brand preference literature review

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Article Contents

Introduction, the pleasure and/or pain of brands, brand attachment and loyalty, consumer relevance and distinctiveness in branding, consumer communications about brands, managerial considerations in branding, other future research directions, conclusions.

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Consumer Research Insights on Brands and Branding: A JCR Curation

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Kevin Lane Keller, Consumer Research Insights on Brands and Branding: A JCR Curation, Journal of Consumer Research , Volume 46, Issue 5, February 2020, Pages 995–1001, https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucz058

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Brands are a fact of everyday life and an omnipresent reality for consumers. Understanding how consumers respond to brands—what they think and feel and how they act toward them—is a critical aspect of consumer research. Consumer research in branding is expansive in nature and has investigated a wide range of topics in terms of how different kinds of consumers respond to different types of brands and branding activities in various contexts ( Schmitt 2012 ).

Researchers have explored how consumer responses to brands vary by factors such as knowledge, experience, gender, attitudes, and cultural background. They have studied the effects of brands that vary by product or industry type, personality or other image factors, country of origin, and more. They have explored branding as applied to products or services, people, countries and other geographical locations, and the like. Different forms of marketing activity relating to various aspects of the classic marketing mix (the “4 Ps”: product, price, place, and promotion) have been assessed, and the contexts studied have included a host of situations or settings.

The pleasure and/or pain of brands

Brand attachment and loyalty

Consumer relevance and distinctiveness in branding

Consumer communications about brands

Managerial branding considerations

Despite the relatively short time period involved, these five themes exhibit some of the diversity in subject matter characteristic of branding research. Some of these themes tap into broader interests in consumer research that also can be found in research streams outside of branding. Others capture phenomena wholly unique to the branding area. All themes reflect conceptual rigor and practical relevance. For each theme, we provide some background and highlight the findings of two recent JCR articles, one of which we describe in more detail in the form of its abstract and discussion of its future research implications. We conclude with commentary on other future research directions for brands and branding.

In theory, brands can play many different roles for consumers. In a basic sense, brands can make consumer lives simpler, easier, or more rewarding. Moreover, brands can take on rich meaning and allow consumers to signal to others, or themselves, who they are or who they would like to be and what they value. Yet not all consumers ascribe to the positive qualities of brands, and some consumers actively dislike brands and branding in general. Understanding the basic forces—positive and negative—associated with brands is an enduring consumer research priority.

Recent JCR Research

Reimann, Nuñez, and Castaño (2017) show the remarkable power of brands to insulate consumers from physical pain. Brands allow consumers to cope with pain by offering them a reassuring sense of social connectedness. On the other hand, Brick et al. (2018) show the yin-yang of brands in one of the most important aspects of consumers’ lives: their relationship with close others. They find that brands can also be a source of conflict, as summarized in their abstract below.

Brick et al., “Coke vs. Pepsi: Brand Compatibility, Relationship Power, and Life Satisfaction”   (2018) Individuals often evaluate, purchase, and consume brands in the presence of others, including close others. Yet relatively little is known about the role brand preferences play in relationships. In the present research, the authors explore how the novel concept of brand compatibility, defined as the extent to which individuals have similar brand preferences (e.g., both partners prefer the same brand of soda), influences life satisfaction. The authors propose that when brand compatibility is high, life satisfaction will also be high. Conversely, because low brand compatibility may be a source of conflict for the relationship, the authors propose that it will be associated with reduced life satisfaction. Importantly, the authors predict that the effects of brand compatibility on conflict and life satisfaction will depend upon relationship power. Across multiple studies and methodologies, including experimental designs (studies 2, 3, 5) and dyadic data from real-life couples (studies 1, 4, 6), the authors test and find support for their hypotheses. By exploring how a potentially unique form of compatibility influences life satisfaction, including identifying a key moderator and an underlying mechanism, the current research contributes to the literatures on branding, close relationships, consumer well-being, and relationship power.

Several aspects of this research are noteworthy. One crucial consideration, building on past research and worthy of further study, is how brands are embedded in consumer lives and part of their identities in profound ways. Additionally, this research reinforces one of the most central considerations in branding—compatibility, or “fit”—which manifests in different ways with many different branding phenomena (e.g., brand extensions, leveraged secondary associations from cause marketing or sponsorship). Finally, another valuable insight suggested by this research is the polarization that can occur with brands; that is, the same brand can elicit decidedly different responses from different people. Greater attention to the downside of brands and branding and their more detrimental effects with certain consumers is needed.

Not all brands have the same importance to consumers, and understanding why some brands take on special meaning has much theoretical and managerial importance. In a practical sense, in today’s intensely competitive marketplace, firms are going to greater and greater lengths to try to forge strong bonds with consumers and build mutually beneficial relationships. Understanding consumer-brand relationships has been a fertile research topic for years now as the complexity of those relationships continues to spawn intriguing and productive new research directions.

Khamitov, Wang, and Thomson (2019) offer a comprehensive meta-analysis of factors affecting when and how different types of brand relationships increase loyalty. The authors find that various brand, loyalty, time, and consumer characteristics all can affect brand relationship elasticity. They specifically reinforce the power of the intangible and emotional qualities of brands. Huang, Huang, and Wyer (2018) home in on a very specific consideration—how consumers connect with brands in crowded social settings, as summarized in their abstract.

Huang et al., “The Influence of Social Crowding on Brand Attachment”   (2018) Feeling crowded in a shopping environment can decrease consumers’ evaluations of a product or service and lower customer satisfaction. However, the present research suggests that a crowded environment can sometimes have a positive impact on consumer behavior. Although feeling crowded motivates consumers to avoid interacting with others, it leads them to become more attached to brands as an alternative way of maintaining their basic need for belongingness. The effect does not occur (a) when the crowding environment is composed of familiar people (and, therefore, is not considered aversive); (b) when individuals have an interdependent self-construal (and consequently, high tolerance for crowdedness); (c) when people are accompanied by friends in the crowded environment; (d) when the social function of the brands is made salient; (e) when people have never used the brand before; or (f) when the brand is referred to as a general product rather than a specific brand.

Understanding situational and contextual influences on consumer behavior with respect to brands offers much practical value to marketing managers who must make many different types of decisions based on assumptions about how consumers will behave in particular places or at particular times. Identifying boundary conditions in these and other ways is important to provide a more nuanced depiction of how consumers actually think, feel, and act toward brands under certain circumstances or in specific settings. Finally, more generally, this research underscores the contingent nature of consumer processing of brands and the need to thoroughly investigate moderator variables that can impact the direction and strength of branding effects in meaningful ways.

Distinctiveness is at the core of branding and a key element in virtually any definition of brands. Branding success is all about differentiation and offering consumers unique value. Unique value requires relevance, too; accordingly, another core branding concept is brand relevance and how meaningful a brand is to consumers. Ensuring that brands are relevant and differentiated, however, is a challenging managerial priority in today’s fluid and fast-changing marketplace. Consumers are also seeking relevance and differentiation and consequently demanding personalized, customized brand offerings that suit their individual preferences and distinguish them from others. In part because of these new dynamics, many important consumer research opportunities are emerging in how consumers and brands fit into their respective landscapes.

Torelli et al. (2017) show how consumer feelings of cultural distinctiveness in foreign locations can lead to consumer preferences for more culturally aligned brands, even if those brands may be deficient in other ways. In a desire to connect with home and not feel as distinctive, consumers broaden how they actually think of “home.” By expanding their in-group boundaries in that way, they exhibit preferences to include culturally related brands that are merely similar in geographic proximity or sociohistorical or cultural roots. Puzakova and Aggarwal (2018) show how a consumer desire for distinctiveness can actually result in less preference for an anthropomorphized brand, as summarized in their abstract.

Puzakova and Aggarwal, “Brands as Rivals: Consumer Pursuit of Distinctiveness and the Role of Brand Anthropomorphism”   (2018) Although past research has shown that anthropomorphism enhances consumers’ attraction to a brand when social-connectedness or effectance motives are active, the current research demonstrates that anthropomorphizing a brand becomes a detrimental marketing strategy when consumers’ distinctiveness motives are salient. Four studies show that anthropomorphizing a brand positioned to be distinctive diminishes consumers’ sense of agency in identity expression. As a result, when distinctiveness goals are salient, consumers are less likely to evaluate anthropomorphized (vs. nonanthropomorphized) brands favorably and are less likely to choose them to express distinctiveness. This negative effect of brand anthropomorphism, however, is contingent on the brand’s positioning strategy—brand-as-supporter (supporting consumers’ desires to be different) versus brand-as-agent (communicating unique brand features instead of focusing on consumers’ needs) versus brand-as-controller (limiting consumers’ freedom in expressing distinctiveness). Our results demonstrate that an anthropomorphized brand-as-supporter enhances consumers’ sense of agency in identity expression, compared to both an anthropomorphized brand-as-agent and an anthropomorphized brand-as-controller. In turn, enhancing or thwarting consumers’ sense of agency in expressing their differences from others drives the differential impact of anthropomorphizing a brand positioned to be distinctive.

Two aspects of this research are especially noteworthy in terms of future research. Given how many marketers are trying to bring their brands to life—literally and figuratively—in today’s digital world, anthropomorphism is likely to continue to be an important consumer research topic. In particular, AI and robotic advances in service settings and elsewhere will raise a number of similar issues in terms of how consumers interact with more human-like marketing devices. These are complex phenomena that will require new theoretical development as well as the careful adaption of concepts from consumer psychology originally developed with humans. Secondly, understanding how consumers and brands are—or want to be—distinctive is a fundamental element of branding that can yield interesting insights with a variety of branding phenomena.

Communications are the lifeblood of any brand. In a “paid-earned-owned-shared” media world, consumer-to-consumer communications are taking on increased importance. Different communication channels have different properties, however, that require careful analysis and planning. Understanding what, when, where, how, and why consumers decide to share information or opinions about brands is a research priority that will likely continue to drive research activity for many years to come.

Through an extensive text mining study of social media, Villarroel Ordenes et al. (2019) use speech act theory to identify distinct elements—rhetorical styles such as alliteration and repetition, cross-message compositions, and certain visual images—that lead to greater consumer sharing of messages posted by brands. They reinforce the power of informational and emotional content in online brand messages and find some important distinctions in message sharing across Facebook and Twitter social media platforms. Moving to also include the offline world, Shen and Sengupta (2018) found that when consumers communicate about brands to others by speaking versus writing, they develop deeper self-brand connections, as summarized in this abstract.

Shen and Sengupta, “Word of Mouth versus Word of Mouse: Speaking about a Brand Connects You to It More than Writing Does”   (2018) This research merges insights from the communications literature with that on the self-brand connection to examine a novel question: how does speaking versus writing about a liked brand influence the communicator’s own later reactions to that brand? Our conceptualization argues that because oral communication involves a greater focus on social interaction with the communication recipient than does written communication, oral communicators are more likely to express self-related thoughts than are writers, thereby increasing their self-brand connection (SBC). We also assess the implications of this conceptualization, including the identification of theoretically derived boundary conditions for the speech/writing difference, and the downstream effects of heightened SBC. Results from five studies provide support for our predictions, informing both the basic literature on communications, and the body of work on consumer word of mouth.

Word of mouth has been a critical aspect of marketing since the origin of commerce. In today’s digital world, word of mouth can take many different forms (structured vs. unstructured, public vs. private, and so on). Understanding the full consumer psychology implications of reviews, in particular, is a top research priority given their increasingly important role in consumer decision-making. Contrasting oral and written speech, as in the referenced article, will have important implications for social media usage and marketing communications more generally. Lastly, the crucial mediating role of self-brand connections reinforces the need to consider the relevance of brands and when and how they are drawn into consumers’ identities and lives.

There is a managerial side to branding that can benefit from principles and insights gleaned from more practically minded consumer research. Managers make numerous decisions on a daily basis related to building, measuring, managing, and protecting their brands with significant short- and long-term consequences. A thorough understanding of applicable consumer behavior theory is extremely valuable to guide that decision-making. The research opportunities here are vast, as a wide gap still exists in many areas between academic research and industry practice.

Studying the James Bond film franchise, Preece, Kerrigan, and O'Reilly (2019) take an evolutionary approach to study brand longevity. Applying assemblage theory, they show how brands can optimally balance continuity and change at different levels over time. van Horen and Pieters (2017) show how copycat brands—that is, those that imitate brand elements of another brand—meet with more success when the imitated product is in a product category distinct from that of the imitated brand, as summarized in their abstract.

van Horen and   Pieters, “Redefining Home: How Cultural Distinctiveness Affects the Malleability of In-Group Boundaries and Brand Preferences”   (2017) Copycat brands imitate the trade dress of other brands, such as their brand name, logo, and packaging design. Copycats typically operate in the core product category of the imitated brand under the assumption that such “in-category imitation” is most effective. In contrast, four experiments demonstrate the benefits of “out-of-category imitation” for copycats, and the harmful effect on the imitated brand. Copycats are evaluated more positively in a related category, because consumers appraise the similarity between copycat and imitated brand more positively than in the core category, independent of the perceived similarity itself. This is due to a reduced salience of norms regarding imitation in the related category. Moreover, the results show a damaging backlash effect of out-of-category imitation on the general evaluation of the imitated brand and on its key perceived product attributes. The findings replicate across student, MTurk [Amazon Mechanical Turk], and representative consumer samples; multiple product categories; and forms of brand imitation. This research demonstrates that out-of-category brand imitation helps copycat brands and hurts national leading brands much more than has so far been considered, which has managerial and public policy implications.

Research on trade dress goes to the very heart of brands and branding: the brand elements themselves. Because of how they shape awareness and image with consumers, brand elements are often invaluable assets to brand marketers. A deeper understanding of their intrinsic properties, as well as their interface with various marketing activities, would be very helpful for managers. More generally, adopting a legal perspective to branding research, as with this article, should be encouraged given its increasingly significant role in managerial decision-making. In a related sense, given that most brands span multiple categories, ensuring that a broader multicategory perspective is recognized in branding research is also essential.

The five themes reviewed above each suggested a number of important future research directions. Nevertheless, an abundance of other research opportunities also exist in other areas with brands and branding, five of which are highlighted here (for further discussion, see Keller 2016 ; Keller et al. 2020 ).

Brand Emotions and Feelings

What are the most important types of brand feelings and emotions? What is a useful taxonomy of brand feelings and emotions?

What are the most effective ways for marketers to elicit brand feelings and emotions? How do different marketing activities create brand feelings and emotions?

Can affective information be shared by consumers as effectively as more cognitive information? What is the role of word of mouth and social media for spreading feelings and emotional qualities of brands across consumers?

How easily can feelings and emotions be linked to a brand? In what ways are they stored and later activated?

In what ways do feelings and emotions affect consumer decision-making? When can positive brand feelings overcome product deficiencies? When can negative feelings undermine product advantages?

Brand Intangibles

As noted above, successful branding is about differentiation. Increasingly, brand intangibles are playing a bigger role in creating, or at least strengthening, differentiation. Brand intangibles are those associations to a brand that are not directly related to the product or service and its function and performance. In a broad sense, the increased emphasis on brand intangibles reflects the fact that consumers have become more interested in learning about the people and companies behind products and brands, posing questions such as: Who are they? What values do they hold? What do they stand for? How do they make the product or service?

How do consumers form opinions about authenticity ( Newman and Dhar 2014 ; Spiggle, Nguyen, and Caravella 2012 )? How important is it for a brand to be seen as authentic or genuine?

How does history or heritage define a brand ( Paharia et al. 2011 )? In what ways can it help or hurt? How flexible are consumers in updating their perceptions and beliefs about brands? What is the proper balance of continuity and change for brands over time?

How do consumers view political stances by brands ( Horst 2018 )? How do they respond to brands taking positions on important political issues that support or contradict the positions they hold?

What are consumer expectations for corporate social responsibility for brands ( Bhattacharya and Sen 2003 ; Chernev and Blair 2015 ; Kotler and Lee 2005 ; Torelli, Monga, and Kaikati 2012 )? What are the accepted standards for sustainability, community involvement, and social impact? How do consumers make those judgments? How do they influence brand attitudes and behavior?

Given the subjective nature of brand intangibles, how do marketers reconcile the potentially varying or even contradictory opinions held by different consumers about any particular brand intangible? How much consensus can reasonably be expected?

Brand Positioning

One well-established strategic tool for branding is the concept of positioning —how consumers think or feel about a brand versus a defined set of competitor brands ( Keller, Sternthal, and Tybout 2002 ). Although historically significant, some marketers have questioned the value of traditional positioning in developing modern marketing strategies. One fundamental question is the role of consumers in setting strategies for brands. Some marketing pundits proclaim that “customers are now in charge of marketing,” maintaining that consumers now set the strategic directions of brands. Such statements, however, presume that consumers are empowered, enlightened, and engaged with respect to brands and branding. In other words, consumers have the motivation (engagement), ability (enlightenment), and opportunity (empowerment) to actually impact brand strategies.

In what ways do consumers think they can influence brand strategy? How much input do consumers think they should have about what a brand does?

How much do consumers know about brands and branding? How deep and broad is consumer brand knowledge? How do they define the “rules of the game” for branding?

How actively invested are consumers with a brand’s fortunes? How much do consumers care about how other consumers view a brand or how it is performing in the marketplace as a whole?

How much do consumers want to engage with brands and in what ways? What is a useful taxonomy of brand engagement?

Developing a more complete understanding of the consumer-brand terrain along these lines will be invaluable in understanding how different types of relationships are formed between consumers and brands ( Fournier 1998 ).

Brand Purpose, Storytelling, and Narratives

How well do these alternative brand strategy concepts tap into our understanding of consumer behavior? What assumptions do they make about consumer behavior? When are they most valid or useful? Are they ever unhelpful or even counterproductive?

What types of brand purposes are most meaningful to consumers? How should brand purposes be crafted internally and expressed externally? How should brand purpose relate or be aligned with other aspects of the brand positioning and strategy? For example, how closely tied should brand purposes be to the products or services for the brand?

What makes brand stories or narratives compelling ( Escalas 2004 )? Are there any disadvantages to their use? Can brand stories or narratives distract marketers or consumers from a focus on potentially more important product or service performance considerations?

Brand Measurement

Lastly, for both academics and managers to fully understand the effects of brands and branding, there needs to be a deep, rich understanding of how consumers think, feel, and act toward brands. Although one common industry research technique has been consumer surveys, as consumers have become more difficult to contact and less willing to participate, the viability of surveys has diminished in recent years. Yet marketers today arguably need to stay closer than ever to consumers, underscoring the need to develop new methods and evolve existing ones to gain critical insights into consumers and brands.

Fortunately, as much as any area, branding research has benefited from a full range of quantitative and qualitative methods that go beyond surveys and other traditional data collection methods (e.g., focus groups). For example, researchers are continuing to refine neural techniques (Chang, Boksem, and Smidts 2018; Yoon et al. 2006 ) and ethnographic methods ( Belk 2006 ; Chang Coupland 2005 ). One particularly promising tack involves digital methods and measures that can be used at the individual or market level to monitor online behavior ( Berger et al. 2020 ; Moe and Schweidel 2014 ; Yadav and Pavlou 2014 ). Although full of potential, the methodological properties of these digital approaches need to be validated carefully, and boundaries need to be established as to their comparative advantages and disadvantages.

More broadly, for all traditional or emerging research methods, strengths and weaknesses must be identified and contrasted in terms of their effectiveness and efficiency in gaining consumer and brand insights. In many ways, brand-building can be thought of in terms of painting a picture of a brand in consumers’ minds and hearts. Extending that metaphor, it is important that marketers skillfully combine a full range of research methods to be able to appreciate the colors, vividness, and texture of the mental images and structures they are creating.

Perhaps not surprisingly, research on branding mirrors many of the broad themes found in consumer research more generally. Consumer researchers of all kinds are interested in achieving a better understanding of consumer motivations and desires and how consumers choose to interact with the world around them, especially in digital terms. Researchers studying branding have certainly homed in on these and other topics and also have focused on more managerial considerations, all of which help marketers achieve a deeper understanding of consumers to help them build, measure, manage, and protect brand equity.

The reality is that brands and consumers are inextricably linked. Brands exist for consumers, and consumers generally value brands. Yet, in today’s data-rich world, both brands and consumers can be too easily reduced to online and offline statistical footprints. It is incumbent upon consumer researchers to breathe life into branding to ensure that consumer psychology as applied to branding is undeniable in its importance and essential to marketers everywhere.

This curation was invited by editors J. Jeffrey Inman, Margaret C. Campbell, Amna Kirmani, and Linda L. Price .

The author thanks the editors for the opportunity to write this research curation and for their helpful feedback.

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• A-Z Publications

Annual Review of Economics

Volume 9, 2017, review article, the formation of consumer brand preferences.

• Bart J. Bronnenberg 1,2 , and Jean-Pierre Dubé 3,4
• View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: 1 CentER, Tilburg University, 5000 LE Tilburg, Netherlands; email: [email protected] 2 Centre for Economic Policy Research, London EC1V 0DX, United Kingdom 3 Booth School of Business, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637; email: [email protected] 4 National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138
• Vol. 9:353-382 (Volume publication date August 2017) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-110316-020949
• First published as a Review in Advance on May 15, 2017
• © Annual Reviews

Brands and brand capital have long been theorized to play an important role in the formation of the industrial market structure of consumer goods industries. We summarize several striking empirical regularities in the concentration, magnitude, and persistence of brand market shares in consumer goods categories. We then survey the theoretical and empirical literatures on the formation of brand preferences and the ways in which brand preferences contribute to our understanding of these empirical regularities. We also review the literature on how brand capital creates strategic advantages to firms that own established brands.

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• Published: 28 August 2024

The role of brand identity, brand lifestyle congruence, and brand satisfaction on repurchase intention: a multi-group structural equation model

• Ayşegül Acar 1 ,
• Naci Büyükdağ 2 ,
• Burak Türten 1 ,
• Ersin Diker 3 &
• Gülsüm Çalışır 3  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1102 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Business and management
• Operational research

This study investigated the relationship between brand identity, brand lifestyle congruence, brand satisfaction, and repurchase intention. In addition, this study examined how the primary reference group’s family and peer/friend affected individuals’ perceptions of brand identity, brand-lifestyle congruence, brand satisfaction, and purchase intention through a multi-group structural equation model. A total of 610 valid and useable responses, collected from a social media channel, were analyzed. Grounded in social identity theory and self-congruity theory, a set of hypotheses was examined within a research model. The findings show that brand identity significantly affects brand lifestyle congruence, brand satisfaction, and repurchase intentions. In addition, brand-lifestyle congruence significantly affects brand satisfaction and repurchase intentions, with brand satisfaction also significantly affecting purchase intentions. Also, high-income and elderly consumers tend to ignore the family and peer effects. Middle-aged, middle-income men who value product origin show a strong brand perception, and are less influenced by family. In contrast, women, typically lower-income and price-focused, are more receptive to family and peer effects and generally indifferent to product origin. This research advances brand identity literature by examining the effects of brand brand-lifestyle congruence, brand satisfaction, and purchase intention. It suggests that the synergy between brand identity, brand lifestyle congruence, and brand satisfaction significantly enhances repurchase intentions. Besides, examining profiles in the context of brands, consumers, and reference groups contributes additional value to the field.

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Exploring the effects of audience and strategies used by beauty vloggers on behavioural intention towards endorsed brands

Introduction.

Consumption in sociology is influenced by fundamental sources such as identity formation and group communication among members. These factors are closely related to the development of different lifestyles, personal identity, and self-concept (Haanpää, 2007 ). An essential element of identity influencing consumption and group membership is national identity (Black and Veloutsou, 2017 ). Moreover, brands act as critical cultural symbols, and the meanings they convey are pivotal in establishing harmony between consumers and brands (Hollenbeck et al. 2008 ). Haanpää ( 2007 ) stated that post-modern consumer society’s pursuit of diversity and freedom of choice creates various social identities and lifestyles. Although the impact of lifestyle on purchasing is often underrecognized by consumers, it is crucial in shaping consumption practices (Suyanto et al. 2019 ). The dynamic nature of changing lifestyles supports the development of individual purchasing styles and decision-making (Haanpää, 2007 ), which are further influenced by factors such as personalities, past purchasing experiences, and ages (Adnan et al. 2017 ). This interaction between individual traits and societal influences culminates in a consumer behavior pattern where individuals purchase identities rather than mere products. They seek to express their lifestyles through these choices, prioritizing expression over functional needs (Arunyanart and Utiswannakul, 2019 ). Therefore, every purchase behavior related to consumption is intertwined with identity and lifestyle (Suyanto et al. 2019 ).

Brand identity communicates to consumers what a brand provides or stands for, focuses on meeting consumers’ symbolic needs more than their functional needs, and communicates uniqueness and the status and prestige offered by the brand compared to competitors through brand distinctiveness and brand prestige. (Alnawas and Altarifi, 2016 : 114). So, brand identity is an important element of differentiation in a crowded market by conveying to consumers what a brand stands for and focusing on their symbolic rather than functional needs (Alnawas and Altarifi, 2016 ). It not only meets consumer needs but also communicates the uniqueness and status offered by the brand, which is essential given the extensive array of brand options available (Da Silveira et al. 2013a ). Patagonia, for example, targets environmentally conscious consumers with its strong commitment to sustainability and its “Worn Wear” campaign, encouraging the purchase of used products to support eco-friendly lifestyles. Similarly, Apple’s aligns with tech-savvy individuals through its emphasis on innovation and simplicity, while Whole Foods Market attracts health-conscious shoppers with its emphasis on organic and natural foods (Konuk, 2023 ). Moreover, Red Bull creates a brand identity around extreme sports and energy, appealing to adventure-seekers and athletes. These examples show how brand identity not only reflects but also shapes consumer behavior and preferences. This strategic alignment of brand identities with consumer lifestyles not only segments the market effectively but also significantly influences consumer behavior and brand loyalty (Holt, 2002 ; Nam et al. 2011a ). Furthermore, brand identity is deeply influenced by cultural factors, which further shape and define the relationship between consumers and brands (Coleman et al. 2011 ). These interactions highlight how cultural contexts and consumer lifestyle choices interplay to mold brand perception and consumer engagement.

Despite extensive studies on consumer behavior and brand identity, a significant gap persists in understanding the role of social identities and reference groups in shaping interactions between brand identity and lifestyle choices, particularly within culturally diverse and developing markets like Türkiye. The influences of internal and external reference groups, such as family and friends, on consumer choices have not been sufficiently explored, especially regarding how these groups mediate the relationship between consumer self-concept, lifestyle alignment, and brand preferences. This research delves into these understudied dynamics and addresses a critical gap in the literature. It proposes a comprehensive approach to understanding the nuanced factors influencing consumer decisions in non-Western contexts.

This study investigated the relationship between brand identity, brand lifestyle congruence, brand satisfaction, and repurchase intention, with a particular focus on how reference groups affect these dynamics within the Turkish consumer market (Le-Hoang, 2020 ; Mi et al. 2019 ; Ozdemir et al. 2020 ; Veloutsou and Moutinho, 2009 ; Wang et al. 2012 ; Wei and Yu, 2012 ; Yang et al. 2007 ). By exploring these relationships, the study offers empirical evidence that enhances the understanding of brand loyalty and consumer engagement, considering the social systems that consumers operate within. The findings enrich theoretical discussions and provide practical implications for marketers, helping them to tailor their strategies to align more closely with the social identities and lifestyles of their target demographics. This comprehensive approach both addresses a critical gap in the literature and enhances the academic and practical knowledge of brand management and consumer psychology in a culturally rich setting.

Literature review

Brand identity.

Brand identity comprises a set of strategic tools used by organizations to enhance visibility, differentiate from competitors, and build brand value and consumer loyalty (Keller, 1993 : Wheeler, 2014 ). It serves to connect customers with a brand, offering a mix of tangible and intangible benefits that foster a strong brand-customer relationship (Aaker and Keller, 1996 ). Within branding literature, brand identity is seen as an internal, enduring framework within a corporation (Koporcic and Halinen, 2018 ), shaping customer perceptions and interactions with the brand (Törmala and Gyrd-Jones, 2017 ). Iglesias et al. ( 2020 ) defined it as the amalgamation of a firm’s intended image and the commitments it makes to its clients, which are crucial for conveying the brand’s identity and values to both external and internal stakeholders (Essamri et al. 2019 ). The strategic approach of a brand identity is vital, influencing the brand’s market success by fostering trust, ensuring distinctiveness, and enhancing customer commitment (Malaska Saraniemi and Tahtinen, 2011 ; Muhonen et al. 2017 ). It includes developing a value proposition that offers practical, emotional, and self-expressive advantages (Gustafson and Pomirleanu, 2021 ), thus establishing significant connections with clients and reinforcing long-term loyalty. Overall, a well-defined brand identity not only supports a business’s strategic goals but also plays a crucial role in building lasting bonds between the brand and its customers, encompassing more than mere visual features or logos (Essamri et al. 2019 ; Iglesias et al. 2020 ).

Brand-lifestyle congurence

Brand-lifestyle congruence is a pivotal concept that captures the alignment between a brand’s ethos and the individual lifestyles of its customers. Lifestyle, encompassing individual psychological preferences, values, beliefs, and consumption patterns, significantly influences consumer behavior (Coursaris and Van Osch, 2015 ; Díaz et al. 2017 ; Holt, 2002 ; Li et al. 2018 ). It serves as a powerful means for individuals to convey their identities and preferences, often through the brands they choose (Li et al. 2018 ). This expression is not limited to any single domain but is evident across various aspects of life, including food preferences, which can reflect broader lifestyle choices (Jang et al. 2011 ).

Importantly, lifestyle is a more significant predictor of consumer behavior than demographic factors, making it crucial for brands to understand and align with the lifestyles of their target markets (Tangsupwattana and Liu, 2017 ). Brands that successfully resonate with the lifestyles of their consumers are more likely to foster strong loyalty, as customers tend to gravitate towards brands that reflect their personal values and lifestyles (Alnawas and Altarifi, 2015 ; Catalin and Andreea, 2014 ; Nam et al. 2011b ; Solomon, 2015 ). Such alignment offers symbolic benefits that are as important as the functional aspects of a product, thereby enhancing consumer satisfaction and promoting repeat purchases (Nam et al. 2011a ; Sharma et al. 2018 ). Moreover, understanding and monitoring the evolving lifestyles of consumers can help brands stay relevant and maintain a positive relationship with their audience. This connection leads to increased brand loyalty and purchasing behavior driven by emotional connections with the brand (Çifci et al. 2016 ; Ekinci et al. 2013 ).

Brand satisfaction

Brand satisfaction is a critical measure of a consumer’s appraisal of a product or service post-purchase, determined by comparing their initial expectations against the actual performance (Tse and Wilton, 1988 ). Tu and Chang ( 2012 ) stated that satisfaction can manifest in two forms: transaction-specific, which focuses on individual purchase experiences, and accumulative, which considers the overall experience with a product over time (Wardani and Gustia, 2016 ; Zboja and Voorhees, 2006 ). A positive brand experience triggers a favorable attitude towards the brand, significantly influencing consumer loyalty (Chen-Yu et al. 2017 ; Cheng et al. 2019 ).

Grisaffe and Nguyen ( 2011 ) defined brand satisfaction as the comprehensive assessment of a brand by consumers, reflecting the depth of their contentment with the product or service. This satisfaction fosters trust in the brand, enhancing the likelihood of repeat purchases (Chinomona, 2013 ; Cuong, 2020 ). Further, empirical studies have shown that satisfaction not only predicts brand trust but also increases brand preference. Consumers who are satisfied are more likely to choose the same brand repeatedly (Shin, et al. 2019 ). This preference develops because satisfied customers experience a deeper emotional connection with the brand, which reflects the alignment of the brand’s performance with their expectations. (Chinomona et al. 2013 ; Grisaffe and Nguyen, 2011 ).

Repurchase intention

Ismail and Ismail ( 2022 ) characterized repurchase intention as a critical metric in consumer behavior. It reflects the likelihood that a customer will buy a product again after an initial purchase (Taylor and Baker, 1994 ). This intention is often gauged by how consumers evaluate the performance of a product relative to their expectations (Ismail and Ismail, 2022 ). Han et al. ( 2020 ) described it as the culmination of the purchasing decision-making process, where consumers assess the service and product quality they received. This evaluation is crucial as it influences overall purchasing behavior and can accurately predict future buying behavior. Satisfaction plays an important role here; consumers compare their initial expectations with the actual product performance, and this comparison dictates their future purchasing decisions (Oliver, 1980 ). Han et al. ( 2019 ) further emphasized that positive reactions to product performance or quality foster strong repurchase intentions. Achieving high customer repurchase intentions is crucial for brands aiming to improve their market reputation and worth (Yin et al. 2022 ).

Influence of reference groups and theoretical integration

Reference groups significantly influence consumer behavior by shaping their perceptions, attitudes, and brand preferences, as explained by social identity theory. According to Tajfel and Turner ( 1986 ), this theory posits that individuals derive aspects of their identity from the groups to which they belong, which in turn guides their behavior and preferences. This is particularly relevant in culturally rich markets like Türkiye, where consumer decisions are heavily influenced by both internal and external reference groups, such as family and social networks. Ekinci et al. ( 2013 ) emphasized that lifestyle serves as a tangible reference point influenced by social identities, while brand identity is supported by more abstract aspects of self-concept. Further studies by Carrillo Barbosa and Guzmán Rincón ( 2022 ) and Castillo-Abdul et al. ( 2022 ) illustrated how companies create social systems and relationships tailored to specific demographic and cultural realities, thus applying theoretical insights to practical marketing strategies. These dynamics between social identity and consumer behavior highlight the importance of understanding reference groups in developing effective marketing strategies that resonate well with target demographics, which enhances brand loyalty and consumer engagement. This comprehensive approach not only strengthens the paper’s theoretical framework but also provides a solid foundation for practical applications in non-Western markets.

Hypothesis development

Relationships between the study variables.

Self-concept is a useful theoretical framework for understanding consumer decision-making. Research has indicated that customers tend to choose brands that align with their self-perception or desired self-image (Landon, 1974 ; Malhotra, 1988 ; Sirgy, 2018 ). Several studies have explored how consumers express their identities through interactions with brand personalities (Belk, 1988 ; Dolich, 1969 ; Malhotra, 1988 ). In psychology, self-concept (also called self-image) is described as “the totality of the individual’s thoughts and feelings having reference to himself/herself as an object” (Wang et al. 2021 , p. 177).

Self-congruity is a logical extension of self-concept. It plays a critical role in predicting consumer behavior, a concept widely accepted in psychology, marketing, and other disciplines (Sop and Kozak, 2019 ). The self-congruity theory posits that people choose brands or products that match their self-concept (Kumar, 2016 ). Research based on this theory contends that customer perception of brand self-congruence influences their choices and purchasing decisions (Kumar, 2022 ; Sirgy et al. 2016 ). Greater brand self-congruence fosters customer satisfaction, belief, and loyalty toward the brand (Li and Peng, 2021 ; Sirgy et al. 2016 ; Wang et al. 2019 ).

The relationship between brand self-congruity and brand identity is centered on how customers assess the extent to which a brand’s identity aligns with their own when choosing or forming a connection with it (Kumar, 2016 ; Usakli and Baloglu, 2011 ). Consumers who perceive a strong alignment between their identity and a brand’s identity are more likely to have a favorable attitude and preference toward that brand (Lee and Jeong, 2014 ). This alignment strengthens the connection between brand perception and customer loyalty. A strong brand identity helps consumers develop an affinity for the brand and develop strong relationships. Moreover, a clear brand identity satisfies consumer’s desire for uniqueness while simultaneously enhancing self-esteem through brand prestige (Alnawas and Altarifi, 2016 ).

Lifestyle is another crucial elements of common consumption culture that reflects time, money, and consumer identity (Manthiou et al. 2018 ). Aro et al. ( 2018 ) found that consumers prefer brands that reflect their identity and lifestyle over those that do not. Companies such as Patagonia, Apple, Whole Foods Market, and Red Bull exemplify this relationship in their marketing strategies. Therefore, brand identity establishes a relationship between the brand and the customer (Mao et al. 2020 ). Examining these real-world relationships offers valuable insights and expands the academic literature.

H 1 : Brand identity positively affects brand lifestyle congruence .

Brand identity significantly affects the way consumers perceive and value a brand (He et al. 2012 ). A strong brand identity meets both a consumer’s functional needs and their symbolic ones, which strengthens their bonds with the brand and increasing loyalty (Coleman et al. 2011 ). The stronger the brand identity, the greater is the consumer identification and satisfaction with that brand.

According to brand relationship theory, a strong consumer–brand relationship reduces the likelihood of consumers switching to competing brands (Casidy et al. 2018 ). This theory assumes that consumers personify brands and consider them partners. When a strong brand relationship is established, consumers feel satisfied with the brand. In this context, brand identity increases the quality and depth of consumer–brand relationships, thus positively affecting brand satisfaction. A strong brand identity leads consumers to perceive the brand as more valuable and feel more satisfied with their relationship with it.

H 2 : Brand identity positively affects brand satisfaction .

When consumers believe that a brand’s identity aligns with their own, it enhances their connection to the business and increases their likelihood of making repeat purchases (Dennis et al. 2016 ). For instance, Patagonia emphasizes its eco-friendly practices and reducing its carbon footprint. This aligns with environmentally conscious customers, who are thus more inclined to buy and remain loyal to Patagonia. The perceived alignment between brand and consumer identity positively influences the consumer–brand relationship and increases repurchase intentions, as consumers are likely to revisit a brand that reflects their identity (He et al. 2012 ).

Mao et al. ( 2020 ) found a significant positive effect between brand identity and purchase intention. Consumers were more inclined to repurchase and remain loyal to a brand when they perceive its identity aligns with their own values, attitudes, or lifestyles (Prentice et al. 2019 ).

H 3 : Brand identity positively affects repurchase intention .

Grzeskowiak et al. ( 2016 ) noted that brand satisfaction depends on the alignment between a consumer’s identity and the brand. Lifestyle, which refers to the daily wishes and needs of individuals, is also a reflection of the consumer identity (Mathieu et al. 2018 ). Brands that align their identities with customer lifestyles better meet consumer needs (Augusto and Torres, 2018 ). Compared to brands that focus solely on products, those that cater to lifestyle provide consumers with richer experiences, amusement, enjoyment, and satisfaction (Sina and Kim, 2019 ). According to Nam et al. ( 2011a ), lifestyle congruence significantly affects customer satisfaction with the brand.

H 4 : Brand-lifestyle congruence positively affects brand satisfaction .

Brand-lifestyle congruence strengthens brand loyalty as individuals form emotional bonds with brands that align with their lifestyles (Haanpää, 2007 ). Consumers establish these bonds when they perceive that a brand understands their lifestyles and aligns with their values (Li et al. 2012 ). Therefore, individuals are inclined to exhibit loyalty and consistently opt for that brand over its competitors (Tangsupwattana and Liu, 2017 ). The sense of loyalty and emotional bond leads consumers to consider repurchasing the brand owing to the favorable emotions linked to it (Pan et al. 2018 ).

Moreover, satisfaction positively affects purchase intention (Alnawas and Aburub, 2016 ; Carlson et al. 2019 ; Li and Fang, 2019 ; Park et al. 2019 ). Satisfied customers trust a brand more, and when consistently satisfied with their experiences, they may view the brand as trustworthy. Trust leads to a stronger desire to repurchase (Trivedi and Yadav, 2020 ).

H 5 : Brand-lifestyle congruence positively affects repurchase intention .

H 6 : Brand satisfaction positively affects repurchase intention .

The role of reference group

The concept of social identity refers to the aspect of self-image that emerges from an individual’s sense of belonging to a social group and the emotional value attached to this affiliation (Tajfel, 1974 ). According to social identity theory, people form a unique personal identity and a social identity based on their group affiliation (Bao et al. 2017 ). In addition, the theory states that shared attitudes and personality traits activate cultural patterns, which prompts individuals to achieve a positive social identity by associating with desirable groups (Pentina et al. 2013 ). People exhibit similar behaviors within their group and differing behaviors outside of it (Jiang et al. 2016 ). Group members also tend to prioritize maintaining the group’s image and identity (Shimul and Phau, 2023 ). Hence, social identity theory is expected to clarify customer brand self-congruence, emotional attachment to brand identity, and inter-group interactions influencing repurchase experiences.

Scholars employ social identity theory to analyze the impact of reference groups on brand identity (Escalas and Bettman, 2003 ; White and Dahl, 2007 ). Reference groups directly affect the consumer–brand relationship (Veloutsou and Moutinho, 2009 ). White and Dahl ( 2006 ) categorized them into in-groups (family, peers, etc.) and out-groups (aspirational groups, dissociative groups, etc.). “In-group” or “member group” refers to a group that the consumer belongs to. Aligning brand identity with the in-group might increase the consumer–brand relationship (Escalas and Bettman, 2003 ). Family and peers impact consumer–brand relationships or brand loyalty at different levels. Family advice is often trusted due to familiarity, while peer influence supports brand choice through shared experiences and a sense of belonging, though in a less authoritarian manner (Girard, 2010 ; Nolan et al. 2008 ).

H7: The family effect within the reference group moderates the entire model .

H8: The peer/friend effect within the reference group moderates the entire model .

As a result, the research model shown in Fig. 1 was established. In Study 2, the effect of the reference group on consumer profiling was also assessed using multiple correspondence analysis.

Research model.

Methodology

Preparing the data set.

The questionnaires were translated from English to Turkish by three academicians fluent in English and familiar with marketing literature. They ensured the face validity of the scales based on their expertise. Two additional academicians conducted back-translations to verify accuracy. Before beginning the data collection process, a pilot test was conducted to evaluate the clarity of the survey with 75 participants.

Data collection

The target audience was consumers aged 18 and older who regularly use brands. Respondents were asked to choose their favorite brand and fill out a questionnaire based on their choice. A convenience sampling method was used for cost and time efficiency. The survey was administered online via Google Drive, and social media channels (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn) were used to distribute the surveys. Data collection started and ended in early 2020. After excluding incomplete responses, 610 valid questionnaires remained. Participation was voluntary, and no incentives were provided.

Among the participants, 53.9% were women, and 46.1% were men. In terms of income, 39.8% earned 3000₺ (Turkish lira) or less (around the minimum wage), while 48.4% had an income between 3001₺ and 7000₺, placing them in the middle-income group. The remaining 11.8% earned 7000₺ or more, classifying them as high-income. Regarding education, 12.9% had an associate degree or lower, 54.3% had an undergraduate degree, and 32.8% had postgraduate education, indicating a well-educated sample.

Participants were from various regions of Türkiye. Most participants (46.4%) were from the Mediterranean region, while the Black Sea region had the lowest representation (2.8%). This broad representation provides a general trend across Türkiye.

In terms of industry preferences, the most liked sector was clothing (32.8%), followed by automotive (17%), technology (14.1%), and sportswear (9.8%). Other sectors ranged between 0.2 and 3.4%. Most participants (92.8%) reported that their friends and peers also use the same brand, and 79.5% said their family members did, too. For 42.3% of respondents, product pricing was a primary consideration, while 57.7% prioritized brand. In addition, 48.4% followed the brand on social media, but only 27% were members of brand communities both online and offline.

All constructs were measured using seven-point Likert-type scales, anchored from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (7). The brand identity scale, adapted from Torres et al. ( 2017 ), consisted of five items, and the repurchase intention scale, adapted from the same source, had three items. The brand-lifestyle congruence scale, adapted from Nam et al. ( 2011a ), consisted of three items. Brand satisfaction, measured using three items, was adapted from Davvetas and Diamantopoulos ( 2017 ).

To identify the reference group, participants were asked, “Do your family members use or have used the brand you chose?” and “Do your friends or peers use or have used the brand you chose?” Responses were used to classify participants into the appropriate reference groups.

Data analysis and results

Structural equation modeling (SEM), a statistical method based on covariance, was used, and the maximum likelihood method, which assumes multivariate normality of the variables, was applied. The first stage involved confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to determine how well the theoretical model aligns with reality, testing measurement theory by matching theoretical constructs to measured variables (Hair et al. 2014a ). Once confirmed by CFA, the relationships between these constructs were then examined. This approach is preferred because it accurately examines simultaneous relationships and aims to reveal causal relationships between variables.

The structural equation model represents the theory with sets of structural equations, depicted with a visual diagram (Hair et al. 2014b ). To address the difficulty of testing multivariate normality, univariate normality was provided for each variable and its corresponding items (Hair et al. 2014a ). The Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests revealed that the variables were not normally distributed ( p value = 0.00 for all variables). However, skewness and kurtosis values ranged between −1 and +1, and the Q-Q plot provided in Appendix 1 illustrates the distribution. Also, the central limit theorem assumes that for sufficiently large sample sizes, the distribution of sample means will approximate normality regardless of the variables’ distributions (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007 ).

Measurement model

Four constructs were measured using 14 items. Hu and Bentler ( 1999 ) indicated that the d indices exceed the threshold values. Table 1 presents the results of the CFA.

The reliability and convergent validity were confirmed as the composite reliability exceeds 0.7 and the AVE is above 0.5 (Hair et al. 2014a ). Table 2 also shows that discriminant validity was achieved.

Common method bias (CMB) occurs when a single factor explains most of the variance (Gaskin and Lim, 2016 ; Podsakoff et al. 2003 ). The single-factor Harman test was performed to determine whether one factor captured most of the variance. The explained variance rate was 45%. However, given the weakness of this test, the CMB was re-examined using the directly measured latent methods factor approach suggested by Podsakoff et al. ( 2003 ). With an equally restricted regression path of 0.58, the variance explained was 34%. Since the CMB does not exceed 50%, it is either absent or insignificant.

Structural model

According to Hu and Bentler ( 1999 ), all indexes exceed the threshold values, indicating alignment between theory and reality. Table 3 and Fig. 2 present these results.

The results of the structural equation model.

Table 3 shows that brand identity significantly affects brand-lifestyle congruence, brand satisfaction, and repurchase intention. Similarly, brand-lifestyle congruence significantly affects brand satisfaction and repurchase intention, while brand satisfaction significantly affects purchase intention. The model accounts for 14% of the variance in brand-lifestyle congruence, 51% in brand satisfaction, and 56% in repurchase intention.

Multi-group structural equation modeling and analysis results

Multi-group structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied to compare the regression paths between variables. Previous research demonstrated the value of multi-group SEM for examining variables like culture (Babin et al. 2016 ), demographics (Huang and Ge, 2019 ), store design (Murray et al. 2017 ), and marital status (Aka and Buyukdag, 2021 ). This method provides a detailed analysis of consumer behavior. Multi-group SEM examines whether causal relationships between simultaneous events vary based on different moderating variables, allowing inferences regarding different demographic or psychographic variables. This study examined how family and peer/friend reference groups affect perceptions of brand identity, brand-lifestyle congruence, brand satisfaction, and purchase intention.

The chi-square/df value for multi-group SEM was 2.772, comparative fit index (CFI) was 0.961, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) value was 0.051, goodness-of-fit index (GFI) was 0.924, and adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) was 0.887, indicating a strong fit. The chi-square difference for the family effect was 34.53, with a df difference of 16, indicating no significant difference between models ( p  = 0.78). There is a significant difference between constrained and unconstrained models for the family effect ( p  = 0.005).

Regarding the peer effect, the chi-square difference was 24.545, and the df difference was 16. There was no significant difference between constrained and unconstrained models for peer influence ( p  = 0.078). Peer/friend effects on each path were analyzed to identify any significant differences in local paths, as shown in Table 4 and Fig. 3 .

The results of the multi-group SEM.

The relationship between brand identity and brand-lifestyle congruence was significant when participants were influenced by family, but insignificant without that influence. This result shows the moderating effect of family. The peer/friend effect did not moderate this relationship, as it was significant regardless.

Brand identity significantly influenced brand satisfaction with and without family effect. This result indicates that family did not moderate this relationship. The peer effect, however, moderated brand satisfaction, showing influence in its presence, but not without it. Also, peer effect did not moderate the relationship between brand identity and brand satisfaction.

The effect of brand identity on repurchase intention was significant with both family and peer effects, but not without them, and neither effect moderated the relationship. The effect of brand-lifestyle congruence on brand satisfaction was statistically significant with and without family effect, and family moderated this relationship. The peer effect did not moderate this relationship, despite being significant in both cases.

The relationship between brand-lifestyle congruence and repurchase intention was significant with and without peer effects, but the peer effect moderated this relationship. For consumers without the peer effect, brand-lifestyle congruence had a higher effect on repurchase intention than those with the peer effect. Therefore, even without peer effect, a strong alignment between brand and lifestyle causes individuals to adopt the brand and show higher repurchase intentions.

The relationship between brand satisfaction and repurchase intention was significant regardless of the family effect, which moderated the relationship. Although this relationship was significant with and without peer effect, the peer effect did not moderate this relationship. Satisfaction had a lower impact on repurchase intentions with family involvement, while consumers with no family effects were more satisfaction-oriented. This relationship indicates that consumers continue their past habits and make purchases even if less satisfied. However, those without family effects are more satisfaction-oriented.

Brand-lifestyle congruence accounted for 22.4% of the variance in the family effect, 0% in the non-family effect, 15.1% in the peer effect, and 21.7% in the non-peer effect. Satisfaction variance was 55.1% in the family effect, 32.5% in the non-family effect, 54.3% in the peer effect, and 29.9% in the non-peer effect. Repurchase intention variance was 55.9% in the family effect, 63% in the non-family effect, 56.1% in the peer effect, and 65.3% in the non-peer effect.

Correspondence analysis

Correspondence analysis (CA) is a multivariate method used to represent a set of objects in a multidimensional space by identifying relationships among nominal data through consumers’ similarities and preferences (Hair et al. 2014a ). Unlike principal component analysis, it examines the forms of relationships between variables, making the positioning map vital (Galiano-Coronil et al. 2023 ). This study examined family and peer effects in the primary reference group based on different demographic variables. This analysis identified differences between the reference groups through multi-group analysis, learned how they aligned with the sector, demographic structures, and psychographic variables, and offered deep insights. Multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) includes peer/friend effect, family effect, gender, income, product origin, brand sector, perceived product importance, and age.

The MCA results reveal that consumers with low brand identity, brand-lifestyle congruence, and repurchase intention were mainly in the logistics sector. Consumers with medium levels were middle-aged, have medium incomes, prefer the clothing sector, and are price-oriented. High brand identity and repurchase intention are linked to brand-oriented consumers in the alcohol, technology, and food sectors. Younger, low-income women generally prefer clothing, are price-oriented, and are more open to family and peer influence. Men value product origin and brands while being less influenced by family. Figure 4 indicates that high-income and older consumers less influenced by peers are found mainly in the energy, automotive, and luxury products sectors.

The results of the plot of category points in MCA.

This study confirms the substantial positive impact of brand identity on brand-lifestyle congruence (β = 0.373, p  = 0.001), brand satisfaction (β = 0.472, p  = 0.001), and repurchase intention (β = 0.362, p  = 0.001). These findings are consistent with existing literature suggesting that consumers often transfer their personality traits and symbolic features of their reference groups to brands (Da Silveira et al. 2013b ). This behavior affects their identity and purchase behaviors. Haanpää ( 2007 ) stated that consumption lifestyle creation are a means of shaping personal identity. As a result, brand identity may affect brand lifestyle congruence. A strong brand identity contributes to brand satisfaction (Alnawas and Altarifi, 2015 ; Coelho et al. 2018 ; He et al. 2012 ; Stokburger-Sauer et al. 2012 ). The literature also revealed that brand identity significantly affects brand identification and brand satisfaction (He et al. 2012 ; Shirazi et al. 2013 ).

Brand-lifestyle congruence positively affected both brand satisfaction (β = 0.389, p  = 0.001) and repurchase intention (β = 0.176, p  = 0.001). However, Çifci et al. ( 2016 ) found no significant effect between brand-lifestyle congruence and brand satisfaction, differing from this study. However, Suyanto et al. ( 2019 ) reported that lifestyle congruence impacts product preferences and that social class lifestyles are effective in influencing product preferences, and that social class lifestyles shape these preferences as consumers assimilate into global culture. Cătălin and Andreea ( 2014 ) found that consumer compliance with brands was analyzed through brand identity and lifestyle. They concluded that consumers tend to trust brands that express their identity and tend to prefer brands that present a unique brand image regarding their lifestyle. Brand satisfaction positively and significantly impacted repurchase intention (β = 0.351, p  = 0.001). These findings were consistent with studies by Alnawas and Aburub ( 2016 ), Carlson et al. ( 2019 ), Park et al. ( 2019 ), and Li and Fang ( 2019 ).

The family effect moderates the entire model, and introduces significant differences within the structural framework. The relations between variables differ according to specific local pathways. For consumers influenced by their family’s previous brand choices, brand identity significantly affects brand-lifestyle congruence, brand satisfaction, and repurchase intention. However, brand identity only affects satisfaction for consumers without this familial influence. As a result, if consumers are used to products through family useage and lifestyles, they are likely to continue purchasing them. In this context, we argue that long-term memory appears to be more effective than peer influence, particularly in cases involving family impact.

Brand-lifestyle congruence affects both brand satisfaction and repurchase intention regarding the family effect. However, without this influence, only the relationship between brand-lifestyle congruence and brand satisfaction remains significant and positive. Ozdemir et al. ( 2020 ) stated that consumer experiences with brands are social and influenced by peers. Da Silva et al. ( 2016 ) stated that lifestyle is formed from past experiences and personal characteristics, which affects the consumption habits within families. Thus, lifestyle influenced by familial factors will affect family members’ perceptions of brands. Chen ( 2018 ) also stated that families and reference groups could affect consumer lifestyles. While these findings are consistent with the literature, they differ from the results of Çifci et al. ( 2016 ).

The effect of satisfaction on repurchase intention is significant both with and without the family effect, but the regression coefficient is higher without it. So, consumer behavior influenced by family turns into repurchasing through lifestyle, while consumer behavior without family influence is driven more by satisfaction. Therefore, brands should emphasize active family usage and carry out awareness and promotional activities to reinforce this behavior. If not possible, maximizing brand satisfaction remains crucial.

Regarding peers or friends, no moderating effect was detected across the whole model However, the peer effect did show a moderating effect in local pathways. Brand identity positively affected brand lifestyle congruence, brand satisfaction, and repurchase intention when considering the peer effect. However, this relationship was only significant between brand identity and brand lifestyle congruence without peer effect. Brand-lifestyle congruence significantly and positively impacted brand satisfaction and repurchase intention regardless of peer effect. Still, the relationship between brand lifestyle congruence and brand satisfaction was stronger without the peer effect and showed a significant moderator effect. While these findings differ from Çifci et al. ( 2016 ), they are consistent with Zhang ( 2010 ), as the peer effect significantly impacted brand satisfaction and repurchase intention. This study is consistent with existing literature.

Chernev et al. ( 2011 ) also stated that individuals use brands according to the social groups they want to enter or leave. This finding supports the literature. Brand reinforcement and repitition occurred less frequently with peer influence than with family influence, since social and professional circles often change. However, when social circles shift, peer influence has a shorter-lasting effect compared to family, since repetition and reinforcement of the brands are less consistent.

For individuals influenced by their peers (those who choose brands used by their peers), the link between brand-lifestyle congruence and repurchase intention is weaker than for those who are not influenced by their peers. Thus, those easily influenced by their friends are more likely to change their lifestyle or preferred brand. Conversely, individuals less influenced by their circle of friends develop stronger bonds with brands that fit their lifestyle. Gomez and Spielmann ( 2019 ) reported that the reference group effect depends on how closely individuals identify with the group, and brands associated with the in-group will associate more strongly with the self than out-group brands. Wei and Yu ( 2012 ) also found that exposure to the reference group effect varies by age, gender, ethnicity, and social relationships, with Hispanic consumers showing differing perceptions based on ethnic identification. The findings indicate that individuals form weaker identification bonds with brands under peer effect but develop stronger bonds with brands within the family context.

Wei and Yu ( 2012 ) stated that the family effect is stronger than the peer effect in Thailand compared to the United States. In Türkiye, a different cultural region, the variance rate explained by lifestyle regarding the family effect was 22.4%, while the peer effect accounted for 15.1%, indicating a 7.3% difference. Therefore, family has more influence than peers regarding lifestyle. However, this situation does not significantly differ in brand satisfaction and repurchase intention because the differences ranged from 0.2% to 0.9%.

In contrast, individuals not affected by the family effect cared about product brands, had a high brand perception, and concentrated on the fast-moving consumer goods, technology, and sports products sectors. Studies indicate that peer effects are particularly influential in high-income and elderly groups, especially in sectors like automotive, energy, and luxury products. Consumers swayed by both family and peers tend to be price-sensitive and are primarily women. They focus on fast-moving consumer goods, electronics, and sports products, emphasize product origin, and act in a price-oriented manner.

Makgosa and Mohube ( 2007 ) noted that peer influence varies significantly across product categories, affecting both normative and informational influences, especially in luxury goods compared to necessities. The absence of the family effect seems to heighten consumer sensitivity to brand image, particularly in fast-moving consumer goods, technology, and sports products. This shift suggests more personal or lifestyle-driven purchasing behaviors when family influence is minimal (Bearden and Etzel, 1982 ).

Greco ( 2015 ) emphasized that family and peer influences distinctively mold consumer preferences across product lines, reflecting how social dynamics shape purchasing habits. Kovitcharoenkul and Anantachart ( 2018 ) also highlighted the nuanced interplay of social influences on consumer behavior in a more multifaceted manner compared to individual family or peer effects.

These findings reveal the complexity of consumer decisions, showing how social influences shape behavior across demographics. They help identify segments and their vulnerabilities to social influences, guiding targeted marketing strategies. In summary, this analysis enriches existing knowledge by detailing how peer and family effects distinctly and collectively influence consumer choices across different sectors and demographics. This comprehensive view of consumer behavior dynamics illustrates how social influences distinctly or jointly shape behavior and offers insight into specific consumer segment susceptibilities—informing targeted marketing strategies.

The brand identity was vital regarding consumer brand-lifestyle congruence, brand satisfaction, and repurchase intentions. Brand-lifestyle congruence affected brand satisfaction and repurchase intention, while brand satisfaction itself significantly affected repurchase intention. Family and peer effects also shape consumer behavior. The family effect moderated the whole model, whereas the peer effect was effective only in local pathways. The family effect was essential for aligning the brand with consumer lifestyles, and both family and peer effects were critical for brand satisfaction and repurchase intention. In the absence of family or peer influence, brands still reflected consumers’ lifestyles, and high brand satisfaction led to strong repurchase intentions. Finally, high-income and elderly consumers were susceptible to peer and family influence, while consumers influenced by family tended to be middle-aged, low-income men.

Soininen and Merisuo-Storm ( 2010 ) said that peers or friends played an essential role for young people, consistent with the MCA analysis findings. Older individuals were less affected by peers, while middle-aged and younger individuals were more aligned with clusters influenced by peers and family. These consumers prioritized brand and product origin when making purchases. In terms of both family and peer influence, women were more affected, less concerned with product origin, and more price-oriented. Thus, women were more open to family and peer effects than men.

Theoretical contribution

This study highlighted a significant relationship between brand identity and brand lifestyle. It marked an important theoretical contribution to the literature. It also revealed the impactful role of reference groups (family and peer/friend) in this relationship. According to social identity theory, the fit between brand lifestyle and consumer identity serves as an important moderator in consumer–brand identification. Additionally, this research noted that family influence tends to have a stronger impact on the sense of belonging than peer influence. This insight supports the notion from socialization theory that consumers develop consumption-related attitudes and behaviors through interaction with social agents.

Wang et al. ( 2012 ) discussed peers as significant agents of socialization, particularly in how they shape brand preferences through communication. However, their analysis did not deeply explore family influence in brand selection. This study fills that gap by providing empirical evidence that family influence more profoundly shapes consumer–brand identification than peer influence. This insight further enhances our understanding of the roles different socialization agents play in enhancing brand loyalty and engagement.

This research extends self-congruity theory by linking brand identity with lifestyle congruity and examining their collective impact on brand satisfaction and repurchase intentions. This composite model illustrates how different reference groups can moderate these relationships, which leads to different consumer behaviors. This complexity provides a comprehensive framework for understanding consumer–brand relationships, which only enriches understanding of the theory.

Relationship marketing theory states that strong brand relationships reduce inter-brand switching. This study reinforces this by showing that family influence strengthens consumer–brand relationships more than peer influence, which enhances trust and reduces the likelihood of switching brands. Petina et al. ( 2013 ) emphasized trust as a cornerstone of relationship marketing, but the literature has not fully explored how reference groups influence trust dynamics within brand relationships. This study addressed this oversight and demonstrated that family groups tend to generate deeper trust and stronger brand relationships. This insight shows marketers the importance of designing brand strategies that cultivate trust in targeted groups to enhance effectiveness and loyalty.

Cultural branding theory states that brands derive power from consumers’ efforts to communicate their identities through brand choices (Smith and Speed, 2011 ). Previous studies often failed to address how different reference groups—specifically family and peers—affect branding efforts. This study addresses this gap by demonstrating that these groups distinctly influence consumer–brand relationships. The findings suggest that brand strategies must account for prevailing reference group dynamics to effectively negotiate brand identity within these social contexts. This insight enhances our understanding of cultural branding by emphasizing the need to adapt branding strategies to specific social influences impacting consumer behavior.

In summary, the findings of this study support relationship marketing and cultural branding theories by showing that strong, trust-based relationships, influenced by family dynamics, lead to reduced inter-brand switching. Additionally, the effectiveness of reference groups in shaping brand identity and consumer behavior offers new insights into how leveraging cultural elements to strengthen consumer connections.

Managerial implication

This study provides essential insights for managers and marketers seeking to optimize their strategies around brand identity, lifestyle congruence, and their influence on brand satisfaction and repurchase intention. A strong brand identity that resonates with the lifestyles of consumers not only enhances brand satisfaction and repurchase intentions but also positions the brand competitively in the market. Investing strategically in brand identity helps resonate with and shape target demographics’ lifestyles, as exemplified by Apple’s success. Brands with clear identities are better equipped to dominate their market sectors.

Family and peer groups significantly shape consumer behavior. Family ties, in particular, profoundly impact brand satisfaction and lifestyle congruence. Brands should leverage these insights through promotional messages that tap into nostalgic connections, especially for consumers with strong family ties. Family-oriented marketing strategies can embed the brand into consumers’ lifestyles and create long-term loyalty, with customers more likely to repurchase the products.

Different strategies may be required for consumers influenced primarily by peers versus family. Peer-influenced lifestyle changes are less stable, so businesses should invest in branding that targets permanent and widely appealing lifestyles to ensure long-term profitability. For consumers heavily influenced by family, nostalgia-based marketing can be particularly effective.

Businesses should focus on increasing brand quality perception and satisfaction, especially for consumers not strongly influenced by family or peers. Effective communication and brand awareness campaigns are essential to improve the brand’s position in consumers’ minds. By understanding and addressing these consumers specific needs and preferences, companies can achieve higher brand satisfaction and loyalty.

Marketing strategies should also consider gender differences in response to peer and family influence. For women, price-sensitive strategies that maintain quality capture significant market share, particularly in clothing and media. For men, emphasizing brand origin and offering high-quality items can be more effective due to stronger peer influence. Monitoring social media channels for real-time feedback and addressing negative perceptions is crucial to maintain consumer trust and loyalty.

Businesses should incorporate these insights into their long-term strategies. Building a brand identity that aligns with evolving lifestyles and effectively using reference group dynamics will help companies stay competitive and achieve sustained success.

Future research and limitation

The first limitation was in sample collection; since the data were not collected randomly, the study cannot be generalized. Therefore, similar studies should use random sampling methods to increase the validity of the findings. The second limitation was the study’s focus on a specific geographic region and a collectivist culture. Similar research conducted in different geographies, cultures (individualist or collectivist), or comparative analyses of different cultures would improve the research’s validity. The third limitation was the use of a limited number of psychographic variables. The human factor is crucial in the social sciences and is often influenced by many variables simultaneously. Lastly, the study focused solely on primary reference groups. Future research should include secondary reference groups and compare their effects with primary groups to add valuable insights to the literature.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Are brand preferences inherent, constructed, or a mixture of both? A memory-based dual-process model

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• Published: 06 May 2024

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• Jiang Zhiying 1 ,
• Suman Ann Thomas 2 &
• Chu Junhong 3  

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Understanding whether consumer preferences are inherent or constructed has profound implications for a range of marketing and economic issues, such as demand estimation, consumer education and information, market design and competition. The literature reveals a formidable divide between inherent versus constructed preferences, underscoring a long-standing debate regarding the nature of consumer preferences. In this research, we develop a dual-process structural learning model rooted in cognitive theories, enabling empirical estimation of the extent to which preferences are inherent versus constructed. Our results show that brand preferences are largely constructed, with 76% of brand evaluations across all studied brands being formed at the time of purchase. This finding helps to reconcile the enduring divide that has shaped the field’s evolution. In addition, our analysis reveals that the mode of evaluation significantly influences market competitive dynamics, with 60% of brand-switching resulted from constructed preferences. Furthermore, we also find mode of evaluation has asymmetric impacts on established versus new brands. These findings open up novel avenues for shaping competitive landscapes by strategically altering (e.g., through nudges) consumer’s mode of evaluation, becoming extremely relevant in the digital economy characterized by overwhelming and rapid information exchange.

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Zhiying, J., Thomas, S.A. & Junhong, C. Are brand preferences inherent, constructed, or a mixture of both? A memory-based dual-process model. Rev Manag Sci (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-024-00765-x

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A PROJECT REPORT ON TO STUDY THE BRAND PREFERENCE OF MOBILE PHONES AMONG THE GRADUATES & POST GRADUATES

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Smartphone market in Pakistan is a dynamic market that is rapidly moving toward the advancement. Five factors are used in the survey to seek out the D G Khan smart phone market potential. Reason of conducting research in D G Khan to realizing smart phone marketers that they can capture a big market in D G Khan because this city connect all four provinces of Pakistan and regional hub of lot of business. The purpose of this study is to investigate the factors affecting the purchase intention of mobile phone devices in D G Khan business hub. In order to accomplish the objectives of the study, consumers were taken by using simple random sampling technique. Primary data was collected moreover, four important factors i.e. Brand perception, Brand preference, Brand loyalty, and Brand image were selected and analyzed through the correlation and multiple regressions analysis with respect to the purchase intention. These variables were never analyzed together in previous studies. From the analysis, it was clear that above mention Brand equity drivers play vital role in the mobile phone market of D G Khan and it also acted as a motivational force that influences them to go for a mobile phone purchase decision. The study suggested that the mobile phone sellers should consider the above mentioned factors to equate the opportunity.

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It is a very difficult to predict or assess an individual preference but it is important for marketers, since it represents a fundamental step in understanding consumer choice. To assess the brand preference on the basis of knowledge of the consumer and his characteristics is a prelude to identifying the causes of preference and the means by which it can be influenced by the marketers. While the approach is intuitively appealing and seemingly obvious, this study is the first to present results from testing the hypothesis. The researchers of this paper has taken the sample of students at Visakhapatnam, India to assess the student's brand preferences associated with different mobile phones and to find out their satisfactions and factors influence decision making in purchasing a mobile phone.

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Brand preferences are usually studied by attempting to profile and understand loyal consumers. It is the indicator of the strength of a brand in the hearts and minds of customers. Brand preference represents which brands are preferred under assumptions of equality in price, battery durability, camera resolution and so on. In recent times smart phone plays a significant role among the users to meet up their numerous objectives by operating their desired smart phone. A total of 200 completed copies of questionnaires are evaluated for analysis. The results suggest that, brand name variable have statistically significant relationships with consumer preferences variable. The findings of the study indicated positive correlations among the variables i.e. battery backup, camera resolution, durability, and price have significant impact on the overall preferences of the consumers. The result derived from Cross tabulation and Likelihood ratio entails that these above factors are influenced the customer brand preference and there exists a strong relationship between these factors and brand preference.

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The purpose of this study is to investigate the factors affecting the decision of buying mobile phone devices in Hawassa town. In order to accomplish the objectives of the study, a sample of 246 consumers were taken by using simple random sampling technique. Both primary and secondary data were explored. Moreover, six important factors i.e. price, social group, product features, brand name, durability and after sales services were selected and analyzed through the use of correlation and multiple regressions analysis. From the analysis, it was clear that consumer's value price followed by mobile phone features as the most important variable amongst all and it also acted as a motivational force that influences them to go for a mobile phone purchase decision. The study suggested that the mobile phone sellers should consider the above mentioned factors to equate the opportunity.

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Tuesday 20 may 2014, literature review on factors influencing brand preference.

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Nigerian adolescents’ exposure to fast food marketing via Instagram

• Elijah Bankole 1 ,
• Neil Harris 2 ,
• Shannon Rutherford 1 &
• Nicola Wiseman 1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  2405 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

To explore the promotion of fast food to lower-income adolescents on Instagram with the specific aims of (i) identifying the marketing strategies used by fast food brands on Instagram to promote fast food to Nigerian adolescents and (ii) examining the influence of these strategies on user engagement.

A content analysis of posts from a 90-day period of the Instagram accounts of five fast-food brands in Nigeria was conducted. Overall, 576 posts were analysed, using a codebook developed based on the relevant literature, to identify adolescent-targeted strategies. User engagement was measured by number of likes each post received.

The observed brands frequently utilised adolescent-targeted marketing strategies, with the most popular strategies being emotional appeal, ‘teen language’ and product appeal. The results of Mann-Whitney U tests revealed significant associations between the use of these promotional strategies and user engagement. Adolescent-aimed strategies like product appeal and competitions resulted in higher user engagement with fast food promotional content.

Fast food companies heavily target lower income adolescents through the use of Instagram. This raises health concerns related to the consumption of unhealthy food that arises from regular advertising in that demographic. Further, this exposure increases ad interactions that could cause adolescents to view fast foods more positively. Overall, findings indicate the need for actions aiming to limit and reduce the effect of adolescents’ exposure to fast food marketing on social media, to target the features of social media platforms which affords users the ability to interact with fast food advertisements.

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Introduction

Fast food consumption rates are rising rapidly among adolescents in low- and middle income countries (LMICs) as highlighted by the recent finding that 55.5% of 12 to 15 year old adolescents across 54 LMICs consume fast food at least once a week [ 1 , 2 ]. Such rates are largely attributable to the aggressive marketing practices used by fast food companies and the sharing of fast-food related content across multiple media platforms and settings [ 3 , 4 ]. These marketing practices are largely unregulated despite the World Health Organization’s (WHO, 2020) release of comprehensive recommendations for marketing restrictions for children [ 5 ]. In response, some governments (e.g. Chilean and Peruvian governments) have introduced strict regulations while food corporations have adopted self-regulation measures like the Children’s Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative (CFBAI) - a voluntary pledge to reduce children’s exposure to unhealthy food promotion. However, these actions have not been applicable to the new variety of promotional channels at play nor are they universally applied [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].

Globally, young people have replaced time watching the television with smartphone use, forcing food companies to adopt a more digital approach to marketing to maximise advertisement reach, efficiency and impact [ 10 , 11 ]. Consequently, with over 84 billion US dollars committed to social media advertising by global food companies in 2020 [ 6 ], unhealthy food marketing has become pervasive and prolific across digital channels including on social media platforms [ 12 ]. One study has revealed that 7 in 10 Canadian children were exposed to an unhealthy food advertisement within five minutes of using two of their favourite social media apps [ 13 ]. Another recent study [ 14 ], found that through using Instagram McDonald’s reached millions of consumers in LMICs. These studies indicate that fast food brands prefer social media as it affords the ability to preferentially target population groups based on user demographics and preferences, increasing the companies’ reach and capacity to deliver targeted advertisements. [ 15 , 16 , 17 ].

Although research has observed adolescents’ exposure to the marketing strategies used by the fast-food industry, much of the literature is focused on high-income populations [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ] or on the use of traditional marketing mediums [ 22 , 23 , 24 ]. Hence, little is known about adolescent-directed marketing strategies used by fast food chains in LMICs. This is concerning because food is not only marketed as a commodity but as a cultural good [ 25 ], and what are otherwise normal marketing adaptations to local conditions might be encouraging levels of energy intake that are potentially excessive for the local consumer [ 26 ].

Fast food companies, like other food and beverage establishments, are known to adjust their marketing approach to appeal to the values of their ‘host’ population [ 27 ]. Key differences in the marketing strategies being used across socio-economic regions and contexts have been identified [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. For example, Bragg and her colleagues [ 27 ] observed that healthier menu items were not promoted as much to children from low-income households in India while Seubsman and their colleagues [ 29 ] reported that, in developing countries, fast food chains marketed their brand as a symbol of wealth and high status. In western countries on the other hand, fast food brands target children majorly through sports-related marketing and video game product placement [ 27 ]. These contextual differences indicate that current evidence-based initiatives aiming to protect adolescents from junk food marketing online may be less effective in lower income settings, contributing to rising rates of fast food promotion in these settings [ 30 , 31 , 32 ].

To address this challenge, the primary aim of this study was to examine the marketing strategies used to promote fast food to adolescents on the widely used social media platform, Instagram. Little is also known about how social media influences adolescents beyond Western populations despite evidence suggesting greater use in lower income settings [ 33 , 34 ]. Therefore, as a secondary objective, the study also aimed to explore the influence of these strategies on social media user engagement. By addressing both knowledge gaps, the findings of this study provide critical insights needed to inform the birth of policies and regulations that are applicable in these settings, and that can protect young people from the harmful effects of fast food marketing.

Methodology

Nigeria is a key regional player in West Africa. Not only does Nigeria account for over half the population of the region with approximately 202 million residents but also has one of the largest youth populations in the world [ 35 ]. As of January 2022, Nigeria had 32.9 million active social media users and 1 in 2 Nigerian adolescents between the ages of 14 and 16 uses social media regularly [ 36 ]. Relatively high rates of fast food consumption among Nigeria adolescents coupled with a spike in the prevalence of overweight and obesity among adult Nigerians, [ 37 , 38 ] indicates that from a population health perspective, there is significant cause for concern.

Selection of fast food companies

The Instagram accounts of five of Nigeria’s most popular fast-food brands were included. The brands were first identified through review of 2020 global sales rankings and subsequently the companies’ popularity was assessed based on Instagram presence and popularity [ 39 ]. The top five brand accounts, being the brand with the highest number of followers, were included in the study. Four of these brands were global brands namely Domino’s Pizza, Krispy Kreme, Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) and Debonairs Pizza, while Chicken Republic was the only locally owned brand.

Codebook development

The Instagram account of each brand was accessed and three months of Instagram posts, including the image, caption, number of likes and comments, from 1 January 2021 to 1 March 2021 were extracted and saved securely. Adolescent-directed marketing strategies were identified using a codebook. The initial set of coding categories were created based on strategies identified in relevant literature [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ]. To test its validity within the context of this study, the codebook was piloted on a subsample of 10 images from each Instagram account. Subsequently, two new categories (teen influencers and menu modification) were identified and added to ensure that the codebook was relevant for Instagram and responsive to the contextual nature of the study setting. The final codebook contained 15 mutually exclusive coding categories (Table  1 ).

Coding process

All authors independently coded a random subsample of 5 posts from each of the 5 Instagram accounts. Codes assigned for all 25 posts were checked for agreement, with an overall interrater reliability of 80% achieved on average. Discrepancies were discussed and agreed upon. All other posts were then coded by the main coder (EB), with the opinion of other coders sought when EB was unsure about the category a post belong to. The number of likes and comments gained by a post were recorded as measures of user engagement. This enabled the study to report on not only the frequency of exposure to adolescent-directed marketing strategies but also the relationship between the use of the marketing strategies and user engagement.

Descriptive statistics were calculated and the total frequency of each marketing strategy was obtained. For the continuous variables mean and standard deviation values were obtained. Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted to examine the association between the marketing strategies and user engagement, while the Kruskal-Wallis H test was completed to test for associations between brand name and engagement. All quantitative analyses were done with SPSS version 25 (IBM).

A total of 576 Instagram posts were analysed to examine fast food companies’ use of adolescent-targeted marketing strategies. Descriptive results demonstrated that these strategies are commonly used, as all the Instagram posts observed contained one or more of these strategies. In terms of promotional activity through Instagram, Domino’s Pizza (@dominospizzaNG) was the most active brand posting 179 times within the study period followed by the doughnut-brand Krispy Kreme ( n =  163). The Instagram accounts of the chicken-based restaurants, KFC and Chicken Republic made 89 and 86 posts respectively while Debonairs Pizza was the least active posting 59 times within the 90 day period.

Table  2 shows that the observed brands received an average of 1,411 interactions per post with Domino’s Pizza (who also employed the highest number of adolescent-targeted strategies, n  = 197) recording the highest number of likes per post ( n =  688) followed by Krispy Kreme ( n  = 294). However, these engagement figures represent only a small percentage of followers (0.1 to 0.6% for likes and 0.005 to 0.05% for comments ). In terms of the manner of engagement, it was apparent that users preferred to use the ‘like’ button as opposed to leaving a ‘comment’.

Frequency and use of adolescent-Directed marketing (ADM) strategies

The use of emotional appeal was observed in 21.8% of all posts making it the most common strategy used by the fast food brands followed by product appeal (17.8%) and teen language (17.3%). Premium offers and special price promotions were also relatively common as seen in Table  3 . Across the brands, Fig. 1 shows that Domino’s Pizza accounted for the most ADM strategies (27.7%) and preferred to advertise using product appeal and premium offers including buy one-get -one free deal, while its pizza-based counterpart, Debonairs Pizza was more focused on utilising special price promotions . KFC’s Instagram account (@officialKFCng) was more intent on showcasing their sponsorships/partnerships whereas the accounts of both Krispy Kreme and the local fast food chain, Chicken Republic, utilised the emotional appeal strategy more frequently than the other brands.

As shown in Fig.  2 , the use of emotional appeal usually involved images of young people expressing positive emotions such as fun or happiness while sharing fast food. On the other hand, Fig.  3 shows examples of teen language including the use of slang like “chairman”, “street-wise”, “gen-z” and acronyms like “TGIF” (Thank God It’s Friday). Both textual and visual cues were commonly used to provide product appeal , with words like “hot”, “delicious”, “simple” used to describe the intrinsic qualities of fast food, while highly edited, high-definition images of fast food were used to showcase the attractive, external features of fast food items (Fig.  4 ).

Adolescent-directed strategies used by fast food brands in Nigeria

User engagement and brand interactions

As presented in Table  4 , the results of the Mann-Whitney U tests revealed that product appeal , competitions and hashtags were statistically associated with higher user engagement while emotional appeal and special price promotion were statistically associated with lower user engagement. User engagement was also examined across brands and a statistically significant difference in user engagement was found across the five brands, as indicated by the results of the Kruskal-Wallis H test (Gp1, n  = 89: KFC, Gp2, n  = 163: KK, Gp3, n  = 179: Domino’s, Gp4, n  = 59: Debonairs, Gp5, n  = 86: CR), χ [ 2 ] (4, n  = 576) = 228.67, p  =.001). Domino’s Pizza recorded the highest median engagement ( Md  = 352) while its pizza counterpart, Debonairs Pizza, had the smallest median engagement ( Md  = 54).

Examples of the use of emotional appeal by fast food brands

Examples of the use of product appeal by fast food brands

Examples of the use of teen language by fast food brands

General social media techniques

The use of common social media marketing techniques namely hashtags, links and branding elements such as logos and trademarked animations were also recorded and analysed. Over 87% of all posts included a unique element that identified the company, with global brands like Kentucky Fried Chicken (@officialkfcnigeria) and Domino’s Pizza using their logo and/or brand animation on 100% of their posts. Hashtags were used in almost two-third (63.1%) of all posts while links which usually referred the user to the official website or the mobile app were attached in 67% of the posts. Krispy Kreme and Domino’s Pizza were equally responsible for two-thirds of those ‘linked’ posts however Domino’s alone accounted for nearly 40%, publishing 141 of the 365 posts that employed a unique hashtag . KFC on the other hand, did not once use links when promoting fast food to adolescents in Nigeria, although all their posts included one or more hashtags .

Fast food is now a common feature of the social media marketing scene and as a result, adolescents who now spend hours on social media are heavily exposed to fast food advertisements [ 44 , 45 , 46 ]. With 140 million of its teenage users residing in LMICs, Instagram has proven to be an effective medium for food promotion to this demographic. Prior research indicates that its features alone increase the power of food advertisements [ 47 ]. Consequently, this research study examined the Instagram accounts of fast food brands in Nigeria and reported on their prolific use of adolescent-directed marketing strategies, as brands used at least one adolescent-marketing strategy per promotional post.

To attract adolescents, the observed fast food companies prominently employed emotional appeal , used teen language , and included product appeal within their posts. Two of these strategies significantly influenced user engagement, however while emotional appeal was linked to lower engagement the use of product appeal was associated with increased user engagement. The results strongly indicate that users were more likely to interact with a post which included product appeal namely textual and/or visual claims or appeals about special characteristics of a fast food product (i.e. its recipe, convenience etc.). Across brands, the promotional posts of both pizza brands received the most engagements. With hashtags well-known to increase the reach of social media posts, all fast food brands regularly employed this marketing tool which was seen to positively influence user engagement. Lastly, this study found that users preferred to engage with fast food related posts by “liking” the post rather than leaving comments.

Previous research

In accordance with one of this study’s most significant findings, previous studies have reported frequent use of the emotional appeal strategy to promote unhealthy food to young people across both high and low-income contexts [ 14 , 40 ]. While none of these studies examined its effect on online user engagement, the use of emotional appeal in food marketing has long been associated with increased consumption among adolescents [ 48 ]. In fact, the finding that promotional posts containing emotional appeal received lower user engagement than those that did not contain the strategy is, to our knowledge, the first time a detrimental effect has been observed from the use of emotional appeal to market food. This finding may be explained by the fact that older children and young adults have limited interest in persuasive cues that are pleasing, but irrelevant [ 49 ]. Such cues are more attractive to younger children who can only process a limited number of cues simultaneously due to their limited executive functions [ 50 ]. This presents a new worry that fast food companies are perhaps targeting younger children on social media, despite the age restrictions in place regarding social media membership.

Social networking age limits are fictitious, as younger children, including those below the age of 13, are able to circumvent the basic proof of age requirements of social media platforms, even as data analytics show that this demographic are markedly represented in active user populations [ 51 , 52 , 53 ]. As a result, the prominent use of the emotional appeal strategy observed in this study is hugely concerning. Social media apps like Instagram need to enforce tighter, foolproof systems which restrict younger children from owning accounts. Likewise, fast food companies cannot be allowed to exploit such flaws. Policy makers must ensure that legislations against child-directed junk food marketing extend to social media platforms, irrespective of the age limits supposedly in place.

Prior research indicates that young people from ethnic minority and lower socioeconomic groups are disproportionately exposed to and influenced by unhealthy food marketing [ 14 , 54 ]. Price related strategies such as price discounts are used more frequently in low-income settings than in high-income settings as food companies view price as a key factor in consumer decisions within LMICs. [ 14 , 19 , 55 , 56 ] In agreement with this evidence-base, strategies like premium offers and special price promotions were frequently found on the Instagram posts of fast food brands in this study. However, this study did not find any significant association between price-related strategies and user engagement and so could not suggest an influential relationship between fast food prices and positive attitudes or intentions towards fast food, despite the wealth of evidence from western countries suggesting a positive relationship between adolescents’ food choices and price discounts [ 57 , 58 , 59 ]. This discrepancy could be due to the current study being unable to account for other measures of social media engagement (e.g. post-sharing, accessing links etc.), using only publicly accessible metrics (likes and comments) to measure user engagement.

However, another explanation is that cultural perceptions of food in non-western countries have the potential to attenuate the ‘normal’ effects of marketing strategies [ 25 ]. Western food brands serve as symbols of social status in many LMICs including Nigeria [ 29 , 60 ] and it has been observed that global fast food brands in these settings promote their products not as cheap, but as one of high quality, with price discounts marketed under the theme of value-for-money [ 23 ]. In line with Witkowski’s theory, such ‘normal’ marketing adaptations to local conditions can encourage levels of energy intake that are potentially excessive for local consumers [ 26 ]. As a result, it remains possible that special price promotions and premium offers might not influence these adolescents’ decision to consume fast food, but could be encouraging excessive consumption of fast food products, impacting consumption levels (amount) rather than consumption rates (frequency) in lower income nations.

Contextual differences in marketing techniques

In terms of contextual differences, the fast food companies appeared consistent in their marketing approach across borders. For example, Domino’s Pizza in Nigeria focused on product appeal , in accordance with recent evidence revealing the prominent use of product appeal in the Instagram posts of their global account. Vassallo and colleagues noted that these appeals included claims relating to the healthy components of their products which was not observed in this study [ 19 ]. Instead, examples of product appeals provided by Domino’s pizza and indeed the other brands included visual and textual claims regarding food components, recipes, information about taste, and convenience-related information such as ‘time-till-delivery’. While the inclusion of such information may be explained by the fact that taste and convenience are established in the literature as important, independent predictors of food choice decisions among adolescents, [ 58 , 61 , 62 ] the absence of health-related claims is note-worthy.

The evidence suggests that adolescents make healthier food choices when provided with relevant nutritional information related to a food product [ 61 , 63 , 64 ]. In fact adolescents around the world have directly linked poor dietary behaviours to a lack of knowledge and ability to eat healthily [ 62 ]. The lack of product information relating to the nutritional status or healthy components of fast food (if any) is considered a missed opportunity to support adolescents in making informed food decisions. Global fast food companies in this setting should be mandated to not only promote healthy foods but also to include key nutritional information on their food products as part of product information, especially as this is standard practice when marketing through more traditional mediums like point of sale.

In addition to the absence of health-claims, the use of celebrities or promotional characters to advertise fast food on Instagram was rarely observed here even though such strategies have been noted in various settings [ 65 , 66 , 67 ]. Given the long-standing and effective nature of the relationship between celebrity endorsement and food marketing [ 65 ], it was unexpected that celebrities or at least sportspersons would not be incorporated into the Instagram posts of the brands in this setting. Prior research earmarks the important role of influencer marketing in the social media food marketing space, particularly in persuading adolescents [ 18 , 68 ]. While it is possible that fast food chains in lower income settings, especially the multinationals, prioritise brand loyalty and are wary of compromising on brand image with recent reports indicating that only 4% of people trust influencers [ 69 ], further studies are needed to help us understand adolescents’ brand perception and their perception of celebrity food endorsements and other common strategies in this setting.

Implications for policy and practice

Exposure to unhealthy food marketing encourages adolescents around the world to choose, purchase and consume unhealthy foods [ 7 , 18 , 70 , 71 ]. The literature also notes that dietary behaviours established during adolescence usually last a lifetime [ 72 , 73 ]. For LMICs, these implications pose a more devastating effect on population health, as many of these countries are currently facing a double burden of diseases related to malnutrition and obesity, with rising trends of non-communicable diseases [ 74 , 75 ]. Given that over three quarters of the 15 million annual NCD-related deaths occur in LMICs, a situation whereby risk-factors for obesity become epidemic is bound to add great pressure to the already fragile health systems and pose significant challenges to development [ 76 ].

Therefore, the ubiquitous presence of adolescent-related promotional strategies noted in this study is cause for great concern and calls on global and local policy makers to prioritise the introduction and enforcement of regulations that extend to social media, restricting adolescents’ exposure to fast food marketing in LMICs. Social media platforms appear to have similar policies in place restricting the advertising of alcohol, tobacco and gambling to children. However, the evidence indicates that such voluntarily measures to restrict the exposure of children to the marketing of unhealthy commodities are not effective policy actions [ 6 ].

One of the most note-worthy findings of this study was the lack of health claims within the promotional content of fast food marketing in a LMIC context. In HICs, food companies frequently promote certain components of their food products as healthy or advertise healthier alternatives, as western governments enforce standards around nutritional information and adolescents in these settings increasingly demanding healthier food products [ 77 , 78 , 79 ]. However, it remains to be seen whether increased demand for healthier products in LMICs would foster a similar change in how fast food is marketed to adolescents in these countries.

Nevertheless, fast food products in themselves are not healthier whether in HICs or LMICs, regardless of the laws of demand and supply. In fact, robust studies demonstrate detrimental changes in the nutritional quality of fast food within the past 30 years including increased energy and sodium content [ 80 ]. Thus, health claims would only serve to promote the perception of healthfulness which might increase the effect of the fast food advertisement among adolescents in LMICs. This suggests proactive action be taken to prevent fast food companies from utilising this tactic (making health claims) in the future. Regulations can be put in place to ensure the information is accurate and food labels are effectively introduced, especially since nutrition workers in LMICs are now focused on building food literacy which reportedly has the tendency to increase demand for healthier foods [ 81 , 82 ].

Crucially, the evidence base strongly indicates a positive relationship between engagement with unhealthy food messages on social media and adolescents’ self-reported intake of such foods [ 83 , 84 , 85 ]. As a result, one of the most important findings of this study was that the use of popular adolescent-targeted marketing strategies was positively associated with general user engagement, particularly as users preferred to engage with the posts by using the ‘like’ button which is seen to be a digital cue for validation and acceptance [ 86 ].

Adolescents are known to interact with food brands to enhance social image, [ 18 , 87 ] and as Instagram highlights followers who liked a particular post, its teen users were afforded the ability to assess online behaviour and attitudes which shape one’s social image. In line with previous evidence that adolescents who ‘share’ unhealthy food on their social media feeds perceived more positively than those who do not [ 88 ], there is a strong possibility that adolescents also have higher regard for peers who ‘like’ or positively engage with a fast food post.

Research also indicates that adolescents rate advertisements with medium or high numbers of “likes” higher than those with few “likes” [ 89 , 90 ]. Adolescents in this setting are likely to perceive the fast food posts with high engagement numbers more positively than those with low levels of engagement. This connotes importance as peer influence, which is often more predominant during adolescence, combined with the subtle merging of social media marketing and entertainment, has been shown to hinder youths from disengaging from promotional strategies aiming to control their dietary choices and consumption patterns [ 91 , 92 ].

Taken together, the observed effect of adolescent-targeted strategies on user engagement draws attention to the contributory role of the special features of social media networks in the promotion of unhealthy food among adolescents. According to the literature, “likes” function as a social norms indicator that capitalises on young people’s sensitivity to peer behaviour [ 90 ]. In line with the social norms’ theory, peer behaviours perceived as the norm are often matched or mimicked by individuals [ 92 ], and indeed, the significant influence of normative peer behaviour on adolescents’ food choices has been extensively documented on [ 93 ]. Recently, adolescents were reported to adjust their food intake to model social eating behaviours and peers’ approval and attitudes towards food choices has been shown to significantly predict eating behaviour [ 94 , 95 , 96 ]. Therefore, this study’s findings strongly indicate the need to limit the engagement affordances of social media networks when fast food advertisements are involved.

Instagram affords users the ability to view those who have engaged with a post. However, of greater relevance to policy is the fact that the social network also allows account owners to restrict engagement with their posts by disabling the ‘like’ and ‘comment’ features. This implies that the potential exists for Instagram, in their role as administrators, to restrict unhealthy food brands from engaging with vulnerable populations by disabling the engagement features for posts generated by these brands, taking on some burden of responsibility to reduce adolescents’ exposure to the promotion of such foods rather than being passive vehicles of obesity risk. Taken together, this study suggests that policy makers encourage social media networks to put in place engagement restrictions to reduce the effect of unhealthy food marketing on adolescents. Recent evidence also suggests that other features of Instagram increase the ‘power’ of advertisements [ 47 ]. Future researchers should focus on other affordances of social media which may be positively influencing unhealthy food promotion.

In terms of opportunities for healthy food marketing, these findings introduce the idea that adolescent-targeted marketing strategies like product appeal can be used to promote healthier food choices among adolescents through its influence on engagement and potentially on peer behaviour. It is important to note that the association between food marketing and consumption among adolescents could be confounded by the intrinsic qualities of fast food which makes these foods more attractive to this age group than healthier food. For example, adolescents have directly indicated that high levels of whole grain, salt, protein and sugar are important attributes which influence their food choices [ 97 ] suggesting that foods without such attributes might be difficult to promote. It has also been suggested that food promotion on social media is influential mostly because it increases adolescents’ ability to recall such foods [ 98 ]. Further research is needed to understand how adolescents perceive these strategies and its influence on their food choice. Health promotion workers in this setting would also benefit from an exploration of the relationship between adolescent-targeted marketing strategies and user engagement during healthy food promotion.

Few findings have already raised doubts about the usefulness of some child-directed strategies in promoting healthy food, including that of Coates and colleagues [ 99 ] which found that influencer marketing of healthy foods showed no effect on children’s intake despite increasing their intake of unhealthy food. However, these inconsistencies could be due to the limitations of the marketing campaigns [ 93 ]. Recent studies stress that efforts to improve adolescent food choice must harness widely shared adolescent values beyond nutrition or health [ 100 ]. Thus despite the promise shown by social media as a medium that can drive healthier food choices among adolescents, [ 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 ] more exploratory study designs would increase understanding of adolescents’ perception of popular marketing strategies and their influence on healthy eating habits.

Study considerations

Food marketers can advertise on social media in two ways. They can pay social media platforms for advertisements which appear strategically on a user’s feed, with the post carrying a disclaimer to indicate its sponsored nature. Alternatively, companies can post image advertisements through a free official account which the platform confirms as legitimate through an account verification tick, to encourage users to follow them [ 19 , 105 ]. This study through its design, has captured company-generated exposure but with research suggesting that 80% of adolescents on social media follow at least one unhealthy food brand, it is clear that majority of those in this age group are exposed to company-generated advertisements by fast food brands.

This examination of how transnational fast food companies promote fast food via Instagram revealed the prominent use of adolescent-directed strategies such as emotional appeal, product appeal and teen language. Fast food companies heavily target lower income adolescents through the use of Instagram, raising health concerns related to the consumption of unhealthy food that arises from regular advertising in that demographic. Key differences between how these strategies were operationalized in this setting versus in high-income contexts were observed including the fact that fast food brands in this setting did not make any health claims. Regarding the secondary objective of the study, the use of adolescent-aimed strategies were also associated with higher user engagement, indicating increased interaction with fast-food related posts when adolescent themes are involved and a potential increase in positive attitudes towards fast food.

Altogether, the study raises concerns that fast food marketing of the manner observed in this study serves to normalise fast food marketing and its consumption among adolescents in LMICs, especially as adolescents are highly susceptible to normative peer behaviours. While the potential remains for these strategies to be used to effectively promote the consumption of healthier foods like fruits and vegetables via a similar pathway, future research should explore how adolescents perceive fast food marketing and whether the relationship between these strategies and user engagement remains when healthy diets are involved. Findings indicate the need for actions aiming to limit adolescents’ exposure to fast food marketing on social media, and reduce its potential effects, to target the interactive features of social media which encourage positive attitudes towards fast food. Ultimately, fast food companies have failed to abide by self-pledges to protect children from unhealthy marketing. This article shows that these brands continue to target the most vulnerable and so mandatory rather than voluntary regulations are urgently needed.

Data availability

Data supporting Fig.  1 ; Tables  2 , 3 and 4 are publicly available on https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23118359 .

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Bankole, E., Harris, N., Rutherford, S. et al. Nigerian adolescents’ exposure to fast food marketing via Instagram. BMC Public Health 24 , 2405 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18604-9

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