdrój, Cieplice Śląskie-Zdrój, and lowland areas: Busko-Zdrój, Konstancin Jeziorna, Ciechocinek).

To characterise PM air pollution, data on the average daily concentration of PM 10 in outdoor air in the years 2017–2021 provided by the Chief Inspectorate of Environmental Protection (CIEP) were considered (Fig. 1 a). The choice of PM 10 is dictated by the completeness of the State Environmental Monitoring (SEM) data. At the SEM monitoring stations, reference measurement methods or equivalent methods are used 39 .

( a , b ) Average PM 10 concentrations [µg/m 3 ] in selected Polish health resorts: ( a ) mean annual PM 10 concentration with EU and WHO limit values, ( b ) average PM 10 concentration in February.

According to Polish law, the permissible level for PM 10 has been defined for two averaging times: a calendar year and 24 h. In the first case, the limit value is 40 µg/m 3 , while in the second it is 50 µg/m 3 . From the analysis of the measurement results carried out, it follows that in the years 2017–2021, in selected localities, the average PM 10 concentrations ranged from approximately 14 µg/m 3 (in Rymanów-Zdrój) to approximately 30 µg/m 3 (in Busko-Zdrój). PM10 concentrations in the analyzed health resorts did not exceed the permissible standards established by Polish and EU law (50 µg/m 3 ), but exceeded the values recommended by WHO (15 µg/m 3 ) (Table 1 ).

The concentration of particulate matter, especially in the conditions of Polish cities and towns, including health resorts, depends mainly on the severity of winters, which determine the load of pollutants introduced into the atmosphere from local heat sources 8 , 40 . In the analysis carried out depending on the location, the highest concentrations were recorded in 2017 or 2018, with maxima occurring at all stations in 2017 (Fig. 1 b) and during the winter period, that is, in the month of February, they occurred in Cieplice-Zdrój (79.0 µg/m 3 ) and Szczawno-Zdrój (67.7 µg/m 3 ) (Fig. 1 b). Therefore, taking into account the permission received to carry out measurements inside the spa house, Szczawno Zdrój was included as a research area in further studies.

Materials and methods

Background information.

The analyses concerned the characteristics of air pollution in Szczawno-Zdrój with particulate matter (PM 1 , PM 2.5 and PM 10 ) based on measurements made during three measurement campaigns (two during winter and one during summer periods), which took place on 5–25 August, 2021 and 4–14 February 2022 inside and outside the building of the health resort. Air quality measurements were supplemented with indoor and outdoor air temperature measurements.

The Szczawno-Zdrój Health Resort is representative in terms of its treatment profile (including lower and upper respiratory system diseases) and location conditions in terms of both geographic location and organisation of the treatment base (Fig. 2 a). Szczawno-Zdrój is a city with an area of 15 km 2 and a population of over 5000 inhabitants. The spa town is directly adjacent to the large urban center of Wałbrzych. The town does not have a heating network, so the buildings are heated with gas or coal. During the research, over 250 coal heat sources were used in the health resort (according to data from the municipal office). Measurements were carried out and in the Spa House, which is used as a spa hospital (Fig. 2 b). The building was built at the beginning of the last century, i.e., between 1909 and 1911, and is listed on the Register of Historic Places 41 . The health resort is located on voivodeship road no. 375, which is heavily trafficked and a significant source of PM emissions (besides house-hold emission).

(Source of the map: Chief Inspectorate of Environmental Protection, Problem report on air quality in health resorts in Poland in 2021, Warsaw, 2022, INFAIR, IOŚ-PIB).

Map of Polish health resorts locations ( a ) and The Szczawno Zdrój region ( b ), Spa House in Szczawno-Zdrój Health Resort ( c ).

Measurements were taken in a room with an area of 114.6 m 2 and a volume of 522 m 3 (the height of the room is approximately 4.45 m), where kinesitherapy treatments are performed. The east wall of the room is equipped with five wooden windows measuring 2.7 m high × 2 m wide. Under the windows there are air vents and radiators. During winter, the room was heated with an electric device. There is an unused fireplace in the room, and the outlet duct of the fireplace serves as gravity ventilation.

From Monday to Friday, about 100 people (for Measurement Series I and about 170 people in the other measurement series) received treatments from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m., and on Saturdays from 7 a.m. to 1 p.m., about 60 people received treatments and no treatments were performed on Sundays.

Research methodology

The research carried out included 24-h measurements of PM 10 , PM 2.5 , PM 1 particulate matter concentrations in the treatment room located in the Spa House.

In Spa House, particulate matter fractions were collected simultaneously indoors and outdoors using Harvard impactors from Air Diagnostics and Engineering Inc., Naples, ME, USA (Fig. 3 a). Samples were taken simultaneously outside and inside the room in 3 measurement series. The 1st and 2nd measurement series lasted 21 days, while in the 3rd measurement series, samples were collected for 11 days. PM 10 , PM 2.5 and PM 1 samples were taken inside the room, while PM 1 samples were taken outside. PM 10 measurements are made at the SEM station. The sampler for PM 1 (O) collection was placed outside the Spa House on an open terrace belonging to a medical facility available to patients. Samples were carried out near the breathing zone of the patients. The air intakes were set at a height of about 1.5 m above the floor of the treatment room. PM concentration measurements were carried out according to the European standard for the gravimetric determination of particulate matter, PN-EN12341 42 . The following pumps were used in the measurements: (Air Diagnostics and Engineering, model SP-280E) and Becker model VT 4.8 (Fig. 3 b). The air flow was measured with the Actaris G2.5 GALLUS 2000 gas meter from Actaris, France, for the inlet of particles < 1.0 µm (23 dm 3 /min), and for particles < 2.5 µm and < 10 µm (10 dm 3 /min), which was then controlled with a rotameter and a Madd-Stream gas flow regulator from Bronkhorst Instruments GmbH, Germany. The temperature inside and outside the tested object was measured with the H23-004 HOBO Pro v2 recorder with an external sensor from Onset, USA (Fig. 3 c).

Particulate measuring devices used for the study in the spa. Harvard impactor for measurements of PM 1 , PM 2.5 , PM 10 fractions ( a ), measurement set: impactor, Becker pump, ACTARIS G2.5 GALLUS 2000 gas metre ( b ), HOBO Pro v2-type temperature sensor recorder ( c ).

For PM sampling, QM-A quartz filters with a diameter of 37 mm (Cat. No. 1851-037), from Whatman, were used. Clean filters were weighed and conditioned twice under constant conditions, i.e. at a temperature of 20 ± 1 °C and humidity of 50 ± 5% RH. Conditioning and weighing conditions were controlled electronically in the laboratory weighing room. Before each weighing, the filters were conditioned in the weighing room, for 76 h before the first weighing and for 48 h before the second weighing. The weighed filters were placed in containers and then transported to the measuring station, where they were placed in a sampler. After 24 h of exposure, the filters were transported to the laboratory, where they were conditioned twice as above and weighed as post-exposure filters. Based on the differences in filter weight before and after exposure, in relation to the volume of air flow in the sampler, the particulate matter concentrations were calculated. These concentrations were given in micrograms per cubic meter [µg/m 3 ]. Particulate matter concentrations were calculated using Eq. ( 1 ):

where: c is the PM concentration [µg/m 3 ], ml is the mass of the filter with particulates [µg], mu is the mass of the clean filter [µg], φ a is the air flow under actual conditions [m 3 /h], t is the PM extraction time [h].

The measurement uncertainty for the reference sampler was estimated for the limits based on the standard PN-EN 12341:2014-07 Ambient air. Standard gravimetric measurement method is used to determine the mass concentrations of PM10 and PM 2.5 particulate matter fractions (for k = 2 and 95% confidence level). The mass of the particulate matter was determined gravimetrically using a Radwag MYA 5.3Y.F1 electronic microbalance, with a reading accuracy of d = 1 µg, from Radwag, Poland.

To obtain complete information on the variability of PM concentrations in the study area, the results of PM 10 measurements in outdoor air from an urban background station (code: PL0541A) of the State Environmental Monitoring were taken into account. The manual measurement station of the Chief Inspectorate of Environmental Protection is located in the Szczawno-Zdrój Health Resort, approximately 200 m from our own research measurement station. PM 10 measurements are performed at the State Environmental Monitoring station with an averaging time of up to 24 h.

Meteorological data provided by the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management (IMWM) were used to determine the influence of meteorological factors on air quality. Data included daily average values of air temperature, wind speed, atmospheric pressure, air humidity, and precipitation totals. Characterisation of meteorological conditions during the measurement series carried out on the basis of data from the two nearest IMWM stations for which measurement data are available and which, like Szczawno-Zdrój, are located in the Sudetic region. These stations are Jelenia Góra (37 km west of Szczawno, in the centre of the Jelenia Góra Basin) and Kłodzko (48 km southeast of Szczawno, in the center of the Kłodzko Basin), and have similar terrain and landscape characteristics as main measurement point. Furthermore, to illustrate the advection conditions, wind direction data from the mountain station of the IMWM on Śnieżka (1603 m above sea level, 37 km west of Szczawno, above the Jeleniogórska Basin) were used. It was considered that because of the station's location at the summit of the highest peak in the Sudetenland, these data represent the general characteristics of the air inflow over the study area, little affected by local conditions. The analyses were based on the results of PM concentration and selected meteorological parameters measurements, including air temperature min. and max outside (taking into account the temperature gradient), inside temperature, wind speed (maximum and average), pressure and humidity. The analyses concerning the determination of the ratio between indoor and outdoor PM concentration (PM in/PM out) were supplemented by correlations with meteorological variables. The results of winter measurement series (series I and III) were combined and subjected to statistical analysis as one data set. The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to test the normality of meteorological data and PM concertation. Spearman’s correlations and subsequent significance tests were used to measure the strength of a relationship between data.

Furthermore, the results of the backward trajectory simulation for selected days, developed on the basis of the online version of the HYSPLIT model 43 , 44 , were used for the analyses.

Ethical approval

This paper does not contain any studies involving humans or animals.

Results of research and discussion

Characteristics of meteorological conditions during measurement campaigns.

The study periods are characterised by very different weather conditions. This translated into different variations in the concentrations of particulate matter in each measurement period. The analyses carried out indicate that during the first measurement series (05-25/02/2021; Fig. 4 a), the direction of advection of air masses was periodically variable, with a predominance of N–NW–W–SW directions, which together accounted for 78% of cases. In addition, two main periods can be distinguished during this campaign. The first, which lasted from 5/02/2021 to 15/02/2021, was a period of cold weather, with air temperatures staying below 0 °C. The next period, from 16/02/2021 to 25/02/2021, was much warmer. Positive air temperatures persisted almost the entire period, reaching a maximum of 21 °C (24/02/2021). The difference in average daily temperatures from 5/02/2021 to 15/02/2021 and averages from 16/02/2021 to 25/02/2024 was 12.61 °C.

Variability of selected meteorological parameters (T—air temperature, V—wind speed, R—6 h total precipitation) registered by the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management at Jelenia Góra and Kłodzko stations vs. the background of changes in wind direction (WD) at the Śnieżka station during winter measurements: ( a ) 5–25.02.2021, ( b ) 4–14.02.2022.

Due to the nature of short-term variability of all meteorological parameters, four additional subperiods can be distinguished: 5–12/02/2021, 13–15/02/2021, 16–18/02/2021, and 19–25/02/2021. From 5 to 12/02/2021, a period of cold weather with snowfall and an average wind speed of 2.3–2.4 m/s was recorded.

The air temperature most of the time was around − 10 °C, without a clearly marked diurnal temperature pattern. In the period from 13 to 15.02 the weather conditions changed. The cold anticyclonic weather stabilised, featured also considerable temperature nighttime drops up to − 20 °C with its a clearly marked diurnal pattern. This synoptic situation is conducive to the formation of nighttime inversion, especially within valleys and basins and the deterioration of air quality 45 , 46 . During this period, the wind speed also decreased (an average value of 1.7–1.8 m/s), and there was no precipitation. In the following days, there was a significant change of the synoptic situation—the air temperature increased above 0 °C and remained at 5–6 °C, there was also a measured increase in wind speed. No diurnal pattern in air temperature was measured at Kłodzko or measured to a small extent at Jelenia Góra, respectively. From 19.02.2021, to the end of the observation period, the weather was sunny with less clouds, most clearly visible in the data from the Jelenia Góra station. It was characterised by a pronounced diurnal variation in air temperature, which fell below 0 °C at night and reached up to 20 °C during the day. Solar radiation excited diurnal heating of the air within the boundary layer, with possible occurrences of nocturnal valley inversions. There was also a significant decrease in wind speed at this time. The meteorological conditions were different during the second series of winter measurements, carried out in the period 4–14/02/2022 (Fig. 4 b). They were characterised by much greater dynamics, favouring an effective exchange of air masses over the analysed area. During the observation period, for most of the time strong advection of air masses from the western sector, induced by a low-pressure system, dominated. Temperatures above 0 °C were recorded almost all the time, with no clearly marked diurnal variation and rather high wind speed (the average for Kłodzko was 5.2 m/s, for Jelenia Góra 4.0 m/s). Three precipitation episodes were also recorded.

Only the last three days were slightly different in character. During this time, the diurnal variability of air temperature with nighttime frosts and probable thermal inversions was clearly marked and a decrease in wind speed was also recorded at the Jelenia Góra station.

The summer measurement period 5–25/08/2021 was characterised by typical summer weather, with a predominance of clear and warm days. Advection from the western sector was recorded throughout the period in question, with little dynamics. The average wind speed for Jelenia Góra was 2.0 m/s, for Kłodzko 2.4 m/s, although there were also periods with higher wind speeds. The maximum temperature reached 27 °C, the minimum temperature was below 10 °C. Almost all the time, a clearly marked diurnal variation of air temperature was recorded, with an amplitude exceeding 15 °C, except for periods 17–20 and 22–23/08/2021, when it did not exceed 10 °C. At the Jelenia Góra station, precipitation occurred every few days, while in Kłodzko there were fewer days with precipitation—only four episodes were recorded at the beginning and at the end of the measurement period (Fig. 5 ).

Variability of selected meteorological parameters (T—air temperature, V—wind speed, R—6 h total precipitation) registered at the IMWM stations in Jelenia Góra and Kłodzko, vs. the background of changes in wind direction (WD) at the Śnieżka station during winter field experiment, 05–25.08.2021.

Variability of indoor and outdoor particulate matter concentrations

The analysis of the results for 3 measurement cycles, 2 winter and 1 summer, shows that the values of the 24-h average concentrations for the PM 10 fraction in indoor air ranged from 6.9 µg/m 3 measured in the summer series to 49.8 µg/m 3 in the winter of 2021, for PM 2.5 from 3.7 to 42.1 µg/m 3 and for PM 1 from 4.0 to 23.3 µg/m 3 . The highest indoor PM concentrations were recorded in the first series of measurements for all particulate matter fractions measured, i.e. in the winter of 2021, and the lowest in the third series of measurements, i.e. in the winter of 2022 (Table 2 ). For PM 1 measured in outdoor air, the concentration values ranged from 3.0 to 40.0 µg/m 3 .

The highest values for PM 1 measured in the outdoor air were also recorded in the indoor air measurements, i.e. in the winter of 2021, while the lowest values were recorded in the summer measurement series. Outdoor PM 10 concentrations measured at the CIEP station ranged from 2.9 µg/m 3 and reached their maximum values in winter 2021—up to 68.0 µg/m 3 . The highest concentrations of PM 10 and PM 1 in outdoor air were recorded in winter 2021 and the lowest in summer 2021. The average ratio between indoor and outdoor PM concentration for PM 10 varied from 0.85 for the first measurement series to 1.72 for the second (summer) one, while for PM 1 it was 0.49 and 1.94 respectively. The increase in the ratio of PM(I)/(O) during the third (winter) campaign could be explained by the very low concentration of pollutants in the ambient air and the greater impact of indoor emission sources. A ratio of PM(I)/(O) < 1 indicates the dominant contribution of PM coming from outside the building, which infiltrates the interior through leaks in the building envelope. Similar results have been reported by Refs. 16 , 28 , 47 .

During the first winter season, concentrations were significantly higher than in the second winter season and for PM 1 (O) ranged from 11.57 to 31.83 µg/m 3 , and for PM 10 (O) from 14 to 68 µg/m 3 . In the first measurement season, both outdoor and indoor PM concentrations showed typical variability, depending on weather conditions. The median concentration for the first study period for PM 1 (I) was 13.2 µg/m 3 , and for outdoor PM 10 36.6 µg/m 3 . In the next winter season (season III), PM concentrations were significantly lower and did not exceed 25 µg/m 3 for all fractions. For PM 1 (O) they ranged from 4.46 to 17.58 µg/m 3 , while for PM 10 (O) they ranged from 2.9 to 21.70 µg/m 3 . Indoor PM 10 concentrations showed low variability, and on selected days indoor concentrations were higher than outdoor ones.

Moreover the variability of recorded PM concentration was much higher than during the next surveys (Figs. 6 , 7 ). During the subsequent winter season (season III), the PM concentrations were much lower and did not exceed 25 µg/m 3 for all fractions, with the indoor PM 10 concentrations showing low variability, and on selected days the outdoor concentrations were lower than the indoor concentrations. In summer conditions (season II), the course of concentrations inside and outside the building was characterised by a large discrepancy, higher values of PM concentrations were recorded in indoors than outdoors (Figs. 6 , 7 ). This has been confirmed by other studies, and the authors point to technical characteristics of the building, the type and method of room ventilation, infiltration from outside, activities inside the rooms, emissions from internal sources, among others, as causes 14 , 16 , 48 . It should also be highlighted the large share of indoor PM 1 in total the amount of indoor PM during all experiments (Fig. 7 ). Its contribution amounted to 40% of PM 10 , and more than 50% of PM 2.5 during winter, and 57%, 92% respectively, during summer. PM 2.5 accounts for 62% (2nd and 3rd series) and 80% (1th series) of total indoor particulate matter. Such a large contribution of fine particles, especially during higher concentration episodes, indicates the anthropogenic sources of PM related to road traffic, residential heating using fossil fuels, or biomass burning 49 . Furthermore, considering its greater thread to the health 50 , 51 , 52 , indoor air quality, especially in the healthcare facilities, should be treated with special attention 14 , 53 .

Graphical representation of the basic statistics (1st quartile, median, 3rd quartile) obtained for the PM 24-h concentrations for 3 measurement series.

Variability of 24-h average PM 1 (O) and PM 1 , PM 2.5 , PM 10 (I) concentrations for 3 measurement series.

Similarly, as is pointed out in other studies 26 , 54 there is a significant (p < 0.05) linear relationship between the indoor and outdoor particles concentration during the winter seasons (Fig. 8 a), and also between the entre indoor PM fraction. The correlation coefficient ranged from 0.57 (with PM 10 from the CIEP station) to 0.96. The strong correlation occurred for PM 1 (I)/PM 10 (O) and for PM 10 (I)/PM 10 (O) of 0.87 and 0.82, respectively. In summer, the correlation coefficient was positive but lower, except for the relationship between outdoor PM 1 and PM 10 (Fig. 8 b).

Correlation matrix plot with significance levels between the measured PM fractions: ( a ) the winter season (1st and 3rd campaign), and ( b ) the summer season (2 nd campaign) (significance: ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05).

Evaluation of the influence of meteorological conditions on the variability of indoor and outdoor PM concentrations

The relationship between indoor and outdoor air quality in combination with the prevailing meteorological conditions is of particular interest of this study. The Shapiro–Wilk test shows that the concentrations of pollutants are not normally distributed. Therefore, the Spearman correlation coefficient was used to assess the relationship between the variables studied. The effects of weather conditions on PM concentrations in the air outside and inside the resort facility were verified. In particular, the concentration of indoor particulate matter was taken into account, as well as the temperature difference between inside and outside, and the wind speed, which affects air exchange rates.

Among the analysed parameters, wind speed (both diurnal average and maximum values) and minimum diurnal temperature had the greatest impact on PM concentrations during the winter season (Fig. 9 a). The strong negative relationship between wind speed and PM 1 concentration (both indoor and outdoor) had a value of r close to − 0.8, and for PM 2.5 , PM 10 it was around − 0.7. The correlation coefficients between PM concentration and minimum diurnal outdoor air temperature ranged from − 0.51 for PM 1 (I) to − 0.38 for PM 10 (O). It confirms that the most adverse conditions with respect to air quality are connected with anticyclonic stable weather. The lower the wind speed and the lower air temperature, the higher the PM concentrations were recorded. Similar results regarding correlation with wind speed and temperature were indicated by 9 , 10 , 12 , 40 , 55 . During the summer season, meteorological factors did not have as significant an impact on outdoor and indoor PM concentrations as in winter (Fig. 9 b). Positive significant correlation coefficients were reported between PM concentration and temperature parameters (both measured at the Jelenia Góra station and by means of HOBO sensors).

Graphical representation of Spearman correlation coefficients r [− 1 ÷ 1] between measured PM fractions (PM 1 (I), PM 1 (O), PM 2.5 (I), PM 10 (I), PM 10 (O)) and meteorological factors (lighter colour of bars indicates no significant correlation, p > 0.05) for the winter ( a ) and summer ( b ) ( P average diurnal air pressure [hPa], V average diurnal wind speed [m/s], V max maximum wind speed [m/s], HR relative humidity [%], T min minimum diurnal temperature [°C], T max maximum diurnal temperature [°C], T avg average diurnal temperature [°C], T div_avg average diurnal differences between indoor and outdoor temperature (HOBO) [°C], TG average temperature gradient in the vicinity of spa resort (HOBO) [°C/100 m], T outmin minimum diurnal temperature (HOBO) [°C], T outmax maximum diurnal temperature (HOBO) [°C], T out average diurnal temperature (HOBO) [°C], T in average diurnal temperature inside the building (HOBO) [°C]).

From the point of view of indoor/outdoor relationship analysis, the most important thing is to determine the impact of outdoor conditions on the influx of particles 56 , 57 , 58 . The effect of wind on the PM 1 in/out and PM 10 in/out ratios was different (Fig. 10 ). In the first case, an increase in wind speed led to a decrease in indoor concentrations, whereas in the second case, an increase in wind speed led to an increase in indoor concentrations, thus increasing infiltration.

Correlation scatter plots between PM 10 (I)/PM 10 (O) and PM 1 (I)/PM 1 (O) concentration ratios and meteorological factors: V-temperature difference index, wind speed, indoor temperature.

This situation can be explained by the fact that PM 1 is a fine fraction that can penetrate more directly through leaks, while penetration of coarse PM requires an enhancement of the chimney effect, that is, both by increasing the wind speed and by increasing the air temperature inside the building. The chimney effect occurs always when there exist temperature difference between indoor and outdoor air. During the cold period the chimney effect is usually stronger, due to the large temperature differences between the inside (usually heated space) and the cool or even frosty outside air 59 . From the analysis, this study estimated that under conditions of lower air infiltration, smaller particles, such as PM 1.0 , penetrate building facades more easily than larger particles, similar to other studies conducted 26 , 60 , 61 , 62 .

However, it should be noted that while under winter measurement conditions, the air temperature gradient was constantly directed outward (T indoors > T outdoors), under summer conditions, the direction of the gradient changed according to the rhythm of daily changes in outdoor T. Therefore, the available data on PM concentrations (diurnal values) may not reflect the actual dynamics of changes in PM concentrations and short-term changes in the relationship of these concentrations in the interior-environmental system. Measurements of air temperature inside and outside the building indicate that during the winter seasons the average difference between the indoor and outdoor temperature gradient during the day was 20 °C, ranging from about 17 °C (from 4 to 8 UTC) to 22 °C in the afternoon, with a maximum around 22UTC. In general, it should be noted that during winter, indoor particulate matter concentrations were lower than outdoors; for PM 10 , the indoor/outdoor ratio was about 0.8, while for PM 1 , it was 0.6. For PM 10 , these results varied from day to day, which may be due to the different location of the CIEP measurement point than the site of the field experiment. This situation confirms the formation of the chimney effect during winter and the infiltration of pollutants into the interior of the building. Similar conclusions are described in Refs. 26 , 28 , 60 .

During the summer, there were large differences in the correlation coefficients between PM indoors and outdoors of the building (Fig. 8 b). Most of the correlations obtained were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). A decrease in the temperature difference between inside and outside caused an increase in the concentration inside the building. An increase in temperature was positively correlated with PM concentrations inside (Fig. 9 ). In summer, the concentration of PM 1 and PM 10 particulate matter was lower outside than inside the building, similar to the study by Ref. 16 . During the summer period of the measurements, the wind speed did not affect the concentrations of particulate matter in the outdoor air. However, considering the correlation with air temperature, it can be assumed that at higher temperatures there are also higher concentrations of particulate matter, which was particularly observed in the indoor air of the kinesitherapy treatment room. Analysis of the concentrations of particulate pollutants in the indoor air during the summer provides evidence of the phenomenon of reverse chimney effect in a room equipped with gravity/stack ventilation 63 , 64 . Higher indoor PM x concentrations may be associated with additional sources of pollution, staff and patients activity, and worsened ventilation conditions primarily resulting from small indoor/outdoor temperature differences 64 .

Influence of meteorological conditions on the high particulate matter concentrations episodes

Identified high-concentration episodes, sometimes lasting several days, that can pose a threat to visitors, especially the elderly and those with cardiovascular or respiratory diseases 5 , 6 , 65 . Therefore, an analysis of this type of situation was carried out in the study area. The most significant episode of high PM concentrations in the three measurement series studied occurred between 22 and 25/02/2022. During this period, daily average outdoor PM10 concentrations exceeded 40 µg/m 3 . PM2.5 concentrations exceeded 30 µg/m 3 , and PM1 concentrations reached 20 µg/m 3 . Unlike other high concentration episodes (e.g., 09/02, 19/02), conditioned by local factors (cold, calm weather, conducive to the accumulation of air pollutants), this episode had an advection basis, associated with the influx of Saharan particulate matter over the area of central Europe. This is illustrated by the backward trajectories for periods 23–25/02/2021 (Fig. 11 ). Trajectories were calculated using the HYSPLIT model in the frequency mode. They were plotted at an altitude of 1000 m above sea level to avoid local interference caused by mountainous terrain. The spatial resolution of − 1 degree used reduces the influence of local factors (with a spatial scale of no more than 100 km) on the results obtained 43 , 44 . Thus, a compromise was achieved between the resolution and readability of the obtained graphic distributions. The temporal range of the back trajectories is 96 h. Simulations were carried out for individual days in the period from February 23 to 25, 2021. Additionally, a similar simulation was also performed for the source point height of 100 m AGL. In both cases, the source area for the air masses flowing over the study area was located over North Africa. The Saharan advection of air masses over the area of Central Europe in the discussed period is also confirmed by published results, e.g. Francis et al., Szczepanik et al. and Peshev et al. 66 , 67 , 68 .

Backward trajectories, summed for the period 23–25/02/2021—( a ) for the source height 1000 m AGL, ( b ) for the source height 100 m AGL (Results presented using the HYSPLIT model: https://www.ready.noaa.gov ).

This phenomenon, resulting in an increased concentration of PM of desert origin, was marked by elevated values of PM10 concentrations compared to the previous days (see Fig. 7 ). Saharan particulate matter actually appeared over Poland on Tuesday and Wednesday, February 23–24, 2021. Analysis of the backward trajectories for these days indicates that the main direction of inflow of dry air along with the Saharan sand particles was from the south and southwest (Fig. 11 a,b). A large amplitude of diurnal temperature at the surface (meaning an increase in maximum temperature during the day and a low temperature at night), causing strong radiation inversions, conditions favouring the accumulation of particulate matter in the near-surface air layer were created. Data from aerological soundings in Wroclaw indicated a large temperature gradient of ground-based thermal inversions during the night (from 0.4 to 10.4 °C, 23.02.2021). The lag of inversions and the presence of a mixing layer of small thickness (50–150 m), especially during nighttime hours, limited vertical movements in the atmosphere, and significantly reduced the mixing of air in both the vertical and horizontal profile.

Similar phenomena have previously been reported by Ref. 69 . This influx could have been associated with a high pressure system developed over the Mediterranean Sea and southern Europe 30 , 70 . The so-called African dust outbreaks (ADOs) is typical phenomena over Mediterranean countries 71 , 72 but sometimes dust is also transported towards central or eastern part of Europe 73 , 74 . The episode described indicates that epidemiological studies should focus on the potential effects of mineral dust and anthropogenic PM during ADOs 72 .

The topographic conditions of Polish foothill resorts make them particularly vulnerable to meteorological phenomena such as temperature inversions, atmospheric calm, and fog. As a result, they have a significant influence on elevated concentrations of particulate matter during the winter season.

The results of the two winter series and the summer series show the seasonal variability of particulate matter concentrations (Figs. 6 , 7 ). Wind speed and minimum daily temperature had the greatest influence on air quality during the winter season. The influence of these factors was reflected not only in the short-term variation of PM concentrations, but also in the different PM fraction concentration levels recorded during the first and second series of winter measurements. The role of the wind was particularly evident during the winter season in February 2022, when wind speeds ranging from from 1.6 to 6.5 m/s were recorded and the concentration of particulate pollutants was significantly lower than in 2021. In the last days of February 2021, with higher air temperatures and wind speeds, there was an increase in particulate matter concentrations caused by the inflow of Saharan dust over the European area, which remained in the atmosphere for up to several tens of hours. From the PM 1 (I)/(O) ratio, an increase in wind speed led to a decrease in indoor concentrations, while the PM 10 (I)/(O) ratio indicated an increased infiltration of pollutants due to an increase in wind speed, leading to an increase in indoor concentrations. Indoor and outdoor concentrations of individual PM fractions in the two winter seasons showed a very strong correlation, indicating the presence of the chimney effect in winter and infiltration of pollutants into the building.

In summer, the wind speed did not have an effect on outdoor particulate matter concentrations. However, when correlated with air temperature, higher temperatures were associated with higher concentrations of indoor particulate matter. During the summer season, there were relatively low concentrations of PM in outdoor air and high concentrations in indoor air. The small temperature difference between outdoor and indoor caused the PM concentrations in the indoor air to be approximately 60% higher than in the outdoor air of the building. The high concentrations of PM in the indoor air were determined by the occurrence of the reverse chimney effect phenomenon in the measurement room.

Taking into account the studies mentioned above, the aerosanitary conditions for patients in health resorts are less favourable in terms of PM pollution in winter for outdoor air and in summer for indoor air. To ensure lower PM concentrations, emission sources should be eliminated (in the case of PM concentrations in winter—including coal heating sources and poor quality fuel for home heating) and technical conditions should be improved, including better ventilation (in the case of PM concentrations in summer).

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its Supplementary information files.

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This research was partially supported by Project LIFE-MAPPINGAIR/PL "Do you know what you breathe?"—educational and information campaign for cleaner air, LIFE17 GIE PL 000631, financed with means of the European Union under the LIFE Financial Instrument and co-financed by National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management. The authors would like to thank the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) for providing the HYSPLIT transport and dispersion model and for the READY website ( https://www.ready.noaa.gov ) used in this publication.

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Merenda, B., Drzeniecka-Osiadacz, A., Sówka, I. et al. Influence of meteorological conditions on the variability of indoor and outdoor particulate matter concentrations in a selected Polish health resort. Sci Rep 14 , 19461 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-70081-7

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Williams ML, Beevers S, Kitwiroon N, et al. Public health air pollution impacts of pathway options to meet the 2050 UK Climate Change Act target: a modelling study. Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals Library; 2018 Jun. (Public Health Research, No. 6.7.)

Public health air pollution impacts of pathway options to meet the 2050 UK Climate Change Act target: a modelling study.

Chapter 10 discussion and conclusions.

Scientific conclusions

Scenario emissions

The two ‘CCA-compliant’ scenarios, NRPO and LGHG, had a high proportion of energy generated through biomass use with a large increase in PM 2.5 emissions of approximately 50%, compared with 2011, and peaking in 2035. Although biomass use was projected to decrease again by 2050, primary PM 2.5 emissions in 2050 were still marginally higher than 2011 levels. The baseline and reference scenarios, which did not meet the CCA target, had lower levels of wood burning.

Both the LGHG and the NRPO had a high degree of switching from petrol and diesel fuels to electric, hybrid and alternatively fuelled vehicles in the UK road transport fleet, leading to reductions of around 90% from transport sector NO x emissions in all scenarios except the baseline. The baseline scenario had higher gas and biomass consumption in CHP plants compared with other scenarios, as well as no obligation to meet the CCA target, and this lead to increased NO 2 exposure. In the transportation sector, despite the exhaust emission reductions, the UKTM projections show large increases in traffic activity with car and heavy goods vehicle kilometres projected to increase by roughly 50% in all the scenarios and vans by a factor of about 2. This leads to a pro-rata increase in PM emissions from brake and tyre wear and resuspension of road dust, although these are uncertain as we have assumed in future that the emissions factors will remain at current levels. Consequently, non-exhaust emissions could be the dominant source of primary PM from vehicles in future, increasing PM 10 by about 15% compared with 2011 in the NRPO scenario, for example. This is more of an issue for PM 10 , as the non-exhaust emissions are coarser in size.

Pollutant concentrations

Annual mean concentrations of NO 2 are projected to decrease by about 60% in the LGHG scenario and by ≈50% in the NRPO scenario across the whole of GB and in London, but only by ≈20% across GB and ≈42% in London in the baseline scenario.

Annual mean PM 2.5 concentrations are also projected to fall by around 40% in the top 25% of grid squares, but by only ≈25% in the highest areas. However, concentrations of primary PM 2.5 are projected to increase in 2035 in the NRPO and LGHG scenarios, by around 30–60% in the more polluted grid squares, as a result of the increase in biomass use. By 2050, in those two scenarios, levels are only slightly lower than 2011 values and in the highest grid square are very similar to 2011 concentrations. If this amount of primary PM 2.5 were to be removed, by avoiding the high use of biomass, total PM 2.5 concentrations could fall even further than projected, down by ≈50% in the highest areas compared with ≈25% reduction with the increased biomass use.

Total PM 10 concentrations are projected to increase in 2035 in many areas of the UK in both the LGHG and NRPO scenarios, despite the reduction in secondary PM precursors, because of the increased use of biomass and the increased non-exhaust emissions from transport. PM 10 levels decrease again by 2050, but remain only about 15% smaller than 2011 in the more polluted areas of GB. This is a small reduction and is not larger because of the increasing contribution from non-exhaust emissions. This is of concern as these emissions are potentially toxic.

The reductions in NO x emissions result in increasing annual average O 3 concentrations in urban areas, leading to higher exposures using the metric recommended by COMEAP for short-term impact on mortality. In contrast, all scenarios show reductions in the metric suggested by the WHO for long-term O 3 exposure impact on mortality.

Both O 3 and NO 2 are strong oxidising agents and can play a role in oxidative stress in the human body. This can be quantified through the use of the metric O x or oxidant (O x = O 3 + NO 2 ), which has been shown to be associated with adverse health outcomes. Annual average levels are projected to remain virtually constant to 2050. The significance of this for health is that the balance of O x will shift to O 3 as NO 2 reduces; the former is the more powerful O x so that the oxidising power of the urban atmosphere in the UK will increase with potentially increased adverse health effects, assuming that the global background of O 3 remains broadly constant.

Health impact

We have calculated impact arising from long-term exposures to the pollutants PM 2.5 , NO 2 and O 3 , on mortality, using a life table approach to calculate the loss of life-years in each of the scenarios. This now incorporates birth projections, projected improvements in mortality rates and mortality rates at local authority level. The two scenarios which achieve the CCA target result in more life-years lost from long-term exposures to PM 2.5 beyond the carbon policies already in place and the levels of PM 2.5 still result in a loss of life expectancy from birth in 2011 of around 4 months. This is an important opportunity lost and arises from the large increase in biomass use peaking in 2035. Our estimates suggest that in the more highly polluted areas of GB, total PM 2.5 concentrations could reduce by as much as 50% without the biomass contribution.

There is currently some uncertainty over the role of NO 2 vis-à-vis PM 2.5 , but using the CRFs currently suggested by COMEAP, reduced long-term exposures to NO 2 lead to more life-years saved and an improvement of 2 months in loss of life expectancy from birth in 2011 in the ‘CCA-compliant’ scenarios compared with the baseline scenario, with the largest benefits arising from the most ambitious scenario LGHG.

Evidence for impact on mortality of long-term exposures to O 3 is increasing, although using the quantification recommended by WHO we estimate life-years lost from this exposure to be smaller by factors of ≈6 and ≈3–4, than those from PM 2.5 and from NO 2 , respectively, if no threshold is assumed for NO 2 . However, the short-term O 3 exposure metric recommended by COMEAP suggests the number of DBF in a year could be around 22,000 compared with 29,000 from long-term PM 2.5 exposures.

However, it should be noted that the distinction between effects attributable to NO 2 and those attributable to PM 2.5 and the issue of how if, at all, one might add the effects of both pollutants is still a matter of some uncertainty. COMEAP is currently in the process of preparing a report on this subject, unpublished at the time of writing.

The issue of a no-effects threshold is also very important on quantifying the impact of O 3 concentrations. The long-term exposure metric recommended by WHO in the HRAPIE project 95 as a sensitivity study included a threshold of 35 p.p.b. or 70 µg/m 3 and resulted in an impact on life-years lost much smaller than those of PM 2.5 and NO 2 . However, the short-term exposure metric recommended by COMEAP did not incorporate a threshold, and a rough calculation suggests that the impact from this metric of O 3 concentrations could lead to the number of DBF of a similar order to that for PM 2.5 , approximately 20,000 from O 3 exposure compared with 29,000 from PM 2.5 .

We also investigated the effect of the changing concentrations on exposures in different socioeconomic classes. We observed differences in air pollution levels in subpopulations for all analysed pollutants and for each geographical area. Differences in exposure were most marked for NO 2 for ethnicity and for socioeconomic deprivation. Wards with higher proportions of non-white residence and higher deprivation are expected to be closer to roads and, therefore, exposed to these higher NO 2 levels. The ratios of exposures in white and non-white populations were much larger than those for the most deprived populations compared with least deprived populations in GB and Wales, but slightly smaller in London. Relative differences between most and least deprived populations were highest in Scotland, closely followed by London; relative differences in Wales were the smallest.

All future scenarios reduced the absolute levels of pollution exposure in all deprivation quintiles across GB, except in those cases in which there is a large increase in biomass burning. Differences in exposure between the most and least deprived populations remain in all scenarios, most clearly for NO 2 , in which there is little difference between the baseline scenario and the NRPO scenario.

Limitations of the research

Although we have presented an advanced and detailed modelling study of the air pollution impact on health from climate policies, there are inevitable limitations to the work. We used the complex UKTM energy model as this represents a much more detailed method of generating energy scenarios than our original proposal. Because of this we were able to run only a limited number of scenarios. A wider range of pathways to the CCA would have potentially quantified a larger degree of health improvements in future years. The complexity of the UKTM model and the system we have built requires significant computer resources so that it is impracticable to undertake a range of sensitivity analyses around the economic parameters and energy and transport futures in the UKTM model.

Air quality modelling is always limited by several factors, the most important of which is the accuracy of the emissions inventory input. We improved the existing inventories using the most up-to-date information, but there are inevitably limitations to this knowledge. Equally, our understanding of the mechanisms of particle formation is developing continuously and, although we have used the best available chemical/physical mechanism of particle formation, there are still uncertainties involved here.

The health impact calculations are limited by the uncertainty in the numerical coefficients relating health outcomes to air pollutant concentrations, although to a degree we have allowed for this via the confidence intervals incorporated in the epidemiological studies. An important limitation is the extent to which the science supports an independent effect of NO 2 compared with PM 2.5 and the degree of overlap between the two pollutants in the association with adverse health outcomes. The review of the evidence by COMEAP, due to be published near the time of writing, had not appeared as this report was finalised.

Although improving the modelling scale down to 20 m in urban areas is an important advance in picking up exposure contrasts (particularly close to roads), the health impact methodology used is not, at this stage, able to take full advantage of this. In order to be able to use routinely available statistics on population and mortality by age group, concentrations were averaged up to ward level. Depending on how small-scale variations in population and mortality line up with variations in pollutant concentrations (particularly NO 2 ), results could differ if finer-scale inputs were used for population and mortality as well as concentration.

Uncertainties

Uncertainties in emissions and air quality modelling

The energy scenario modelling represents a series of hypothetical futures, and, if we were trying to predict actual future energy use in a forecasting sense, we would have needed to explore the uncertainties around the economic forecasts, for example. However, in the sense that we have used the projections – in a ‘what if?’ sense – then these uncertainties become less relevant.

The development of a new energy and air quality model has been a significant undertaking and represents an important step forward as a policy development tool. The inputs to the model system are numerous and the uncertainties are difficult to test in a comprehensive way, and, although we have started to look at methods to test the CMAQ model uncertainties for O 3 predictions, these methods have not been used in the present work.

In lieu of a detailed uncertainty analysis we have provided results of a model evaluation exercise across GB using 80 measurement sites. Using the criteria in a recent model evaluation exercise, we have confidence that the combination of the WRF meteorological model, emissions and CMAQ/ADMS air pollution models is able to reproduce 2011 and 2012 concentrations of NO X , NO 2 , O 3 , PM 10 and PM 2.5 at spatial scales, from 10 km across the UK, down to 20-m scale in urban areas. Furthermore, comparison with PM component measurements (nitrate, sulphate, OA, etc.) from the London 2012 ClearfLo campaign show good agreement, which is encouraging both from a model chemistry point of view, but also because it supports the introduction of new emissions to the model, such as domestic wood burning, cooking and diesel IVOCs. The UKTM model has also been evaluated against 2010 energy statistics and WRF assessed against 169 UK Met Office measurement sites.

There is uncertainty in future emissions predictions over whether we use energy-related activity data from the UKTM model or emissions factor assumptions, although for the latter we have used UK NAEI 2030 emission factors as far as possible.

Specific examples include uncertainties in our understanding of PM 10 non-exhaust emissions, which are assumed to increase pro rata with vehicle kilometres to 2050. This assumption may change as some private cars become lighter, are fitted with lower rolling resistant tyres and use regenerative braking, whereas delivery vehicles become heavier, and as all vehicles are subject to increased city congestion and there are ongoing changes to the materials used in brakes and tyre manufacture. Without regulation of these sources future predictions should be considered with caution.

Furthermore, the treatment of domestic wood burning emissions makes assumptions regarding the mix of wood burning appliances resulting in a 19% reduction in PM emissions per kilogram of wood burnt, as a result of the introduction of stoves complying with emission limits in the Ecodesign Directive (53% reduction in PM emissions compared with existing wood burners) and large pelletised domestic appliances (93% reduction in PM emissions compared with existing wood burners) in the UK appliance stock. Another important uncertainty is the location of CHP stations, which we have assumed is the same as existing UK locations for this source (i.e. in northern UK cities). Although this is not unreasonable, the introduction of CHP is already happening in other cities such as London and, although not likely to change the total emissions in our model, will possibly spread the impact away more widely than we have assumed.

Finally, although there will always be uncertainty in future predictions, the project aims were to provide alternative future scenarios, pointing out the potential for undesirable air pollution impacts within climate change policy and accepting that a large range of outcomes are possible.

Uncertainties in health and inequalities

Calculations were done using the confidence intervals (or plausibility intervals in the case of PM 2.5 ) to give one indication of a range of possible answers. For PM 2.5 this gave a range for the life-years lost or gained from one-sixth to twice the result for the central estimate. This was in line with the range for the originating CRF. The proportion relative to the central estimate varied very slightly – because of the non-linearities in the calculations. This range is not that for a 95% confidence interval. The original COMEAP recommendations included wider uncertainties than just those relating to statistical sampling. In addition, uncertainties in other inputs are not included. The range for the differences between scenarios was derived by subtracting the lower ends of the ranges for each scenario from each other – this probably overestimates the range. The impact of the spatial scale of the modelling was investigated, but not other issues so far. Some inputs are well established (e.g. population and deaths data), but, even in that case, assumptions are required, for example inferring distribution by age at small local areas from distributions at a wider geographical scale. The uncertainties in the modelling data have been discussed above but have not, so far, been propagated to the health impact calculations. In principle, this could be done, but would involve a much larger resource than was available in this project. There are a variety of versions of mortality rate improvement projections and birth projections – we have used only the central ones. Migration was not included and it is very unclear at present in which direction this will go.

Many of the same issues apply to the calculations for NO 2 (with and without a cut-off point). In terms of the 95% confidence interval of the CRFs, the results varied from 41%/42% of the central estimate to 1.6 times the central estimate. This only represents one aspect of the uncertainty. Results can be sensitive to the choice of cut-off point.

As described in Chapter 8 , we assumed that deprivation and ethnicity patterns at the small area level observed in 2011 are representative for the years 2035 and 2050. This assumption is based on studies which have shown that, in particular, deprivation patterns are fairly stable over time. We used this approach because no information on future deprivation or ethnicity patterns is available that far into the future. Uncertainties associated with such future sociodemographic prediction would be expected to not be dissimilar to those associated with our approach.

Inevitably, assumptions have to be made when projecting into the future. Inclusion of projected mortality improvements and birth projections improved this, compared with assuming baseline mortality rates and births remaining the same. However, these projections themselves are uncertain. In addition, we did not include projections of migration at this stage.

The project’s contribution to advances in knowledge

This project has, for the first time in the UK, delivered a sophisticated tool to enable the explicit calculation of public health impact arising from future energy strategies in GB using a state-of-the-art air quality model with an energy systems model used to inform government policy on greenhouse gas mitigation. This represents a major improvement over previous approaches to the impact of greenhouse gas emissions. Our work has established a method of calculating public health impact of air pollution resulting from climate policies through the full ‘impact pathway’ approach rather than the cruder, more approximate, ‘damage cost’ approach. The latter approach has been used to date by government in the UK to appraise climate policies; it relies on simply assigning a monetary value to a unit of air pollution emission. Consequently, there is no explicit calculation of pollution concentrations in the air, or of the impact on mortality and morbidity. Our system now allows that to be done in a linked system beginning with the economic model of the British energy system, through a sophisticated air quality model to a detailed life table model for calculating impact on health, on exposures in socioeconomic classes and for calculating economic impact. Moreover, the system we have developed allows this impact to be calculated at the finest spatial resolution yet achieved in GB, in which we model the rural areas at 10 km and major urban centres at 2 km or as fine as 20 m.

The science of air quality and of PM has continued to evolve during the life of the project. During the study it was necessary for us to incorporate emerging research on the sources of PM from cooking sources that were not previously included in emission inventories in GB. We have also built on King’s College London’s expertise in understanding the contribution of wood (biomass) burning to air quality to improve the inventory of emissions from this source. We were also able to enhance our model to treat the major British cities at a spatial resolution of 20 m, where previously we had been able to do this only for London. We have evaluated this improved air quality model and shown it to behave well against accepted criteria.

During the course of the project, we formed a collaboration with the Institute for Sustainable Resources at UCL to allow us to link the UKTM energy systems model with our air quality model and our health impact capability. This formed a major advance and the link now establishes a credible system to assess the impact of energy futures and climate policies in GB.

There are several important policy messages which arise from this project. The CCA target, in principle, offers a great opportunity to make very large reductions in air pollution emissions as the UK energy system is decarbonised. However, the PM 2.5 emissions from the large increases in residential and CHP biomass use and the increase in non-exhaust PM emissions from transport in the two CCA-compliant scenarios we have studie mean that PM 2.5 and PM 10 concentrations do not fall as much as they would otherwise have done without the biomass use. This increase in biomass use has resulted in the finding that the CCA-compliant scenarios result in more life-years lost than the baseline scenario which incorporates no further climate action beyond that already in place.

Solutions to improve air quality impact on health could include measures to discourage the use of biomass in small installations, or to increase the stringency of the emission limits in the Ecodesign Directive. The related study by Lott et al. , 33 using the damage cost approach, carried out a calculation including damage costs for biomass use to attempt to account for the public health impact. This succeeded in reducing the use of biomass in the hypothetical calculation. In reality, measures to discourage biomass use would probably be best delivered through revisions to the renewable heat incentive. In terms of improving air quality and minimising the impact on public health, wood burning, if it were to be used at all, would be best deployed in large, efficient power stations rather than small-scale domestic or CHP use. Fiscal measures in the renewable heat incentive to encourage this shift would have benefits to public health without necessarily compromising the achievement of the CCA target.

Non-exhaust emissions of PM 10 , and to a lesser extent PM 2.5 , are projected to increase significantly by 2050 as traffic activity increases. The precise agents in tyre and brake wear and resuspended dust responsible for the potential toxicity of these emissions are, as yet, unclear, so reformulation of these products would need to await more clarification from toxicological research. However, in the meantime, the obvious solution to ameliorate potential impact from all emissions from road transport here would be to discourage traffic use, particularly in urban centres.

On the positive side, electrification of the road transport fleet results in large reductions in the potential adverse impact on health from NO 2 and potential compliance with legal standards. This will also have benefits for PM concentrations and will, to a limited degree, offset the impact of any continued increase in biomass use.

The use of economic appraisal provides a mechanism for assessing the efficacy of measures for further action, permitting direct comparison of costs and benefits of measures, and enabling collation of a variety of different types of effect. As shown above, economic damage associated with air pollution in the UK is substantial and will remain so over the period covered by the scenarios considered here. It is noted that the UK approaches to valuation appear highly conservative compared with assumptions followed in the wider international literature.

Further research with the linked UKTM and our air quality model, CMAQ-Urban, could investigate other possible scenarios which achieve the CCA target and which could minimise the problem with residential and CHP biomass use and the impact of non-exhaust road transport emissions.

Recommendations for future research

The system we have developed links together a sophisticated energy system model – used by government in the UK – with a detailed chemical–transport model for air quality, health impact calculations and assessments of exposures and impacts in different socioeconomic classes. It also allows the monetary valuation of this impact on health. Because of the complexity of the system we have been able to run only a small number of scenarios and, although we have demonstrated some significant issues for future climate change mitigation measures, there is still scope to address optimal pathways for attaining the CCA target by minimising the impact on air quality and public health.

The work has shown that trends in different fractions of the atmospheric particle mix may be different in future. Primary particles (containing known carcinogens) may increase, whereas secondary particles may decrease. This highlights the importance of studies to elucidate the differential toxicity of different particle fractions.

The work has shown that, with increased penetration of ultra-low and zero-emissions road vehicles, concentrations of NO 2 will decrease by large amounts. The precise role of NO 2 , compared with that of PM 2.5 and other pollutants, in affecting human health is still uncertain. More clarity is needed here before any health benefits from reductions in NO 2 can be confidently quantified.

The effects of long-term exposure to air pollution on mortality generally dominate cost–benefit analysis, but a full investigation of the health impact would involve quantifying the potential effects on a wider range of health outcomes. In addition, further sensitivity analyses on the data inputs and assumptions regarding CRFs (e.g. effect modification) would be helpful. There is a need to explore how using population and mortality inputs at a finer geographical scale affects the result. More meta-analyses of epidemiological studies on PM 2.5 and NO 2 will also be useful.

Cite this Page Williams ML, Beevers S, Kitwiroon N, et al. Public health air pollution impacts of pathway options to meet the 2050 UK Climate Change Act target: a modelling study. Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals Library; 2018 Jun. (Public Health Research, No. 6.7.) Chapter 10, Discussion and conclusions.
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Air pollution

Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere.

Household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities and forest fires are common sources of air pollution. Pollutants of major public health concern include particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Outdoor and indoor air pollution cause respiratory and other diseases and are important sources of morbidity and mortality.

WHO data show that almost all of the global population (99%) breathe air that exceeds WHO guideline limits and contains high levels of pollutants , with low- and middle-income countries suffering from the highest exposures.

Air quality is closely linked to the earth’s climate and ecosystems globally. Many of the drivers of air pollution (i.e. combustion of fossil fuels) are also sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Policies to reduce air pollution, therefore, offer a win-win strategy for both climate and health, lowering the burden of disease attributable to air pollution, as well as contributing to the near- and long-term mitigation of climate change.

From smog hanging over cities to smoke inside the home, air pollution poses a major threat to health and climate.

Ambient (outdoor) air pollution in both cities and rural areas is causing fine particulate matter which result in strokes, heart diseases, lung cancer, acute and chronic respiratory diseases.

Additionally, around 2.4 billion people are exposed to dangerous levels of household air pollution, while using polluting open fires or simple stoves for cooking fuelled by kerosene, biomass (wood, animal dung and crop waste) and coal.

The combined effects of ambient air pollution and household air pollution is associated with 7 million premature deaths annually.

Sources of air pollution are multiple and context specific. The major outdoor pollution sources include residential energy for cooking and heating, vehicles, power generation, agriculture/waste incineration, and industry. Policies and investments that support sustainable land use, cleaner household energy and transport, energy-efficient housing, power generation, industry, and better municipal waste management can effectively reduce key sources of ambient air pollution.

WHO promotes interventions and initiatives for healthy sectoral policies (including energy, transport, housing, urban development and electrification of health-care facilities), addressing key risks to health from air pollution indoors and outdoors, and contributing to achieving health co-benefits from climate change mitigation policies.

WHO provides technical support to WHO’s Member States in the development of normative guidance, tools and provision of authoritative advice on health issues related to air pollution and its sources.

WHO monitors and reports on global trends and changes in health outcomes associated with actions taken to address air pollution at the national, regional and global levels.

WHO has also developed and implemented a strategy for raising awareness on the risk of air pollution, as well as available solutions that can be implemented to mitigate the risks of exposure to air pollution. Through digital outreach and partnerships, WHO has helped enrich the value proposition of addressing air pollution for health and environment ministries, city governments and other stakeholders from sectors with significant emissions.

Household air pollution
Ambient (outdoor) air pollution
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Sand and dust storms
Ambient air quality database
Air pollution and health training toolkit for health workers
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Benefits of action to reduce household air pollution tool (BAR-HAP tool)
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Global health observatory: public health and environment
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Integrating health in urban and territorial planning: the directory
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Health and the environment: addressing the health impact of air pollution (WHA68.8)
Health and the environment: draft road map for an enhanced global response to the adverse health effects of air pollution: report by the Secretariat (WHA69.18)
Health, environment and climate change: report by the Director-General (WHA71.10)
Health, environment and climate change: road map for an enhanced global response to the adverse health effects of air pollution: report by the Director-General (WHA71/10 Add.1)
Environment, climate change and health
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A critical review of NO 2 and AOD in major Asian cities: challenges, mitigation approaches and way forwards

Published: 22 August 2024

Cite this article

Most Mastura Munia Farjana Jion 1 ,
Abu Reza Md Towfiqul Islam ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5779-1382 1 , 2 ,
Mahir Shahrier 3 ,
Md Yousuf Mia 1 ,
Jannatun Nahar Jannat 1 ,
Md Arfan Ali 12 , 13 ,
Md Abdullah Al Masud 4 ,
Md Firoz Khan 5 ,
Muhammad Bilal 11 ,
Abubakr M. Idris 6 , 7 &
Guilherme Malafaia 8 , 9 , 10

Atmospheric aerosols and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) are a global concern, especially in major Asian cities, because of their multiple impacts on climate, health, ecology, and the environment. Although many studies have been conducted individually, studies on the coupling of NO 2 and Aerosol optical depth (AOD) in major Asian cities are still scarce. This study aims to critically evaluate the challenges of AOD and NO 2 in Asia through a detailed discussion of the sources and mitigation solutions. The impact and intensity of these two pollutants are severe in countries such as India, China, Bangladesh, India, and Japan. China is the region with the highest AOD in the world. Increases in NO 2 and AOD have been observed in the megacities of South Asia (e.g., Lahore, Dhaka, Mumbai, and Kolkata). East Asia (China, South Korea, and Japan) is a significant source of aerosols and their precursors, a complex mixture of coarse and small particles. Diesel vehicles are a significant contributor to NO 2 emissions in many Asian cities. High population density, rapid urbanization, increasing energy demand, multiple sources, and the complex chemistry of pollutants pose a significant challenge for AOD and NO 2 pollution. This study highlights pollution scenarios, emerging issues, and sources of AOD and NO 2 in general that have not been thoroughly studied in earlier research on major Asian cities. To summarize, our study identifies these research gaps and proposes solutions to them which are eco-friendly technology, legislation, policy development, and awareness-raising.

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The authors extend their appeciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University for funding this work through a large group Research Project under grant number RGP.2/219/45.

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Most Mastura Munia Farjana Jion, Abu Reza Md Towfiqul Islam, Md Yousuf Mia & Jannatun Nahar Jannat

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Most. Mastura Munia Farjana Jion: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, sample collections, and preparation. Md. Yousuf Mia, Jannatun Nahar Jannat: Methodology, Validation, Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul Islam: Writing - reviewing and editing, Supervision. Mahir Shahrier and Md. Arfan Ali: Sample analysis, data curation, interpretation, and editing. Md Abdullah Al Masud and Abubakr M Idris: Review draft preparation, reviewing, and editing. Guilherme Malafaia, Md. Firoz Khan and Muhammad Bilal: Reviewing and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Jion, M.M.M.F., Islam, A.R.M.T., Shahrier, M. et al. A critical review of NO 2 and AOD in major Asian cities: challenges, mitigation approaches and way forwards. Air Qual Atmos Health (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-024-01627-x

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Spatial mapping of air pollution hotspots around commercial meat-cooking restaurants using bicycle-based mobile monitoring.

1. Introduction

2.1. study site and period, 2.2. mobile monitoring by bicycle, 2.3. data processing, 3. results and discussion, 4. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

Variable	Model	Resolution	Flow Rate (L min )	Time Interval (s)
Air temperature/Relative humidity	Imet-XQ2	0.01 °C, 0.1%	-	1
BC	MA200	0.001 μg m	0.15	5
PM	AM520	1 μg m	1.7	1
NO	Series500	0.001 ppm	-	60
Location	RCV-3000	-	-	1

Area	BC (%)		PM (%)		NO (%)
Area	Morning	Evening	Morning	Evening	Morning	Evening
Roadside	57	57	4	−2	9	23
Commercial A	28	72	0	48	3	23
Commercial B	26	88	0	64	3	23
Residential	23	76	−1	54	0	20
Stream A *	12	26	−1	17	0	11
Stream B **	10	34	0	27	−3	6

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Yong, G.-S.; Mun, G.-W.; Kwak, K.-H. Spatial Mapping of Air Pollution Hotspots around Commercial Meat-Cooking Restaurants Using Bicycle-Based Mobile Monitoring. Atmosphere 2024 , 15 , 991. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15080991

Yong G-S, Mun G-W, Kwak K-H. Spatial Mapping of Air Pollution Hotspots around Commercial Meat-Cooking Restaurants Using Bicycle-Based Mobile Monitoring. Atmosphere . 2024; 15(8):991. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15080991

Yong, Gwang-Soon, Gun-Woo Mun, and Kyung-Hwan Kwak. 2024. "Spatial Mapping of Air Pollution Hotspots around Commercial Meat-Cooking Restaurants Using Bicycle-Based Mobile Monitoring" Atmosphere 15, no. 8: 991. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15080991

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Biology Article

Air Pollution Control

Air pollution & its control, air pollution definition.

“Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological molecules, etc. into the air that is harmful to human health and the environment.”

Air Pollution Diagram

Table of Contents

What is Air Pollution?

Types of air pollutants, primary pollutants, secondary pollutants, causes of air pollution.

Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically.

There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global warming.

There are two types of air pollutants:

The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.

The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary pollutant.

Burning of Fossil Fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.

Automobiles

The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.

Agricultural Activities

Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.

Factories and Industries

Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.

Mining Activities

In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.

Domestic Sources

The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.

Effects of Air Pollution

The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution.

Global Warming

Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known as global warming . This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.

The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and plant life.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among individuals. Also Read: Ozone Layer Depletion

Effect on Animals

The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also led to the extinction of a large number of animal species.

Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:

Avoid Using Vehicles

People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also conserves energy.

Energy Conservation

A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such as CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level.

Use of Clean Energy Resources

The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a cleaner environment.

Other air pollution control measures include:

By minimising and reducing the use of fire and fire products.
Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants can be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For example, if the reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be substituted with other less polluting materials.
Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India, petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air, most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are still a lot of vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is minimised.
Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have process control equipment to control the pollution.
A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation. Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally, planting trees in areas of high pollution levels will be extremely effective.

Frequently Asked Questions

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COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

Kwame nkrumah university of science & technology.

Call For Applications: West African School on Air Quality and Pollution Prevention

We are excited to share details about the upcoming West African School on Air Quality and Pollution Prevention, set to be held from November 3rd to 16th, 2024, at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Ghana.

This comprehensive school aims to provide participants with advanced expertise and capabilities in air quality monitoring, pollution prevention, and environmental management. The event will unite top experts, scholars, and professionals from West Africa, offering a valuable platform for networking, knowledge sharing, and collaborative learning.

What to Expect: - Learning air quality monitoring methods. - Comprehensive presentations on current pollution prevention research. - Interactive sessions on analyzing data and creating policies. - Practical Sessions to observe air quality management practices in action. - Chances to showcase and talk about your research with colleagues and professionals.

How to Apply: Applications should be submitted via https://bit.ly/Africa-AQ-School

https://bit.ly/Africa-AQ-School

Application Deadline: September 16th, 2024.

Don't miss this opportunity to enhance your expertise and contribute to a cleaner, healthier environment.

We look forward to receiving your application!

IMAGES

PPT
PPT
PPT
Air Pollution PPT Presentation And Google Slides Themes
conclusion of air pollution
Air Pollution Presentation

COMMENTS

Conclusion of Air Pollution
In conclusion, air pollution is a pressing issue that requires immediate attention and action. The detrimental effects of air pollution on human health, the environment, and the economy are well-documented and cannot be ignored. It is imperative that governments, industries, and individuals take proactive measures to reduce air pollution and ...
The costs, health and economic impact of air pollution control
Air pollution poses a significant threat to global public health. While broad mitigation policies exist, an understanding of the economic consequences, both in terms of health benefits and mitigation costs, remains lacking. This study systematically reviewed the existing economic implications of air pollution control strategies worldwide. A predefined search strategy, without limitations on ...
Air pollution: Impact and prevention
CONCLUSIONS. Air pollution currently affects the health of millions of people. We have presented evidence on the effects of pollutants on patients with limitations in their respiratory capacities. For example, O 3 and PM may trigger asthma symptoms or lead to premature death, particularly in elderly individuals with pre-existing respiratory or ...
Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review
Short-term and long-term adverse effects on human health are observed. VOCs are responsible for indoor air smells. Short-term exposure is found to cause irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and mucosal membranes, while those of long duration exposure include toxic reactions ( 92 ).
Air pollution
What is air pollution? Air lets our living planet breathe—it's the mixture of gases that fills the atmosphere, giving life to the plants and animals that make Earth such a vibrant place. Broadly speaking, air is almost entirely made up of two gases (78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen), with a few other gases (such as carbon dioxide and argon) present in much smaller quantities.
Air Pollution
Air pollution is a health and environmental issue across all countries of the world but with large differences in severity. In the interactive map, we show death rates from air pollution across the world, measured as the number of deaths per 100,000 people in a given country or region.
How air pollution is destroying our health
How air pollution affects our body. Particles with a diameter of 10 microns or less (≤ PM 10) can penetrate and lodge deep inside the lungs, causing irritation, inflammation and damaging the lining of the respiratory tract. Smaller, more health-damaging particles with a diameter of 2.5 microns or less (≤ PM 2.5 - 60 of them make up the ...
Air Pollution Facts, Causes and the Effects of Pollutants in the Air
A number of air pollutants pose severe health risks and can sometimes be fatal, even in small amounts. Almost 200 of them are regulated by law; some of the most common are mercury, lead, dioxins ...
Air pollution
Air pollution, release into the atmosphere of various gases, finely divided solids, or finely dispersed liquid aerosols at rates that exceed the natural capacity of the environment to dissipate and dilute or absorb them. High concentrations can cause undesirable health, economic, or aesthetic effects.
Air Pollution
Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the air that can harm the health of humans, animals, and plants. It also damages buildings. Pollutants in the air take many forms. They can be gases, solid particles, or liquid droplets. Sources of Air Pollution Pollution enters the Earth's atmosphere in many different ways. Most air pollution is created by people, taking the form of ...
Influence of meteorological conditions on the variability of ...
Air pollution is the cause of an increase in the morbidity of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and an increased risk of cancer and premature death 1,2,3.These hazards should be considered ...
Air pollution
Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances called pollutants in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. [1] It is also the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment either by chemical, physical, or biological agents that alters the natural features of the ...
Causes, Consequences and Control of Air Pollution
Abstract. Air pollution occurs when gases, dust particles, fumes (or smoke) or odour are introduced into the atmosphere in a way that makes it harmful to humans, animals and plant. Air pollution ...
Discussion and conclusions
The two 'CCA-compliant' scenarios, NRPO and LGHG, had a high proportion of energy generated through biomass use with a large increase in PM2.5 emissions of approximately 50%, compared with 2011, and peaking in 2035. Although biomass use was projected to decrease again by 2050, primary PM2.5 emissions in 2050 were still marginally higher than 2011 levels. The baseline and reference ...
Air Pollution Presentation
Air pollution control act (1955) = First piece of federal legislation regarding air pollutions. Identified air pollution as a national problem and announced that steps to improve the situation needed to be taken. ... Conclusion. Indoor air pollution is a potentially serious health threat;
Conclusion: Environmental Protection—Our Common Responsibility
Environmental pollution is increasing globally and, together with climate change, is a priority on the environmental, political, business, and scientific agendas. Air, land, and water pollution have an impact on all ecosystems and our lives and can jeopardize our future and future generations. The importance of policies on public awareness and ...
Air pollution
Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. Household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities and forest fires are common sources of air pollution. Pollutants of major public health concern include ...
PDF Air Pollution
Figure 9.13 A century-long record of annual air pollution emissions compared to the population of the United States. (Sources: Trends in National Emissions, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Oc- tober 1995, September 2004; U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstracts of the United States ...
A critical review of NO2 and AOD in major Asian cities ...
Air pollution is a severe environmental concern of this century, and the impacts of pollution are getting more intense over time. Air pollution has acutely affected quality of life and human health, which are listed as significant environmental risks to ecosystems and human health over the last few decades. ... Conclusion and recommendations ...
Spatial Mapping of Air Pollution Hotspots around Commercial Meat ...
In conclusion, this study demonstrated that air pollutant hotspots resulting from human activities, such as dining at commercial restaurants, significantly worsen the local air quality on a small scale. ... 2024. "Spatial Mapping of Air Pollution Hotspots around Commercial Meat-Cooking Restaurants Using Bicycle-Based Mobile Monitoring ...
Air Pollution
DEFINITION occurs when the air contains gases, dust, fumes or odor in harmful amounts. it is when concentrated gases exceed safe limits. TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION ' Outdoor Air Pollution o Smog o Particulates o Acid Rain o Greenhouse Gases Indoor Air Pollution. CAUSES Natural Sources e.g. smoke that comes from wildfires, volcanoes, methane, dust ...
Air Pollution
Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically. There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival.
Job Opening: Engineer Trainee (35 Hour)
Meet with company representatives, members of the public, and other officials in matters related to air pollution enforcement; Attend formal training classes and review self-study materials to enhance knowledge of the principles and practices of air pollution control; Testify in administrative and/or judicial hearings;
Call For Applications: West African School on Air Quality and Pollution
- Learning air quality monitoring methods. - Comprehensive presentations on current pollution prevention research. - Interactive sessions on analyzing data and creating policies. - Practical Sessions to observe air quality management practices in action. - Chances to showcase and talk about your research with colleagues and professionals. How ...

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