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History of Canada

Canadian history does not begin with the arrival of European explorers over 500 years ago; people have been living in the country that we now call Canada for thousands of years.

Canada’s original inhabitants

Centuries before Europeans began to settle in North America, explorers who came here found thriving First Nations and Inuit societies with their own beliefs, way of life and rich history.

When the first European explorers came to Canada they found all regions occupied by native peoples they called “Indians,” thinking they had reached the East Indies. The native people lived off the land, some by hunting and gathering, others by raising crops.

The Huron-Wendat of the Great Lakes Region, like the Iroquois, were farmers and hunters. The Cree and Dene of the Northwest were hunter-gatherers. The Sioux were nomadic, following the bison (buffalo) herd. The Inuit lived off Arctic wildlife. West Coast natives preserved fish by drying and smoking. Warfare was common among Aboriginal groups as they competed for land, resources and prestige.

The arrival of European traders, missionaries, soldiers and colonists changed the native way of life forever. Large numbers of Aboriginals died of European diseases to which they lacked immunity. However, Aboriginals and Europeans formed strong economic, religious and military bonds in the first 200 years of coexistence which laid the foundations of Canada.

The new Dominion of Canada

Today, Canada is made up of 10 provinces and three territories.

However, when the British North America Act, 1867, (now the Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982) created the new Dominion of Canada, there were only four provinces – Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.

The Northwest Territories and Manitoba

The year 1870 – three years after Confederation – brought multiple historic changes to land ownership, including:

• Canada’s purchase of Rupert’s Land from the Hudson’s Bay Company, which had been granted a charter to the area by the British government exactly two centuries earlier. Rupert's Land spanned all land drained by rivers flowing into Hudson Bay – roughly 40 per cent of present-day Canada. The selling price was 300,000 pounds sterling.
• Britain’s transfer of the North-Western Territory to Canada. Previously, the Hudson’s Bay Company had an exclusive licence to trade in this area, which stretched west to the colony of British Columbia and north to the Arctic Circle. When it was discovered in the mid-1800s that the Prairies had enormous farming potential, the British government refused to renew the company’s licence. With the Hudson's Bay Company out of the area, Britain was free to turn it over to Canada.
• The combination of Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, followed by the creation of the Province of Manitoba from a small part of this area.

British Columbia, Prince Edward Island and Yukon

Subsequent years brought more changes to Canada’s territorial boundaries:

• In 1871, British Columbia joined the union with the promise of a railway to link it to the rest of the country.
• In 1873, Prince Edward Island, which had previously declined an offer to join Confederation, became Canada's seventh province.
• Yukon, which had been a district of the Northwest Territories since 1895, became a separate territory in 1898.

Saskatchewan and Alberta

Meanwhile, Canada was opening up its west, just as its neighbour to the south had done before. Migrants from eastern Canada and immigrants from Europe and the United States began to fill the Prairies, which were still part of the Northwest Territories. Then, in 1905, the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta were created, completing the map of Western Canada.

Newfoundland and Nunavut

After great debate and two referenda, the people of Newfoundland voted to join Confederation in 1949, creating Canada’s tenth province.

On April 1, 1999, Nunavut was created from the eastern part of the Northwest Territories, covering 1.9 million square kilometres of Canada’s Eastern Arctic.

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Canada , the second largest country in the world in area (after Russia ), occupying roughly the northern two-fifths of the continent of North America .

Despite Canada’s great size, it is one of the world’s most sparsely populated countries. This fact, coupled with the grandeur of the landscape, has been central to the sense of Canadian national identity, as expressed by the Dublin -born writer Anna Brownell Jameson, who explored central Ontario in 1837 and remarked exultantly on “the seemingly interminable line of trees before you; the boundless wilderness around you; the mysterious depths amid the multitudinous foliage, where foot of man hath never penetrated…the solitude in which we proceeded mile after mile, no human being , no human dwelling within sight.” Although Canadians are comparatively few in number, they have crafted what many observers consider to be a model multicultural society, welcoming immigrant populations from every other continent. In addition, Canada harbours and exports a wealth of natural resources and intellectual capital equaled by few other countries.

Canada is officially bilingual in English and French, reflecting the country’s history as ground once contested by two of Europe’s great powers. The word Canada is derived from the Huron - Iroquois kanata , meaning a village or settlement. In the 16th century, French explorer Jacques Cartier used the name Canada to refer to the area around the settlement that is now Quebec city. Later, Canada was used as a synonym for New France , which, from 1534 to 1763, included all the French possessions along the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes . After the British conquest of New France, the name Quebec was sometimes used instead of Canada. The name Canada was fully restored after 1791, when Britain divided old Quebec into the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada (renamed in 1841 Canada West and Canada East , respectively, and collectively called Canada). In 1867 the British North America Act created a confederation from three colonies ( Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , and Canada) called the Dominion of Canada. The act also divided the old colony of Canada into the separate provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Dominion status allowed Canada a large measure of self-rule, but matters pertaining to international diplomacy and military alliances were reserved to the British crown . Canada became entirely self-governing within the British Empire in 1931, though full legislative independence was not achieved until 1982, when Canada obtained the right to amend its own constitution.

Canada shares a 5,525-mile- (8,890-km-) long border with the United States (including Alaska)—the longest border in the world not patrolled by military forces —and the overwhelming majority of its population lives within 185 miles (300 km) of the international boundary. Although Canada shares many similarities with its southern neighbour—and, indeed, its popular culture and that of the United States are in many regards indistinguishable—the differences between the two countries, both temperamental and material, are profound. “The central fact of Canadian history,” observed the 20th-century literary critic Northrop Frye , is “the rejection of the American Revolution.” Contemporary Canadians are inclined to favour orderly central government and a sense of community over individualism; in international affairs, they are more likely to serve the role of peacemaker instead of warrior, and, whether at home or abroad, they are likely to have a pluralistic way of viewing the world. More than that, Canadians live in a society that in most legal and official matters resembles Britain—at least in the English-speaking portion of the country. Quebec, in particular, exhibits French adaptations: more than three-fourths of its population speaks French as their primary language. The French character in Quebec is also reflected in differences in religion, architecture, and schooling. Elsewhere in Canada, French influence is less apparent, confined largely to the dual use of French and English for place names, product labels, and road signs. The French and British influences are supplemented by the cultures of the country’s Native American peoples (in Canada often collectively called the First Nations) and Inuit peoples, the former being far greater in number and the latter enjoying semiautonomous status in Canada’s newest territory, Nunavut . In addition, the growing number of immigrants from other European countries, Southeast Asia , and Latin America has made Canada even more broadly multicultural.

Canada has been an influential member of the Commonwealth and has played a leading role in the organization of French-speaking countries known as La Francophonie . It was a founding member of the United Nations and has been active in a number of major UN agencies and other worldwide operations. In 1989 Canada joined the Organization of American States and signed a free trade agreement with the United States, a pact that was superseded in 1992 by the North American Free Trade Agreement (which also includes Mexico). A founding member (1961) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Canada is also a member of the Group of Seven (G7), which includes the world’s seven largest industrial democracies and, as the Group of Eight (G8), had included Russia until it was indefinitely suspended from membership in 2014.

The national capital is Ottawa , Canada’s fourth largest city. It lies some 250 miles (400 km) northeast of Toronto and 125 miles (200 km) west of Montreal , respectively Canada’s first and second cities in terms of population and economic, cultural, and educational importance. The third largest city is Vancouver , a centre for trade with the Pacific Rim countries and the principal western gateway to Canada’s developing interior. Other major metropolitan areas include Calgary and Edmonton , Alberta; Quebec city, Quebec; and Winnipeg , Manitoba .

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Colonialism in Canada

Article by Karl S. Hele

Published Online December 19, 2023

Last Edited December 19, 2023

Colonialism is the process through which a foreign people establish control over a territory and, if applicable, its Indigenous peoples . Control is established through various means, including political or economic legislation directed at Indigenous peoples or their lands, foreign settlement, and assimilation of Indigenous peoples into the colonizer’s culture. While colonialism in different forms is a defining mark of the history of many countries, colonialism in Canada began in earnest with French settlement at Quebec in 1608. The history of the second colonial power to influence Canada, the British, began in 1670 when the Crown issued a Royal Charter to the Hudson’s Bay Company .

French Colonialism in Canada

French colonial activity in Canada began as early as the 16th century. Jacques Cartier planted a cross at Gaspé , Quebec in 1534, claiming the land in the name of the king of France. However, it was not until 1608, when Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec , that France established a long-term permanent presence. An early attempt at settlement at Port Royal in 1605 failed by 1607 ( see Port-Royal National Historic Site ). In the years that followed, the French established a colonial environment in various ways. These included immigration , surveying seigneuries for French settlement, implementing French civil law, establishing the Catholic Church, and implementing policies and practices directed at Indigenous peoples . The founding of New France was based on the Doctrine of Discovery and the notion of terra nullius.

Trade companies from across France undertook early colonial administration in New France. These companies aimed to populate territory claimed by France for economic purposes. During this time, Catholic orders established missions to convert Indigenous peoples, such as the Sainte-Marie Among the Huron mission.

Following the failure of the trade companies in maintaining the colony, the king of France established New France as a province of France. The French government took over administrative control in 1663. One aspect of the French government’s increased control was the deployment of the Carignan-Salières Regiment . This regiment enforced the will of the king of France in the territory. These efforts included the migration of approximately 800 young women from France to increase the colony’s French population and support its self-perpetuation ( see Filles du roi ).

French officials sought to create a homogenous population. In the words of one French official, “we would like to see only one people in all the land.” France also hoped Indigenous peoples would seek a closer relationship with them. They believed Indigenous peoples would become “civilized” if they were converted to Catholicism. French policies in the 17th century aimed for assimilation — the incorporation of Indigenous people into the colony through conversion, education and intermarriage. This led Récollets , a French religious order, to open a boarding school for Indigenous children in 1620. Other Catholic orders followed. School administrators hoped that Indigenous children, upon leaving these institutions, would act as colonial agents in their communities. The seminaries and boarding schools of 17th century New France were a prelude to the British-Canadian establishment of the Indian residential school system. New France also created reserves or mission settlements for Indigenous people ( see also Missions and Missionaries ). For example, settlements at Sillery , Odanak, Bécancour , Akwesasne , Kanesatake and Kahnawake were meant to teach Christian values and French culture to Indigenous people. Overall, French administrators believed that assimilation would strengthen the colony.

British Colonialism in Canada

British colonialism in Canada began in 1670. At this time, the Crown issued a Royal Charter to the Hudson’s Bay Company , granting it legal and trading rights to all the lands that drained into Hudson Bay . This vast area became known as Rupert’s Land , which included portions of current Quebec , Ontario , Manitoba , Saskatchewan , Alberta and Nunavut .

Britain, with the capture of Quebec and Montreal in 1760, began occupying French forts in the interior. Following the Seven Years’ War , Britain gained control of French claims to North America through the 1763 Treaty of Paris . That same year, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 . The Proclamation established the basis for governing the North American territories. In addition, it acknowledged Indigenous peoples ’ right to hunt on land not ceded to the Crown, and reserved land outside the boundaries of the British colonies for Indigenous peoples. As sovereign of this territory, however, the king claimed ultimate “dominion” over the entire region. The Proclamation also protected Indigenous land from settler purchase, requiring that it first be sold or ceded to the Crown.

After 1783, with the influx of thousands of Loyalist refugees, British Canada continued to create colonial policies through the creation of New Brunswick in 1784 and Upper Canada in 1791. In Nova Scotia , for example, a high ranking British official claimed that First Nations were a “helpless race.” This sentiment played a role in the creation of the Act to Provide for the Instruction and Permanent Settlement of the Indians in 1842. The Act dealt with Indigenous education, poor relief, agriculture, permanent settlement and surveying for both the protection and sale of Indian lands. Legislation passed by the colonies also served to restrict and reduce First Nations people. For example, New Brunswick passed the Act to regulate the Management and Disposal of the Indian Reserves in this Province in 1844. This legislation led to massive land loss in 1844. Other colonies also sought control of what lands remained in Indigenous hands.

In Upper Canada, policies involved signing treaties to access land for settlement or resource exploitation while creating reserves . The first treaties to stipulate the creation of reserves in Upper Canada were signed in the 1850s ( see Reserves in Ontario ). In 1850, Lower Canada created an Act for the better protection of the Lands and Property of the Indians in Lower Canada. This Act was passed as Lower Canada created Indian reserves in the Ottawa Valley, such as Kitigan Zibi ( see also Reserves in Quebec ). This process removed First Nations from the land, settled them in a permanent community and opened the “free” land for French Canadian loggers. The Act also created the first definition of an Indian in legislation in the Canadas. Soon after this, Upper Canada passed the Gradual Civilization Act in 1857, which also contributed to the definition of Indian. The Gradual Civilization Act aimed to assimilate Indigenous peoples by promoting enfranchisement , Christianization and acceptance of European ideals of private land ownership and accumulation of wealth. Indigenous people who had no debt, were considered educated, and who the colonial government considered of “good moral character,” were able to apply for a land grant from the government. The Act shows the underlying approach of colonial policies that aimed to discourage Indigenous peoples from presenting and maintaining their social and cultural practices, identity and ideals, while granting settlers access to lands and resources at the expense of Indigenous peoples.

In the late 1700s, religious orders renewed efforts to assimilate Indigenous children through day and boarding schools ( see also Indian Day Schools in Canada ; Residential Schools in Canada ). These efforts at assimilation continued, ultimately forming the basis for Canada’s residential school system that lasted from the 1830s until 1996. The intent of these residential schools was to assimilate Indigenous children through a Christian education while isolating them from the influences of the reserves. Graduates were expected to either merge into mainstream society or return to their communities to act as harbingers of change.

Effects of Colonialism on Indigenous Peoples

When the Dominion of Canada formed in 1867, many policies, such as residential schools , continued. Other policies the Government of Canada created were similar to those enacted by the British Crown and its colonies. The Indian Act of 1876 reinforced and legitimated the domination of Indigenous peoples and lands. It has given the Crown control over nearly every aspect of Indigenous peoples’ lives and has worked towards assimilation and removal through systems like residential schools and bans on ceremonies, such as the Potlatch ban .

Did You Know? In 2007, a study by the Canadian Senate recognized that alienation from land created economic marginalization experienced by Indigenous peoples, which further contributed to lack of food security and education, high levels of poverty, unemployment, poor housing, homelessness and migration from home communities.

Regardless of intent, treaties have reduced Indigenous land holding for the benefit of the state, its settlers and corporations. The government created a reserve system that, when combined with racism and Indian policies, has led to poverty, ill health, violence and other forms of individual, familial and societal dysfunction. On top of this, resource extraction has led to contamination of soil and water, which has further eroded Indigenous sovereignty, culture and their right to self-determination.

Further Reading

Amié Césaire.  Discourse on Colonialism (1955).

Boris Kishchuk.  Canadian Colonialism: Past and Present (2021).

Lisa Monchalin. The Colonial Problem: An Indigenous Perspective on Crime and Injustice in Canada (2016).

Emma Lowman. Settler: Identity and Colonialism in 21st Century Canada (2015).

Cole Harris. A Bounded Land: Reflections on Settler Colonialism in Canada (2020).

Recommended

Doctrine of discovery.

Residential Schools in Canada

Indian day schools in canada, gradual civilization act.

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Canadian History Essay Topics For University Students

17 Jan 2019

Canada’s history is an exciting subject. It gives you a particular idea about what life was like before and processes that lead to the modern state. Knowing the history of your country is crucial for general knowledge and the future. Here are 50 Canadian history topics you can write about. They are good as subjects of an essay or a project. Some of them deal with controversial events or movements while some explore general socio-economic, political tendencies. Here you can choose one of history essay topics to create a well-researched and unique paper.

History is a crucial subject. First, it teaches you to understand today’s world. Everything you witness today in Canada regarding government, mentality, or national/international politics has its roots in the past. No event ever happens without reason. If you want to have a better knowledge of causes and reasons – learn history. By leaning past mistakes, we try to avoid them in the future.

Another vital purpose of history is its importance for political science. Learning decisions that were made in the past we can witness the results to decide whether they were effective or not. It is also a great way to master your essay writing skills. If you are not sure about them, you can check how to write an essay for university.

When choosing history project topics, it is essential to find a discussible aspect. It might be controversial or debatable. Building an argument will teach you rhetorical skills. They are useful in life as we often want to be persuasive. To find a suitable subject, you may check out Canadian debate topics .

Always choose a topic that fascinates you and writing will become exciting!

20th Century Canadian History Essay Topics

• Establishment of the Royal Canadian Navy in 1910: Reasons, and Motivations.
• Role of Canada in World War I.
• Vimy Ridge Battle’s Importance for WWI and Canadian History.
• Controversial Society’s Perception of WWI as an “English War”.
• Canada’s International Relationship between the two World Wars.
• Discovering Regional and Social Conflicts at the beginning of the 20th Century.
• The 20th Century Immigration Waves: Influence on Society, Positive/Negative Effects.
• Suffrage Movement in Canada, Fight for Women’s Right to Vote.
• Wall Street Market Crash in 1929 and Processes It Started in Canada.
• The Great Depression in Canada: Causes, Impact, Results.
• The Mackenzie King’s Government: Resolution on Participation in World War II.
• Participation in WWII and Economic Boost.
• Explore the role of Canadian Troops in WWII.
• Social and Economic Change in Canada after WWII.
• Long Way to Independence: Exploration on the Relationship with , Colonialism, and National Identity.
• Bilingual National Identity Development.
• The Importance of the Old Age Pension Institution and Its Influence on Society.
• Reasons for Newfoundland’s Joining as the Tenth Province.

Want to dive into questions of national identity? We gathered all actual Canadian identity essay topics in a new blog post.

Controversial Canadian History Topics

• Internment Camps in Canada: Reasons, Context, Results.
• Were Internment Camps Necessary?
• Separatist Movement in Quebec in the 20th century and its Influence on the Country.
• Front de Libération du Québec: Were The Methods Justifiable?
• Quiet Revolution and the Modernization of Quebec.
• Should the Constitution Be Signed by all Provinces? Explore Quebec’s position.
• Establishment of the Income Tax in 1917 as “temporary wartime measures.”
• The controversy of the 1928 Supreme Court Act that stated Women are not “Persons” to be elected to Public Office.
• Struggle for Equal Rights for Female and Male Workers and Society in the first half of 20th century.
• Cold War and the Establishment of NATO: Should Canada have joined NATO?
• Quebec’s Separation Referendum and its Impact on the Country and Provinces’ Equality.
• Jeanne Sauve, first female General Governor of Canada, Her Government, and Politics.
• Manitoba Schools Question.
• Immigration Policy, Its Development, and Results.
• Establishing Bilingual Society and Its Influence on the National Identity.
• Controversy Behind Aboriginal Assimilation.

Unique Topics On Canadian History For College Students

Here are several more Canadian history essay topics you can benefit from. Pick one of them for your university paper or to use as a debate subject.

If you need examples of an essay or more information, you can check out research paper writing service .

• Explore Results and Benefits of the USA-Canada free Trade Agreement.
• Canadian Historical Role as a Peacemaker.
• Development of Canadian Identity and Contributing Factors.
• The BNA Act and the Constitution (1982).
• Cold War in Canada and Communist Fear.
• Relations Between Provinces and the Country.
• The Regina Riot and Its Justification.
• Radical Political Movements in Canada.
• Differences Between Participation in WWI vs WWII.
• International Policy vs Non Participation in the Vietnam War.
• How The Cuban Missile Crisis Affected USA-Canada Relationships.
• World’s Peacekeeper Role and National Identity.
• 1960’s Tension between French and English Provinces
• The Industrial Revolution and The Working Class.
• Bennett vs King’s Governments, their measures against the Great Depression.
• National Identity in 20th century vs in the 21st century.

By choosing interesting Canadian history topics, you are investing in the success of your paper. Pick a relevant one for your interests that has a scientific value. This list of topics on Canadian history may inspire you for future research and if you need - ask us for fast history homework help . Or you can take one of them directly to create an interesting paper. It is important to learn history to prevent mistakes in the future. It is also crucial to understand national identity.

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HIS 221: Canadian History, Pre-Confederation (to 1867): Research Essay Suggested Topics

• Research Essay Suggested Topics
• 1. What was the role of slavery in New France?
• 2. Explain the migration of Black loyalists to Canada after the American Revolution. Why did they come? What was their experience in Canada? What was the “back to Africa” movement?
• 3. What was Canada’s role in the Underground Railroad?
• 4. What are the origins of the RCMP in Canada? How has the force changed since its inception?
• 5. When did the Klondike Gold Rush begin? What was its impact on the Yukon Territory?
• 6. Who was Joseph Brant? How has the historical memory of his role in Canadian history changed over time? What is his ‘legacy’?
• 7. Who won the war of 1812?
• 8. Examine the Acadian expulsion and resulting Cajun culture in Louisiana. What stories can be told from this time? What were the effects on Canada? On the United States?
• 9. What happened to the Jesuits in Canada after the British conquest?
• 10. Examine a current movement (last ten years) to take down/deface a statue featuring a historical character in Canada. Why is there pressure to remove it? What does this reveal about the person themselves, and/or the way we perceive history and historic
• 11. What was the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701? How did it impact the future of the Haudenosaunee people in Canada?
• 12. Examine the history of names and naming of indigenous people in Canada. Why have so many different names been used? What are the origins of different names? Why do we use certain names now, in 2020? What does this reflect about Canadian history, memor
• 13. How popular was the temperance movement in Canada? Did it have any lasting effects?
• 14. Choose a historical treaty between the government and an Indigenous nation and examine the process of how the treaty was negotiated, written, and legislated. What were the effects on Indigenous people? How did the terms of the treaty change over time?
• 15. Who were the filles du roi? What was their role in the shaping of New France? What can we learn about Canadian women’s history and gender roles from their experiences?
• 16. Examine another epidemic in Canadian history (smallpox, measles, tuberculosis). Describe the circumstances surrounding the epidemic, the impact on a specific geographical area, and the changes made to the health system because of the epidemic.

Suggested Topics

What was the role of slavery in New France?

Explain the migration of Black loyalists to Canada after the American Revolution. Why did they come? What was their experience in Canada? What was the “back to Africa” movement?

What was Canada’s role in the Underground Railroad?

What are the origins of the RCMP in Canada? How has the force changed since its inception?

When did the Klondike Gold Rush begin? What was its impact on the Yukon Territory?

Who was Joseph Brant? How has the historical memory of his role in Canadian history changed over time? What is his ‘legacy’?

Who won the war of 1812?

Examine the Acadian expulsion and resulting Cajun culture in Louisiana. What stories can be told from this time? What were the effects on Canada? On the United States?

What happened to the Jesuits in Canada after the British conquest?

Examine a current movement (last ten years) to take down/deface a statue featuring a historical character in Canada. Why is there pressure to remove it? What does this reveal about the person themselves, and/or the way we perceive history and historical figures in the 2000s?

What was the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701? How did it impact the future of the Haudenosaunee people in Canada?

Examine the history of names and naming of indigenous people in Canada. Why have so many different names been used? What are the origins of different names? Why do we use certain names now, in 2020? What does this reflect about Canadian history, memory, and culture?

How popular was the temperance movement in Canada? Did it have any lasting effects?

Choose a historical treaty between the government and an Indigenous nation and examine the process of how the treaty was negotiated, written, and legislated. What were the effects on Indigenous people? How did the terms of the treaty change over time?

Who were the filles de roi? What was their role in the shaping of New France? What can we learn about Canadian women’s history and gender roles from their experiences?

Examine another epidemic in Canadian history (smallpox, measles, tuberculosis). Describe the circumstances surrounding the epidemic, the impact on a specific geographical area, and the changes made to the health system because of the epidemic.

Resources from our Library

The Illustrated History of Canada

A Concise History of Canada

A Short History of Canada

The Penguin History of Canada

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A Concise History of Canada

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• Margaret Conrad , University of New Brunswick
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Book description

Margaret Conrad's history of Canada explains what makes up this diverse, complex, and often contested nation-state. Beginning in Canada's deep past with the arrival of its Indigenous peoples, she traces its history through the conquest by Europeans, the American Revolutionary War, and Confederation in the nineteenth century to its prosperous present. This impressive second edition has expanded by 20 percent, including revised chapters and an insightful analysis of the fraught relationship between Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump. As a social historian, Conrad emphasizes the relationships between Indigenous peoples and settlers, French and English, Catholic and Protestant, men and women, rich and poor. It is this grounded approach that drives the narrative and makes for compelling reading. Despite its successes and its popularity as a destination for immigrants from across the world, Canada remains a cautious and contested country. This thorough yet concise new edition explains why.

‘This rich survey of Canada's past features lively prose, shrewd judgments, and crisp synthesis. It integrates the history of women, Indigenous people, Atlantic Canada, and the West into a dozen well-conceived chapters that make an old story (the one built around Ontario and Quebec men) new again. I recommend it wholeheartedly.'

Gerald Friesen - Distinguished Professor Emeritus, University of Manitoba

‘With this updated volume, Marg Conrad provides a well-conceived, thoughtful, and diverse account of the complicated pasts of this place now called Canada. This accessible and engaging book is well-suited for university undergraduates, more advanced students, and for anyone wishing to expand their knowledge of Canadian history.'

Rhonda L. Hinther - Associate Professor of History, Brandon University

‘A concise but masterful overview of the nation's past by one of Canada's most respected historians. Margaret Conrad pulls the big themes out of a complex history of a country whose identity has always been contested.'

Greg Marquis - Department of History and Politics, University of New Brunswick Saint John

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A Concise History of Canada pp i-i

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Cambridge Concise Histories - Series page pp ii-ii

A concise history of canada - title page pp iii-iii, copyright page pp iv-iv, contents pp v-v, illustrations pp vi-ix, acknowledgements pp x-x, introduction - a cautious country pp 1-13, 1 - since time immemorial pp 14-35, 2 - natives and newcomers, 1000–1661 pp 36-69, 3 - new france, 1661–1744 pp 70-101, 4 - the struggle for a continent, 1744–1763 pp 102-128, 5 - a revolutionary age, 1763–1815 pp 129-165, 6 - the great northwest, 1763–1849 pp 166-192, 7 - transatlantic communities, 1815–1849 pp 193-230, 8 - coming together, 1849–1885 pp 231-277, 9 - making progress, 1885–1914 pp 278-323, 10 - hanging on, 1914–1945 pp 324-368, 11 - liberalism ascendant, 1945–1984 pp 369-419, 12 - anxious times, 1984–2015 pp 420-470, 13 - where are we now pp 471-485, notes pp 486-512, guide to further reading pp 513-519, index pp 520-546, altmetric attention score, full text views.

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• Undergraduate
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• Essay Writing Guide

Essays form an integral part of your history courses. They can also be one of the most rewarding aspects of a course, giving you a chance to research the raw material of history (primary sources) and to analyze other historians’ interpretations of the past (secondary sources). Essay writing is an opportunity to develop your research and writing skills. It is ultimately a lesson in communication. No matter how comprehensive your research or how brilliant your ideas, the essay will flounder if it is not well-organized and presented in clear and grammatically correct English. Obviously, good essay writing requires time. Pay attention to deadlines and give yourself sufficient time to research, write and revise your essay. The following guidelines are geared to the writing of History essays.

DEFINING THE TOPIC

In many classes, you will be given a list of essay topics from which to choose. It is wise to do some preliminary research to determine what topics really interest you and it is also advisable to clarify your chosen topic with your TA or instructor. If you are allowed to select your own topic or wish to substantially modify a given topic, be sure you have your topic approved by your TA or instructor.

COMPILING A BIBLIOGRAPHY

Finding and researching appropriate and adequate sources for your essay will be a critical part of its success. No essay should be attempted on the basis of text books or one or two sources. In the John Robarts Library, you have access to one of the major research libraries in North America and there are other more specialized libraries on campus. Be sure to familiarize yourself with the U of T library system. All holdings can be searched on-line;  the on-line catalogue  is an essential research tool. It can also be helpful to do an actual shelf search; several hours spent browsing through library shelves on areas indicated in your first sources often lead to valuable discoveries. In addition to books, don’t neglect articles on your subject. Articles in periodicals are too often overlooked by students, although they may contain new approaches to and concise sources of information. Discuss research problems with librarians and do employ all available aids for use of the library system. Don’t be afraid to ask for help. Websites: These days students are often turning to rapidly-proliferating websites for sources. Sometimes these can be helpful, especially if they are archival websites which can give you direct access to primary documents. However, websites should be used with caution . In some fields, websites can be the source of much inaccurate information and controversial and/or ill-founded opinion. If you want to use a website in your essay writing, you should adhere to the following procedure.

1. Get the approval of your instructor in advance for websites that you are planning to use.

2. Websites must be listed accurately in your bibliography and if you use material from them, it must be properly footnoted.

PLANNING THE PAPER

You should make and revise outlines while researching the paper, emphasizing your developing perception of the major issues. Research cards are your main tools. They should be filed under topic headings, reviewed, and rearranged frequently in order to fill in gaps in information or analysis. This enables you to determine what is of value as you research the paper; to return to an orderly collection of material if you have to leave it for any reason; and to organize your thoughts when you finally sit down to write the paper.

WRITING THE PAPER

Again, it must be emphasized that you should leave sufficient time for at least one draft. Work from an outline, coordinating your research notes, but leaving yourself enough flexibility to make changes. The first draft can be written quickly, as it is for substance and arguments, which can be refined with each succeeding draft. In later drafts you can concentrate on polishing your style. You should make sure:

1. the introduction is clear, indicating the historical context and the problem under discussion 2. the narrative and argument are presented logically and concisely in the body of the essay 3. the conclusion summarizes and unifies the arguments presented

Essays should be carefully proofread and checked for correct spelling and grammar. Academic are usually written in formal style. Thus you should generally avoid contractions and colloquialisms unless the subject matter particularly calls for such usage. On the other hand “formal” does not mean verbose, stodgy or vague. Long Latinate words, passive constructions, and sentences that begin “it is” or “there are” are common patterns which result in obscure or boring writing. Good academic writing is formal, but also lively and direct. As a general rule, it is better to aspire to clarity and economy; few students find difficulty meeting the suggested length of the essay. Verbosity is demonstrated more often than brevity. Good writing is also precise. Try to choose words that express your intention exactly. Modern academic style requires care and precision in the use of language regarding race and gender. Just as you would avoid racist slurs and words that convey old-fashioned racial stereotypes, it is important to avoid phrases and words that are gender exclusive, unless you consciously intend them to be so. Do not use phrases such as “the history of mankind” when you really mean humanity. Using the pronoun “he” when you are referring to subjects of both genders should be avoided. Beware of false universals; for example, do not say “the inhabitants” when you mean the adult male residents, or “universal suffrage” when you really mean “white adult male suffrage”.

The final draft should be typed on standard size 11″ x 8 1/2″ paper. Use double spacing, except for long quotations (over twenty-five words) and footnotes which should be single spaced. Remember to number all pages. The essay should have a title page which includes your name, student number and course number (and tutorial section if appropriate). Be sure you keep a copy of your paper.

DOCUMENTATION AND FOOTNOTES

It is obvious that most ideas presented in an undergraduate essay will derive from other sources, so it is necessary that these be acknowledged. In general, footnotes should be used to make clear to the reader on what authorities you are basing your statements. The History Department prefers what is called the traditional system of footnotes and endnotes, as illustrated below. In particular, footnotes should:

1. indicate the exact source of every quotation used 2. acknowledge indebtedness to others for opinions and ideas 3. give authority for a fact which the reader might question 4. call attention to other interpretations, additional authorities or more extended treatment of the topic. Such a “substantive” footnote should be used with restraint.

Footnotes can appear either at the bottom of the page or collected together at the end of the essay where they are referred to as endnotes. The numeral indicating the footnotes should come at the end of the quotation or the sentence, usually as a superscript. Think of a footnote as conveying four pieces of information which are set off by commas in the following order:

1. Author (surname after initials or first name), indented

• The title of a book is underlined or written in italics.
• The title of an article is put within quotation marks, followed by the periodical, underlined or in italics
• Place and date of publication in parentheses ( ),
• A fuller reference will include the publisher after the place of publication.
• Article citations do not include the place of publication and publisher.

3. Page number (including volume number if necessary)

For example:

1 J.M.S. Careless, Canada, A Story of Challenge (Toronto, 1970), p. 207.

2 Basil Davidson, “Questions about Nationalism”, African Affairs 76 (1977), p.42.

In subsequent references, a shorter reference can be used. It should include the author’s last name, a meaningful short title, and page numbers. For example:

3 Careless, Canada, pp. 179-206.

Where the reference is exactly the same as the preceding one, the Latin abbreviation ibid. can be used; where it is the same, but the page number is different, use ibid., followed by the relevant page number. However, the short title form is preferable for subsequent references and the use of other Latin abbreviations such as op.cit. is not recommended.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

All works consulted, not just those cited in the footnotes, should be indicated in the bibliography. You may be required to prepare an annotated bibliography, wherein you comment on the contents, utility, or worth of each source. If so, make sure you understand what the instructor expects, in particular the length as well as the nature of each annotation. Generally, list the sources in alphabetical order, by author. In some assignments, you may be required to subdivide the bibliography into primary and secondary sources. The format for a bibliography is similar to that for footnotes, except that the author’s surname precedes the other names and initials, periods instead of commas are used to divide the constituent parts, publication data is not put in brackets, and pages numbers are not included except in the case of articles where the full page reference is necessary. For example:

Careless, J.M.S. The Union of the Canadas. The Growth of Canadian Institutions

1841-1857. Toronto, 1967.

Davidson, Basil. “Questions about Nationalism”. African Affairs 76 (1977), pp. 39-46.

OTHER SOURCES

There are numerous other sources to assist you in essay writing. A good place to start is with the U. of T. Writing website which offers excellent advice on academic writing. Published guides include:

• Northey, Margot and Margaret Procter. Writer’s Choice. A Portable Guide for Canadian Writers. Toronto: Prentice Hall, 1998.
• Robertson, Hugh. The Research Essay. A guide to and papers. Ottawa: Piperhill Publications, 1999.
• Rampolla, Mary Lynn. A Pocket Guide to Writing in History. Boston: Bedford / St. Martin’s, 1998
• Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses and Dissertations. 5th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.

Essays are expected to be handed in on the due date. Instructors are required to inform students on the course outline what their penalties for lateness are. If you have good reason to request an extension, it is advisable to do this before rather than after the fact. 

Research Techniques

Research does not mean hunting for books, or just reading them. It means reading your sources with definite questions in mind. Essays should not be written from open books, but from notes made while reading sources. Orderly arrangement of these is imperative, including the author, title, and page number of the source. Whether you are taking notes by hand or by computer, be sure your are systematic and accurate. There are a number of methods for organizing your notes. One traditional way is to use two different types of cards, “bibliography” (author-title) cards and “research” (subject-information) cards. Bibliography cards give relevant information about the sources used. They include the name of the author, the full title, and the location and date of the edition used. This card includes your evaluation of the usefulness of the source for your topic and relevant details about the author and his/her method. You will need this summation if you are asked to do an annotated bibliography.

The research card contains your notes on the topic, with a separate card for each important idea or piece of information. If you are copying material that you might wish to quote, be sure that it is copied accurately, that you have the exact source including page numbers, and that you have separated “quotes” from summaries in your own words. Note-taking by computer should be an adaptation of these basic procedures. You should keep all your research notes. In some junior-level courses, you may be required to submit them with your essay.

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Local Histories

Tim's History of British Towns, Cities and So Much More

A Brief History of Canada

By Tim Lambert

The first people in Canada crossed the Bering Straits from Asia. In the north, the Inuit lived by hunting seals, walruses, and whales. They also hunted caribou. On the west coast, people hunted deer, bears, and beavers. They also fished. On the plains, people lived by hunting buffalo. In the east, people grew crops of beans, squash, maize, and sunflower seeds.

The first Europeans to reach Canada were the Vikings. In 986 a Viking called Bjarni Herjolfsson was blown off course by a storm and he spotted a new land. However, he sailed away without landing. In 1001 a man named Leif Eriksson landed in the new land, which he named Vinland (it was part of Canada). However, Eriksson did not stay permanently. Later the Vikings did establish a colony in North America but they abandoned it because of conflict with the natives.

However, after the Vikings Canada was forgotten until the end of the 15th century. In 1497 the English king Henry VII sent an Italian named Jean Cabot on an expedition across the Atlantic to Newfoundland. Cabot discovered rich fishing waters off the coast of Canada.

Then in 1534 and in 1535-36, a Frenchman named Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) sailed on two expeditions to Canada. On 10 August 1535 (St Lawrence’s Day) he sailed into the St Lawrence River, which he named after the saint.

Canada in the 17th century

However, no permanent European settlements were made in Canada until the early 17th century. In 1603 a Frenchman named Samuel de Champlain (1567-1635) sailed up the St Lawrence River. In 1604 he founded Port Royal in Acadia (Nova Scotia). In 1608 de Champlain founded Quebec. (The name Quebec is believed to be an Algonquin word meaning a narrow part of a river). In 1642 the French founded Montreal. The new colony in Canada was called New France. By 1685 the population of New France was about 10,000. By 1740 it was 48,000.

In the early 17th century French missionaries such as the Jesuits attempted to convert the natives of Canada to Christianity – without much success. Meanwhile, the French settlers traded with the natives for furs and farmed the land. Unfortunately, they also brought European diseases like smallpox, to which the natives had no resistance.

However, the English were also interested in Canada. In 1610 Henry Hudson discovered Hudson Bay. (In 1611 his crew mutinied and set him adrift). In 1631 Thomas James led another expedition. James Bay is named after him. Then in 1629, the English captured Quebec. However, it was returned to France in 1632.

In 1670 the English founded the Hudson Bay Company. The company was given exclusive rights to trade with the inhabitants of the Hudson Bay area. They traded with the natives for skins and furs. Meanwhile, the rivalry between the British and the French in Canada continued.

Canada in the 18th century

After the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) France was forced to recognize British control of Hudson Bay and Newfoundland. The French were also forced to cede Nova Scotia to Britain.

However, more conflict between Britain and France was inevitable. During the Seven Years War (1756-1763) the two nations fought for control of Canada. In 1758 the British captured the French fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. Then in 1759, General Wolfe captured the city of Quebec. (Wolfe’s victory at Quebec ensured that Canada would become British rather than French). Then in 1760, the British captured Montreal. Finally, in 1763 the French were forced to surrender all their territories in Canada to Britain by the Treaty of Paris.

The British were then left with the problem of how to deal with the French Canadians. Wisely they decided to treat them gently and the Quebec Act of 1774 allowed the French Canadians to practice their religion (Roman Catholicism). The French Canadians were also allowed to keep French civil law alongside British criminal law. By 1775 Canada had a population of about 90,000. The colony was flourishing.

When the American Revolution began in 1775 the Americans hoped the French Canadians would join them. However, they were disappointed. An American army entered Canada in September 1775 and captured Montreal in November. However, an attempt to capture Quebec in December failed and the American soldiers retreated in 1776.

After the American Revolutionary War about 40,000 Americans who remained loyal to Britain migrated from the newly independent country to Canada.

Then in 1791, the British parliament passed another act, which divided the Lawrence River Valley into two parts, Upper and Lower Canada. (Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were not affected).

Meanwhile, exploration continued. George Vancouver (1757-1798) sailed along the west coast of Canada from 1791 to 94. Vancouver Island is named after him. Alexander Mackenzie (1755-1820) traveled from Great Slave Lake along the Mackenzie River and reached the Arctic Ocean in 1789. In 1793 he crossed the continent by land and reached the Pacific.

Canada in the 19th century

During the American War of 1812, the Americans invaded Canada but they were repulsed.

Meanwhile, in the early 19th century the population of Canada grew rapidly boosted by many migrants from Britain. A shipbuilding industry flourished in Canada and canals were built to help commerce.

However, in the early 19th century, many Canadians became dissatisfied with their government. In 1791 both Lower and Upper Canada were allowed an elected legislature. However, the king appointed councils with executive powers. Yet both French and English-speaking Canadians wanted a more democratic form of government.

Eventually, in 1837 some Canadians rebelled. Louis Joseph Papineau led an uprising of French Canadians. However, the rebellion was soon crushed. In Upper Canada William Lyon Mackenzie, who became the first Mayor of Toronto in 1834, led the insurrection. In 1837 he led an uprising, which was quickly crushed. Mackenzie himself was killed.

However, Canada finally gained a democratic government in 1867 when Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were federated as the Dominion of Canada. Canada then had a strong central government, which ruled from Ottawa, the new capital. The first prime minister of Canada was Sir John Macdonald.

Manitoba was made a province in 1870. British Columbia joined the confederation in 1871. Alberta and Saskatchewan joined in 1905.

In the late 19th century and the early 20th century, the population of Canada grew rapidly. The Canadian economy also expanded rapidly helped by the spread of railways. A transcontinental railway, the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed in 1885.

Many Britons migrated to Canada and in the early 20th century many Eastern Europeans also migrated there. Vast areas of land were turned over to farming and manufacturing industries boomed.

Meanwhile in 1896 gold was found in the Klondike district of the Yukon and a gold rush ensued.

Canada in the 20th century

More than 60,000 Canadian men died in the First World War. Meanwhile, Manitoba was the first province of Canada to allow women to vote in provincial elections in 1916. Women in Canada were given the right to vote in federal elections in 1918. By 1925 all provinces except Quebec had granted women the right to vote in provincial elections. Quebec finally gave women that right in 1940.

The 1920s were, in general, prosperous years for Canada. However, like the rest of the world, Canada suffered in the Depression of the 1930s. Canada suffered from a huge drop in exports of timber, grain, and fish. By 1933 unemployment had soared to 23%. The government introduced relief works but economic hardship continued throughout the 1930s. The depression only ended when the Second World War began in 1939. However, during World War II 45,000 Canadians were killed.

In the late 20th century the population of Canada grew rapidly. In 1951 it was 16 million. By 1961 it had risen to 18 million. After 1945 people from Southern and Eastern Europe flocked to live in Canada. From the 1960s many immigrants came from South Asia.

Meanwhile, during the 1950s and 1960s, the Canadian economy boomed and Canada became an affluent society. Meanwhile, television began in Canada in 1952. However, things turned sour in the 1970s. In the early 1980s, Canada suffered a deep recession and unemployment rose to 11%. There was another recession in the early 1990s. Yet Canada recovered.

Canada launched its first satellite, Alouette in 1962. In 1984 Marc Garneau became the first Canadian astronaut.

In 1995 the people of Quebec voted in a referendum not to secede from Canada. Then in 1999, North West Territories was divided into two, and a new territory called Nunavut was created.

Meanwhile, in 1993, Kim Campbell became the first woman prime minister of Canada.

Canada in the 21st century

Like other countries, Canada suffered in the recession of 2009. However, Canada soon recovered. In April 2012 unemployment in Canada stood at 8.1%. In November 2023 it was 5.8%. Today Canada is a prosperous country and it has vast natural resources. In 2024 the population of Canada was 39 million.

Banff, Alberta

A Timeline of Canada

Jean Cabot sails to Newfoundland

Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) sails into the St Lawrence River

Samuel de Champlain (1567-1635) founds Port Royal

de Champlain founds Quebec

Henry Hudson discovers Hudson Bay

The French found Montreal

The English found the Hudson Bay Company

The population of New France is about 10,000

France is forced to recognize Hudson Bay and Newfoundland as British. They are also forced to cede Nova Scotia.

The population of New France is about 48,000

Wolfe captures Quebec

The British capture Montreal

The French are forced to surrender all their territory in Canada to Britain

The Quebec Act allows French Canadians to keep their own religion and to keep their own criminal law

Canada has a population of about 90,000. In November the Americans capture Montreal.

The Americans retreat

The Lawrence River Valley is divided into Upper and Lower Canada

George Vancouver  (1757-1798) sails along the west coast of Canada

Alexander Mackenzie (1755-1820) crosses the continent by land and reaches the Pacific

A rebellion takes place in Canada

The Dominion of Canada is formed

Manitoba is made a province

The Canadian Pacific Railway is built

Gold is discovered in the Klondike region of the Yukon

Women are given the right to vote in federal elections

The Winnipeg General Strike is held

Agnes Macphail becomes the first woman MP in Canada

During the Depression unemployment in Canada reaches 23%

Canada declares war on Germany

Television begins in Canada

Kim Campbell is the first woman prime minister of Canada

Confederation Bridge opens

Northwest Territories is divided into two and a new territory called Nunavut is created

Last revised 2024

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Canada: A Very Short Introduction

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Canada: A Very Short Introduction provides an overview of Canada’s history, and its many political and cultural achievements. Canada has never had a single national identity and is linguistically, ethnically, and religiously diverse. From the first European settlers onward, development and industrial growth were often at the expense of indigenous groups. The late 20th century saw a cultural explosion and the emergence of distinct nationalisms within Canada, particularly Quebec. Canada’s proximity to America has necessitated a diplomatic approach but Canada has used its peacekeeping strengths to further its position as a world power. Canada’s lack of a single identity is arguably a strength, not a weakness.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — 20Th Century — Defining Moments In Canadian History

Defining Moments in Canadian History

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Published: Dec 18, 2018

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History: the First Nations in Canada Essay

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The class readings present some critical aspects of the First Nations in Canada. These are various aboriginal groups living in British Columbia and Ontario. In the book First Nations in the Twenty-First Century, the reader observes the continued developments and repercussions of cultural infiltration and colonialism in the country.

Throughout the period, the First Nations people encountered intergenerational trauma, thus affecting their abilities and developments. This outstanding fact helps the reader examine the nature of life and experience of the First Nations in Canada.

What comes out is that the people had a complex and unpredictable relationship with the other groups in the country, such as the Inuit (Frideres 37). However, such relationships and interactions have constantly evolved over the past century.

The other interesting fact about the First Nations is that they have a unique historical past. The people were reserved based on their cultural practices and ideas. As well, it is interesting to realize how the First Nations passed across their ideas and historical events through narrations and oral traditions (Frideres 59). Most of these oral traditions are important because they describe most of the significant events and happenings during the period.

The people also have a written history. This written history began in the last years of the 15th century after the arrival of the first Europeans. Such facts and developments are, therefore, necessary because they have made it easier for me to understand much about the historical past and experiences of the aboriginal peoples of Canada.

I have also learned much about people’s traditions. For example, the “Seven Sacred Directions” presents numerous aspects and ideas about the First Nations. For instance, the Medicine Wheel has four unique directions. Such directions present many things, such as the importance of balance in our universe and the reason we should understand ourselves much better.

Such teachings are necessary because they paint a true picture of the First Nations and their past. As well, the reader gets a lot of knowledge about people’s beliefs, traditional practices, and experiences from the 15th century. Such teachings made it easier for every person to respect life.

People also interacted well with each other in society. From such readings, I have clearly understood how the First Nations managed to establish their traditions and practices despite the external influences from the other ethnic groups and colonialists (Frideres 103).

I find most of these teachings and information useful. As a student, I have learned much about the experiences of the First Nations peoples in the history of Canada. These individuals encountered various challenges on their reserves but still managed to retain their cultural ideas and traditions (Frideres 74). They even tried to establish their federal responsibilities to survive. They encountered various economic upheavals and bureaucracies in society.

Much recently, there have been various legislations and court decisions aimed at reshaping the relationship between the group and the rest of the citizens. These readings have presented numerous insights about the experiences of the aboriginals, especially after the first Europeans came into the country. That being the case, I would recommend these class materials because they offer useful facts and information about the interesting history of the First Nations.

Works Cited

Frideres, James. First Nations in the Twenty-First Century . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print.

• Atlantic Canada's History
• History: American and Canadian Tribes
• Crisis of Middle Ages in 14-15th Centuries
• Major Historical Vents: Evolution or Revolution
• Aboriginal People Trauma
• Traditional Holidays of First Nation Cultures in Canada
• History: Native Canadians and Indian Act
• History: First Nations Indian Act
• History: the Rights of First Nation People
• What kind of Canada did the stores help to create?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2020, March 18). History: the First Nations in Canada. https://ivypanda.com/essays/history-the-first-nations-in-canada/

"History: the First Nations in Canada." IvyPanda , 18 Mar. 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/history-the-first-nations-in-canada/.

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IvyPanda . 2020. "History: the First Nations in Canada." March 18, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/history-the-first-nations-in-canada/.

1. IvyPanda . "History: the First Nations in Canada." March 18, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/history-the-first-nations-in-canada/.

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Indigenous history in Canada

The history of Indigenous peoples in Canada is rich and diverse. This history stretches long into the past before the arrival of the European newcomers with diverse interactions among different peoples, flourishing trade and fierce conflict, and competition for lands and resources. The history of First Nations, Inuit and Métis is essentially the very history of Canada as they have played, and continue to play important roles in its development and its future.

To learn more, please visit the virtual exhibit at the Canadian Museum of History and the First Nations in Canada historical e-book .

History: Crown-Indigenous relationships

The relationship between the Crown and Indigenous peoples in Canada has been in near constant evolution since it was first established over 300 years ago. It has been affected by commercial and economic pressures, by shifting alliances and external threats, and by policies of protection and subordination. Read more about the history of Indigenous peoples, the history of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, and the treaty relationship .

Royal Proclamation of 1763

On October 7, 1763, King George III issued a Royal Proclamation for the administration of British territories in North America. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 set out the core elements of the relationship between First Nations and the Crown, established the recognition of First Nation rights in Canada, and laid the foundation of the treaty-making process and Canada's territorial evolution.

Read more about the Royal Proclamation .

Treaty-Making in Canada

The impact of treaty-making in Canada has been wide-ranging and long standing. The treaties the Crown has signed with Indigenous peoples since the 18th century have permitted the evolution of Canada as we know it and form the basis for the ongoing treaty relationship. This treaty-making process, which has evolved over more than 300 years between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in Canada, has its origins in the early diplomatic relationship developed between European settlers and Indigenous peoples. These diplomatic proceedings were the first steps in a long process that has led to today's comprehensive claims agreements between the Crown and Indigenous peoples.

Read more about Treaty-Making in Canada .

Indigenous contributions to the War of 1812

Throughout Canada's history, Indigenous peoples have helped shape this land into the country we know today. During the War of 1812, First Nations warriors and Métis fighters played important roles in the defence of these British territories against invading American forces. Thousands of First Nations warriors and Métis fighters fought beside British troops and Canadian settler militias during the war. More than 10,000 First Nations warriors from the Great Lakes region and the St.  Lawrence Valley participated in nearly every major battle.

Read more about Indigenous peoples contributions during the War of 1812 .

Residential Schools

For over a century Indigenous children were removed from their families and homes, sometimes forcibly, and taken to residential schools where they were housed and educated under the authority of the Government of Canada. The establishment of Indian residential schools began in the 1870s. The Government of Canada was involved in the funding and operation of many of these schools, along with various religious organizations, including the Anglican, Presbyterian, United and Roman Catholic churches. Two primary objectives of the residential schools system were to remove and isolate children from their homes, families, traditions and cultures, and to assimilate them into the dominant culture. In all, some 150,000 First Nations, Inuit and Métis children were removed and separated from their families and communities to attend residential schools. While most Indian residential schools ceased to operate by the mid-1970s, the last federally run school closed in the late 1990s.

On June 11, 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered an historic apology to former students of Indian residential schools and their families, and sought forgiveness for the suffering and the long-lasting impact the schools have had on First Nations, Inuit and Métis culture, heritage and language. Alongside the 2008 Apology, the successful ongoing implementation of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement is a key factor in the Government of Canada’s efforts to forge a new relationship between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Canadians.

Read more about Indian Residential Schools .

First Canadian Arctic Expedition

The Canadian Arctic Expedition (CAE) marked a significant turning point in Canada's Arctic territorial history and helped shape Canada into a nation, strong and free. By asserting Canadian control over thousands of square kilometers and confirming Canada's modern Northern border, the Expedition and its activities laid the foundation for the future of Canada's development in the Arctic. It further defined Canada's northern boundaries and provided significant scientific and cultural knowledge of the Arctic and of Northern peoples.

Read more on the first Canadian Arctic Expedition .

Indigenous contributions during the First World War

During the First World War, thousands of Indigenous peoples voluntarily enlisted in the Canadian military. They served in every major theatre of the war and participated in all of the major battles in which Canadian troops fought. Hundreds were wounded or lost their lives on foreign battlefields. Indigenous soldiers served valiantly; many distinguished themselves as talented and capable soldiers and at least 50 were awarded medals for bravery and heroism.

Read more on Indigenous contributions during the First World War .

National Indigenous History Month

In 2009, June was declared National Indigenous History Month , following the passing of a unanimous motion in the House of Commons. This provides an opportunity to recognize not only the historic contributions of Indigenous peoples to the development of Canada, but also the strength of present-day Indigenous communities and their promise for the future.

Every June, Canadians celebrate National Indigenous History Month, which is an opportunity to honour the heritage, contributions and cultures of First Nation, Inuit and Métis communities across Canada. Canadians are also invited to celebrate About National Indigenous Peoples Day on June 21st each year.

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• Book Review
• Thursday Thinkpiece

Book Review: Essays in the History of Canadian Law, Volume XII: New Essays in Women’s History

Several times each month, we are pleased to republish a recent book review from the Canadian Law Library Review ( CLLR ). CLLR is the official journal of the Canadian Association of Law Libraries (CALL/ACBD) , and its reviews cover both practice-oriented and academic publications related to the law.

Essays in the History of Canadian Law, Volume XII: New Essays in Women’s History . Lori Chambers & Joan Sangster, eds. Toronto: Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History, 2023. xiv, 344 p. Includes illustrations, bibliographic references, and index. ISBN 9781487553906 (hardcover) $95.00; ISBN 9781487553913 (ePUB) $95.00; ISBN 9781487553920 (PDF) $95.00.

Reviewed by Sonia Smith Law Librarian, Nahum Gelber Law Library, McGill University

Essays in the History of Canadian Law, Volume XII: New Essays in Women’s History is one of the latest additions to the library of scholarship produced by the Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History and is, perhaps surprisingly, the first devoted to women, gender, and the law. This volume has two of Canada’s leading historians on social and socio-legal history as its editors: Lori Chambers, professor of history and women’s studies at Lakehead University, and Joan Sangster, professor emerita of history at Trent University.

As stated by the editors, “this book is explicitly and unapologetically feminist, starting from the premise that women deserve material security, safety, and dignity in their lives, and have the right to equal protection of the law” (p. 8). Through the art of legal storytelling, this anthology delves into historical cases concerning women and gender dynamics to bring to light the power dynamics ingrained within the legal system.

Each chapter unfolds a specific legal dispute and analyzes its significance and outcome within the context of its era, with particular attention paid to the personal experiences of the individuals navigating the legal process. These cases shed light on the historical dynamics of power and resistance and exemplify diverse norms found within the legal system. In them, women are seen consistently playing active roles in pursuing their interests despite facing constraints or oppression.

Composed of 10 essays on women’s interaction with the legal system, this volume covers criminal, labour, family, and human rights law, both in common and civil law, from the mid-eighteenth to the late twentieth centuries. The collection features a diverse array of legal cases, ranging from the well-known to the obscure, and from individual struggles for justice to cases influenced by powerful state actors. Throughout these narratives, various themes are explored, including the gendered nature of legal institutions, the socio-economic and racial biases inherent in legal practice, the blurred distinction between public and private spheres, the pervasive influence of dominant ideologies on the law, the underlying assumptions rooted in settler colonialism, and the emergence of new legal challenges, such as sexual harassment.

Essays in the History of Canadian Law, Volume XII: New Essays in Women’s History aims to comprehend the unequal dynamics within the law alongside the social constructs of gender, class, colonialism, and ethnicity. Its compilation of essays offers an important and captivating overview of the advancements made in feminist historical research. It is strongly recommended for all law libraries across Canada.

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