cyber communication essay

Chapter 6: 21st-century media and issues

6.10.2 Social media and communication (research essay)

Lindsey Matier

English 102, April 2021

Communication is extremely important in today’s world, whether it be verbal or nonverbal. It can take place through many different forms such as through writing, speaking, listening and physical actions. These forms of communication evolve and continue to improve over time. As humans, we rely on communication for almost everything and it is a way of life. Communication has evolved from talking to writing letters to texting or talking over the phone. Every time a new form of communication is brought up and becomes more popular, we have to adapt and evolve to that new lifestyle. Throughout all the new forms of communication and ways of evolving, social media has been one of the most influential so far. Social media has allowed us to create new ways of communicating, such as texting or posting through different apps. It can connect us with people all over the world and give us a platform to express ourselves in ways that have not been possible before. While social media started off as a small form of technology, it has morphed into aspects of our everyday life. Now there are apps for everything from social media profiles to online shopping. While social media and technology itself has evolved, this has also affected our communication with each other and the world. Social media has created a fast track for information in a matter of seconds. It can give people a platform with millions of followers overnight for doing practically anything. It can help people express themselves in new ways and connect with people who have similar interests. The end goal of social media is to make people happy and ultimately make lives easier.

Introduction

With all this being said, it is evident that social media is in our everyday lives and will continue to change. It has a very strong grip on society as social media usage continues to rise throughout the years. Generalizing social media, we are exposed to forms of media at almost all times of the day. Answering the question of what media is will help give a better understanding of social media as a whole. Media can be defined as a way of mass communication. This could include siting in the car listening to ads on the radio all the way to scrolling on twitter. We are exposed to social media less often than generalized media, but it tends to come in greater quantities when exposed. For example, for people that wake up and check twitter it is an instant flood of information with every scroll. Everything from politics to sports to celebrity news is available at the fingertips. The concern is not all focused on the overwhelming information, but also the overwhelming number of comments and opinions. If we wanted to debate or talk about something before social media it had to be done in person, face to face. Now with social media, we are able to fight with people in comment sections on a backup account with a different name and no connection to who we really are. This new form of communication takes away the vulnerability of speaking to people and having genuine conversation, and makes up for it in internet trolls. Overall, social media is impacting the way we communicate with each other and the real questions are: Is social media impacting us in a positive or negative way? Do the positive aspects outweigh the negative aspects? Is social media hindering the way we communicate in person with each other? Is their more room for improvement when it comes to dealing with communication in the social media spectrum? How is social media impacting younger generation’s communication versus older generation’s communication? How can we help improve our communication skills on social media and in real life?

Personal Research 

Along with the other studies that I found from the sources I chose, I also conducted my own study to determine more accurate and recent data. I asked students mostly within high school and college range questions relating to social media and communication. I tried to get a wide range of data dealing with social media apps, screen time, and overall communication as a result of social media. I expected to see almost all negative responses about social media and communication. I figured that most people would respond saying that it has affected them negatively rather than positively, but the results were different compared to what I expected.

The first questions I asked had to do with social media itself. I asked questions about their most used social media apps, screen time, what age they were allowed to start using social media, and whether or not they think social media has had a negative or positive impact on them. As expected, most of the social media apps were some of the most popular ones like Snapchat, Instagram, and TikTok. Overall, the average screen time for all apps was evenly split between 4-6 and 6-8 hours, which I also expected. Something that did surprise me was the amount of time spent on certain social media apps. The data was split pretty evenly three ways and all between 1-4 hours. The next two questions dealt with when they group surveyed started using social media. I asked these questions because a lot of the points I want to discuss later in my paper have to deal with age and whether younger generations are suffering when it comes to communication. More than half the people surveyed said that they wished that they had waited to get social media until they were older. Some said that it is not appropriate for younger kids and that it is just toxic in general. Something that I really like that a couple people mentioned was that in reality, social media at a young age is stupid and useless. A lot of people said they wish they would have enjoyed their childhood more and they would be more extroverted now if they had not been exposed that early. The last question of this section that I asked was if they thought social media has had a more positive or negative impact on them. Overall, the data was split but leaning slightly towards the more positive side. The positive answers mostly dealt with being able to talk to stay in contact with people and meeting new friends. The negative answers all related to mental health and feeling bad about themselves. A lot of people said it is toxic and very controlling and takes up too much of our time.

The next set of questions I asked had to do more with communication and interaction with and without social media. I asked questions like how they feel about social media and how it has impacted their communication, their mental health, and if it has made our lives easier. I decided to ask questions like these because I figured I would get a wide range of responses and a lot of people’s different opinions. I started off by asking if people are an introvert or an extrovert to get an idea of what the responses would be like, and 66% said somewhere in between the two. The response for the next question really shocked me because I received such a one-side response. I asked if they think social media has impacted their communication and the way they interact with others and 75% (18/24 people) said yes. This is the information that I was looking for along with the next two questions. The next question asked if they think social media has negatively impacted their mental health and 50% said yes. I also plan on using this as a research question to show that social media can affect our mental health and therefore affect the way we interact with and around other people. The last two questions are similar but the responses were both very good. Almost everyone answered yes to the question asking if social media has made our lives easier. Everyone that answered yes said they think so because it helps them talk to friends, stay in touch with people they do not see as much, and meet new people that they are comfortable talking to. The people that said no also made good points such as it takes over our lives and it is filled with too much hate and cancel culture. I agree with both sides and am very happy that people can feel a positive response especially when it comes to communicating with other people online. The last question I asked was used to wrap up the whole survey and topic. I asked if they think social media has made our generation’s communication improve or worsen. The data was pretty evenly split, and most people gave a positive and a negative. The people that said improve gave that answer because they said it broadens our communication and allows us to talk to people at a wider range. The people who said it has made it worse all said that it is ruining our face-to-face interaction and causing us to lose emotion. They said that some people do not even know how to have a proper in person conversation and that they are too dependent on their phones. Overall, I agree with both arguments that people made but I do think that the positives outweigh the negatives in most of these situations and questions.

Research Questions

The first question I want to ask has to deal with the overall social media and communication connection and has multiple other questions I would like to cover within it. The main question is: Is social media hindering the way we communicate with each other? I also want to touch on questions like: Is social media impacting us in a positive or negative way? Do the positives outweigh the negatives? The second set of research questions I have is: Is their more room for improvement when it comes to dealing with communication in the social media spectrum? How can we help improve our communication skills on social media and in real life? How is social media impacting younger generation’s communication versus older generation’s communication?

Research Question One

Social media and communication have a direct connection to each other and both have a strong impact on the outcome of the other. My first research question has to do with that. My questions center around how social media has impacted our communication, and whether or not it is positive or negative. First, I think it is important to note the changes and different characteristics that come into play when talking about this. Things like age and problems going on in our world can affect our social media usage and communication. While we connect to people on a deeper level when talking to the in person, social media has also given us a newer and more broad way of communicating. The article “How Social Media Affects Our Ability to Communicate” by Stacey Hanke, talks about different ways social media has impacted our communication. Social media has become so relevant in our day to day lives and Hanke describes it in a couple different ways. She describes it as information binging and the fear of missing out, social graces and conversational boredom. Within these, she explains how social media has become an excuse and escape to talk to people face to face. Hanke also talks about how even though it is limiting our in person communication, it can sometimes make communicating in general easier, by being able to talk to each other in just a few words (Hanke 1). In another article by Ryan J. Fuller titled “The Impact of Social Media Use on Our Social Skills”, he discusses similar topics to Hanke’s article but also brings up more positive attributes of social media. Fuller starts of his article by giving some statistics, stating that 75% of teens own cellphones and 25% of them using it for social media, and also says that they use 7.5 hours a day using it (Fuller 1). I am glad that this was brought up because it is important to know how much time is spent on social media, scrolling through feed. Next, Fuller starts to discuss some of the benefits of social media. He briefly explains how social media is beneficial because we are able to stay in touch with our friends and family, and share important parts of our lives with them. He also explains how it helps people reach out to new friends and provide themselves with more opportunities (Fuller 1). Overall, I really like that he mentioned these because it is important to keep in mind the vast majority of social media and communication. While some use it for more simpler purposes likes just keeping up to date with what is going on in the world, others use it to make new friends, find new job opportunities, and stay in touch with people. Another topic I find important when it comes to answering this research question is how Covid affected everything. With the pandemic, we were left inside with nothing to do but what was at our fingertips. This pandemic increased social media usage drastically. The article “Social Media Insights Into US Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Longitudinal Analysis of Twitter Data” by Danny Valdez et al, shows extensive research into determining just how much social media usage in the United States increased during the pandemic. They did experiments and surveys to determine multiple responses to research questions and show how much we rely on social media to communicate with each other. During the pandemic, everyone spent more time on their social media and their phone in general, probably more than they would like to admit. The article helps give more insight into this claim. There is the idea that social media was meant as an addition to our lives. For some people, it has become an addiction and a new piece of their life. The article focuses on how social media could be a toxic place and have a negative effect on our mental health. The time period for this information focuses around the COVID-19 pandemic. Using data from Twitter, Valdez created a study to determine the mood of people during the pandemic and the usage throughout (Valdez et al 2). Collecting tweets with certain hashtags and during time periods, the goal was to determine how much the pandemic affected people’s moods, and how much they put out and shared on social media. They used hashtags, timeline data, and tweets from different periods such as the first lockdown, different stay at home orders, etc. Given the responses to the data, they were able to determine the increase in social media usage. We cannot determine if this had a positive or negative effect on the people who were using Twitter, but we can infer that social media is becoming a key part of our lives. Not being able to talk to people as much in person during the first few months of the pandemic greatly affected communication, in positive and negative ways. Communication over the phone increased due to the amount of free time that people had and were able to spend talking to others. Contrary to that, in person communication also decreased given that people were not really allowed to leave the house. The next article by Tayebi et al, “The Role of Information Systems in Communication Through Social Media” focuses a lot about how we have evolved over time with social media and communication. They start off by talking about how social networks are like social media societies. They explain it by resembling it to a human society, as it is filled with people communicating, regardless of time or place. They also exemplify other aspects such as emotional support, information, emotions (Tayebi 2). Social media is constantly looked at through such a negative light due to some of the major bad events that have taken place. While it can be difficult at times to look past the negatives, it is important to recognize and acknowledge the positives. The growth of scientific research would not be possible without the amount of information received from the media (Tayebi 3). Without social media and media in general, we would not be where we are today as a society. As mentioned earlier, it is so easy to get lost in the negative aspects of social media and discard the positive ones. Positive parts of social media such as widespread communication and unlimited access to information makes it all worth it. Staying on topic with positive aspects of social media and communication, social media in the workplace has also broken down barriers for communication. The article “A Guide to the Successful Use of Social Media in the Workplace” by Clark Boyd gives insight into how social media has improved the workplace, and ultimately communication and interaction as a whole. Companies can use social media as a form of branding and way to communicate their products (Boyd 4). Boyd states, “Harvard Business Review finds that 82% of employees believe social media improves work relationships. Left to their own devices, your teams will connect and communicate on social networks, both inside and outside the office.” This directly relates to the research question asking whether social media hinders our communication with each other. Social media also helps when it comes to dealing with complaints placed online. By seeing these through social media, it can help the company communicate either with the person or their company the concerns that are being stated (Boyd 9). Overall, it is safe to say that social media has directly affected communication throughout different aspects of our lives.

Research Question Two

My second set of research questions has a lot to do with the future and how we can improve. Questions such as: Is their more room for improvement when it comes to dealing with communication in the social media spectrum? How can we help improve our communication skills on social media and in real life? How is social media impacting younger generation’s communication versus older generation’s communication? The article “What is Literacy” by James Paul Gee talks a lot about the basics of communication. I find this an important article to talk about before I go into more detail with this second research question. Gee explains discourse as a socially accepted way of speaking, thinking, and acting (Gee 1). It is important to note this because social media has changed that discourse for us. We no longer communicate and interact the same way in which we use to therefore almost giving us a new discourse. Another thing Gee discusses is identity kits. Gee explains identity kits as “appropriate costumes and instructions on how to act and talk” (Gee 2). This relates to social media because there is a certain way we communicate online that we wouldn’t do in person. For example, we use emojis and abbreviations to communicate on social media or over text, but this is something we would not do when communicating face-to-face. There are also some basic well-known rules of social media that follow along the lines of an identity kit. Such as, for Instagram it is a common idea not to like people’s pictures from too long ago. When you say this aloud it sounds like it is not a big deal and silly almost, but for people that use social media it is something that makes sense. The next article is going to focus more on the question that has to do with room for improvement of communication. The article “The Positive Effect of Not Following Others on Social Media” by Francesca Valsesia, Davide Proserpio, and Joseph C. Nunes involves how we deal with social media and how we react to it. The article has a lot to do with pyramid schemes and marketing schemes on social media, simply due to follower count. Social media has a lot of power over us and the content we see. Influencers have too much impact on what we see every day and this overall effects our communication (Valsesia 1). Social media feeds us information at our fingertips, whether it be true or false. Valsesia is trying to get the point across that social media has no impact on our lives without the phone and therefore, having a smaller follower count is better for our communication and overall wellbeing in the first place. Leading into my next article, social media can have a huge impact on the younger generation. This leads into part of my second research question dealing with the younger generation and their communication. The article “The Impact of Social Media on Youth Mental Health: Challenges and Opportunities” by Jacqueline Nesi shows how social media is a very complex brand of information and makes it complicated for everyone. Younger kids having access to it and multiple devices like computers and phones makes it that much more difficult. There are a lot of positives and negatives for younger kids having access to social media and the internet in general. It has an impact on their mental health and studies show it leads to signs of depression, body dysmorphia, eating disorders (Nesi 2). It can also affect their communication and outward identity due to things such as bullying, internet drama, and behavioral problems. While it does have serious negative risks, social media also can bring a lot of new positive ones. Things like creative ideas, humor and entertainment, and being able to explore their identity are all really great positives that social media gives us (Nesi 4). Most of them using it as a way to connect with friends and family and help them feel a sense of acceptance and belonging (Nesi 4). Similarly to this, social media has given a great outlet for kids and young adults to speak out on issues going on in the world. The article “Building Bridges: Exploring the Communication Trends and Perceived Sociopolitical Benefits of Adolescents Engaging in Online Social Justice Efforts” by Mariah Elsa Kornbluh goes into detail about the racial injustices in the world and how they are communicated through social media. Social media networks can help connect kids to different backgrounds and aspects of their lives (Kornbluh 1). Kornbluh expresses how a society only can flourish under civic engagement and being able to express ourselves, and social media is helping us do that. It is helping the younger generation prepare for the civic role that they will undergo (Kornbluh 2). Social media helps play a major role in participating in political movements and bringing awareness to topics (Kornbluh 3). This all is done by the younger generation and would not be possible without them. So, while it is easy to look at the negative parts of social media and how it effects the younger generation, it also brings great awareness to real life problems in our world. This last article I wanted to go over dealing with this research question has to do with the pandemic. The article “Responses to COVID-19 in Higher Education: Social Media Usage for Sustaining Formal Academic Communication in Developing Countries” by Abu Elnasr E. Sobaih, Ahmed M. Hasanein and Ahmed E. Abu Elnasr briefly talks about communication with social media in higher education systems. Education systems had to switch from in person learning and communication to online learning, which was a struggle for everyone. Throughout the time that this took place, results showed that social media had a positive effect on students dealing with this (Sobaih 1). Students used social media to build a community and help support each other through this rough time. Through these results, proper usage of social media can be shown as a positive result for a new era of learning (Sobaih 1). This is just one more reason why social media can help us improve our future.

After answering my research questions, it has become clear to me that while social media does have negative aspects, the positive aspects outweigh them. Between the articles and my own research, I have enough evidence to prove that social media does effect communication, but in a more positive way. The way we act and present ourselves is heavily influenced by social media and communication between generations are different and can be seen that way. It is important to note the accomplishments we have made as a society with social media and the media in general. It has helped connect families, provide support groups, and provide entertainment in desperate times. Our communication has changed because of social media but has changed and helped us for the better in the long run. Keeping social media a positive place and staying away from the toxic people on it will only help us grow and learn new things about ourselves.

Works Cited

Boyd, Clark. “A Guide to Using Social Media in the Workplace in 2021.”  The Blueprint , The Blueprint, 13 May 2020, www.fool.com/the-blueprint/social-media-in-the-workplace/.

https://www.fool.com/the-blueprint/social-media-in-the-workplace/

D, Valdez, et al. “Social Media Insights Into US Mental Health During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Longitudinal Analysis of Twitter Data.”  Journal of Medical Internet Research  , vol. 22, no. 12, 14 Dec. 2020, pp. 1438–8871.

http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy.ulib.csuohio.edu:2050/eds/detail/detail? vid=8&sid=ff59b04c-b868-44cd-b864-4538e112a2ea%40sessionmgr103&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=33284783&db=mnh

J, Nesi. “The Impact of Social Media on Youth Health: Challenges and Opportunities.”  North Carolina Medical Journal , vol. 81, no. 2, 2020, pp. 116–121.

http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy.ulib.csuohio.edu:2050/eds/detail/detail?vid=10&sid=ff59b04c-b868-44cd-b864-4538e112a2ea%40sessionmgr103&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=32132255&db=mnh

Gee, James Paul. “What is literacy.”  Negotiating academic literacies: Teaching and learning  across languages and cultures  (1998): 51-59.

https://academic.jamespaulgee.com/pdfs/Gee%20What%20is%20Literacy.pdf

Hanke, Stacey. “How Social Media Affects Our Ability to Communicate.”  Thrive Global , 13  Sept. 2018, thriveglobal.com/stories/how-social-media-affects-our-ability-to-communicate/.

https://thriveglobal.com/stories/how-social-media-affects-our-ability-to-communicate/

http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.proxy.ulib.csuohio.edu:2050/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=467b825c-34f8-4e47-95df-e5b2b61bbaf4%40sessionmgr4006

Kornbluh, Mariah Elsa. “Building Bridges.”  Youth & Society , vol. 51, no. 8, 2017, pp. 1104–1126., doi:10.1177/0044118×17723656.

https://journals-sagepub-com.proxy.ulib.csuohio.edu/doi/pdf/10.1177/0044118X17723656

Retchin, Sarah, et al. “The Impact of Social Media Use on Social Skills.”  New York Behavioral Health , 1 Dec. 2020, newyorkbehavioralhealth.com/the-impact-of-social-media-use-on-social-skills/.

https://newyorkbehavioralhealth.com/the-impact-of-social-media-use-on-social-skills/

Sobaih, Abu Elnasr E., et al. “Responses to COVID-19 in Higher Education: Social Media Usage for Sustaining Formal Academic Communication in Developing Countries.”  MDPI , Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, 12 Aug. 2020, www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/16/6520/htm.

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/16/6520/htm

Tayeb, Seyed Mohammad, et al. “The Role of Information Systems in Communication through Social Media.”  International Journal of Data and Network Science , vol. 3, no. 3, 2019, pp. 245–268., doi:10.5267/j.ijdns.2019.2.002.

http://www.growingscience.com/ijds/Vol3/ijdns_2019_15.pdf

Valsesia, Francesca, et al. “The Positive Effect of Not Following Others on Social Media .”  Journal of Marketing Research  , vol. 57, no. 6, Dec. 2020, pp. 1152–1168.

https://www.francescavalsesia.com/uploads/1/0/5/1/105151509/the_positive_effect_of_not_following_others_on_social_media.pdf

Understanding Literacy in Our Lives by Lindsey Matier is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Cyberpsychology: Defining the Field

Defining the transdisciplinary nature of cyberpsychology in a new era..

Posted November 29, 2020

We have entered a new era in the field of psychology. Approximately 58% of the world’s 7 billion people use the internet (Clement, 2019). The creation and sharing of information and ideas through social media has become a primary form of communication and information exchange (Brossard & Scheufele, 2013; Smith & Anderson, 2018).

The combination of new technologies and “digital natives” (Prensky, 2001), that is, those who have grown up using the internet, computers, and mobile devices, is transforming the ways in which we learn, communicate, and socialize in the world (Institute for Information Technologies in Education , 2011). Social interactions, communication, and patterns of behavior in almost every sphere of life have been transformed. Electronic messaging has become the medium of choice for business and personal communication (Srivastava, 2005). Greater convenience and extended information access related to “always-on” connectivity and mobility have led to technology entering the private spheres of human lives. Users have a “technological intimacy ” with many devices, carrying and using them wherever they go. Traditional hierarchical structures have flattened, accessibility to political institutions has been enhanced, and the ability to build personal and professional networks has surged. The use of mobile devices alone has decentralized communication networks and has the potential to facilitate groups of unrelated people at a moment’s notice (Rheingold, 2002; Srivastava, 2005). The speed and flow of information online has enabled information to be transferred on a mass global scale, galvanizing social movements such as the Arab Spring, Occupy Wall Street, and #MeToo. In short, the ways in which we consume information and communicate with others both locally and globally have fundamentally changed.

With the growth of new technologies and an increasingly interconnected world, the field of cyberpsychology has emerged as a unique discipline. Defined as the discipline of understanding the psychological processes related to, and underlying, all aspects and features of technologically interconnected human behavior (Atrill-Smith et al., 2019), cyberpsychology includes multiple and intersecting disciplines such as human-computer interaction, computer science, engineering, and psychology.

Advances in global communication and technologies, social media and networking sites, and technological intimacy created through developments such as the iPhone have created shifts in perspectives and behaviors. Moreover, there is expanded recognition of cyberpsychology through professional associations, such as the American Psychological Association (APA), as well as via new journals, conferences, and emerging academic programs. As such, the term cyberpsychology has come to encompass diverse areas of scholarship and application which are viewed through the lens of psychology and the behavioral sciences. The transdisciplinary nature of cyberpsychology draws on a range of theoretical perspectives and continues to evolve. Moreover, the applications of cyberpsychology to a myriad of areas such as education, healthcare, the workforce, security, and psychological practice are far-reaching.

Five major areas that are relevant to the field of cyberpsychology include (a) online behavior and personality ; (b) social media use and psychological functioning; (c) games and gaming; (d) telepsychology ; and (e) virtual reality (VR), artificial intelligence (AI), and applications. These five areas have emerged from my review of over 400 textbooks, including texts focused specifically on psychology and cyber, and journal articles that examined the relationship between technology and human behavior through the lens of psychology, as well as a thematic analysis of topics presented during previous APA Technology, Mind, and Society Conferences, first convened in 2018. The five areas, which have primarily attended to personality variables, perceptual processes, emotional functioning, and behavioral responses, have emerged as most prominent in the cyberpsychology literature.

Upcoming blog posts will provide summary reviews of these areas. While not exhaustive, such reviews provide a potential framework from which to further elucidate the field of cyberpsychology through an established understanding of past and present work as well as an identification of areas in need of further exploration.

Clement, J. (2019). Worldwide digital population as of october 2019. https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide… ˜:targetText=How%20many%20people%20use%20the,in%20terms%20of%20internet%20users

Brossard, D., & Scheufele, D. A. (2013). Social science. Science, new media, and the public. Science, 339(6115), 40–41. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1232329

Smith, A., & Anderson, M. (2018). Social media use 2018: Demographics and statistics. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech.

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1108/10748120110424816

Digital natives: How do they learn? How to teach them? (2011). https://iite.unesco.org/files/policy_briefs/pdf/en/digital_natives.pdf

Srivastava, L. (2005). Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour. Behaviour & Information Technology, 24(2), 111–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/01449290512331321910

Rheingold, H. (2002). Smart mobs. Demos.

Atrill-Smith, A., Fullwood, C., Keep, M., & Kuss, D. J. (Eds.). (2019). The oxford handbook of cyberpsychology. Oxford Univeristy Press.

Julie R. Ancis, Ph.D., is Distinguished Professor, inaugural Director of the Cyberpsychology Program, and Interim Chair of Informatics at the New Jersey Institute of Technology.

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Cyber Communication and Mass Media Theory

What is cyber communication.

Cyber communication, or digital communications is a broad term applied to communication facilitated by the Internet but also multimedia advances such as CD-ROMs, flash storage, high definition broadcasting and more (Severin & Tankard, 2001, pgs. 366-370).

James Chesebro and Dale Bertelsen argue that all communication technologies break into two categories.

In all, telecommunications and interactive technologies characterize the two dominant types of communication technologies … we suspect that these two forms are undergoing transformations in which they increasingly affect one another (1996, p. 136).

Indeed, the two kinds of technology Chesebro and Bertelsen account for are affecting one another in profound ways creating the concept of cyber communication, a smaller subset of digital communication, specifically focused on interactivity and the Internet.

Defining cyber communications starts with an understanding of what cyber space is, the virtual realm that the word cyber, in cyber communications, relates to.  In 1992 Michael Benedikt defined cyberspace as

The globally networked, computer sustained, computer accessed, and computer generated, multidimensional, artificial, or virtual reality. In this reality, to which every computer is a window, seen or heard objects are neither physical no, necessarily, representations of physical objects but are, rather, in form, character and action, made up of data, of pure information (pgs. 122-123).

The term cyberspace was born from authors of science fiction.  Many researchers of cyber communication and new technology attribute the term cyberspace to William Gibson and his novel  Neuromancer  (Winston, 1998, p. 333, Turkle, 1995,  p. 42). With the introduction of Internet technologies, popular tendency was to attribute the term cyberspace to the virtual place where online interaction occurs (Wood & Smith , 2005, pg. 18-19).

More recent authors have distilled that definition down to refer to the virtual communications that take place facilitated via the Internet. They can include chat rooms, email, websites, and more (Turkle, 1995, p. 9-12). In recent years, one can add social networking technologies, also facilitated by the Internet, to the list of cyber destinations for communication.

With this framework we can come to a working definition for cyber communication as communication that is facilitated through the use of the Internet and networked technologies or applications that are powered through these means.

Cyber Communication as New Media, Characteristics

In media studies, it’s common to find discussions of cyber communication to appear within the context of old versus new media. Several authors have written on the notion of new media and sought to define it, in contrast to old media. One of the key concepts of new media is an understanding that “the new media are not simply a linear extension of the old (Dizard, 1997, p. 11).

Dizard goes on to explain that both old and new media offer information to large audiences but that a key difference is “new media can expand the range of resources to new dimensions; for example, they can provide on-line interactive links between the consumer and the information provider” (1997, p. 11). With Dizard’s analysis of what differentiates new media from old, it’s clear that a study of cyber communication also needs to examine the elements that characterize new media.

One of the leading authors on new media definitions, characteristics and challenges is Lev Manovich. Chief among his concepts is the notion that no list of characteristics or definitions applied to new media including focused research areas such as cyber communication is exhaustive or etched in granite. Rather, Manovich argues, “they should be considered not absolute laws but … as general tendencies of a culture undergoing computerization” (1999, p. 27). Manovich presents four key characteristics of new media: numerical representation, modularity, automation, and variability (1999, pgs. 27-48).

Numerical representation is the notion that all new media objects are created on computers either from scratch or through converting old analog media into digital media. The process of digitizing analog media, or creating new media from scratch requires the content to be broken down to data that is read by a computer, a series of 1s and 0s and therefore read numerically and through the manipulation of algorithms (1999, pgs. 27-30).

Modularity in Manovich’s context refers to the nature that all new media has the same “modular structure” throughout (1999, p. 30). Specifically, that the representation of images, sounds, videos and text can be broken down into bits and pixels, smaller pieces that retain their own unique identities, but when assembled together create larger objects (1999, pgs. 30-32). A similar concept for this exists in biology how individual cells can individually be unique but when combined together take on a new mass.

Automation is an inherent characteristic of new media because it can only occur when the numerical coding and the modular structure of a media object exist (1999, p. 32). Specifically, automation allows the removal of human intention from process. This is common in Internet applications and software that allows actions to be run by a computer, a process that normally requires heavy human interaction, such as the use of Adobe photo software and applications to automate generation of 3d Dimensional images (1999, pgs. 32-36).

Variability simply refers to the notion that new media objects are not fixed and can live in a potentially infinite number of versions and in an infinite number of virtual locationsc(1999, pgs. 36-44).

These four characteristics of new media outlined by Manovich are clearly seen in the realm of cyber communication, facilitated by the Internet, which creates media through numerical coding and modularity allowing for automation and variability. However, Manovich isn’t the only author who has sought definitions and characteristics of new media.

Another characteristic found in literature for new media, and perhaps a key piece of cyber communication today, is the notion of interactivity. The definition of interactivity can often depend on the context in which you view it. For example, Severin andTankard claim “people with backgrounds in computer science tend to think interactivity refers to the user interacting with the computer” (2001, p. 370). Additionally, Severin and Tankard claim that “communication scholars tend to think of interactivity involving communication between two human beings”(2001, p. 370). What Severin and Tankard assert is that when it comes to the Internet both are taking place.

A study conducted in 1998 (McMillan and Downes) suggests that interactivity in cyber communication and as a characteristic of new media is more focused on informing rather than persuading and places a high value on the end user. The study, based on interviews with technology experts, points to interactivity in new media as control by user, activity by user, two-way communication versus one-way and communication that takes place without the confines of time and space (pgs. 157-177).

Mass Communication Theories Applied to Digital Communication

The speed at which technology changes and impacts cyber communication has proven challenging for researchers to keep up with and conduct the studies necessary to successfully develop theories applied specifically to cyber communication (Severin & Tankard, 2011, p. 379). However, there are established mass communication theories that can apply to cyber communication and new media. Among those theories are: The knowledge gap theory and agenda setting.

While few theories exist for just the concept of cyber communications, authors such as Roger Fidler have explore the impact of technology on media creating theories such as Mediamorphosis.

As technology and cyber communication becomes more social and fragmented, it’s also worth looking at selective exposure and to ask the question: does technology accelerate select exposure creating, in my own opinion, a form of intellectual inbreeding. We’ll explore each of these concepts briefly.

Knowledge gap theory has been applied to traditional media. One of it’s key identifiers is the notion that as time goes by, the consumption and processing of knowledge on an individual topic is acquired at faster rates among more affluent individuals than with those who lack economic or education means (Tichenor, Donohue, &  Olien, 1970, pgs. 159-170). When applied to cyber communication or new media, it forms a “digital divide” (Severin & Tankard, 2001, p. 377).  “One of the problems facing society is that the rich benefits of the Internet might not be equally available to everyone” (Severin & Tankard, 2001, p. 377). Cyber communication and new media make the creation and sharing of information a high efficient process, if one possesses both the tools and knowledge necessary to find the information.

Agenda setting theory as applied to traditional media asserts that the media’s power to distribute repetitious messages has the power to leverage or heighten audience perception on issues. In other words, because media is a source of information, it has the power not necessarily to tell audiences  what  to think, but they play a key role in telling audiences what to think  about  (Severin & Tankard, 2001, pgs. 219-241). It’s unclear if agenda setting theory will play out in cyber communications and new media. Arguments against it include the notion that audiences online are too fragmented. However, there is early evidence that it could play out in new media as well. Severin & Tankard cite a study conducted in Korea that examined issues and their priority between online media and traditional media. Issues such as job and the economy were segmented. The results of that research found that a topic with a high priority in one form of media (traditional or online) also had a high prevalence in another, suggesting agenda setting theory could also apply to new media (Severin & Tankard, 2001, p. 373). While it’s not 100% clear there is a correlation, the concept of agenda plays well into another communication theory, the notion of selective exposure.

Selective exposure explores the role of perception in communication and outlines “the tendency for individuals to expose themselves to those communications that are in agreement with their existing attitudes and to avoid those communications that are not” (Severin & Tankard, 2001, p.80). In today’s cyber communication realm, the notion of audience fragmentation is a concern. Researches such as David Tewksbury (2005) have explored the concept of audience fragmentation specifically in relation to online news sites and found that audiences online are highly fragmented and easily grouped by demographics and psychographics (pgs. 332-348). The narrowing of audience focus on content continues to accelerate with social technologies that connect us to those with similar values. Internet users now spend more than a quarter of their time online plugged into social networks, and consume a bulk of their news and information from these sources (Jon, p. 2b). A logical question to come from that fact would be, do new media technologies facilitate and accelerate the selective exposure process? Emerging technologies create content silos in which we see only content shared from within our circle unless we seek out diverse perspectives or have a diverse circle of influencers.

As mentioned before, the development of new theories or even looking at the application of existing theories continues to be a challenge in regards to new media and cyber communication. Questions like the one this essay just asked in regards to new media and selective exposure continue to be the central force in theory and new media discussions (Severin & Tankard, 2001, p. 379).

One of the more prominent theories developed around new media and cyber communication however is Roger Fidler’s theory of Mediamorphosis. Fidler defines mediamorphosis as “the transformation of communication media, usually brought about by the complex interplay of perceived needs, competitive and political pressures, and social and technological innovations” (1997, pgs. 22-23). The premise of the theory is that media systems are highly adaptable, and in regards to “other systems, respond to external pressures with a spontaneous process of self-reorganization.” (Severin & Tankard 380) Suggesting perhaps another characteristic of new media, adaptability.

Concluding Thoughts

While the technology will continue to change at a blistering pace, the concepts of new media and cyber communication can still be examined from existing communication theories. However, as this essay and research has suggested, there continues to be a need for continued research and exploration of new theories as technologies change the way we communicate.

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Dizard, Wilson. (1997).  Old Media New Media: Mass Communications in the Information Age.  New York: Longman.

Downes, E. J., & McMillan, S. J. (2000). Defining interactivity: A qualitative identification of key dimensions.  New Media & Society , 2(2), 157. Retrieved from EBSCO host .

Fidler, Roger. (1997).  Mediamorphosis: Understanding New Media.  Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press.

Jon, S. (n.d). Time spent on Facebook, Twitter, YouTube grows.  USA Today . Retrieved from EBSCO host ..

Manovich, Lev. (1999).  The Language of New Media.  Cambridge: The MIT Press.

Severin, Werner. & Tankard, James. (2001).  Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media.  New York: Longman.

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Cybercrime: Victimization, Perpetration, and Techniques

• Published: 10 November 2021
• Volume 46 , pages 837–842, ( 2021 )

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• James Hawdon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0273-2227 1  

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The creation of the World Wide Web revolutionized communication. At the turn of the twenty-first century, roughly 413 million people used the internet (Roser & Ortiz-Ospina, 2015 ). A mere 21 years later, nearly 4.7 billion people, or about 60% of the world’s population, actively use the internet (We Are Social, & DataReportal, & Hootsuite, 2021 ). The pace of innovation in information technology, from the introduction of email in the 1960s to the rise of multiple social media platforms in the early 2000s to the rise of the Internet of Things (Iot) and 5 g, has been astonishing. It is now almost inconceivable to imagine life without access to the internet. Yet the IT revolution, like all technological revolutions, has been a dual-edge sword. Indeed, the internet’s many benefits and drawbacks have been discussed in numerous forums, and these discussions will undoubtedly continue as long as we remain dependent on this technology. This special edition of the American Journal of Criminal Justice contributes to those discussions by considering one of the drawbacks: cybercime.

Cybercrime, or the use of computer technology or online networks to commit crimes, ranges from fraud and identity theft to threats and intimidation. Cybercrime and its many manifestations has clearly increased over the past 20 years. For example, cybercrime costs increased from approximately $3 trillion in 2015 to more than $6 trillion in 2021, and these are expected to increase to over $10.5 trillion by 2025 (Morgan, 2020 ). In the U.S. alone, approximately 23 percent of households experience some sort of cybercrime annually (Reinhart, 2018 ; Hawdon et al., 2020 ). Indeed, in the same way that larceny characterized the twentieth century, cybercrime is characterizing the twenty-first century (Albanese, 2005 ). And these facts just reflect the economic costs of cybercrime and do not account for the non-monetary harms caused by cyberviolence. Cyberstalking, online sexual exploitation, cyber-harassment and bullying, threats of violence, and online violent extremism are also commonly committed acts of cyberviolence (FBI, 2021 ).

In many ways, it is unsurprising that cybercrime has increased in recent years. As technology becomes more sophisticated, so do cybercriminals, and cybercriminals now target individuals, businesses, healthcare facilities, educational institutions, and governments. As more people engage in an ever-increasing variety of online activities and more businesses conduct their affairs online, it is predictable that there would be a rise in cybercrime. To use the familiar language of Routine Activity Theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979 ), we have a lot more suitable targets in insufficiently guarded space being victimized by an increasing number motivated offenders. It is also unsurprising that there is a growing body of literature dedicated to cybercrime as scholars scramble to understand the ever-evolving phenomena. Entire journals are now dedicated to its study, and new academic disciplines have been created to try to prevent it. While our understanding of cybercrime has accumulated quickly and impressively, there is so much about cybercrime that we still do not know. This special issue of the A merican Journal of Criminal Justice offers nine new articles to help fill that knowledge gap.

The articles included in this issue reflect three broad areas of cybercrime research: cybercrime victimization, cybercrime perpetration, and techniques and facilitators of cybercrime. While there is some overlap, the issue includes three papers focused on each of these three areas.

The first area covered in the special issue focuses on cybercrime victimization. This area has generated the most research to date. In part because victims of cybercrime are relatively easy to find, considerable research has been conducted on cybervictimization across a variety of cybercrimes. Three of the articles in this special issue focus on cybervictimization, and they add to the literature in interesting ways by providing cross-national perspectives, building on theoretical traditions, or providing systematic summaries of the state of field at this time.

The first article in this section by Michelle Wright and a team of colleagues investigates how adolescent from China, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, India, Japan, and the United States explain being a victim of cyberbully. The investigation compares if how adolescents explain victimization varies by setting (private vs. public), medium (offline vs cyber), and severity and if cultural differences alter these relationships. Their findings suggest the need for prevention and intervention efforts to consider the role of setting, medium, severity, and cultural values if they are to be successful.

The second paper focusing on victimization builds on the frequent finding that problematic social media use is associated with negative life experiences and provides empirical support for a theoretical link between problematic social media use and cybervictimization. The analysis, conducted by colleagues Eetu Marttila, Aki Koivula, and Pekka Räsänen, is framed in Routine Activity Theory/Lifestyle-Exposure Theory. The results indicate that not only is problematic social media use strongly correlated with cybervictimization in a between-subject analysis, but within-subject analyses also reveal that problematic social media use has a cumulative effect on victimization.

The third paper bridges research on cybercrime victimization and cybercrime perpetration and provides a glimpse at the state of knowledge about a specific form of cyberviolence. Catherine Marcum and George Higgins conduct a systematic review of literature investigating both offending and victimization of cyberstalking, cyberdating abuse, and interpersonal electronic surveillance. Using a number of electronic databases, the authors focus on 31 studies to identify correlates of involvement in these cybercrimes. Victims are disproportionately female. Other correlates of victimization include overall social media use, risky online behavior, and negative external factors such as being attached to abusive peers. Correlates of perpetration provide support for a number of leading criminological theories as perpetrators tend to have low levels of self-control, associate with delinquent peers, and have low levels of parental supervision. As more research is conducted, there is a great need for more systematic literature reviews so we can begin to better refine our understanding and identify the theoretical approaches that provide the most insight into the world of cybercrime.

There are another three articles included in this special issue that focus on cybercrime perpetration. All three articles test traditional criminological theories and find support for them. In the first, Adam Bossler uses Sykes and Matza’s ( 1957 ) techniques of neutralization to examine the effects of techniques of neutralization on college students’ willingness to commit cybercrime, specifically hacking websites to deface them or compromise foreign and domestic financial and government targets. An overall techniques of neutralization scale significantly predicts being willing to commit cyberattacks even after controlling for other relevant factors. In addition to the theoretical implications of finding strong support for Sykes and Matza’s framework, the findings also have implications for situational crime prevention efforts aimed at removing excuses for offenders.

In another article focusing on perpetration, Thomas Dearden and Katalin Parti use a national online sample of 1,109 participants and find strong support for social learning theory as measures of both online and offline social learning correlate with a measure of cyber-offending. However, the authors also argue that self-control will interact with social learning variables to further influence the likelihood of cyber-offending. Overall, they find that both social learning and self-control, individually and as an interaction, are good predictors of cyber-offending.

In the final article dedicated to investigating the perpetration of cybercrime, Ashley Reichelmann and Matthew Costello use a nationally representative sample to explore how various dimensions of American national identity relate to producing online hate materials. The analysis reveals that higher levels of salience and public self-regard are weakly related to producing online hate. However, the findings suggest that understanding the nuances of “what it means to be American” is important for fully understanding the phenomenon of cyberhate, especially in this polarizing time when what it means to “be American” is frequently questioned.

Another three articles deal with perpetrating cybercrimes or “pseudo-cybercrimes,” but their focus is on how these crimes are committed. That is, the investigations deal with using the Dark Web or the surface web to make illegal or pseudo-legal purchases of illegal or quasi-legal substances. In the first paper in the section, Eric Jardine provides a crime script for purchasing drugs on the Dark Web. The script involves four generic stages (i.e. Informational Accumulation; Account Formation; Market Exchange; Delivery/Receipt) and provides an opportunity to review known law enforcement interventions that have effectively targeted each stage of the script to reduce the use of these online markets. The paper highlights numerous steps that law enforcement could take to effectively reduce the illegal selling and purchasing of drugs on the Dark Web.

Next, Robert Perdue engages in green criminology and focuses on the illegal trade of endangered species. Noting that regulating this trade is a critical, and very difficult, challenge for conservationists and law enforcement agents, Perdue examines the role the Internet plays in critically endangered plant transactions, but instead of focusing on the Dark Web, he investigates eBay to understand the extent to which such trades occur in plain sight. He finds that nearly a third of the critically endangered plant species examined were for sale in some form on eBay. Yet, despite the evidence that there is a high degree of open trading in these species, the complexity of the international legal frameworks regulating these transactions makes it difficult to ascertain their legality. Nevertheless, at least a subset of these sales are probably unlawful.

Finally, J. Mitchell Miller and Holly Ventura Miller provide insight into the computer-facilitated gray market of pseudo-legal marijuana sales in Los Vegas, Nevada. The ethnographic study reveals how various cannabis products are illegally diverted from legal markets to the gray market, and how brokers use the Internet in clever ways to advertise their products and services to a public that is likely unaware that they are engaging in illegal activities by skirting the regulations and tight control of the legal market.

Taken together, these three papers highlight the tremendous difficulties with regulating e-commerce. While the Dark Web provides an environment to conduct illegal transactions with minimal risk, it turns out that the Dark Web may be unnecessary for many illegal cyber-purchases. Given the surface web is convenient, widely available, and scarcely policed, many cybercriminals simply commit their crimes in the open. Using the language of Routine Activity Theory again, the internet—Dark or Surface—is an environment largely devoid of capable guardians.

As a whole, I believe these nine papers speak to the current state and future promise of cybercriminology. Currently, we are building a large body of empirical studies that speak to patterns of victimization and perpetration. With respect to victimization, we have learned a lot about who is likely to be victimized and how the patterns of victimization vary by type of cybercrime. We also have a good understanding of the activities that increase the likelihood of victimization, the emotional and financial costs of being a victim, and how people view victims depending on the setting and type of victimization. The body of evidence supporting a slightly modified version of Routine Activity Theory/Lifestyle-Exposure Theory is increasingly impressive, and the papers by Marttila, Koivula, and Räsänen as well as the article by Marcum and Higgins offer additional support for aspects of this theoretical approach.

Similarly, our understanding of cybercrime perpetration has expanded exponentially in recent years. While finding samples of cybercriminals is always a challenge, the growing body of evidence suggests that the behavior of cybercriminals is largely explained by the same set of factors that can account for the behavior of more traditional criminals. That is, cybercriminals tend to have low levels of self and social control, are largely unsupervised, experience strains, and learn the how, when, and why of their crimes from their associates. The papers in this issue offer additional support for techniques of neutralization, social learning theory, and self-control theory. While there are nuanced differences in how some criminogenic factors play out in the virtual and offline worlds, our existing theories appear to be robust as many of our theories apply to both online and offline criminal behavior. A number of the differences that exist largely relate to the asynchronous nature of many online interactions. The fact that online interactions can occur synchronously as well as asynchronously expands our networks and provide additional opportunities for others beyond our immediate environment to influence us and for us to commit crimes. The full ramifications of these changes in social networks, criminogenic forces, and criminal opportunities are not understood; however, we understand these far better today than we did even just a few years ago.

We also have a far greater understanding of the techniques of committing cybercrimes. We know considerably more about the use of the Dark Web to find and purchase illegal goods and services, and we have learned that the Surface Web plays a significant role in computer-dependent crimes. Moreover, as the article by Miller and Miller highlights, information technology has helped blur the line between legal, pseudo-legal, and illegal behaviors. What work in this area really highlights is how difficult it is to monitor and police the internet. While there is certainly social control exercised on the internet, there are limits to the effectiveness of this control (see Hawdon et al., 2017 ). Yet, by understanding the patterns of victimization, the underlying causes of perpetration, and the techniques that facilitate cybercrime, we become better armed in designing strategies to prevent it, defend against it, mitigate its adverse effects, and prosecute those who commit it. All of the articles included in this issue further that understanding.

The Special Issue

The process of selecting the articles for this special issue was perhaps unusual but also rather intensive. The process began by me inviting a group of scholars to submit manuscripts for the special issue. I selected these scholars because I knew of their work and was confident they would submit quality papers that covered a wide range of topics in the area of cybercrime. After discussing their planned submissions with the authors to assure there would be good topic coverage, the authors submitted their paper. An anonymous scholar and I reviewed these initial submissions (the anonymous scholar served as a typical double-blind reviewer). Each contributing author also reviewed one or two of the included articles. Authors then revised their work based on the reviewers’ comments and resubmitted the papers. Each contributing author was then asked to read all nine revised papers. Then, the authors and I took advantage of the brief pause in the COVID-19 pandemic and gathered for a two-day workshop in Asheville, North Carolina as part of the Center for Peace Studies and Violence Prevention’s annual research workshop program. The lone exception to this was our Finnish colleagues who were unable to get a special visa to visit the U.S. at that time. These colleagues joined the workshop via Zoom. The authors/workshop participants then discussed and provided feedback on all of the articles. The authors then made final revisions to their papers based on these discussions. Thus, these papers have been through three rounds of revisions. As the editor of the special edition, I am proud of the finished product.

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Hawdon, J. Cybercrime: Victimization, Perpetration, and Techniques. Am J Crim Just 46 , 837–842 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-021-09652-7

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-021-09652-7

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Cyber in the Shadows: Why the Future of Cyber Operations Will Be Covert

By Richard L. Manley Joint Force Quarterly 106

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C urrent cyber conflict looks very similar to traditional conflict models. The difference from traditional power dynamics offered by the cyber domain, however, is the asymmetrical advantage of technology for would-be actors. This new element of national power allows weaker actors to “punch above their weight” in competition or conflict with Great Powers in a unipolar or multipolar world. John Arquilla describes this new environment as an “information revolution” that “implies the rise of cyber war, in which neither mass nor mobility will decide outcomes.” 1 Continuing in the spirit of Ivan Arreguín-Toft’s strategic interaction theory, cyber operations allow significant latitude for strong actors to compete indirectly, short of physical conflict in the traditional sense. 2 Cyber also allows weak actors to impose costs against strong actors without incurring significant risk. Strong actors continue to integrate the effects achieved in the cyber domain into their doctrinal foreign policy, whether militarily or otherwise, to maximize layered effects. The outcomes of the new competitive space of cyber have been theorized for decades now, but what makes prediction difficult is the pace of innovation and the change in available technology.

This article discusses the effects of cyber operations on the strategic interaction of actors in the cyber domain, gives examples of the use of cyber in Great Power competition, and explains how cyber operations offer an asymmetric advantage to weaker actors. It focuses on works by Keir Giles, Austin Carson and Keren Yarhi-Milo, and Ryan Maness and Margarita Jaitner toward the use of cyber operations by revisionist state actors such as the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China. It demonstrates how cyber allows these actors to “play a weak hand well” in support of their respective theories of hybrid warfare and unrestricted warfare. Moving on from revisionist states, this article gives examples of strategic interaction in the cyber domain by rogue states such as North Korea by describing the asymmetric advantage that nation enjoys as the weaker actor in a struggle with South Korea and the United States. Works from Hyeong-wook Boo, Ellen Nakashima, and Paul Sonne enable explanation of how cyber operations allow rogue states to apply pressure on adversaries without necessarily advancing conventional conflict. Finally, in contrast to Arquilla, this article takes the position that, despite the asymmetrical advantages offered by cyber operations, their future use will necessarily be clandestine or covert to avoid crossing the threshold of armed conflict.

Revisionist State Operations

As the Russian Federation continues expansionist aims to its west to thwart North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) expansion in Eastern Europe, the Kremlin understands that the Alliance can mass more combat power and enjoys a spending advantage, should it unite with Eastern European nations. To combat this outcome, Russia has incorporated technology into its traditional form of “active measures” to ensure that psychological operations provide it a deceptive advantage. This ability to use political and psychological warfare allows Russia to create doubt in the minds of both Allies and aspirants. For example, during the incursion into Ukraine in 2014, “Russians cleverly used SMS messages to text Ukrainian frontline troops to demoralize their frontline forces—which even include[d] references to their wives and children back in Kyiv.” 3 Adaptation of cyber tactics creates a definite psychological advantage for Russian forces against a distracted and potentially demoralized combatant on the battlefield. By shaping the battlefield through cyber-enabled information operations, Russia can prevent consolidation of an opposing ally’s military power and create doubt within alliances.

These strong-arm tactics are not limited only to military capability but are also on full display in the political warfare arena. Russia’s efforts to deploy active measures during the 2016 U.S. elections are well reported, and the latent effect is a lasting doubt in the minds of many Americans regarding the validity of the U.S. system. Maness and Jaitner explain that “Russian political interference is about keeping an adversary nation domestically divided for a long period of time. Russia looks to spread division, exacerbate any conflict possible, and ultimately destabilize the political system and erode trust in the government and institutions.” 4 Moscow has used this strategy of sowing distrust for decades, but the advantages afforded by the cyber environment will ensure these efforts continue aggressively unless checked.

Along with Russia, China seeks to upset global norms through incorporation of cyber operations. China’s concept of unrestricted warfare allows it to combine all elements of national power to pressure opponents, and incorporation of cyber operations certainly allows China to dictate the pace of that competition. After an internal recognition that it was falling behind technologically, the Chinese Communist Party began a worldwide campaign of intellectual property theft to artificially advance its technological horizons. Today, China aggressively targets U.S. military contractors and infrastructure, seeking to improve its capabilities. In his nomination hearing to lead U.S. Indo-Pacific Command, Admiral Philip S. Davidson explained, the “Chinese are investing in a range of platforms, including quieter submarines armed with increasingly sophisticated weapons and new sensors. . . . What they cannot develop on their own, they steal—often through cyberspace.” 5 These comments came on the heels of a Chinese hack of a “trove of highly sensitive data on submarine warfare,” highlighting the seriousness of Chinese hacking. 6 Despite U.S. pressure and diplomatic interactions, China seems poised to continue its online espionage practices while relying on the entanglement of competitors’ economies with its own as security against decisive action to counter it. China’s willingness to aggressively use technology to monitor and control its citizens internally while exporting similar technologies to would-be authoritarian states should make these efforts particularly concerning to free nations.

Rogue Actors and Asymmetrical Advantage

Rogue states, such as North Korea and Iran as well as violent extremist organizations, count on the asymmetric advantage offered by operations in cyber space, though with differing levels of success. North Korea’s coercive efforts to strong-arm Sony in 2014 led to international recognition that a weak actor can find avenues of coercion in cyber, even if the stated goal of limiting release of the movie The Interview failed. But this widely reported attack is a small piece of what Hyeong-wook Boo describes as “very sophisticated cyber attacks against South Korea and the United States. Starting from simple DDoS [distributed denial-of-service] attacks on popular websites and e-mail hacking, their cyber offensive operations adopted advanced technologies called . . . Advanced Persistent Threat.” 7 These aggressive attacks are part of North Korea’s strategic interaction with a stronger actor. Such risky operations by rogue states are allowed to continue because the stronger actor wishes to keep conflict low. The risk taken by rogue states in the cyber realm is that these operations hinge on the stronger actor’s desire to maintain a low-conflict state. Should the strong actor determine that it is no longer in its interest to allow such activities, and that direct conflict would provide a better alternative to absorbing attacks, the weaker actor cannot hope to prevail. The consequence is that cyber operations must necessarily exist under a threshold of acceptable violence, which limits the decisiveness of a cyber campaign.

Future of Cyber Operations: Movement Toward “Covertness”

The ability to use cyber operations as a shaping mechanism toward a desired policy will require the ability to plausibly deny the actor’s involvement. This interaction has been described as the “frontstage and backstage” of international relations where an “action [that] may be unseen or misunderstood by people only viewing the frontstage carries amplifying messaging and signaling to those with backstage access.” 8 The full implication of an action or event is better understood by those with understanding of the backstage who can receive the full message. In this way, a form of communication can take place between a target and a sponsor who remains nonattributed to the activity.

This explains how a stronger actor can incorporate cyber operations into an overall deterrence strategy, but how can a weaker actor hope to accomplish decisive actions in the cyber realm? Because the weak actor is, by definition, less powerful across the spectrum of diplomatic, informational, military, and economic capacity than a stronger competitor, its operations can only exist under an acceptable threshold of violence or pressure. When a strong actor determines that it is no longer in its best interest to allow a weak actor to compete in the cyber realm, what is the weak actor’s response? John Gartzke explains the relative risk factor of cyber attacks is “low mainly because those who have the power to intervene to stop or punish irritant behavior often do not have the motivation to do so.” 9 This article’s position on the growing need to hide cyber activities draws heavily from Gartzke’s works revisiting the stability-instability paradox. The distinction lies in the credibility of the weaker actor’s capacity to address the response of the stronger. Carson and Yarhi-Milo explain that “covert action is intelligible because it contains a range of salient, qualitative thresholds that are mutually meaningful as symbols of a sponsor’s resolve,” but they stress that these signals must be “believable.” 10 The degree to which a weak actor can credibly signal resolve to a strong actor plays a significant role in defining the stability (or instability) of their interaction.

Stability-Instability Paradox in Cyber

Much of Cold War deterrence theory was built on the concept of mutually assured destruction. Because the consequences of full-scale conflict between nuclear powers were so great, nuclear actors understood that their nuclear might was essentially not a viable strategy except for its deterrent effect. From that deterrent effect was born the stability-instability paradox, which posited that “scaling up nuclear deterrence might actually increase freedom of action at lower levels of violence.” 11 From this paradox, Professor Glenn Snyder considered the strategic interaction between the United States and the Soviet Union by hypothesizing that the “Soviets probably feel, considering the massive retaliation threat alone, that there is a range of minor ventures which they can undertake with impunity, despite the objective existence of some probability of retaliation.” 12 Because the consequences of action taken to prevent these low-intensity conflicts were so great, the strategic actors naturally settled into a competitive environment where offensive actions were allowed provided that an acceptable threshold was not crossed. The question of the time was: What exactly is the acceptable threshold and how far could an adversary be pushed?

Recently, Gartzke revisited the stability-instability paradox by applying it to the cyber environment. Table 1 interprets that application as it relates to the “covertness” of cyber operations. Assuming the model is true, the following logic unfolds related to the future of cyber operations:

• The United States, as the unipolar actor, can continue to set the terms of cyber operations. When seeking to influence revisionists who are relatively strong and can retaliate, the United States can find an advantage in covertness, provided the backstage message is received. When dealing with rogues, the United States can conduct operations overtly, if desired, to send a clear message for deterrence or covertly if targeting a specific objective or individual. The United States will also dictate the acceptable threshold of activities by determining which cyber attacks it is willing to absorb, and where its cyber “red lines” for retaliation (physical attack) exist.
• Revisionist actors seeking to influence the United States should develop appropriate covert solutions through use of proxies and surrogates to allow for plausible deniability and should ensure their cyber operations remain under the U.S. thresholds for overt retaliation. In competition with one another or with rogue actors, revisionists can operate either covertly or overtly, depending on the relative conventional strength of their opponent.
• Rogue actors should seek to remain as covert as possible, except in those instances where they determine that public support may limit conventional retaliation from a stronger actor. An example of this is the Sony hack perpetrated by North Korea. While it did not achieve its fully intended aims, North Korea did send a deterrent message to its adversaries and messaged its capabilities effectively.

Cyber Brinkmanship

In October 1962, the two global multipolar superpowers came to the absolute brink of nuclear war over missiles in Cuba. Each world leader faced a seemingly unwavering adversary, and neither John F. Kennedy nor Nikita Khrushchev appeared to have any incentive to compromise first, short of preventing the end of modern civilization. Each nuclear superpower needed to demonstrate to the other and its populace that the terms of competition were being redefined. This redefinition nearly ended the world. What followed after this crisis was a recognition that conflict in the nuclear world was to be different—that superpowers seeking to damage one another had new consequences, and new rules to the game were necessary. The result was an era of covert activities that would allow for indirect pressure while avoiding direct pain. Neither side wanted to repeat the flare-up of the Cuban Missile Crisis, and so both settled into a covert status quo.

Considering the lessons of the beginning of the nuclear age, it seems appropriate to consider similar conditions most likely to exist in the digital age. A period of “feeling out” each other’s capabilities seems natural as new norms and standards are defined. It is also natural to assume that some level of brinkmanship will take place in relation to cyber capability. In a piece for Wired magazine in August 2019, Andy Greenberg asserted that this brinkmanship is already taking place:

Over the past weekend, the New York Times reported that U.S. Cyber Command has penetrated more deeply than ever before into Russian electric utilities, planting malware potentially capable of disrupting the grid, perhaps as a retaliatory measure meant to deter further cyberattacks by the country’s hackers. But judging by Russia’s response, news of the grid-hacking campaign may have already had the immediate opposite effect: The Kremlin warned that the intrusions could escalate into a cyberwar between the two countries, even as it claimed that Russia’s grid was immune from suc h threats. 13

The implications of cyber attacks against civilian utility grids are especially concerning based on the risk of widespread loss of innocent lives; while not as outright deadly as a nuclear attack, the level of damage and the follow-on effects are incalculable if conducted in an escalatory fashion. While Russia has folded cyber attacks on a limited to moderate scale into its hybrid warfare strategy, as demonstrated in the Crimea annexation of 2014, neither side fully understands the implications of these types of infrastructure attacks against a peer competitor.

Greenberg goes on to explain that the risk of this cyber brinkmanship may have been brought on by an effort from the Trump administration to signal a deterrent capability to the Russians. Former Homeland Security Advisor Tom Bossert explains that the potential for escalation is particularly important given our own vulnerabilities to attacks on the grid: “If you’re doused in gasoline, don’t start a match-throwing contest.” 14 Herein lies another paradox: How does one signal covert capability? What is the appropriate method to demonstrate a secret?

Covertness Limits Brinkmanship

Since the dawn of the nuclear age, covert action has been the “third option” for policymakers requiring a response to an adversary with whom war is impossible or too costly. According to Carson and Yarhi-Milo, “Using covert action to signal resolve can also appear credible because of its impact on the risk of crisis escalation.” 15 This principle has allowed nuclear superpowers to compete with deniability, thus limiting the escalatory impacts of conflict and allowing one another a way out. Examples of this behavior in cyber space are beginning to emerge. The unclaimed Stuxnet attack on an Iranian nuclear subterfuge facility and Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. Presidential election are both examples of nation-state competition in the covert cyber realm. These examples demonstrate the potential of direct covert cyber operations to allow flexibility in policy while affecting an adversary’s behavior. But is this the limit of cyber’s potential? Are there indirect attack vectors that can set the new tone of conflict in cyber? During the Cold War, a series of proxy conflicts emerged as the battleground for nation-states. Insurgencies and guerrilla war in Iran, Vietnam, Afghanistan, Tibet, and other places were conflict areas where nation-states could impose cost on an adversary and dictate terms of policy. Can the cyber realm provide the next covert battlespace?

The Arab Spring

A case study for the power of online connectivity and the influence of social media exists in the case of the Arab Spring. Erin Blakemore writes:

Beginning in December 2010, anti-government protests rocked Tunisia. By early 2011 they had spread into what became known as the Arab Spring—a wave of protests, uprisings, and unrest that spread across Arabic-speaking countries in North Africa and the Middle East. Pro-democratic protests, which spread rapidly due to social media, ended up toppling the governments of Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen. 16

The pro-democratic protests were fueled through propagation of online messaging. Platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube fed a populace eager for change, even after governments attempted to shut down the communications networks. Philip Howard describes the power of social media and online connectivity related to the revolutions: “People who shared interest in democracy built extensive social networks and organized political action. Social media became a critical part of the toolkit for greater freedom.” 17

As of this writing, no nation or entity has claimed responsibility for control of this social media toolkit. The online activist group Anonymous does claim to have provided technical support and expertise, but the messaging and content are assessed to have been spontaneous and homegrown. But what if, in the future, themes and content could be guided? Insurgencies and political actions that formerly required agent interaction may now be propagated through social media, their grievances engineered by the aggressor. Russia’s attempts at political manipulation in the 2016 U.S. Presidential election came close to this type of social engineering, but the effects remained mostly in the cyber realm except for a few protests and fights. The social engineering aspects potentially available to a covert cyber operation are significant, especially when considered alongside already established research regarding social movement theory.

In his pioneering works on social movements, anthropologist David Aberle posits that there are four types of social movements. Table 2 illustrates his description of the four types, with an added consideration of a category for vulnerability to cyber influence.

As the Internet took shape as a component of everyday modern life, researchers began to look at the effects of a networked populace and its ability to share grievances. In the late 1990s, as social media was a ground-floor enterprise, Donatella della Porta and Mario Diani defined social movement in their foundational work on the subject as “informal networks formed through the shared beliefs and solidarity of members, which mobilize to support specific positions on social issues through various forms of protest.” 18 In 2003, Diani further emphasized the effect of social media on movements: “The new social movements that inspired the network model did not require membership, were decentralized, dynamic, and without formal hierarchy, and depended on participants identifying with the perspectives and positions of the movement and its objectives.” 19 It is in this description where the opportunities for covert action emerge. A decentralized, leaderless network that ascribes truth to its own interpretations, is motivated through shared belief in those principles, and lacks a clear hierarchy presents an interesting opportunity to either witting or unwitting manipulation.

A motivated state actor, desiring to indirectly affect the actions of a competitor, could capitalize on this type of informal network structure to seed disinformation and deception to build toward social movement. This could be manifested in the social populace of a competitor’s ally, key trading partner, commodity supplier, or directly into the populace itself. Propagation of misinformation or amplification of counter-state narratives can allow for frontstage condemnation and pressure, all while controlling the narrative through covert action in the backstage. While this is not new to the concept of covert action, it is a new method of distribution and a new opportunity to act covertly using unwitting proxies. In the Arab Spring example, it is not impossible to imagine a state or group of states motivated by promulgation of democracy controlling the messaging to Tunisia, Egypt, and Syria covertly, manipulating the tone, tempo, and spread of counter-state narratives the same way a military general coordinates a campaign. In this manner, a covert actor can adjust the tenor and content of messaging in the backstage to either ratchet up pressure when hard negotiations are happening or dial it back when concessions are made—all while maintaining plausible deniability about involvement and managing escalatory risk.

As society comes to terms with the realities of a cyber-enabled world, the consequences of cyber attacks will most likely increase as strong actors seek to deter their weaker adversaries. The advantage that cyber attacks afford weaker actors can be mitigated through consequences in the physical space. These consequences will most likely drive cyber competition toward covert activities conducted through proxies and surrogates. The effects of cyber operations will seek to shape the environment for a competitive advantage in conflict, but the results of cyber operations will most likely not be decisive outcomes. Instead, cyber operations will be incorporated into other forms of strategic interaction, including wartime functions, as a supporting effort, much the same way current covert action is incorporated as a policy-shaping mechanism. The potential of covert social movement and manipulation outweighs the risk of overt actions, either cyber or war. The risk calculus weighs heavily into the covert realm, even if only as a shaping action with potential for full-scale success.

The net benefits of indirect cyber operations are a potential outlet for actors to compete in a nonlethal way, continuing the trend of making warfare more precise and leading away from large-scale loss of life. The threat is the limiting effect that security requirements have on the technology surrounding a modern world and the vulnerabilities that exposure to cyber operations creates in a hyper-connected planet. The opportunities to engineer an environment to promote social change from within an adversary’s borders, while managing escalation potential, demonstrate that covert cyber operations are a growth industry for both strong and weak actors. JFQ

1 John Arquilla, “Cyberwar Is Already Upon Us,” Foreign Policy , February 27, 2012, available at <https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/02/27/cyberwar-is-already-upon-us/>.

2 Ivan Arreguín-Toft, “How the Weak Win Wars: a Theory of Assymetric Conflict,” International Security 26, no. 1 (Summer 2001), available at <https://web.stanford.edu/class/polisci211z/2.2/Arreguin-Toft%20IS%202001.pdf>.

3 Keir Giles, “Assessing Russia’s Reorganized and Rearmed Military,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the Chicago Council of Global Affairs, Task Force on U.S. Policy Toward Russia, Ukraine, and Eurasia, May 4, 2017, available at <https://carnegieendowment.org/files/5.4.2017_Keir_Giles_RussiaMilitary.pdf>.

4 Ryan C. Maness and Margarita Jaitner, “There’s More to Russia’s Cyber Interference than the Mueller Probe Suggests,” Washington Post , March 12, 2018, available at <https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/03/12/theres-more-to-russias-cyber-meddling-than-the-mueller-probe-suggests/>.

5 Ellen Nakashima and Paul Sonne, “China Hacked a Navy Contractor and Secured a Trove of Highly Sensitive Data on Submarine Warfare,” Washington Post , June 8, 2018, 5.

7 Hyeong-wook Boo, “An Assessment of North Korean Cyber Threats,” in The Kim Jong Un Regime and the Future Security Environment Surrounding the Korean Peninsula (Tokyo: National Institute for Defense Studies, 2017), available at <http://www.nids.mod.go.jp/english/event/symposium/pdf/2016/E-02.pdf>.

8 Austin Carson and Keren Yarhi-Milo, “Covert Communication: The Intelligibility and Credibility of Signaling in Secret,” Security Studies 26, no. 1 (January 2, 2017), 124–156, available at <https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2017.1243921>.

9 Jon R. Lindsay and Erik Gartzke, “Coercion Through Cyberspace: The Stability-Instability Paradox Revisited,” in The Power to Hurt: Coercion in Theory and in Practice , ed. Kelly M. Greenhill and Peter J.P. Krause (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 40.

10 Carson and Yarhi-Milo, “Covert Communication.”

11 Michael Krepon, “The Stability-Instability Paradox,” Arms Control Wonk , November 2, 2010, available at <https://www.armscontrolwonk.com/archive/402911/the-stability-instability-paradox/>.

12 Glenn Herald Snyder, Deterrence and Defense (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016).

13 Andy Greenberg, “How Not to Prevent a Cyberwar with Russia,” Wired , June 18, 2019, available at <https://www.wired.com/story/russia-cyberwar-escalation-power-grid/>.

15 Carson and Yarhi-Milo, “Covert Communication.”

16 Erin Blakemore, “What Was the Arab Spring and How Did It Spread?” National Geographic , March 29, 2019, available at <https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/topics/reference/arab-spring-cause/>.

17 Catherine O’Donnell, “New Study Quantifies Use of Social Media in Arab Spring,” UW News , September 12, 2011, available at <https://www.washington.edu/news/2011/09/12/new-study-quantifies-use-of-social-media-in-arab-spring/>.

18 David Zimbra, Ahmed Abbasi, and Hsinchun Chen, “A Cyber-Archaeology Approach to Social Movement Research: Framework and Case Study,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 16, no. 1 (October 1, 2010), 48–70, available at <https://academic.oup.com/jcmc/article/16/1/48/4067637>.

Communication

Communication is a foundational component of all work in cybersecurity. Communication happens in many forms, written, spoken, and even non-verbal. It happens in large groups and small, sometimes it's real-time, and sometimes it's asynchronous. Communicating effectively is perhaps the most important soft skill in this framework. Everyone also carries past experiences, perceptions, ideas, and mental models. These things inevitably inform how people receive and interpret any form of communication.

There are numerous subsets of communication, each of which can be developed to improve overall. Some of the more prominent of these include:

• Writing skills
• Oral communication
• Presentation skills
• Active listening
• Nonverbal communication

Communication serves many purposes for people:

• To inform others of something
• To express feelings
• To influence somebody in a particular direction
• To collaborate with others

Communication is the bridge between two or more people. It is an essential ingredient to organizations and teams getting things done. Like any skill, investing in communication skills is necessary if an individual or a group wants to improve their outcomes.

Growth Resources

In Practice

Communication can help you no matter what role you work in or the seniority level you find yourself. The below list is far from exhaustive, but it's included to help you think through the various places where you can begin working on the different aspects of communication in your day-to-day life.

One of the CISO's primary job functions is evangelizing cybersecurity across the organization. This means different things to different people in different contexts. For example, it can mean:

• Effectively conveying the importance of cybersecurity measures to others
• Explaining the potential risks and consequences of not implementing security controls
• Summarizing complex technical concepts into something that non-technical stakeholders more easily understand
• Engaging with the public or the media during crises like a data breach

Effective communication is also a cornerstone in building relationships with other departments, such as the finance, HR, and sales teams. It takes a different form, but the same holds for external partners and vendors. As a CISO, it is essential to work closely with these groups. Security teams often work through other teams to manage risk. That can't and won't happen effectively without the foundation of a good relationship.

The CISO also acts as a figurehead for the cybersecurity culture within an organization. This includes educating others, engaging at all levels of the organization, being accessible, and striking the right level of transparency. In this process, people need to feel valued, heard, and empathized with, especially if cybersecurity has historically been a strain on others within the organization.

As a Pentester

A Penetration tester's job revolves heavily around finding vulnerabilities in systems, whether web applications, networks, cloud infrastructure, thick clients, or anything else. Finding vulnerabilities is essential. ItIt'sften the most highly prized and trained part of the job since technology constantly evolves.

If the penetration tester cannot effectively communicate the issues to teams needing to prioritize and fix them, then the risk needle doesn't move. Teams need to understand the problem, why it's important, how to fix it, and how the risk of the issue compares to other risks and priorities they face. An effective penetration tester helps to increase this understanding through the following sorts of communication:

• Active listening during the scoping and kickoff activities to make sure that the proper work is being done
• A well-written report once the engagement is finished
• An engaging readout call where questions can be answered and context provided

Empathy and patience are critical since the pentester's job is so heavily centered around finding what is wrong with work that someone else did. That can lead to defensiveness and a lot of self-justification. While understandable, it doesn't move the conversation toward the productive place of acknowledging and dealing with risk. As a penetration tester, navigating these responses with empathy and patience demonstrates a customer-centric mindset. It will ultimately help them more than they can probably realize.

As an Incident Responder

The basis of an incident responder's job is to help an organization, and its' staff, through one of the worst days of their professional career. The incident responder must call on all their technical prowess during this time. There will be scripts to write, PCAPs to examine, malware to analyze, and many more highly specialized skills needed to do your job. All that skill and hard work will be significantly minimized if you cannot communicate your findings in a way that non-technical people easily understand.

This communication will come in many forms:

• One-on-one verbal communications with peer IT staff to illicit help and share information on the status of the investigation
• Senior leadership briefings to communicate significant findings and results
• A clear and concise report of findings that contains enough technical detail to ensure it can be peer reviewed and also has an executive summary that communicates your results in plain-language
• Testifying as an expert in a court of law
• Listening, understanding, and empathizing with the business goals and objectives of the organization that was breached

The importance of working within the constraints of the business's objectives during a breach cannot be understated. Business owners and staff will be very much on g a breach, and the information from your investigation must keep flowing. Being empathetic to their feelings, listening to their goals, and keeping them informed, along with all your great technical work, will make you a sought-after commodity in the incident response business.

Samantha Putterman, PolitiFact Samantha Putterman, PolitiFact

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Fact-checking warnings from Democrats about Project 2025 and Donald Trump

This fact check originally appeared on PolitiFact .

Project 2025 has a starring role in this week’s Democratic National Convention.

And it was front and center on Night 1.

WATCH: Hauling large copy of Project 2025, Michigan state Sen. McMorrow speaks at 2024 DNC

“This is Project 2025,” Michigan state Sen. Mallory McMorrow, D-Royal Oak, said as she laid a hardbound copy of the 900-page document on the lectern. “Over the next four nights, you are going to hear a lot about what is in this 900-page document. Why? Because this is the Republican blueprint for a second Trump term.”

Vice President Kamala Harris, the Democratic presidential nominee, has warned Americans about “Trump’s Project 2025” agenda — even though former President Donald Trump doesn’t claim the conservative presidential transition document.

“Donald Trump wants to take our country backward,” Harris said July 23 in Milwaukee. “He and his extreme Project 2025 agenda will weaken the middle class. Like, we know we got to take this seriously, and can you believe they put that thing in writing?”

Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz, Harris’ running mate, has joined in on the talking point.

“Don’t believe (Trump) when he’s playing dumb about this Project 2025. He knows exactly what it’ll do,” Walz said Aug. 9 in Glendale, Arizona.

Trump’s campaign has worked to build distance from the project, which the Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, led with contributions from dozens of conservative groups.

Much of the plan calls for extensive executive-branch overhauls and draws on both long-standing conservative principles, such as tax cuts, and more recent culture war issues. It lays out recommendations for disbanding the Commerce and Education departments, eliminating certain climate protections and consolidating more power to the president.

Project 2025 offers a sweeping vision for a Republican-led executive branch, and some of its policies mirror Trump’s 2024 agenda, But Harris and her presidential campaign have at times gone too far in describing what the project calls for and how closely the plans overlap with Trump’s campaign.

PolitiFact researched Harris’ warnings about how the plan would affect reproductive rights, federal entitlement programs and education, just as we did for President Joe Biden’s Project 2025 rhetoric. Here’s what the project does and doesn’t call for, and how it squares with Trump’s positions.

Are Trump and Project 2025 connected?

To distance himself from Project 2025 amid the Democratic attacks, Trump wrote on Truth Social that he “knows nothing” about it and has “no idea” who is in charge of it. (CNN identified at least 140 former advisers from the Trump administration who have been involved.)

The Heritage Foundation sought contributions from more than 100 conservative organizations for its policy vision for the next Republican presidency, which was published in 2023.

Project 2025 is now winding down some of its policy operations, and director Paul Dans, a former Trump administration official, is stepping down, The Washington Post reported July 30. Trump campaign managers Susie Wiles and Chris LaCivita denounced the document.

WATCH: A look at the Project 2025 plan to reshape government and Trump’s links to its authors

However, Project 2025 contributors include a number of high-ranking officials from Trump’s first administration, including former White House adviser Peter Navarro and former Housing and Urban Development Secretary Ben Carson.

A recently released recording of Russell Vought, a Project 2025 author and the former director of Trump’s Office of Management and Budget, showed Vought saying Trump’s “very supportive of what we do.” He said Trump was only distancing himself because Democrats were making a bogeyman out of the document.

Project 2025 wouldn’t ban abortion outright, but would curtail access

The Harris campaign shared a graphic on X that claimed “Trump’s Project 2025 plan for workers” would “go after birth control and ban abortion nationwide.”

The plan doesn’t call to ban abortion nationwide, though its recommendations could curtail some contraceptives and limit abortion access.

What’s known about Trump’s abortion agenda neither lines up with Harris’ description nor Project 2025’s wish list.

Project 2025 says the Department of Health and Human Services Department should “return to being known as the Department of Life by explicitly rejecting the notion that abortion is health care.”

It recommends that the Food and Drug Administration reverse its 2000 approval of mifepristone, the first pill taken in a two-drug regimen for a medication abortion. Medication is the most common form of abortion in the U.S. — accounting for around 63 percent in 2023.

If mifepristone were to remain approved, Project 2025 recommends new rules, such as cutting its use from 10 weeks into pregnancy to seven. It would have to be provided to patients in person — part of the group’s efforts to limit access to the drug by mail. In June, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected a legal challenge to mifepristone’s FDA approval over procedural grounds.

WATCH: Trump’s plans for health care and reproductive rights if he returns to White House The manual also calls for the Justice Department to enforce the 1873 Comstock Act on mifepristone, which bans the mailing of “obscene” materials. Abortion access supporters fear that a strict interpretation of the law could go further to ban mailing the materials used in procedural abortions, such as surgical instruments and equipment.

The plan proposes withholding federal money from states that don’t report to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention how many abortions take place within their borders. The plan also would prohibit abortion providers, such as Planned Parenthood, from receiving Medicaid funds. It also calls for the Department of Health and Human Services to ensure that the training of medical professionals, including doctors and nurses, omits abortion training.

The document says some forms of emergency contraception — particularly Ella, a pill that can be taken within five days of unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy — should be excluded from no-cost coverage. The Affordable Care Act requires most private health insurers to cover recommended preventive services, which involves a range of birth control methods, including emergency contraception.

Trump has recently said states should decide abortion regulations and that he wouldn’t block access to contraceptives. Trump said during his June 27 debate with Biden that he wouldn’t ban mifepristone after the Supreme Court “approved” it. But the court rejected the lawsuit based on standing, not the case’s merits. He has not weighed in on the Comstock Act or said whether he supports it being used to block abortion medication, or other kinds of abortions.

Project 2025 doesn’t call for cutting Social Security, but proposes some changes to Medicare

“When you read (Project 2025),” Harris told a crowd July 23 in Wisconsin, “you will see, Donald Trump intends to cut Social Security and Medicare.”

The Project 2025 document does not call for Social Security cuts. None of its 10 references to Social Security addresses plans for cutting the program.

Harris also misleads about Trump’s Social Security views.

In his earlier campaigns and before he was a politician, Trump said about a half-dozen times that he’s open to major overhauls of Social Security, including cuts and privatization. More recently, in a March 2024 CNBC interview, Trump said of entitlement programs such as Social Security, “There’s a lot you can do in terms of entitlements, in terms of cutting.” However, he quickly walked that statement back, and his CNBC comment stands at odds with essentially everything else Trump has said during the 2024 presidential campaign.

Trump’s campaign website says that not “a single penny” should be cut from Social Security. We rated Harris’ claim that Trump intends to cut Social Security Mostly False.

Project 2025 does propose changes to Medicare, including making Medicare Advantage, the private insurance offering in Medicare, the “default” enrollment option. Unlike Original Medicare, Medicare Advantage plans have provider networks and can also require prior authorization, meaning that the plan can approve or deny certain services. Original Medicare plans don’t have prior authorization requirements.

The manual also calls for repealing health policies enacted under Biden, such as the Inflation Reduction Act. The law enabled Medicare to negotiate with drugmakers for the first time in history, and recently resulted in an agreement with drug companies to lower the prices of 10 expensive prescriptions for Medicare enrollees.

Trump, however, has said repeatedly during the 2024 presidential campaign that he will not cut Medicare.

Project 2025 would eliminate the Education Department, which Trump supports

The Harris campaign said Project 2025 would “eliminate the U.S. Department of Education” — and that’s accurate. Project 2025 says federal education policy “should be limited and, ultimately, the federal Department of Education should be eliminated.” The plan scales back the federal government’s role in education policy and devolves the functions that remain to other agencies.

Aside from eliminating the department, the project also proposes scrapping the Biden administration’s Title IX revision, which prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. It also would let states opt out of federal education programs and calls for passing a federal parents’ bill of rights similar to ones passed in some Republican-led state legislatures.

Republicans, including Trump, have pledged to close the department, which gained its status in 1979 within Democratic President Jimmy Carter’s presidential Cabinet.

In one of his Agenda 47 policy videos, Trump promised to close the department and “to send all education work and needs back to the states.” Eliminating the department would have to go through Congress.

What Project 2025, Trump would do on overtime pay

In the graphic, the Harris campaign says Project 2025 allows “employers to stop paying workers for overtime work.”

The plan doesn’t call for banning overtime wages. It recommends changes to some Occupational Safety and Health Administration, or OSHA, regulations and to overtime rules. Some changes, if enacted, could result in some people losing overtime protections, experts told us.

The document proposes that the Labor Department maintain an overtime threshold “that does not punish businesses in lower-cost regions (e.g., the southeast United States).” This threshold is the amount of money executive, administrative or professional employees need to make for an employer to exempt them from overtime pay under the Fair Labor Standards Act.

In 2019, the Trump’s administration finalized a rule that expanded overtime pay eligibility to most salaried workers earning less than about $35,568, which it said made about 1.3 million more workers eligible for overtime pay. The Trump-era threshold is high enough to cover most line workers in lower-cost regions, Project 2025 said.

The Biden administration raised that threshold to $43,888 beginning July 1, and that will rise to $58,656 on Jan. 1, 2025. That would grant overtime eligibility to about 4 million workers, the Labor Department said.

It’s unclear how many workers Project 2025’s proposal to return to the Trump-era overtime threshold in some parts of the country would affect, but experts said some would presumably lose the right to overtime wages.

Other overtime proposals in Project 2025’s plan include allowing some workers to choose to accumulate paid time off instead of overtime pay, or to work more hours in one week and fewer in the next, rather than receive overtime.

Trump’s past with overtime pay is complicated. In 2016, the Obama administration said it would raise the overtime to salaried workers earning less than $47,476 a year, about double the exemption level set in 2004 of $23,660 a year.

But when a judge blocked the Obama rule, the Trump administration didn’t challenge the court ruling. Instead it set its own overtime threshold, which raised the amount, but by less than Obama.

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Cyberbullying: What is it and how can you stop it?

Explore the latest psychological science about the impact of cyberbullying and what to do if you or your child is a victim

• Mental Health
• Social Media and Internet

Cyberbullying can happen anywhere with an internet connection. While traditional, in-person bullying is still more common , data from the Cyberbullying Research Center suggest about 1 in every 4 teens has experienced cyberbullying, and about 1 in 6 has been a perpetrator. About 1 in 5 tweens, or kids ages 9 to 12, has been involved in cyberbullying (PDF, 5.57MB) .

As technology advances, so do opportunities to connect with people—but unfettered access to others isn’t always a good thing, especially for youth. Research has long linked more screen time with lower psychological well-being , including higher rates of anxiety and depression. The risk of harm is higher when kids and teens are victimized by cyberbullying.

Here’s what you need to know about cyberbullying, and psychology’s role in stopping it.

What is cyberbullying?

Cyberbullying occurs when someone uses technology to demean, inflict harm, or cause pain to another person. It is “willful and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices.” Perpetrators bully victims in any online setting, including social media, video or computer games, discussion boards, or text messaging on mobile devices.

Virtual bullying can affect anyone, regardless of age. However, the term “cyberbullying” usually refers to online bullying among children and teenagers. It may involve name calling, threats, sharing private or embarrassing photos, or excluding others.

One bully can harass another person online or several bullies can gang up on an individual. While a stranger can incite cyberbullying, it more frequently occurs among kids or teens who know each other from school or other social settings. Research suggests bullying often happens both at school and online .

Online harassment between adults can involve different terms, depending on the relationship and context. For example, dating violence, sexual harassment, workplace harassment, and scamming—more common among adults—can all happen on the internet.

How can cyberbullying impact the mental health of myself or my child?

Any form of bullying can negatively affect the victim’s well-being, both at the time the bullying occurs and in the future. Psychological research suggests being victimized by a cyberbully increases stress and may result in anxiety and depression symptoms . Some studies find anxiety and depression increase the likelihood adolescents will become victims to cyberbullying .

Cyberbullying can also cause educational harm , affecting a student’s attendance or academic performance, especially when bullying occurs both online and in school or when a student has to face their online bully in the classroom. Kids and teens may rely on negative coping mechanisms, such as substance use, to deal with the stress of cyberbullying. In extreme cases, kids and teens may struggle with self-harm or suicidal ideation .

How can parents talk to their children about cyberbullying?

Parents play a crucial role in preventing cyberbullying and associated harms. Be aware of what your kids are doing online, whether you check your child’s device, talk to them about their online behaviors, or install a monitoring program. Set rules about who your child can friend or interact with on social media platforms. For example, tell your child if they wouldn’t invite someone to your house, then they shouldn’t give them access to their social media accounts. Parents should also familiarize themselves with signs of cyberbullying , such as increased device use, anger or anxiety after using a device, or hiding devices when others are nearby.

Communicating regularly about cyberbullying is an important component in preventing it from affecting your child’s well-being. Psychologists recommend talking to kids about how to be safe online before they have personal access to the internet. Familiarize your child with the concept of cyberbullying as soon as they can understand it. Develop a game plan to problem solve if it occurs. Cultivating open dialogue about cyberbullying can ensure kids can identify the experience and tell an adult, before it escalates into a more harmful situation.

It’s also important to teach kids what to do if someone else is being victimized. For example, encourage your child to tell a teacher or parent if someone they know is experiencing cyberbullying.

Keep in mind kids may be hesitant to open up about cyberbullying because they’re afraid they’ll lose access to their devices. Encourage your child to be open with you by reminding them they won’t get in trouble for talking to you about cyberbullying. Clearly explain your goal is to allow them to communicate with their friends safely online.

How can I report cyberbullying?

How you handle cyberbullying depends on a few factors, such as the type of bullying and your child’s age. You may choose to intervene by helping a younger child problem solve whereas teens may prefer to handle the bullying on their own with a caregiver’s support.

In general, it’s a good practice to take screenshots of the cyberbullying incidents as a record, but not to respond to bullies’ messages. Consider blocking cyberbullies to prevent future harassment.

Parents should contact the app or website directly about removing bullying-related posts, especially if they reveal private or embarrassing information. Some social media sites suspend perpetrators’ accounts.

If the bullying also occurs at school or on a school-owned device, or if the bullying is affecting a child’s school performance, it may be appropriate to speak with your child’s teacher or school personnel.

What are the legal ramifications of cyberbullying?

In some cases, parents should report cyberbullying to law enforcement. If cyberbullying includes threats to someone’s physical safety, consider contacting your local police department.

What’s illegal can vary from state to state. Any illegal behaviors, such as blackmailing someone to send money, hate crimes, stalking, or posting sexual photos of a minor, can have legal repercussions. If you’re not sure about what’s legal and what’s not, check your state’s laws and law enforcement .

Are big tech companies responsible for promoting positive digital spaces?

In an ideal world, tech companies would prioritize creating safer online environments for young people. Some companies are working toward it already, including partnering with psychologists to better understand how their products affect kids, and how to keep them safe. But going the extra mile isn’t always profitable for technology companies. For now, it’s up to individuals, families, and communities to protect kids’ and teens’ best interest online.

What does the research show about psychology’s role in reducing this issue?

Many studies show preventative measures can drastically reduce cyberbullying perpetration and victimization . Parents and caregivers, schools, and technology companies play a role in educating kids about media literacy and mental health. Psychologists—thanks to their expertise in child and teen development, communication, relationships, and mental health—can also make important contributions in preventing cyberbullying.

Because cybervictimization coincides with anxiety and depression, research suggests mental health clinicians and educators should consider interventions that both address adolescents’ online experiences and support their mental, social, and emotional well-being. Psychologists can also help parents speak to their kids about cyberbullying, along with supporting families affected by it.

You can learn more about cyberbullying at these websites:

• Cyberbullying Research Center
• StopBullying.gov
• Nemours Kids Health

Acknowledgments

APA gratefully acknowledges the following contributors to this publication:

• Sarah Domoff, PhD, associate professor of psychology at Central Michigan University
• Dorothy Espelage, PhD, William C. Friday Distinguished Professor of Education at the University of North Carolina
• Stephanie Fredrick, PhD, NCSP, assistant professor and associate director of the Dr. Jean M. Alberti Center for the Prevention of Bullying Abuse and School Violence at the University at Buffalo, State University of New York
• Brian TaeHyuk Keum, PhD, assistant professor in the Department of Social Welfare at the UCLA Luskin School of Public Affairs
• Mitchell J. Prinstein, PhD, chief science officer at APA
• Susan Swearer, PhD, Willa Cather Professor of School Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln; licensed psychologist

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How To Write an Essay About Cyber Security

Understanding cyber security.

Before writing an essay about cyber security, it is essential to understand what it encompasses. Cyber security refers to the practice of protecting systems, networks, and programs from digital attacks. These cyber attacks are usually aimed at accessing, changing, or destroying sensitive information; extorting money from users; or interrupting normal business processes. Begin your essay by defining cyber security and discussing its importance in the contemporary digital world. Explore the different types of cyber threats, such as malware, phishing, ransomware, and denial-of-service attacks. It’s also crucial to understand the impact of these threats on individuals, businesses, and governments.

Developing a Thesis Statement

A strong essay on cyber security should be anchored by a clear, focused thesis statement. This statement should present a specific viewpoint or argument about cyber security. For instance, you might discuss the evolving nature of cyber threats, the challenges of cyber security in a particular sector (like finance or healthcare), or analyze the effectiveness of current cyber security measures. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and provide a structured approach to your analysis.

Gathering Supporting Evidence

To support your thesis, gather evidence from credible sources. This might include recent studies on cyber security, statistics about cyber attacks, examples of significant security breaches, or expert opinions. Use this evidence to support your thesis and build a persuasive argument. Remember to consider different perspectives, including technological, ethical, and legal viewpoints.

Analyzing Cyber Security Strategies and Challenges

Dedicate a section of your essay to analyzing cyber security strategies and the challenges faced in implementing them. Discuss various approaches to cyber security, such as technological solutions, policy measures, and user education. Explore the challenges in keeping up with constantly evolving cyber threats and the balance between security and privacy. For example, consider how advancements in areas like artificial intelligence and machine learning are influencing cyber security practices.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence provided. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the significance of cyber security in the digital age. You might also want to reflect on future trends in cyber security or suggest areas where further research or policy development is needed.

Reviewing and Refining Your Essay

After completing your essay, review and edit it for clarity and coherence. Ensure that your arguments are well-structured and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers or experts in the field to refine your essay further. A well-written essay on cyber security will not only demonstrate your understanding of the topic but also your ability to engage with complex technological and societal issues.

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237 Cyber Security Essay Topics, Ideas, and Examples

🏆 best cybersecurity essay topics and examples, 💡 most interesting cybersecurity topics to write about, 👍 good essay topics on cybersecurity, ⭐ simple & easy cyber security essay topics, ✍️ cyber security topics for college, ⌨️ good cyber security essay examples and topics, 🖱️ compelling computer security research topics, ❓ cyber security paragraph questions.

• Ethical and Illegal Computer Hacking For the ethical hackers, they pursue hacking in order to identify the unexploited areas or determine weaknesses in systems in order to fix them.
• Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity The use of AI is regulated by a large amount of documentation, which should take into account the current legislation in the country of use and ethical issues related to AI, many of which have […]
• The Future Career in Cybersecurity During the interview, it is necessary to highlight the knowledge of working as a graph as a mathematical theory and the simple use of spanning trees in cybersecurity.
• Importance of Army Cybersecurity This includes bringing awareness to the cybersecurity issue, involving more people to combat the problem of cyberattacks, and organizing the information based on specialty and tasks that must be completed.
• Benefits and Dangers of Ethical Hacking The advantages of ethical hacking The following are some of the advantages associated with the use of ethical hacking in an organization.
• Cyber Crime and Necessity of Cyber Security This is one of the policies that has been proposed to curb cyber crimes and is being debated in the congress.
• White Hat and Black Hat Hacking On the other hand, White Hats work with companies and help them identify weaknesses in their systems and fix relevant vulnerabilities to ensure that attackers cannot illegally gain access to data.
• Cybersecurity Threats to Educational Institutions The rapid adoption of digital solutions is exposing schools to the cyber-security threat, which is currently the biggest concern that these institutions face as they make a complete shift from the analog to the digital […]
• Computer Forensics Tools and Evidence Processing The purpose of this paper is to analyze available forensic tools, identify and explain the challenges of investigations, and explain the legal implication of the First and Fourth Amendments as they relate to evidence processing […]
• Hacking as a Crime and Related Theories The move to embrace the novel technology has led to the emergence of a new form of crime and behavior referred to as “hacking”. Today, the term is used to refer to individuals engaged in […]
• Cybercrime and Cybersecurity as Challenges One will also learn the defensive cyber security technologies and techniques used in modern organizations to protect systems data and achieve Knowledge of the maintenance and design of reliable and safe information systems.
• Cybersecurity Weaknesses: The Case of LinkedIn The Internet has become the largest storage of personal and corporate information in the history of the world. The data relating to hundreds of millions of users was leaked online in the Dark Web segment […]
• Digital Forensic Analysis of Fitbit The comparison of the results and the analyses of the data as a result of the research gave the authors of the article a conclusion in regards to the methodology that has evidence-based results in […]
• Forensic Accounting and Cyber Security The recent trend of increased exposure due to the access of extended financial and fraud concerns by social media and the internet has necessitated the need to curb the tendency.
• Cyber Security: Critical Infrastructure Protection Objects of forensic science are storage mediums that are not part of other devices and which fulfill the function of information storage as the main one.
• Cyber Security Issue: RansomWare Until the victim pays a specific amount of money to the attackers within a particular time, cybercriminals can use the virus mentioned above to access the user’s sensitive personal or organizational information. The infection and […]
• Cybersecurity Implementation Plan for PBI-FS Therefore, the current plan will define the objectives, goals, and objectives, and scope of the implementation. The implementation of the cybersecurity management plan pursues both business and project goals and objectives.
• Supply Chain’s Cybersecurity and Risk Analysis Since there are so many parties involved, it is crucial to assess every part of the process, from obtaining the raw material to the delivery to the customer. Cybersecurity is the critical answer to most […]
• Technology Acceptance Model and Cybersecurity In this context, the implementation of TAM in the company is critical for the effective functioning of the organization. In this context, the introduction of TAM leads to the fact that satisfaction directly affects the […]
• Ethical Hacking: Bad in a Good Way Introduction of personal computers led to the increase in the number of hackers as well as hacker targets were widened. Many hackers lack the skills to damage network systems in a major way.
• Kosovo 1999: Hacking the Military The paper addresses the motivation behind the attacks, the methods of attack, and the responses of the defenders to these attacks.
• Cybersecurity Strategy, Law, and Policy Team Assignment It may be critical to prevent cybersecurity breaches or data leaks to maintain the effective functioning of the government and ensure the sovereignty of the country.
• Preparing a Computer Forensics Investigation Plan However, if the information is thought to be contained in the permanent storage, then a computer has to be shut down before transporting it to a laboratory for forensic analysis. The first step in the […]
• The Department of Homeland Security’s Cybersecurity Mission Cybersecurity is evolving rapidly, and DHS’s cybersecurity mission is equipped with models adapting to the ever-changing security and information dynamics. The DHS cybersecurity mission is designed with models that adapt to changing dynamics and landscapes.
• Cybersecurity in the Financial Services Industry In reaction to ransomware attacks, a business such as a bank may have to spend a substantial amount of money, which may cause customers to lose faith in the safety of their funds.
• The Biggest Cybersecurity Treat to Expect First of all, all employees who somehow use the Internet of Things devices and have access to the corporate IoT network are to be trained to utilize it correctly.
• Securing Offboarded Employees: Modern Cybersecurity Strategies Disgruntled employees can be potentially dangerous to the whole company’s well-being due to cybercrimes that can affect the entire company’s work.
• Advanced Research Methods in Cybersecurity Performance measurements refer to the internal functions of the company and ways in which cybersecurity management contributes to the accomplishment of critical tasks within the firm.
• Gaps in Cyber Security Caused by BYOD In conclusion, these vulnerabilities caused by the insufficient regulation and general unpreparedness of organizational and public networks expose facilities that use BYOD to severe risks of data leaks and hacker attacks.
• Cybersecurity Threats in Physician Practice The purpose of the source is to inform readers of the strategies to help healthcare professionals identify, avoid and respond to ransomware dangers.
• Cybersecurity Contingency & Incident Review Process Next, it is necessary to implement various stages of digital transformation of cybersecurity, which include improving the maturity of enterprises in cybersecurity issues and the use of new solutions.
• Global Cybersecurity in the 21st Century Research Question: Is there a significant connection between the US President’s approach to cybersecurity and the actual presence of the given phenomenon?
• Hacking Prevention: Mobile Phone Anti-Virus However, the less discussed and addressed subject is the cybersecurity of mobile phones, which are among the most used and vital devices for the majority of the population.
• Legal Risks of AI Cybersecurity in the European Union Thus, this paper seeks to fill the gap on whether or not safety and security can be covered in cybersecurity for AI by the same rules that are used in private law. The EU has […]
• Relation Between Cybersecurity and Cybercrime Meanwhile, one should not assume that cybersecurity is the prerogative of technicians and software engineers only since the consequences of a breach will affect the entire business or private life of those not associated with […]
• Cybersecurity in 2021-2022: Cybersecurity Advancements In IoT, Blockchain is being utilized to protect connected devices through decentralization and encryption, adding to the evolving nature of system security.
• Encryption and Hacking Techniques There are several advantages of text-based encryption, and they include the fact that the data can be used across different devices through the concept of multi-device encryption techniques.
• The US, Russia, and China Cybersecurity Conflict The current situation in the space of cybersecurity provides a significant example of how complicated this area of National Security and its influence on foreign politics can be.
• Cybersecurity and Geopolitics Relationship Provision of security to information technology and the tools used in the technology is also paramount. Cyber security is also described as measures and operations that are put in place to be to ensure that […]
• Cybersecurity and Corporations’ Input to It Whatever committee or board of directors is in charge of overseeing cybersecurity risks, the primary goal is for an organization to have an integrated approach to preparing for and protecting against cyber incidents and detecting […]
• Cybersecurity and Corporations’ Role First, it is worth indicating some of the key reasons for corporations to be in the center of cybersecurity discussion. In April, the company rejected the possibility of a data breach and apparently did not […]
• Cybersecurity and Geopolitical Issues Geopolitics is the study of integration and effect of earth geography and physical outlay on the political structures, and international relations and reforms that affect the same at different levels.
• Virtual Reality and Cybersecurity As a result, it is the mandate of the framework entities to establish solutions to the inherent barriers to the implementation of the business plan.
• Cybersecurity Policy Regarding Critical Infrastructures The article will explicitly analyze the processes behind cybersecurity development as well as the impact of the cybersecurity polies to the global security policies.
• Cybersecurity: Critical Infrastructure Control Systems The most vital stages of this nature include the analysis of the situation, the assessment of goals to make sure that they are realistic, and the expected effectiveness of implementing new policies.
• Cybersecurity in the United States Thus, the current research project is going to address the following question: Is there a significant connection between the US President’s approach to cybersecurity and the actual presence of the given phenomenon?
• Cybersecurity: The Matter of National Security However, if the security of cyberspace is critically evaluated and all the risks eliminated, cyberspace can be an asset that will continue to transform the world.
• Cybersecurity Advancements in Electric Power Systems Therefore, there will be an increase in the volume of work performed, a reduction in design time and an increase in the quality of work through the use of technology in the next five years.
• Cybersecurity Dangers and Their Analysis The officer clicks the file, and the malware attacks the system stealing the data and bypassing some security measures. The cyber security framework under the NIST is helping organizations to understand and manage cybersecurity.
• The US and Apple Relationship in the Field of Cybersecurity In this paragraph, an important aspect is to determine the degree of interaction between the two structures. This paper argues that in times of crisis, such powers should be surrendered to the more considerable public […]
• Data Management and Cybersecurity Namely, the principal standard of the HIPAA, as well as the concept of cybersecurity, have proven to factor into some of the key aspects of my professional and personal life.
• Digital Forensics Tools and Software One of the most famous software programs for digital forensics is Autopsy, a toolkit that examines the images present on a device’s hard drive.
• Tim Cook’s Leadership and Apple’s Cybersecurity In this paper, the main types of leadership that can be applied to the leadership style of Tim Cook are considered.
• The Importance of Leadership Skills in the Field of Cybersecurity The wider the information networks cover the world, the more frequent and dangerous cyber-attacks are, and the more cybersecurity specialists become in demand.
• Modern Cybercrime: Most Recent Threats and Cybersecurity This is due to the fact that the Internet is a public open system in which data moves uncontrollably and can be discovered, intercepted, or stolen if the correct knowledge of the equipment is applied.
• The Cybersecurity Threat Landscape The threats may come from different sources, and the criminals may focus on distinct vulnerabilities in the security of the system.
• Public-Private Partnerships for Election Systems Cybersecurity In public contracts, the private sector provides the service directly to the public and bears all the associated end-user risks. Private parties can use all the gained knowledge and expertise to conduct security assessments of […]
• Solving the Cybersecurity Workforce Crisis Since cyber security specialists are highly demanded in the current market, the private sector has been offering increased compensation in comparison with the government sector, which has led to decreased interest in IT positions in […]
• Cryptographic Algorithms: The Use in Cyber Security Cryptographic protection of a system depends on two factors, 1) the strength of the keys and effectiveness of associated protocols, and 2) protection of said keys via key management.
• Assessment of Cybersecurity Program Maturity Padgett-Beale Financial Services must choose the appropriate framework and standards, determine required regulations and laws to comply with, and identify the best practices for maturity assessment to achieve an impenetrable cybersecurity management program.
• Facebook Compatibility with Padgett-Beale Cybersecurity Philosophy The purpose of this paper is to evaluate Facebook on the subject of cybersecurity and compatibility with Padgett-Beale’s cybersecurity philosophy and goals.
• Cybersecurity Issues in Industrial Critical Infrastructure This way, the author analyzes the potential impact of various cybersecurity threats capable of interrupting the stability of the supply of energy to communities and industries.
• Amazon Inc.’s Business Profile and Cybersecurity On the contrary, Amazon has continued to rise in the industry and has expanded from selling only books to trade in nearly any product and providing various services.
• Integrating Cybersecurity Framework With Information Technology Governance Frameworks ISMS builds a model of relationships between the aforementioned activities, and, as Almuhammadi and Alsaleh argue, companies “understand their cyber security risk management approach and what are the processes in place to manage the risk”.
• Cybersecurity, Ethics, and Privacy in the Global Business Environment Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to cover the types of possible threats and mitigation methods, explain the importance of a continuity plan, and outline ethical and privacy concerns for organizations.
• Cybersecurity Workforce in Emergent Nations The lack of help from developed countries in the training and education of a cybersecurity workforce for developing nations can negatively affect the former. Public and private organizations also contribute to the development of cybersecurity […]
• Cybersecurity: Multi-State Information Sharing and Analysis Center The MS-ISAC also advises the agencies on the best tools available in the market that provide the best protection of the government systems and data.
• Cybersecurity Strategy and Plan of Action Padgett-Beale’s primary intention of merging the company was to relocate the call epicenter to a property owned by the company roughly 10 miles from the company’s previous location and opposite the newly released Padgett-Beale resort.
• Digital Forensic Examination, DVR Another application would be to determine the network’s or a user’s IP and track their online activity. The information can be used to determine an unknown individual’s location and possibly identity, or for a known […]
• Cybersecurity and How It Impacts Identity Protection and/or Ransomware Firstly, organizational leadership should not undervalue the importance of cybersecurity since the risk of losing the data stored in the company’s database may harm the corporate reputation and trustworthiness.
• Cybersecurity in the Energy Sector The stable supply of energy is the key to the normal functioning of American society, as it fuels all essential industries that ensure the vitality of the nation.
• Cybersecurity for Open Data Initiatives Governments continue to play a vital role in the open data movement.Data.gov was developed under OPEN Government Data Act; this is Title II of Foundations for the Evidence-based Policymaking Act.
• Sifers-Grayson Company: The Cybersecurity Breach Finally, the recommendations, as per the improvement of the incident response capability, are introduced to ensure the elimination of the identified drawbacks and the compliance of the engineering company with the security requirements presented by […]
• Computer Forensic Incident All evidence should be collected in the presence of experts in order to avoid losing data as well as violating privacy rights.N.
• Cybersecurity Necessity and Benefits Second, the exploration of human factors in the framework of cyber-security can assist in resolving the issues of understanding a defender’s cognitive state, possibilities for automation, and an attacker’s subjective traits.
• Internet Hacking and Cybersecurity Conundrum Analysis Many people have gained access to computer systems, the Internet, and related products and services, leading to the emergence of cyber-related threats. Cybersecurity improvements are vital to the continuous developments in information technology, national security, […]
• Internet Hacking and Cybersecurity Conundrum Therefore, the increasing number of attacks during the pandemic could be handled with the help of machine learning and have the numerous human workers assigned to less crucial tasks that actually require human judgment.
• Government and Private Sector in Cybersecurity Richards highlights the government’s leading role in the context of cyber threats while stating that the number of attacks is still on the increase.
• Ethical Hacking: Is It a Thing? Computer programmers implemented the term ‘hacker’ at the beginning of the 1960s in the framework of a positive definition for an individual of dexterous software development skill.
• Computer Network Security Legal Framework With the introduction of cloud computing, the need of data protection has been rising significantly within computer networks to facilitate the protection of Intellectual Property among the users.
• Computer Forensics and Audio Data Retrieval Advanced technology in the modern society has contributed to the increase in computer and computer supported criminal activities due to the soaring increases in the number of internet users across the world and computerization of […]
• Cyber Security: Security Audit On the issue of computers and laptops, I learned from the administration that each laptop was specifically assigned to a single person who was entrusted with a password known to him and the organization’s administration […]
• Computer Forensics: Data Acquisition Data acquisition is a branch of computer forensics concerned with the retrieval of data originally located on a suspect medium such as a hard drive.
• Computer Forensic Timeline Visualization Tool The necessity to save time in computer forensic investigations is the basis of the tool that Olssen and Boldt came up with.
• The Qatar Independence Schools’ Computer Network Security Control The result of the interviews mainly outlined several common themes and patterns in terms of the design of the proposed security system.
• Computer Sciences Technology and HTTPS Hacking Protection Many are assured when they see the SSL symbol of a lock at the bottom of the screen and feel their information is confidential and the website is protected.
• Moral Issues Surrounding the Hacking of Emails The devises to enter into another people’s email and steal information in the email is called Email Hacking. It should noted that stealing of valuable information through email hacking has become a phenomenon in both […]
• Hacking Government Website From the View of Right and Justice Computer crimes refers to the use of the computer system or the internet to commit criminal activities A computer crime is an unlawful act done via a computer or a network and some of the […]
• COBIT5 vs. ITIL4 in Cybersecurity Significantly, ITSM is the alignment of information systems and enterprise IT services with business and the needs of the customer who is the end-user.
• Cybercrime and Cybersecurity: Data Protection One of the biggest Constitutional concerns for electronic surveillance as well as search and seize of evidence is protected by the Fourth Amendment which limits any such activities against the private persons, property, or effects […]
• Cyber Security Threat and Its Impact on the UAE In 2018, the UAE government and private sector were the subject of a total of 230 cyber attacks, as The National UAE reports.
• Agility and Situational Awareness in the Context of Cyber Security As a result, measures should be implemented to create cyber security, which will protect the information resources of an organization from damage.
• Research Tools Used by Computer Forensic Teams Computer Forensics is a branch of digital forensics which is used in “identifying, preserving, recovering, analyzing and presenting facts and opinions about the information”.
• Cybersecurity and Social Networks Recently, there have been many trends the security of information and communication technologies, in particular, due to the expansion of the reach of social media which increase the size of social network, which has taken […]
• Business and Cybersecurity Research Thus, a more sophisticated theoretical approach is taken to represent the goals of cyber security. A mediating variable, in turn, is the effectiveness of cyber security measures perceived from theory- and practice-related standpoints.
• Quality Control of Digital Forensics The quality control over computer forensic products is necessary because of the growth of the Internet services. Thus, the investigator and the lab are challenged not only with solving a case but also providing the […]
• Windows Logs: Improving Cybersecurity The specified event points to the need to configure the current settings of the master browser in order to address possible security issues and close the loopholes that potentially make the computer vulnerable to malware.
• Cybersecurity: Weak and Strong Passwords The strong passwords have a low probability of being guessed because the amount of possible iterations and combinations is extremely high.
• “Evolution of Federal Cyber Security” by J. Roth Even after training, the GAO report continued to demonstrate system control deficiencies due to failures in the identification of enough boundary security mechanisms, breakdown in the need to know, insufficient restriction of physical access, and […]
• The Different Sides of Hacking In a general sense, computer hacking involves the intrusion of the computing privacy of other people, damage of the computing property of other people like files, software etc.or the theft of private information by unauthorized […]
• US Brokerage Hacking by India Issue The personal accounts of the defendants were used to purchase shares of stocks, following which they hacked into other people’s accounts and made good use of their passwords and usernames.
• Computer Forensics in Criminal Investigation In this section, this paper will address the components of a computer to photograph during forensic photography, the most emergent action an investigating officer should take upon arriving at a cyber-crime scene, the value of […]
• Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime Due to age characteristics, the insufficient educational activity of parents, the provision of unlimited opportunities in the online environment, and also due to the low media literacy of the population, people can become victims of […]
• Computer Forensics: Identity Theft The forensics process that is maintained in the framework of computer-related technologies provides professionals with the opportunity to gather, analyze, and report on the information.
• Cyber Security: Shadow Brokers Hacker Group A concealed group of hackers stole several disks containing secret data belonging to the National Security Agency in 2013; In 2016, they announced an auction to sell off the data they had obtained illegally; […]
• Cybersecurity and Encryption Analysis: VPN, PKI & Firewalls The end-to-end encryption is the more complex process that can be discussed as the data encryption between the client application and the server provided with the help of additional technologies.
• Cybersecurity as a Leadership Challenge Cybercrime can lead to the leakage of important data, system interference, and the delivery of unsatisfactory services to consumers. This sophistication has amplified the insecurity of information systems to the extent of creating more threats […]
• Shadow Brokers Hacker Group and Cyber Security Industry Therefore, in order to prevent the recurrence of such attacks, the N.S.A.needs to strengthen the security system of particularly essential information to eliminate its diversion.
• Deutsche Telecom Company’s Cyber Security The present work deals with the issue of DDoS attacks and builds a case on one of the well-known IT companies to single out the problem, the immediate solutions and preventive practices, and the lessons […]
• Cybersecurity: Deutsche Telekom Company’s Case The example of Deutsche Telekom proves the importance of the development of cybersecurity programs and strategies to protect users and their interests.
• Cyber Security and Employees The major factors that define the thriving of cyber ganging are the insufficient level of employees’ competence, the lack of knowledge about the technical side of information protection, and non-compliance with safety standards.
• Cybersecurity and Vital Elements The focus of any risk management effort is a standard system or a framework that help organizations and individuals to manage integrity, confidentiality, and data and ensure critical resources availability.
• Emerging Cyber Security Approaches and Technologies These emerging cyber security approaches and technologies are unique and new, and they look promising for securing critical infrastructures in the cyberspace.
• Cybersecurity Dilemmas: Technology, Policy and Incentives The value of the assets determines the amount of time and resources that can be invested to protect a particular system.
• Hacking: White, Black and Gray Hats Living in the era of the Internet and online technology increases the vulnerability of the information stored online and on electronic devices.
• A Duty of Care for Cyber Security Hence, the sensitive data can be easily accessed by cyber criminals in the event that the cloud service is breached by users.
• Digital Forensics: Open Source Tools The National Software Reference Library is a project at the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the primary goals of which are to store all existing software, file profiles, and file signatures and to provide […]
• Digital Forensic Methodology In the event that sufficient information is available, the required system configuration should be developed by ensuring that the forensic software and hardware are established and validated.
• Automotive Industry’s Cybersecurity and Threats It is significant to ensure the security of this system because it focuses not only on the audio and video entertainment but also allows to control navigation system and manipulate the behavior of the car.
• Cybersecurity and Risk Control Implementation The first component of the risk treatment framework refers to the decision not to go through with the procedures that may present a risk; the second one stands for the minimization of the possibility of […]
• Online Predators and Childrens’ Cybersecurity To win the battle against online predators it is important to craft laws that were created by people with a thorough understanding of how perpetrators utilize information systems and the Internet to commit sexually-related cyber […]
• Computer and Digital Forensics and Cybercrimes This has greatly affected the success of computer forensics and it is the main drawback in this area. The world is now safer due to the increasing usage of computer forensics in court cases.
• The Role of U.S. Government in Cybersecurity According to the government of the United States, cybersecurity is among the most serious economic and security challenges that the government needs to deal with.
• Cyber Security’s and Counter Terrorism’ Intersection Realization of national interests is the concern of many states in the current international and security is the main challenge that each government is trying to cope up with given the fact terrorists are ever […]
• Cybercrime, Digital Evidence, Computer Forensics The website “howstuffworks” carries an article discussing the basics of computer forensics, this is a good example of a website that is useful in explaining or understanding the reality of cybercrime and digital evidence. Not […]
• Sony Corporation Hacking and Security System The organization had to stop the hackers and ensure information did not flow freely but it was unfortunate, as the company sought the services of the California court because it had no capacity to deal […]
• Growth Hacking and Marketing Methods As a result, it could be observed that the combination of the growth hacking methods and the permission-based marketing appear to be one of the most efficient techniques towards marketing that is low-cost and effective.
• Cybersecurity: Stuxnet Virus Cyber security is one of the major concerns of governments in the contemporary world. It is important to note that in case of Stuxnet the three aspects prove to be vulnerable.
• Ways to Stop Cell Phones Hacking Although it is in the view of many that their phones cannot be hacked as they only protect their computers from hacking, mobile phone operators are more predisposed to being hacked since a mobile operator […]
• Banking Sector Cyber Wars and International Hacking Flaws in the network allow hackers to access the systems. In efforts to reduce hacking in the country, a number of police units have been formed.
• The Threats of Cyber Security Under the PPD-21, the owners of the critical infrastructure will work with the government to hasten the process of strengthening the national critical infrastructure in terms of the much needed security.
• Two Greatest Hacking Systems in the USA Appropriating intellectual output of someone else is also a computer malpractice that is intolerable. Generally, Computer malpractice is seen when a person shows hasty and careless conducts or behaviors when making use of computer systems.
• Cybercrime: Gary McKinnon’s Hacking Event It is the lack of effective controls that accounts for most hacking incidences, as depicted by the case of Gary McKinnon who was able to gain unauthorized access to NASA and pentagon systems, deleting crucial […]
• Important Problem of Cybersecurity Simulations The information stored in the company’s database was encrypted to create confidence in the customers on the security of the data.
• Cyber Security Technologies The technology is regularly designed to alter the attack surface of a network, making it hard for attackers to access a system and reducing the susceptibilities and predictabilities available at any time.
• The Impact of Mobile Devices on Cybersecurity The very popularity and extent of the use of mobile computing devices and the internet creates a special vulnerability to businesses.
• Analysis of Mandiant Cyber Security Company The company’s innovation theories and products need to accommodate other companies that do not view cyber crime as a major risk on their systems.
• Leadership: Mandiant Cyber Security Company Kevin Mandia is the founder and the CEO of the company. The achievements behind Mandiant Cyber Security Company owe its success to the leadership styles exhibited in the firm.
• Adrian Lamo’s Hacking: Is It Right? The example of Galileo introduces a theory about the construction of the Solar System that was the target of interest of the well-known scientist.
• Computer Forensics and Digital Evidence When electronic data has been collected to identify the kind of the incident and introduce evidence of the crime, it is important to organize a meeting with the witness who can provide details of the […]
• Cyber Security Threat Posed by a Terrorist Group These among other features of the internet have been identified to form the basis of the cyber terrorism attacks. A comprehensive international collaboration among investigators and prosecution teams in cases of cyber attacks have also […]
• Information Security Fundamentals: Computer Forensics In addition, the paper provides an overview of the techniques used in obtaining evidence from the internet and web resources, the types of evidence that can be recovered from electronic and computer resources, and the […]
• Computer Forensics Related Ethics Due to advancement in technology, individual information can be kept in databases, the risk of accessing this data is evident and this necessity the need of such a law so as to ensure security.
• The Cyber Security Act of 2009 Analysis This would contribute to enormous benefits to both the government and private stakeholders by ensuring a cyber security strategy that serves the interests of all.
• Air Force and Cyber Security Policies The use of technology in processing financial transactions implies that there is need to boost the trustworthiness, security, resilience, and reliability.
• The Role of Computer Forensics in Criminology In fact, since the development of the virtual machine monitors, the live-state analysis in digital forensics has become common and easy to understand.
• Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications of Hacking So as to discuss the ethical, lawful, and ethical inferences of this concern, people need an understanding of the phrase ethical hacking.
• Hacking: Social Engineering Online The information is fed to the main web site that’s runs the hacking software, where the information is sorted according to various numbers.
• Cyber Security in Private and Public Sectors The US has the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act that ensures that patients’ data remain accessible only to the authorized segment of the staff.
• Cybersecurity in the Energy Industry In this regard, in the event that a cyber attack is launched against the energy sector, it is bound to have far reaching consequences.
• Ethics in Computer Hacking Hacking by no means follows ethics; the infiltration is to the benefit of hacker and loss of users of computer system, network or website.
• Computer Forensics and Investigations It is crucial in the investigation of crimes that are related to the manipulation of computer systems. For digital evidence to be admissible in court, investigations should be conducted in a manner that adopts the […]
• Basic Operations of Computer Forensic Laboratories All computer forensic laboratories in the US have to adhere to the national standards before they could be certified. Standard computer forensic equipment is used to support standard procedures and conditions in the laboratories.
• Hacking: Positive and Negative Perception The possible advantage of cooperating with hackers for security systems mangers of international organizations and governmental organizations is the probability to recruit them and use their knowledge to empower different organizations to improve their security […]
• Introducing Cybersecurity Policies: Challenges and Solutions The major purpose for establishing security guidelines is to set an organization’s data security standard and describe the role of employees in safeguarding the documents of the firm, as well as the significance of a […]
• Société Générale Bank: Effective Security Controls The management of the bank revealed that Kerviel exploited every loophole to hack the computer operations at the bank. It is also important to list the potential risks because it enables the security personnel to […]
• Computer Security Breaches and Hacking To avoid such an attack in the future, it is advisable to keep both the client and server applications up to date.
• Analysis of BJG Cybersecurity Consultants
• Analysis of Cybersecurity and Risk Management
• Analysis of Cybersecurity Metrics as Well a Governmental
• Analyzing the Impact of Mobile Devices on Cybersecurity
• Assessing the Impact of Cybersecurity Attacks on Power Systems
• Building Cybersecurity Awareness: What Should Both Companies and Consumers Do to Protect Themselves?
• Current Practice Analysis for IT Control and Security
• Why Cybersecurity Is Important?
• Cybersecurity in Banking Financial Services Secto
• Cybersecurity in the European Union: Resilience and Adaptability in Governance Policy
• Cyber Security : Is No Silver Bullet For Cybersecurity?
• Dealing With Cybersecurity Threats Posed by Globalized Information Technology Suppliers
• Emerging Technologies That Impact the Cybersecurity Field
• Hacker’s Culture and Cultural Aspects of Cybersecurity
• How Cybersecurity Is an Aspect of Security?
• How Cybersecurity Is Important Resources?
• How Policies, Laws and Regulations Affect the Cybersecurity Field?
• Is Cybersecurity a Big Deal?
• Risk Assessment Uncertainties in Cybersecurity Investments
• What Is Cybersecurity?
• When Cybersecurity Policy Is Discussed the Topics Often?
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• Access Single Most Important Cybersecurity Vulnerability Facing IT Mangers
• Model for the Impact of Cybersecurity Infrastructure on Economic Development in Emerging Economies: Evaluating the Contrasting Cases of India and Pakistan
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• Cybersecurity Policy Making at a Turning Point: Analysing a New Generation of National
• Effect of Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) on Cybersecurity
• Human Aspects in Cybersecurity on a Government Agency and a Private Organization
• Improvement of Cybersecurity Is Necessary
• Most Important Cybersecurity Vulnerability Facing It Managers Computer Knowledge
• Obama Administration’s Policy Views on Cybersecurity
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• What Are the Roles and Responsibilities of an Organization in Considering Cybersecurity?
• What Are Three Models for Sharing Cybersecurity Incident Information?
• What Are the Private Sector and Public Sector Cybersecurity Issues?
• How Do Policies, Laws, and Regulations Affect the Cybersecurity Field?
• How to Improving Password Cybersecurity Through Inexpensive and Minimally Invasive Means?
• What Kind Are International Cybersecurity Collaboration Initiatives and Multinational Cybersecurity?
• What Is the Most Important Cybersecurity Vulnerability Facing Managers in Computer Science?
• What Are New Concepts for Cybersecurity in Port Communication Networks?
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Essay on Cyber Bullying

Essay generator.

In the digital era, the internet and social media have transformed how we communicate, but they have also given rise to a sinister phenomenon: cyber bullying. This essay aims to dissect the issue of cyber bullying, exploring its definition, manifestations, impacts, and potential solutions, providing a comprehensive understanding for students engaging in essay writing competitions.

Cyber Bullying

Cyber Bullying is the use of electronic communication to bully a person, typically by sending messages of an intimidating or threatening nature. Unlike traditional bullying, cyber bullying allows the perpetrator to hide behind a screen, often making them bolder in their actions and words.

The Scope and Manifestations

Cyber bullying can take many forms:

• Harassing Messages : Sending threatening or abusive texts or emails.
• Social Media Bullying : Spreading rumors or posting hurtful comments on social platforms.
• Impersonation : Creating fake profiles to ridicule or defame someone.
• Cyberstalking : Repeatedly sending messages that include threats of harm or are highly intimidating.
• Sharing Private Information : Distributing someone’s personal information without consent, often to embarrass or threaten them.

Prevalence and Statistics

The prevalence of cyber bullying is alarming. Studies suggest that a significant percentage of young people have experienced cyber bullying at some point. The anonymity of the internet, the ease of spreading information, and the 24/7 nature of digital media contribute to its increasing incidence.

Impact on Victims

The effects of cyber bullying can be devastating and long-lasting:

• Emotional Trauma : Victims may experience anxiety, depression, and a sense of isolation.
• Social Withdrawal : Fear of bullying can lead to avoiding social interactions both online and offline.
• Academic Impact : It can lead to a decline in academic performance and school avoidance.
• Physical Health : Chronic stress from bullying can manifest in physical health issues.
• Suicidal Ideation : In extreme cases, prolonged cyber bullying can lead to suicidal thoughts or actions.

The Psychology Behind Cyber Bullying

Understanding the mindset of cyber bullies is crucial:

• Anonymity : The internet provides a veil of anonymity, emboldening individuals who might not engage in bullying offline.
• Lack of Empathy : The digital barrier can desensitize individuals to the consequences of their actions.
• Power Dynamics : Some engage in cyber bullying to exert power or control over others.

Legal and Ethical Considerations

Cyber bullying raises several legal and ethical issues:

Legal Considerations:

• Criminal Offense: In many jurisdictions, cyberbullying is considered a criminal offense, especially when it involves harassment, threats, or stalking online. Perpetrators can face charges such as harassment, cyberstalking, or even hate crimes in extreme cases.
• Age Restrictions: Laws often address cyberbullying differently for minors and adults. Special regulations, such as those under cyberbullying laws for minors, may apply to protect young victims or impose age-appropriate consequences on young offenders.
• Cyberbullying Legislation: Some regions have specific cyberbullying legislation that outlines legal consequences for offenders. For example, the United States has laws like “Grace’s Law” in Maryland, targeting cyberbullying.
• School Policies: Educational institutions often have policies in place to address cyberbullying among students. These policies may involve disciplinary actions or even expulsion in severe cases.
• Cyber Harassment Laws: Many jurisdictions have laws against cyber harassment, which encompass various forms of online abuse, including cyberbullying.

Ethical Considerations:

• Respect for Privacy: Ethical considerations emphasize the importance of respecting individuals’ privacy and not engaging in invasive or harmful online behavior.
• Digital Empathy: Practicing digital empathy involves being mindful of the impact of one’s online actions on others and promoting online kindness and respect.
• Cyberbullying Prevention: Ethical obligations include actively working to prevent cyberbullying, either by intervening as a bystander or reporting abusive behavior.
• Media Literacy: Promoting media literacy and critical thinking skills helps individuals discern between credible sources and misinformation, reducing the spread of harmful content.
• Online Accountability: Ethical behavior online includes taking responsibility for one’s actions, acknowledging mistakes, and making amends when necessary.
• Creating Safe Online Spaces: Ethical considerations call for the creation and maintenance of safe, inclusive online spaces where individuals can express themselves without fear of harassment.
• Educational Initiatives: Ethical efforts involve educating individuals, particularly young people, about the consequences of cyberbullying and promoting ethical online behavior.
• Supporting Victims: Ethical obligations extend to providing support and assistance to cyberbullying victims, ensuring they receive the help they need to cope with the emotional impact.

Role of Education and Awareness

Combatting cyber bullying requires a multifaceted approach:

• Awareness Campaigns : Educating young people about the harms of cyber bullying and promoting digital citizenship.
• Parental Involvement : Parents should be aware of their children’s online activities and foster open communication.
• School Policies : Implementing clear policies and programs in schools to address and prevent cyber bullying.

Technological Interventions

Technology can be part of the solution:

• Monitoring Tools : Software that can monitor online activities and flag potential bullying behavior.
• Reporting Mechanisms : Social media platforms should have easy and effective ways to report bullying.

Personal and Social Strategies

Individuals can take steps to protect themselves and others:

• Cyber Hygiene : Practicing safe online behavior, like keeping personal information private.
• Support Networks : Building a support network of friends, family, and counselors.
• Bystander Intervention : Encouraging those who witness cyber bullying to speak up or report it.

In conclusion, crafting an essay on cyberbullying requires a nuanced approach, combining research, empathy, and ethical awareness. This guide has offered valuable insights and tips to assist students in addressing this pressing issue effectively. By understanding its definition, impact, and prevention strategies, writers can create essays that raise awareness, promote empathy, and contribute to the ongoing fight against cyberbullying.

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Cyber Security Essay for Students and Children

Cyber security essay.

Cybersecurity means protecting data, networks, programs and other information from unauthorized or unattended access, destruction or change. In today’s world, cybersecurity is very important because of some security threats and cyber-attacks. For data protection, many companies develop software. This software protects the data. Cybersecurity is important because not only it helps to secure information but also our system from virus attack. After the U.S.A. and China, India has the highest number of internet users.

Cyber Threats

It can be further classified into 2 types. Cybercrime – against individuals, corporates, etc.and Cyberwarfare – against a state.

Cyber Crime

Use of cyberspace, i.e. computer, internet, cellphone, other technical devices, etc., to commit a crime by an individual or organized group is called cyber-crime. Cyber attackers use numerous software and codes in cyberspace to commit cybercrime. They exploit the weaknesses in the software and hardware design through the use of malware. Hacking is a common way of piercing the defenses of protected computer systems and interfering with their functioning. Identity theft is also common.

Cybercrimes may occur directly i.e,  targeting the computers directly by spreading computer viruses. Other forms include DoS attack. It is an attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. It suspends services of a host connected to the internet which may be temporary or permanent.

Malware is a software used to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. It usually appears in the form of code, scripts, active content, and other software. ‘Malware’ refers to a variety of forms of hostile or intrusive software, for example, Trojan Horses, rootkits, worms, adware, etc.

Another way of committing cybercrime is independent of the Computer Network or Device. It includes Economic frauds. It is done to destabilize the economy of a country, attack on banking security and transaction system, extract money through fraud, acquisition of credit/debit card data, financial theft, etc.

Hinder the operations of a website or service through data alteration, data destruction. Others include using obscene content to humiliate girls and harm their reputation, Spreading pornography, threatening e-mail, assuming a fake identity, virtual impersonation. Nowadays misuse of social media in creating intolerance, instigating communal violence and inciting riots is happening a lot.

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Cyber Warfare

Snowden revelations have shown that Cyberspace could become the theatre of warfare in the 21st century. Future wars will not be like traditional wars which are fought on land, water or air. when any state initiates the use of internet-based invisible force as an instrument of state policy to fight against another nation, it is called cyberwar’.

It includes hacking of vital information, important webpages, strategic controls, and intelligence. In December 2014 the cyberattack a six-month-long cyberattack on the German parliament for which the Sofacy Group is suspected. Another example 2008 cyberattack on US Military computers. Since these cyber-attacks, the issue of cyber warfare has assumed urgency in the global media.

Inexpensive Cybersecurity Measures

• The simplest thing you can do to up your security and rest easy at night knowing your data is safe is to change your passwords.
• You should use a password manager tool like LastPass, Dashlane, or Sticky Password to keep track of everything for you. These applications help you to use unique, secure passwords for every site you need while also keeping track of all of them for you.
• An easy way for an attacker to gain access to your network is to use old credentials that have fallen by the wayside. Hence delete unused accounts.
• Enabling two-factor authentication to add some extra security to your logins. An extra layer of security that makes it harder for an attacker to get into your accounts.
• Keep your Softwares up to date.

Today due to high internet penetration, cybersecurity is one of the biggest need of the world as cybersecurity threats are very dangerous to the country’s security. Not only the government but also the citizens should spread awareness among the people to always update your system and network security settings and to the use proper anti-virus so that your system and network security settings stay virus and malware-free.

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Social Media: Cyberbullying, Essay Example

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Social media is hailed as beneficial or detrimental by many. There is a constant argument as to whether the safety issues that social media presents is worth the entertainment value of being in constant contact with friends and family. Overall, it appears that social media has been detrimental to the emotional and educational growth of Americans over the past 10 years. While these applications have contributed to our ability to remain social, communications that occur over social media platforms have the ability to cause negative emotions and distract us from our work. Cyberbullying is related to both the reduction of emotional and educational growth of the population, and is it important to understand the relationships between these phenomena so that they could be put to an end.

Cyberbullying is responsible for the reduction of emotional growth of today’s children. Since children that use social media platforms are in constant communication with one another, there is an increased ability for bullying to occur without the knowledge of a parent or adult. As a consequence, many students are silently suffering from this victimization and there is no way to intervene with these attacks if the child does not report this abuse. Unfortunately, it is also challenging to trace back this behavior to a particular child even if it is reported. It is possible for parents to monitor their children’s social media profiles, but very frequently, parents elect to not do so in order to respect the privacy of their children. To prevent such behaviors, it is important to make children feel safe about reporting this negative treatment so that this harassment could be put to an end.

While many people argue that social media is distracting and therefore results in reduced grades, it is also important to consider that a major symptom of cyberbullying is a sudden drop in grades. Therefore, students who are bullied suffer from both an emotional and educational deficit. This indicates that it is important for schools to monitor the grades and behaviors of their students to determine whether they could be experiencing a traumatic event that is contributing to their failure to thrive. Since schools are considered responsible for both promoting a safe environment and academic growth, it is also the responsibility of the teachers and administration to detect and rectify problems related to cyberbullying. The decline in academic performance should be a red flag that raises concern of all adults involved in the child’s life, indicating the need for an intervention to take place.

In conclusion, social media is often said to have many advantages. However, when children are the victims of cyberbullying, their emotional and educational growth becomes stunted. It is therefore the responsibility of parents, administrators, and teachers to collaborate to recognize the symptoms of cyberbullying and to enact interventions as appropriate to ensure that these attacks are put to an end. As social media becomes more prevalent, it is likely that problems related to cyberbullying will continue to increase. Thus, it is necessary to determine systematic ways to prevent these cyberattacks from occurring, protecting the nation’s youth emotionally and academically before these problems become physical in nature.

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✍️Essay on Cybercrime: Free Samples in 100, 200, 300 Words

• Updated on  
• Apr 26, 2024

The 21st century is a digital age, where any and every task is done on the internet. All thanks to the developments in technology which have been the main factor to ease human life on earth and maybe on other plants in future. But with the benefits of technology, there are several harmful effects, one of them which has recently gained popularity; Cyber Crime. 

Cybercrime has emerged as pervasive and evolved as one of the most dangerous threats to humans. There are several users on the internet who indulge in illegal and criminal activities, using computers and networks. To guide you through this hot debate topic, below we have discussed essays on cybercrime.

Table of Contents

• 1 Essay on Cybercrime in 100 Words
• 2 Essay on Cybercrime in 200 Words
• 3 Essay on Cybercrime in 300 Words
• 4 Short Essay on Cybercrime

Also Read: Essay on Student Life

Essay on Cybercrime in 100 Words

Cybercrime involves illegal activities like hacking, ransomware, cyberbullying, online fraud, etc. People who are involved in cybercrime or any similar activities are called hackers, scammers or fraudsters. Cybercrime leads to financial loss for individuals who have fallen victim to one. Cybercrime often invades a person’s privacy by stealing their personal details, including sensitive data, photos, and communication records, which can be used for blackmailing or any malicious purpose.

There are several governmental and non-government organizations which are working 

To tackle cybercrime by raising awareness among the masses, cyber security training, implementing robust security protocols, and enacting comprehensive cybercrime laws.

Also Read: I Love My India Essay: 100 and 500+ Words in English for School Students

Also Read: How to Prepare for UPSC in 6 Months?

Essay on Cybercrime in 200 Words

Cybercrime is a criminal activity done online using a computer, network and internet. With the increasing use of the internet and mobile phones, the number of criminal activities has also gained pace.  These criminal-minded people steal the personal details of a person, which leads to financial losses and damages the reputation of the victims. Various scams and fraudulent schemes are offered on the internet like online auctions, advance fees, or any investment scam, which are all aimed at deceiving individuals into parting with their money.

Cybercrime is not limited to financial losses or reputational damage, a more discrete term has emerged; cyberbullying.  In cyberbullying, a person is harassed, humiliated, or threatened online. This can have severe psychological and emotional consequences. Ethical hackers or white hat hackers can help organizations identify vulnerabilities in their systems before malicious hackers exploit them. 

Cybercrime doesn’t have any boundaries and is an international issue and international cooperation is crucial for tracking and prosecuting cybercriminals who operate across borders. To combat cybercrime effectively, a multi-faceted approach is required, involving education, technology, legislation, and international cooperation. As technology continues to advance, our efforts to combat cybercrime must keep pace to protect our increasingly interconnected world.

Also Read : Essay on Winter Season

Essay on Cybercrime in 300 Words

Economists have termed cybercrime as ‘ A Hidden Threat to the Digital World.’ Modern humans are relying on the internet for their day-to-day activities and every macro and micro activity. In this sense, the term cybercrime comes to the front. Cybercrime refers to criminal activities conducted through the use of computers, networks, and the Internet. 

Cybercrime consists of various malicious activities like hacking, phishing, ransomware attacks, identity theft, online fraud, and cyberbullying. Hackers, fraudsters, scammers, criminals, and even state-sponsored actors exploit vulnerabilities in digital systems to steal sensitive information, disrupt operations, and cause financial and emotional harm to victims.

The consequences of cybercrime are far-reaching. Financial losses run into 10 digits annually, affecting individuals and organizations alike. Personal privacy is invaded as cybercriminals steal sensitive data, photos, and communication records. In cases of cyberbullying and harassment, victims suffer reputational damages, psychological distress, and emotional trauma, particularly in cases of cyberbullying and harassment.

It’s necessary to look for a multifaceted approach to deal with cybercrime, some of which are.

• Raising public awareness through campaigns where people are informed about the risks of cybercrime and educate them on best practices for online safety.
• Individuals and organizations should implement robust security protocols, regularly update software, and use multi-factor authentication to protect their digital assets.
• Governments should enact and enforce cybercrime laws, providing law enforcement agencies with the resources and expertise needed to prosecute cybercriminals effectively.
• Looking at the global nature of cybercrime, international collaboration is vital. Countries should work together to share threat intelligence and cooperate in the investigation and prosecution of cybercriminals.
• Ethical hackers can help organizations identify and rectify vulnerabilities in their systems before malicious actors exploit them.

Tackling cybercrime requires proactive measures, including education, strong cybersecurity practices, legislation, international cooperation, and the active involvement of ethical hackers.

Also Read: Essay on Green Energy PDF: 150 and 250 Words

Short Essay on Cybercrime

Find the short essay on cyber crime from below:

Cybercrime is an illegal and unethical activity which is done by hackers and fraudsters to gain financial or any other benefits for themselves.

To tackle cybercrime, several measures can be taken. Some of these measures are education and public awareness, research and innovation, ethical hacking, etc.

To write an essay on cybercrime, you need to give details on how it works and the level of danger it poses to humans. Cybercrime consists of various malicious activities like hacking, phishing, ransomware attacks, identity theft, online fraud, and cyberbullying. Hackers, fraudsters, scammers, criminals, and even state-sponsored actors exploit vulnerabilities in digital systems to steal sensitive information, disrupt operations, and cause financial and emotional harm to victims.

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Essays on Cyberbullying

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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Cyber Crimes — Cybercrime: Theories And Managing

Cybercrime: Theories and Managing

• Categories: Cyber Crimes Cyber Security

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Words: 2577 |

13 min read

Published: Apr 11, 2019

Words: 2577 | Pages: 6 | 13 min read

Table of contents

Theories of cyber crime, social and economic impact of cyber crime, managing cybercrime, preventing cyber crime via information security, future opportunities for managing cybercrime, the role of computer forensics in managing cyber crime.

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