psychology hypothesis ideas

11+ Psychology Experiment Ideas (Goals + Methods)

Have you ever wondered why some days you remember things easily, while on others you keep forgetting? Or why certain songs make you super happy and others just…meh?

Our minds are like big, mysterious puzzles, and every day we're finding new pieces to fit. One of the coolest ways to explore our brains and the way they work is through psychology experiments.

A psychology experiment is a special kind of test or activity researchers use to learn more about how our minds work and why we behave the way we do.

It's like a detective game where scientists ask questions and try out different clues to find answers about our feelings, thoughts, and actions. These experiments aren't just for scientists in white coats but can be fun activities we all try to discover more about ourselves and others.

Some of these experiments have become so famous, they’re like the celebrities of the science world! Like the Marshmallow Test, where kids had to wait to eat a yummy marshmallow, or Pavlov's Dogs, where dogs learned to drool just hearing a bell.

Let's look at a few examples of psychology experiments you can do at home.

What Are Some Classic Experiments?

Imagine a time when the mysteries of the mind were being uncovered in groundbreaking ways. During these moments, a few experiments became legendary, capturing the world's attention with their intriguing results.

The Marshmallow Test

One of the most talked-about experiments of the 20th century was the Marshmallow Test , conducted by Walter Mischel in the late 1960s at Stanford University.

The goal was simple but profound: to understand a child's ability to delay gratification and exercise self-control.

Children were placed in a room with a marshmallow and given a choice: eat the marshmallow now or wait 15 minutes and receive two as a reward. Many kids struggled with the wait, some devouring the treat immediately, while others demonstrated remarkable patience.

But the experiment didn’t end there. Years later, Mischel discovered something astonishing. The children who had waited for the second marshmallow were generally more successful in several areas of life, from school achievements to job satisfaction!

While this experiment highlighted the importance of teaching patience and self-control from a young age, it wasn't without its criticisms. Some argued that a child's background, upbringing, or immediate surroundings might play a significant role in their choices.

Moreover, there were concerns about the ethics of judging a child's potential success based on a brief interaction with a marshmallow.

Pavlov's Dogs

Traveling further back in time and over to Russia, another classic experiment took the world by storm. Ivan Pavlov , in the early 1900s, wasn't initially studying learning or behavior. He was exploring the digestive systems of dogs.

But during his research, Pavlov stumbled upon a fascinating discovery. He noticed that by ringing a bell every time he fed his dogs, they eventually began to associate the bell's sound with mealtime. So much so, that merely ringing the bell, even without presenting food, made the dogs drool in anticipation!

This reaction demonstrated the concept of "conditioning" - where behaviors can be learned by linking two unrelated stimuli. Pavlov's work revolutionized the world's understanding of learning and had ripple effects in various areas like animal training and therapy techniques.

Pavlov came up with the term classical conditioning , which is still used today. Other psychologists have developed more nuanced types of conditioning that help us understand how people learn to perform different behaviours.

Classical conditioning is the process by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus , leading to the same response. In Pavlov's case, the neutral stimulus (bell) became associated with the meaningful stimulus (food), leading the dogs to salivate just by hearing the bell.

Modern thinkers often critique Pavlov's methods from an ethical standpoint. The dogs, crucial to his discovery, may not have been treated with today's standards of care and respect in research.

Both these experiments, while enlightening, also underline the importance of conducting research with empathy and consideration, especially when it involves living beings.

What is Ethical Experimentation?

The tales of Pavlov's bells and Mischel's marshmallows offer us not just insights into the human mind and behavior but also raise a significant question: At what cost do these discoveries come?

Ethical experimentation isn't just a fancy term; it's the backbone of good science. When we talk about ethics, we're referring to the moral principles that guide a researcher's decisions and actions. But why does it matter so much in the realm of psychological experimentation?

An example of an experiment that had major ethical issues is an experiment called the Monster Study . This study was conducted in 1936 and was interested in why children develop a stutter.

The major issue with it is that the psychologists treated some of the children poorly over a period of five months, telling them things like “You must try to stop yourself immediately. Don’t ever speak unless you can do it right.”

You can imagine how that made the children feel!

This study helped create guidelines for ethical treatment in experiments. The guidelines include:

Respect for Individuals: Whether it's a dog in Pavlov's lab or a child in Mischel's study room, every participant—human or animal—deserves respect. They should never be subjected to harm or undue stress. For humans, informed consent (knowing what they're signing up for) is a must. This means that if a child is participating, they, along with their guardians, should understand what the experiment entails and agree to it without being pressured.

Honesty is the Best Policy: Researchers have a responsibility to be truthful. This means not only being honest with participants about the study but also reporting findings truthfully, even if the results aren't what they hoped for. There can be exceptions if an experiment will only succeed if the participants aren't fully aware, but it has to be approved by an ethics committee .

Safety First: No discovery, no matter how groundbreaking, is worth harming a participant. The well-being and mental, emotional, and physical safety of participants is paramount. Experiments should be designed to minimize risks and discomfort.

Considering the Long-Term: Some experiments might have effects that aren't immediately obvious. For example, while a child might seem fine after participating in an experiment, they could feel stressed or anxious later on. Ethical researchers consider and plan for these possibilities, offering support and follow-up if needed.

The Rights of Animals: Just because animals can't voice their rights doesn't mean they don't have any. They should be treated with care, dignity, and respect. This means providing them with appropriate living conditions, not subjecting them to undue harm, and considering alternatives to animal testing when possible.

While the world of psychological experiments offers fascinating insights into behavior and the mind, it's essential to tread with care and compassion. The golden rule? Treat every participant, human or animal, as you'd wish to be treated. After all, the true mark of a groundbreaking experiment isn't just its findings but the ethical integrity with which it's conducted.

So, even if you're experimenting at home, please keep in mind the impact your experiments could have on the people and beings around you!

Let's get into some ideas for experiments.

1) Testing Conformity

Our primary aim with this experiment is to explore the intriguing world of social influences, specifically focusing on how much sway a group has over an individual's decisions. This social influence is called groupthink .

Humans, as social creatures, often find solace in numbers, seeking the approval and acceptance of those around them. But how deep does this need run? Does the desire to "fit in" overpower our trust in our own judgments?

This experiment not only provides insights into these questions but also touches upon the broader themes of peer pressure, societal norms, and individuality. Understanding this could shed light on various real-world situations, from why fashion trends catch on to more critical scenarios like how misinformation can spread.

Method: This idea is inspired by the classic Asch Conformity Experiments . Here's a simple way to try it:

• Assemble a group of people (about 7-8). Only one person will be the real participant; the others will be in on the experiment.
• Show the group a picture of three lines of different lengths and another line labeled "Test Line."
• Ask each person to say out loud which of the three lines matches the length of the "Test Line."
• Unknown to the real participant, the other members will intentionally choose the wrong line. This is to see if the participant goes along with the group's incorrect choice, even if they can see it's wrong.

Real-World Impacts of Groupthink

Groupthink is more than just a science term; we see it in our daily lives:

Decisions at Work or School: Imagine being in a group where everyone wants to do one thing, even if it's not the best idea. People might not speak up because they're worried about standing out or being the only one with a different opinion.

Wrong Information: Ever heard a rumor that turned out to be untrue? Sometimes, if many people believe and share something, others might believe it too, even if it's not correct. This happens a lot on the internet.

Peer Pressure: Sometimes, friends might all want to do something that's not safe or right. People might join in just because they don't want to feel left out.

Missing Out on New Ideas: When everyone thinks the same way and agrees all the time, cool new ideas might never get heard. It's like always coloring with the same crayon and missing out on all the other bright colors!

2) Testing Color and Mood

We all have favorite colors, right? But did you ever wonder if colors can make you feel a certain way? Color psychology is the study of how colors can influence our feelings and actions.

For instance, does blue always calm us down? Does red make us feel excited or even a bit angry? By exploring this, we can learn how colors play a role in our daily lives, from the clothes we wear to the color of our bedroom walls.

• Find a quiet room and set up different colored lights or large sheets of colored paper: blue, red, yellow, and green.
• Invite some friends over and let each person spend a few minutes under each colored light or in front of each colored paper.
• After each color, ask your friends to write down or talk about how they feel. Are they relaxed? Energized? Happy? Sad?

Researchers have always been curious about this. Some studies have shown that colors like blue and green can make people feel calm, while colors like red might make them feel more alert or even hungry!

Real-World Impacts of Color Psychology

Ever noticed how different places use colors?

Hospitals and doctors' clinics often use soft blues and greens. This might be to help patients feel more relaxed and calm.

Many fast food restaurants use bright reds and yellows. These colors might make us feel hungry or want to eat quickly and leave.

Classrooms might use a mix of colors to help students feel both calm and energized.

3) Testing Music and Brainpower

Think about your favorite song. Do you feel smarter or more focused when you listen to it? This experiment seeks to understand the relationship between music and our brain's ability to remember things. Some people believe that certain types of music, like classical tunes, can help us study or work better. Let's find out if it's true!

• Prepare a list of 10-15 things to remember, like a grocery list or names of places.
• Invite some friends over. First, let them try to memorize the list in a quiet room.
• After a short break, play some music (try different types like pop, classical, or even nature sounds) and ask them to memorize the list again.
• Compare the results. Was there a difference in how much they remembered with and without music?

The " Mozart Effect " is a popular idea. Some studies in the past suggested that listening to Mozart's music might make people smarter, at least for a little while. But other researchers think the effect might not be specific to Mozart; it could be that any music we enjoy boosts our mood and helps our brain work better.

Real-World Impacts of Music and Memory

Think about how we use music:

• Study Sessions: Many students listen to music while studying, believing it helps them concentrate better.
• Workout Playlists: Gyms play energetic music to keep people motivated and help them push through tough workouts.
• Meditation and Relaxation: Calm, soothing sounds are often used to help people relax or meditate.

4) Testing Dreams and Food

Ever had a really wild dream and wondered where it came from? Some say that eating certain foods before bedtime can make our dreams more vivid or even a bit strange.

This experiment is all about diving into the dreamy world of sleep to see if what we eat can really change our nighttime adventures. Can a piece of chocolate or a slice of cheese transport us to a land of wacky dreams? Let's find out!

• Ask a group of friends to keep a "dream diary" for a week. Every morning, they should write down what they remember about their dreams.
• For the next week, ask them to eat a small snack before bed, like cheese, chocolate, or even spicy foods.
• They should continue writing in their "dream diary" every morning.
• At the end of the two weeks, compare the dream notes. Do the dreams seem different during the snack week?

The link between food and dreams isn't super clear, but some people have shared personal stories. For example, some say that spicy food can lead to bizarre dreams. Scientists aren't completely sure why, but it could be related to how food affects our body temperature or brain activity during sleep.

A cool idea related to this experiment is that of vivid dreams , which are very clear, detailed, and easy to remember dreams. Some people are even able to control their vivid dreams, or say that they feel as real as daily, waking life !

Real-World Impacts of Food and Dreams

Our discoveries might shed light on:

• Bedtime Routines: Knowing which foods might affect our dreams can help us choose better snacks before bedtime, especially if we want calmer sleep.
• Understanding Our Brain: Dreams can be mysterious, but studying them can give us clues about how our brains work at night.
• Cultural Beliefs: Many cultures have myths or stories about foods and dreams. Our findings might add a fun twist to these age-old tales!

5) Testing Mirrors and Self-image

Stand in front of a mirror. How do you feel? Proud? Shy? Curious? Mirrors reflect more than just our appearance; they might influence how we think about ourselves.

This experiment delves into the mystery of self-perception. Do we feel more confident when we see our reflection? Or do we become more self-conscious? Let's take a closer look.

• Set up two rooms: one with mirrors on all walls and another with no mirrors at all.
• Invite friends over and ask them to spend some time in each room doing normal activities, like reading or talking.
• After their time in both rooms, ask them questions like: "Did you think about how you looked more in one room? Did you feel more confident or shy?"
• Compare the responses to see if the presence of mirrors changes how they feel about themselves.

Studies have shown that when people are in rooms with mirrors, they can become more aware of themselves. Some might stand straighter, fix their hair, or even change how they behave. The mirror acts like an audience, making us more conscious of our actions.

Real-World Impacts of Mirrors and Self-perception

Mirrors aren't just for checking our hair. Ever wonder why clothing stores have so many mirrors? They might help shoppers visualize themselves in new outfits, encouraging them to buy.

Mirrors in gyms can motivate people to work out with correct form and posture. They also help us see progress in real-time!

And sometimes, looking in a mirror can be a reminder to take care of ourselves, both inside and out.

But remember, what we look like isn't as important as how we act in the world or how healthy we are. Some people claim that having too many mirrors around can actually make us more self conscious and distract us from the good parts of ourselves.

Some studies are showing that mirrors can actually increase self-compassion , amongst other things. As any tool, it seems like mirrors can be both good and bad, depending on how we use them!

6) Testing Plants and Talking

Have you ever seen someone talking to their plants? It might sound silly, but some people believe that plants can "feel" our vibes and that talking to them might even help them grow better.

In this experiment, we'll explore whether plants can indeed react to our voices and if they might grow taller, faster, or healthier when we chat with them.

• Get three similar plants, placing each one in a separate room.
• Talk to the first plant, saying positive things like "You're doing great!" or singing to it.
• Say negative things to the second plant, like "You're not growing fast enough!"
• Don't talk to the third plant at all; let it be your "silent" control group .
• Water all plants equally and make sure they all get the same amount of light.
• At the end of the month, measure the growth of each plant and note any differences in their health or size.

The idea isn't brand new. Some experiments from the past suggest plants might respond to sounds or vibrations. Some growers play music for their crops, thinking it helps them flourish.

Even if talking to our plants doesn't have an impact on their growth, it can make us feel better! Sometimes, if we are lonely, talking to our plants can help us feel less alone. Remember, they are living too!

Real-World Impacts of Talking to Plants

If plants do react to our voices, gardeners and farmers might adopt new techniques, like playing music in greenhouses or regularly talking to plants.

Taking care of plants and talking to them could become a recommended activity for reducing stress and boosting mood.

And if plants react to sound, it gives us a whole new perspective on how connected all living things might be .

7) Testing Virtual Reality and Senses

Virtual reality (VR) seems like magic, doesn't it? You put on a headset and suddenly, you're in a different world! But how does this "new world" affect our senses? This experiment wants to find out how our brains react to VR compared to the real world. Do we feel, see, or hear things differently? Let's get to the bottom of this digital mystery!

• You'll need a VR headset and a game or experience that can be replicated in real life (like walking through a forest). If you don't have a headset yourself, there are virtual reality arcades now!
• Invite friends to first experience the scenario in VR.
• Afterwards, replicate the experience in the real world, like taking a walk in an actual forest.
• Ask them questions about both experiences: Did one seem more real than the other? Which sounds were more clear? Which colors were brighter? Did they feel different emotions?

As VR becomes more popular, scientists have been curious about its effects. Some studies show that our brains can sometimes struggle to tell the difference between VR and reality. That's why some people might feel like they're really "falling" in a VR game even though they're standing still.

Real-World Impacts of VR on Our Senses

Schools might use VR to teach lessons, like taking students on a virtual trip to ancient Egypt. Understanding how our senses react in VR can also help game designers create even more exciting and realistic games.

Doctors could use VR to help patients overcome fears or to provide relaxation exercises. This is actually already a method therapists can use for helping patients who have serious phobias. This is called exposure therapy , which basically means slowly exposing someone (or yourself) to the thing you fear, starting from very far away to becoming closer.

For instance, if someone is afraid of snakes. You might show them images of snakes first. Once they are comfortable with the picture, they can know there is one in the next room. Once they are okay with that, they might use a VR headset to see the snake in the same room with them, though of course there is not an actual snake there.

8) Testing Sleep and Learning

We all know that feeling of trying to study or work when we're super tired. Our brains feel foggy, and it's hard to remember stuff. But how exactly does sleep (or lack of it) influence our ability to learn and remember things?

With this experiment, we'll uncover the mysteries of sleep and see how it can be our secret weapon for better learning.

• Split participants into two groups.
• Ask both groups to study the same material in the evening.
• One group goes to bed early, while the other stays up late.
• The next morning, give both groups a quiz on what they studied.
• Compare the results to see which group remembered more.

Sleep and its relation to learning have been explored a lot. Scientists believe that during sleep, especially deep sleep, our brains sort and store new information. This is why sometimes, after a good night's rest, we might understand something better or remember more.

Real-World Impacts of Sleep and Learning

Understanding the power of sleep can help:

• Students: If they know the importance of sleep, students might plan better, mixing study sessions with rest, especially before big exams.
• Workplaces: Employers might consider more flexible hours, understanding that well-rested employees learn faster and make fewer mistakes.
• Health: Regularly missing out on sleep can have other bad effects on our health. So, promoting good sleep is about more than just better learning.

9) Testing Social Media and Mood

Have you ever felt different after spending time on social media? Maybe happy after seeing a friend's fun photos, or a bit sad after reading someone's tough news.

Social media is a big part of our lives, but how does it really affect our mood? This experiment aims to shine a light on the emotional roller-coaster of likes, shares, and comments.

• Ask participants to note down how they're feeling - are they happy, sad, excited, or bored?
• Have them spend a set amount of time (like 30 minutes) on their favorite social media platforms.
• After the session, ask them again about their mood. Did it change? Why?
• Discuss what they saw or read that made them feel that way.

Previous research has shown mixed results. Some studies suggest that seeing positive posts can make us feel good, while others say that too much time on social media can make us feel lonely or left out.

Real-World Impacts of Social Media on Mood

Understanding the emotional impact of social media can help users understand their feelings and take breaks if needed. Knowing is half the battle! Additionally, teachers and parents can guide young users on healthy social media habits, like limiting time or following positive accounts.

And if it's shown that social media does impact mood, social media companies can design friendlier, less stressful user experiences.

But even if the social media companies don't change things, we can still change our social media habits to make ourselves feel better.

10) Testing Handwriting or Typing

Think about the last time you took notes. Did you grab a pen and paper or did you type them out on a computer or tablet?

Both ways are popular, but there's a big question: which method helps us remember and understand better? In this experiment, we'll find out if the classic art of handwriting has an edge over speedy typing.

• Divide participants into two groups.
• Present a short lesson or story to both groups.
• One group will take notes by hand, while the other will type them out.
• After some time, quiz both groups on the content of the lesson or story.
• Compare the results to see which note-taking method led to better recall and understanding.

Studies have shown some interesting results. While typing can be faster and allows for more notes, handwriting might boost memory and comprehension because it engages the brain differently, making us process the information as we write.

Importantly, each person might find one or the other works better for them. This could be useful in understanding our learning habits and what instructional style would be best for us.

Real-World Impacts of Handwriting vs. Typing

Knowing the pros and cons of each method can:

• Boost Study Habits: Students can pick the method that helps them learn best, especially during important study sessions or lectures.
• Work Efficiency: In jobs where information retention is crucial, understanding the best method can increase efficiency and accuracy.
• Tech Design: If we find out more about how handwriting benefits us, tech companies might design gadgets that mimic the feel of writing while combining the advantages of digital tools.

11) Testing Money and Happiness

We often hear the saying, "Money can't buy happiness," but is that really true? Many dream of winning the lottery or getting a big raise, believing it would solve all problems.

In this experiment, we dig deep to see if there's a real connection between wealth and well-being.

• Survey a range of participants, from those who earn a little to those who earn a lot, about their overall happiness. You can keep it to your friends and family, but that might not be as accurate as surveying a wider group of people.
• Ask them to rank things that bring them joy and note if they believe more money would boost their happiness. You could try different methods, one where you include some things that they have to rank, such as gardening, spending time with friends, reading books, learning, etc. Or you could just leave a blank list that they can fill in with their own ideas.
• Study the data to find patterns or trends about income and happiness.

Some studies have found money can boost happiness, especially when it helps people out of tough financial spots. But after reaching a certain income, extra dollars usually do not add much extra joy.

In fact, psychologists just realized that once people have an income that can comfortably support their needs (and some of their wants), they stop getting happier with more . That number is roughly $75,000, but of course that depends on the cost of living and how many members are in the family.

Real-World Impacts of Money and Happiness

If we can understand the link between money and joy, it might help folks choose jobs they love over jobs that just pay well. And instead of buying things, people might spend on experiences, like trips or classes, that make lasting memories.

Most importantly, we all might spend more time on hobbies, friends, and family, knowing they're big parts of what makes life great.

Some people are hoping that with Artificial Intelligence being able to do a lot of the less well-paying jobs, people might be able to do work they enjoy more, all while making more money and having more time to do the things that make them happy.

12) Testing Temperature and Productivity

Have you ever noticed how a cold classroom or office makes it harder to focus? Or how on hot days, all you want to do is relax? In this experiment, we're going to find out if the temperature around us really does change how well we work.

• Find a group of participants and a room where you can change the temperature.
• Set the room to a chilly temperature and give the participants a set of tasks to do.
• Measure how well and quickly they do these tasks.
• The next day, make the room comfortably warm and have them do similar tasks.
• Compare the results to see if the warmer or cooler temperature made them work better.

Some studies have shown that people can work better when they're in a room that feels just right, not too cold or hot. Being too chilly can make fingers slow, and being too warm can make minds wander.

What temperature is "just right"? It won't be the same for everyone, but most people find it's between 70-73 degrees Fahrenheit (21-23 Celsius).

Real-World Implications of Temperature and Productivity

If we can learn more about how temperature affects our work, teachers might set classroom temperatures to help students focus and learn better, offices might adjust temperatures to get the best work out of their teams, and at home, we might find the best temperature for doing homework or chores quickly and well.

Interestingly, temperature also has an impact on our sleep quality. Most people find slightly cooler rooms to be better for good sleep. While the daytime temperature between 70-73F is good for productivity, a nighttime temperature around 65F (18C) is ideal for most people's sleep.

Psychology is like a treasure hunt, where the prize is understanding ourselves better. With every experiment, we learn a little more about why we think, feel, and act the way we do. Some of these experiments might seem simple, like seeing if colors change our mood or if being warm helps us work better. But even the simple questions can have big answers that help us in everyday life.

Remember, while doing experiments is fun, it's also important to always be kind and think about how others feel. We should never make someone uncomfortable just for a test. Instead, let's use these experiments to learn and grow, helping to make the world a brighter, more understanding place for everyone.

Related posts:

• 150+ Flirty Goodnight Texts For Him (Sweet and Naughty Examples)
• Dream Interpreter & Dictionary (270+ Meanings)
• Sleep Stages (Light, Deep, REM)
• What Part of the Brain Regulates Body Temperature?
• Why Do We Dream? (6 Theories and Psychological Reasons)

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Psychology Experiment Ideas

Categories Psychology Education

Quick Ideas | Experiment Ideas | Designing Your Experiment | Types of Research

If you are taking a psychology class, you might at some point be asked to design an imaginary experiment or perform an experiment or study. The idea you ultimately choose to use for your psychology experiment may depend upon the number of participants you can find, the time constraints of your project, and limitations in the materials available to you.

Consider these factors before deciding which psychology experiment idea might work for your project.

This article discusses some ideas you might try if you need to perform a psychology experiment or study.

Table of Contents

A Quick List of Experiment Ideas

If you are looking for a quick experiment idea that would be easy to tackle, the following might be some research questions you want to explore:

• How many items can people hold in short-term memory ?
• Are people with a Type A personality more stressed than those with a Type B personality?
• Does listening to upbeat music increase heart rate?
• Are men or women better at detecting emotions ?
• Are women or men more likely to experience imposter syndrome ?
• Will students conform if others in the group all share an opinion that is different from their own?
• Do people’s heartbeat or breathing rates change in response to certain colors?
• How much do people rely on nonverbal communication to convey information in a conversation?
• Do people who score higher on measures of emotional intelligence also score higher on measures of overall well-being?
• Do more successful people share certain personality traits ?

Most of the following ideas are easily conducted with a small group of participants, who may likely be your classmates. Some of the psychology experiment or study ideas you might want to explore:

Sleep and Short-Term Memory

Does sleep deprivation have an impact on short-term memory ?

Ask participants how much sleep they got the night before and then conduct a task to test short-term memory for items on a list.

Social Media and Mental Health

Is social media usage linked to anxiety or depression?

Ask participants about how many hours a week they use social media sites and then have them complete a depression and anxiety assessment.

Procrastination and Stress

How does procrastination impact student stress levels?

Ask participants about how frequently they procrastinate on their homework and then have them complete an assessment looking at their current stress levels.

Caffeine and Cognition

How does caffeine impact performance on a Stroop test?

In the Stroop test , participants are asked to tell the color of a word, rather than just reading the word. Have a control group consume no caffeine and then complete a Stroop test, and then have an experimental group consume caffeine before completing the same test. Compare results.

Color and Memory

Does the color of text have any impact on memory?

Randomly assign participants to two groups. Have one group memorize words written in black ink for two minutes. Have the second group memorize the same words for the same amount of time, but instead written in red ink. Compare the results.

Weight Bias

How does weight bias influence how people are judged by others?

Find pictures of models in a magazine who look similar, including similar hair and clothing, but who differ in terms of weight. Have participants look at the two models and then ask them to identify which one they think is smarter, wealthier, kinder, and healthier.

Assess how each model was rated and how weight bias may have influenced how they were described by participants.

Music and Exercise

Does music have an effect on how hard people work out?

Have people listen to different styles of music while jogging on a treadmill and measure their walking speed, heart rate, and workout length.

The Halo Effect

How does the Halo Effect influence how people see others?

Show participants pictures of people and ask them to rate the photos in terms of how attractive, kind, intelligent, helpful, and successful the people in the images are.

How does the attractiveness of the person in the photo correlate to how participants rate other qualities? Are attractive people more likely to be perceived as kind, funny, and intelligent?

Eyewitness Testimony

How reliable is eyewitness testimony?

Have participants view video footage of a car crash. Ask some participants to describe how fast the cars were going when they “hit into” each other. Ask other participants to describe how fast the cars were going when they “smashed into” each other.

Give the participants a memory test a few days later and ask them to recall if they saw any broken glass at the accident scene. Compare to see if those in the “smashed into” condition were more likely to report seeing broken glass than those in the “hit into” group.

The experiment is a good illustration of how easily false memories can be triggered.

Simple Psychology Experiment Ideas

If you are looking for a relatively simple psychology experiment idea, here are a few options you might consider.

The Stroop Effect

This classic experiment involves presenting participants with words printed in different colors and asking them to name the color of the ink rather than read the word. Students can manipulate the congruency of the word and the color to test the Stroop effect.

Memory Recall

Students can design a simple experiment to test memory recall by presenting participants with a list of items to remember and then asking them to recall the items after a delay. Students can manipulate the length of the delay or the type of encoding strategy used to see the effect on recall.

Social Conformity

Students can test social conformity by presenting participants with a simple task and manipulating the responses of confederates to see if the participant conforms to the group response.

Selective Attention

Students can design an experiment to test selective attention by presenting participants with a video or audio stimulus and manipulating the presence or absence of a distracting stimulus to see the effect on attention.

Implicit Bias

Students can test implicit bias by presenting participants with a series of words or images and measuring their response time to categorize the stimuli into different categories.

The Primacy/Recency Effect

Students can test the primacy /recency effect by presenting participants with a list of items to remember and manipulating the order of the items to see the effect on recall.

Sleep Deprivation

Students can test the effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance by comparing the performance of participants who have had a full night’s sleep to those who have been deprived of sleep.

These are just a few examples of simple psychology experiment ideas for students. The specific experiment will depend on the research question and resources available.

Elements of a Good Psychology Experiment

Finding psychology experiment ideas is not necessarily difficult, but finding a good experimental or study topic that is right for your needs can be a little tough. You need to find something that meets the guidelines and, perhaps most importantly, is approved by your instructor.

Requirements may vary, but you need to ensure that your experiment, study, or survey is:

• Easy to set up and carry out
• Easy to find participants willing to take part
• Free of any ethical concerns

In some cases, you may need to present your idea to your school’s institutional review board before you begin to obtain permission to work with human participants.

Consider Your Own Interests

At some point in your life, you have likely pondered why people behave in certain ways. Or wondered why certain things seem to always happen. Your own interests can be a rich source of ideas for your psychology experiments.

As you are trying to come up with a topic or hypothesis, try focusing on the subjects that fascinate you the most. If you have a particular interest in a topic, look for ideas that answer questions about the topic that you and others may have. Examples of topics you might choose to explore include:

• Development
• Personality
• Social behavior

This can be a fun opportunity to investigate something that appeals to your interests.

Read About Classic Experiments

Sometimes reviewing classic psychological experiments that have been done in the past can give you great ideas for your own psychology experiments. For example, the false memory experiment above is inspired by the classic memory study conducted by Elizabeth Loftus.

Textbooks can be a great place to start looking for topics, but you might want to expand your search to research journals. When you find a study that sparks your interest, read through the discussion section. Researchers will often indicate ideas for future directions that research could take.

Ask Your Instructor

Your professor or instructor is often the best person to consult for advice right from the start.

In most cases, you will probably receive fairly detailed instructions about your assignment. This may include information about the sort of topic you can choose or perhaps the type of experiment or study on which you should focus.

If your instructor does not assign a specific subject area to explore, it is still a great idea to talk about your ideas and get feedback before you get too invested in your topic idea. You will need your teacher’s permission to proceed with your experiment anyway, so now is a great time to open a dialogue and get some good critical feedback.

Experiments vs. Other Types of Research

One thing to note, many of the ideas found here are actually examples of surveys or correlational studies .

For something to qualify as a tru e experiment, there must be manipulation of an independent variable .

For many students, conducting an actual experiment may be outside the scope of their project or may not be permitted by their instructor, school, or institutional review board.

If your assignment or project requires you to conduct a true experiment that involves controlling and manipulating an independent variable, you will need to take care to choose a topic that will work within the guidelines of your assignment.

Types of Psychology Experiments

There are many different types of psychology experiments that students could perform. Examples of psychological research methods you might use include:

Correlational Study

This type of study examines the relationship between two variables. Students could collect data on two variables of interest, such as stress and academic performance, and see if there is a correlation between the two.

Experimental Study

In an experimental study, students manipulate one variable and observe the effect on another variable. For example, students could manipulate the type of music participants listen to and observe its effect on their mood.

Observational Study

Observational studies involve observing behavior in a natural setting . Students could observe how people interact in a public space and analyze the patterns they see.

Survey Study

Students could design a survey to collect data on a specific topic, such as attitudes toward social media, and analyze the results.

A case study involves in-depth analysis of a single individual or group. Students could conduct a case study of a person with a particular disorder, such as anxiety or depression, and examine their experiences and treatment options.

Quasi-Experimental Study

Quasi-experimental studies are similar to experimental studies, but participants are not randomly assigned to groups. Students could investigate the effects of a treatment or intervention on a particular group, such as a classroom of students who receive a new teaching method.

Longitudinal Study

Longitudinal studies involve following participants over an extended period of time. Students could conduct a longitudinal study on the development of language skills in children or the effects of aging on cognitive abilities.

These are just a few examples of the many different types of psychology experiments that students could perform. The specific type of experiment will depend on the research question and the resources available.

Steps for Doing a Psychology Experiment

When conducting a psychology experiment, students should follow several important steps. Here is a general outline of the process:

Define the Research Question

Before conducting an experiment, students should define the research question they are trying to answer. This will help them to focus their study and determine the variables they need to manipulate and measure.

Develop a Hypothesis

Based on the research question, students should develop a hypothesis that predicts the experiment’s outcome. The hypothesis should be testable and measurable.

Select Participants

Students should select participants who meet the criteria for the study. Participants should be informed about the study and give informed consent to participate.

Design the Experiment

Students should design the experiment to test their hypothesis. This includes selecting the appropriate variables, creating a plan for manipulating and measuring them, and determining the appropriate control conditions.

Collect Data

Once the experiment is designed, students should collect data by following the procedures they have developed. They should record all data accurately and completely.

Analyze the Data

After collecting the data, students should analyze it to determine if their hypothesis was supported or not. They can use statistical analyses to determine if there are significant differences between groups or if there are correlations between variables.

Interpret the Results

Based on the analysis, students should interpret the results and draw conclusions about their hypothesis. They should consider the study’s limitations and their findings’ implications.

Report the Results

Finally, students should report the results of their study. This may include writing a research paper or presenting their findings in a poster or oral presentation.

Britt MA. Psych Experiments . Avon, MA: Adams Media; 2007.

Martin DW. Doing Psychology Experiments. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning; 2008.

Research Hypothesis In Psychology: Types, & Examples

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

A research hypothesis, in its plural form “hypotheses,” is a specific, testable prediction about the anticipated results of a study, established at its outset. It is a key component of the scientific method .

Hypotheses connect theory to data and guide the research process towards expanding scientific understanding

Some key points about hypotheses:

• A hypothesis expresses an expected pattern or relationship. It connects the variables under investigation.
• It is stated in clear, precise terms before any data collection or analysis occurs. This makes the hypothesis testable.
• A hypothesis must be falsifiable. It should be possible, even if unlikely in practice, to collect data that disconfirms rather than supports the hypothesis.
• Hypotheses guide research. Scientists design studies to explicitly evaluate hypotheses about how nature works.
• For a hypothesis to be valid, it must be testable against empirical evidence. The evidence can then confirm or disprove the testable predictions.
• Hypotheses are informed by background knowledge and observation, but go beyond what is already known to propose an explanation of how or why something occurs.

Predictions typically arise from a thorough knowledge of the research literature, curiosity about real-world problems or implications, and integrating this to advance theory. They build on existing literature while providing new insight.

Types of Research Hypotheses

Alternative hypothesis.

The research hypothesis is often called the alternative or experimental hypothesis in experimental research.

It typically suggests a potential relationship between two key variables: the independent variable, which the researcher manipulates, and the dependent variable, which is measured based on those changes.

The alternative hypothesis states a relationship exists between the two variables being studied (one variable affects the other).

A hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a key component of the scientific method. Some key points about hypotheses:

• Important hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested empirically. The evidence can then confirm or disprove the testable predictions.

In summary, a hypothesis is a precise, testable statement of what researchers expect to happen in a study and why. Hypotheses connect theory to data and guide the research process towards expanding scientific understanding.

An experimental hypothesis predicts what change(s) will occur in the dependent variable when the independent variable is manipulated.

It states that the results are not due to chance and are significant in supporting the theory being investigated.

The alternative hypothesis can be directional, indicating a specific direction of the effect, or non-directional, suggesting a difference without specifying its nature. It’s what researchers aim to support or demonstrate through their study.

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis states no relationship exists between the two variables being studied (one variable does not affect the other). There will be no changes in the dependent variable due to manipulating the independent variable.

It states results are due to chance and are not significant in supporting the idea being investigated.

The null hypothesis, positing no effect or relationship, is a foundational contrast to the research hypothesis in scientific inquiry. It establishes a baseline for statistical testing, promoting objectivity by initiating research from a neutral stance.

Many statistical methods are tailored to test the null hypothesis, determining the likelihood of observed results if no true effect exists.

This dual-hypothesis approach provides clarity, ensuring that research intentions are explicit, and fosters consistency across scientific studies, enhancing the standardization and interpretability of research outcomes.

Nondirectional Hypothesis

A non-directional hypothesis, also known as a two-tailed hypothesis, predicts that there is a difference or relationship between two variables but does not specify the direction of this relationship.

It merely indicates that a change or effect will occur without predicting which group will have higher or lower values.

For example, “There is a difference in performance between Group A and Group B” is a non-directional hypothesis.

Directional Hypothesis

A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. It predicts in which direction the change will take place. (i.e., greater, smaller, less, more)

It specifies whether one variable is greater, lesser, or different from another, rather than just indicating that there’s a difference without specifying its nature.

For example, “Exercise increases weight loss” is a directional hypothesis.

Falsifiability

The Falsification Principle, proposed by Karl Popper , is a way of demarcating science from non-science. It suggests that for a theory or hypothesis to be considered scientific, it must be testable and irrefutable.

Falsifiability emphasizes that scientific claims shouldn’t just be confirmable but should also have the potential to be proven wrong.

It means that there should exist some potential evidence or experiment that could prove the proposition false.

However many confirming instances exist for a theory, it only takes one counter observation to falsify it. For example, the hypothesis that “all swans are white,” can be falsified by observing a black swan.

For Popper, science should attempt to disprove a theory rather than attempt to continually provide evidence to support a research hypothesis.

Can a Hypothesis be Proven?

Hypotheses make probabilistic predictions. They state the expected outcome if a particular relationship exists. However, a study result supporting a hypothesis does not definitively prove it is true.

All studies have limitations. There may be unknown confounding factors or issues that limit the certainty of conclusions. Additional studies may yield different results.

In science, hypotheses can realistically only be supported with some degree of confidence, not proven. The process of science is to incrementally accumulate evidence for and against hypothesized relationships in an ongoing pursuit of better models and explanations that best fit the empirical data. But hypotheses remain open to revision and rejection if that is where the evidence leads.

• Disproving a hypothesis is definitive. Solid disconfirmatory evidence will falsify a hypothesis and require altering or discarding it based on the evidence.
• However, confirming evidence is always open to revision. Other explanations may account for the same results, and additional or contradictory evidence may emerge over time.

We can never 100% prove the alternative hypothesis. Instead, we see if we can disprove, or reject the null hypothesis.

If we reject the null hypothesis, this doesn’t mean that our alternative hypothesis is correct but does support the alternative/experimental hypothesis.

Upon analysis of the results, an alternative hypothesis can be rejected or supported, but it can never be proven to be correct. We must avoid any reference to results proving a theory as this implies 100% certainty, and there is always a chance that evidence may exist which could refute a theory.

How to Write a Hypothesis

• Identify variables . The researcher manipulates the independent variable and the dependent variable is the measured outcome.
• Operationalized the variables being investigated . Operationalization of a hypothesis refers to the process of making the variables physically measurable or testable, e.g. if you are about to study aggression, you might count the number of punches given by participants.
• Decide on a direction for your prediction . If there is evidence in the literature to support a specific effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, write a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis. If there are limited or ambiguous findings in the literature regarding the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, write a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis.
• Make it Testable : Ensure your hypothesis can be tested through experimentation or observation. It should be possible to prove it false (principle of falsifiability).
• Clear & concise language . A strong hypothesis is concise (typically one to two sentences long), and formulated using clear and straightforward language, ensuring it’s easily understood and testable.

Consider a hypothesis many teachers might subscribe to: students work better on Monday morning than on Friday afternoon (IV=Day, DV= Standard of work).

Now, if we decide to study this by giving the same group of students a lesson on a Monday morning and a Friday afternoon and then measuring their immediate recall of the material covered in each session, we would end up with the following:

• The alternative hypothesis states that students will recall significantly more information on a Monday morning than on a Friday afternoon.
• The null hypothesis states that there will be no significant difference in the amount recalled on a Monday morning compared to a Friday afternoon. Any difference will be due to chance or confounding factors.

More Examples

• Memory : Participants exposed to classical music during study sessions will recall more items from a list than those who studied in silence.
• Social Psychology : Individuals who frequently engage in social media use will report higher levels of perceived social isolation compared to those who use it infrequently.
• Developmental Psychology : Children who engage in regular imaginative play have better problem-solving skills than those who don’t.
• Clinical Psychology : Cognitive-behavioral therapy will be more effective in reducing symptoms of anxiety over a 6-month period compared to traditional talk therapy.
• Cognitive Psychology : Individuals who multitask between various electronic devices will have shorter attention spans on focused tasks than those who single-task.
• Health Psychology : Patients who practice mindfulness meditation will experience lower levels of chronic pain compared to those who don’t meditate.
• Organizational Psychology : Employees in open-plan offices will report higher levels of stress than those in private offices.
• Behavioral Psychology : Rats rewarded with food after pressing a lever will press it more frequently than rats who receive no reward.

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Ethnography In Qualitative Research

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Overview of the Scientific Method

10 Developing a Hypothesis

Learning objectives.

• Distinguish between a theory and a hypothesis.
• Discover how theories are used to generate hypotheses and how the results of studies can be used to further inform theories.
• Understand the characteristics of a good hypothesis.

Theories and Hypotheses

Before describing how to develop a hypothesis, it is important to distinguish between a theory and a hypothesis. A  theory  is a coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena. Although theories can take a variety of forms, one thing they have in common is that they go beyond the phenomena they explain by including variables, structures, processes, functions, or organizing principles that have not been observed directly. Consider, for example, Zajonc’s theory of social facilitation and social inhibition (1965) [1] . He proposed that being watched by others while performing a task creates a general state of physiological arousal, which increases the likelihood of the dominant (most likely) response. So for highly practiced tasks, being watched increases the tendency to make correct responses, but for relatively unpracticed tasks, being watched increases the tendency to make incorrect responses. Notice that this theory—which has come to be called drive theory—provides an explanation of both social facilitation and social inhibition that goes beyond the phenomena themselves by including concepts such as “arousal” and “dominant response,” along with processes such as the effect of arousal on the dominant response.

Outside of science, referring to an idea as a theory often implies that it is untested—perhaps no more than a wild guess. In science, however, the term theory has no such implication. A theory is simply an explanation or interpretation of a set of phenomena. It can be untested, but it can also be extensively tested, well supported, and accepted as an accurate description of the world by the scientific community. The theory of evolution by natural selection, for example, is a theory because it is an explanation of the diversity of life on earth—not because it is untested or unsupported by scientific research. On the contrary, the evidence for this theory is overwhelmingly positive and nearly all scientists accept its basic assumptions as accurate. Similarly, the “germ theory” of disease is a theory because it is an explanation of the origin of various diseases, not because there is any doubt that many diseases are caused by microorganisms that infect the body.

A  hypothesis , on the other hand, is a specific prediction about a new phenomenon that should be observed if a particular theory is accurate. It is an explanation that relies on just a few key concepts. Hypotheses are often specific predictions about what will happen in a particular study. They are developed by considering existing evidence and using reasoning to infer what will happen in the specific context of interest. Hypotheses are often but not always derived from theories. So a hypothesis is often a prediction based on a theory but some hypotheses are a-theoretical and only after a set of observations have been made, is a theory developed. This is because theories are broad in nature and they explain larger bodies of data. So if our research question is really original then we may need to collect some data and make some observations before we can develop a broader theory.

Theories and hypotheses always have this  if-then  relationship. “ If   drive theory is correct,  then  cockroaches should run through a straight runway faster, and a branching runway more slowly, when other cockroaches are present.” Although hypotheses are usually expressed as statements, they can always be rephrased as questions. “Do cockroaches run through a straight runway faster when other cockroaches are present?” Thus deriving hypotheses from theories is an excellent way of generating interesting research questions.

But how do researchers derive hypotheses from theories? One way is to generate a research question using the techniques discussed in this chapter  and then ask whether any theory implies an answer to that question. For example, you might wonder whether expressive writing about positive experiences improves health as much as expressive writing about traumatic experiences. Although this  question  is an interesting one  on its own, you might then ask whether the habituation theory—the idea that expressive writing causes people to habituate to negative thoughts and feelings—implies an answer. In this case, it seems clear that if the habituation theory is correct, then expressive writing about positive experiences should not be effective because it would not cause people to habituate to negative thoughts and feelings. A second way to derive hypotheses from theories is to focus on some component of the theory that has not yet been directly observed. For example, a researcher could focus on the process of habituation—perhaps hypothesizing that people should show fewer signs of emotional distress with each new writing session.

Among the very best hypotheses are those that distinguish between competing theories. For example, Norbert Schwarz and his colleagues considered two theories of how people make judgments about themselves, such as how assertive they are (Schwarz et al., 1991) [2] . Both theories held that such judgments are based on relevant examples that people bring to mind. However, one theory was that people base their judgments on the  number  of examples they bring to mind and the other was that people base their judgments on how  easily  they bring those examples to mind. To test these theories, the researchers asked people to recall either six times when they were assertive (which is easy for most people) or 12 times (which is difficult for most people). Then they asked them to judge their own assertiveness. Note that the number-of-examples theory implies that people who recalled 12 examples should judge themselves to be more assertive because they recalled more examples, but the ease-of-examples theory implies that participants who recalled six examples should judge themselves as more assertive because recalling the examples was easier. Thus the two theories made opposite predictions so that only one of the predictions could be confirmed. The surprising result was that participants who recalled fewer examples judged themselves to be more assertive—providing particularly convincing evidence in favor of the ease-of-retrieval theory over the number-of-examples theory.

Theory Testing

The primary way that scientific researchers use theories is sometimes called the hypothetico-deductive method  (although this term is much more likely to be used by philosophers of science than by scientists themselves). Researchers begin with a set of phenomena and either construct a theory to explain or interpret them or choose an existing theory to work with. They then make a prediction about some new phenomenon that should be observed if the theory is correct. Again, this prediction is called a hypothesis. The researchers then conduct an empirical study to test the hypothesis. Finally, they reevaluate the theory in light of the new results and revise it if necessary. This process is usually conceptualized as a cycle because the researchers can then derive a new hypothesis from the revised theory, conduct a new empirical study to test the hypothesis, and so on. As  Figure 2.3  shows, this approach meshes nicely with the model of scientific research in psychology presented earlier in the textbook—creating a more detailed model of “theoretically motivated” or “theory-driven” research.

As an example, let us consider Zajonc’s research on social facilitation and inhibition. He started with a somewhat contradictory pattern of results from the research literature. He then constructed his drive theory, according to which being watched by others while performing a task causes physiological arousal, which increases an organism’s tendency to make the dominant response. This theory predicts social facilitation for well-learned tasks and social inhibition for poorly learned tasks. He now had a theory that organized previous results in a meaningful way—but he still needed to test it. He hypothesized that if his theory was correct, he should observe that the presence of others improves performance in a simple laboratory task but inhibits performance in a difficult version of the very same laboratory task. To test this hypothesis, one of the studies he conducted used cockroaches as subjects (Zajonc, Heingartner, & Herman, 1969) [3] . The cockroaches ran either down a straight runway (an easy task for a cockroach) or through a cross-shaped maze (a difficult task for a cockroach) to escape into a dark chamber when a light was shined on them. They did this either while alone or in the presence of other cockroaches in clear plastic “audience boxes.” Zajonc found that cockroaches in the straight runway reached their goal more quickly in the presence of other cockroaches, but cockroaches in the cross-shaped maze reached their goal more slowly when they were in the presence of other cockroaches. Thus he confirmed his hypothesis and provided support for his drive theory. (Zajonc also showed that drive theory existed in humans [Zajonc & Sales, 1966] [4] in many other studies afterward).

Incorporating Theory into Your Research

When you write your research report or plan your presentation, be aware that there are two basic ways that researchers usually include theory. The first is to raise a research question, answer that question by conducting a new study, and then offer one or more theories (usually more) to explain or interpret the results. This format works well for applied research questions and for research questions that existing theories do not address. The second way is to describe one or more existing theories, derive a hypothesis from one of those theories, test the hypothesis in a new study, and finally reevaluate the theory. This format works well when there is an existing theory that addresses the research question—especially if the resulting hypothesis is surprising or conflicts with a hypothesis derived from a different theory.

To use theories in your research will not only give you guidance in coming up with experiment ideas and possible projects, but it lends legitimacy to your work. Psychologists have been interested in a variety of human behaviors and have developed many theories along the way. Using established theories will help you break new ground as a researcher, not limit you from developing your own ideas.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

There are three general characteristics of a good hypothesis. First, a good hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable . We must be able to test the hypothesis using the methods of science and if you’ll recall Popper’s falsifiability criterion, it must be possible to gather evidence that will disconfirm the hypothesis if it is indeed false. Second, a good hypothesis must be logical. As described above, hypotheses are more than just a random guess. Hypotheses should be informed by previous theories or observations and logical reasoning. Typically, we begin with a broad and general theory and use  deductive reasoning to generate a more specific hypothesis to test based on that theory. Occasionally, however, when there is no theory to inform our hypothesis, we use  inductive reasoning  which involves using specific observations or research findings to form a more general hypothesis. Finally, the hypothesis should be positive. That is, the hypothesis should make a positive statement about the existence of a relationship or effect, rather than a statement that a relationship or effect does not exist. As scientists, we don’t set out to show that relationships do not exist or that effects do not occur so our hypotheses should not be worded in a way to suggest that an effect or relationship does not exist. The nature of science is to assume that something does not exist and then seek to find evidence to prove this wrong, to show that it really does exist. That may seem backward to you but that is the nature of the scientific method. The underlying reason for this is beyond the scope of this chapter but it has to do with statistical theory.

• Zajonc, R. B. (1965). Social facilitation.  Science, 149 , 269–274 ↵
• Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Strack, F., Klumpp, G., Rittenauer-Schatka, H., & Simons, A. (1991). Ease of retrieval as information: Another look at the availability heuristic.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 , 195–202. ↵
• Zajonc, R. B., Heingartner, A., & Herman, E. M. (1969). Social enhancement and impairment of performance in the cockroach.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13 , 83–92. ↵
• Zajonc, R.B. & Sales, S.M. (1966). Social facilitation of dominant and subordinate responses. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2 , 160-168. ↵

A coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena.

A specific prediction about a new phenomenon that should be observed if a particular theory is accurate.

A cyclical process of theory development, starting with an observed phenomenon, then developing or using a theory to make a specific prediction of what should happen if that theory is correct, testing that prediction, refining the theory in light of the findings, and using that refined theory to develop new hypotheses, and so on.

The ability to test the hypothesis using the methods of science and the possibility to gather evidence that will disconfirm the hypothesis if it is indeed false.

Research Methods in Psychology Copyright © 2019 by Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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28 social psychology studies from *experiments with people* (frey & gregg, 2017).

I'm reading a very informative and fun book about human social psychology, Experiments With People (2nd ed, 2018).

... 28 social psychological experiments that have significantly advanced our understanding of human social thinking and behavior. Each chapter focuses on the details and implications of a single study, while citing related research and real-life examples along the way.

Here I summarize each chapter so that you can save time. Some results are old news to me, but some were quite surprising. I often skip over the experimental details, such as how the psychologists used ingenious tricks to make sure the participants don't guess the true purposes of the experiments. Refer to originals for details.

The experiments start in the 1950s and get up to 2010s, and occasionally literatures from before 1900s are quoted.

Chapters I find especially interesting are:

• Chap 14. It lists the many failures of introspection, and raises question as to what consciousness can do.
• Chap 16. It has significant similarity with superrationality and acausal trade.
• Chap 20. It warns about how credulous humans are.
• Chap 27. It is about the human fear of death and the psychological defenses against it.
• Chap 28. It shows how belief in free will can be motivated by a desire to punish immoral behaviors. Understanding why people believe in free will is necessary for a theory of what is the use of the belief in free will.

Chap 1. Conforming to group norms

Asch conformity experiment , from Opinions and Social Pressure (Asch, 1955)

Video demonstration.

Groups of eight participated in a simple "perceptual" task. In reality, all but one of the participants were actors, and the true focus of the study was about how the remaining participant would react.

Each student viewed a card with a line on it, followed by another with three lines labeled A, B, and C (see accompanying figure). One of these lines was the same as that on the first card, and the other two lines were clearly longer or shorter. Each participant was then asked to say aloud which line matched the length of that on the first card... The actors would always unanimously nominate one comparator, but on certain trials they would give the correct response and on others, an incorrect response. The group was seated such that the real participant always responded last.

It was found that

• When there are over 3 actors giving unanimously the wrong answer, the participant went along 1/3 of time.
• Increasing the number of actors above 3 did not increase compliance.
• Even when the difference between the lines was 7 inches, there were still some who complied.
• If there is at least one actor disagreeing with the majority, the participant decreased compliance.
• If the fellow dissenter joins the majority, the participant increased compliance to the same level of 1/3.
• If the fellow dissenter leaves, the participant increased compliance only slightly.

There are two reasons for this compliance. One is heuristic about knowledge: the majority is usually more correct. Another is normative: social acceptance matters more than being correct.

The effect of a dissenting minority is notable.

Research finds that, whereas majorities inspire heuristic judgments and often compliance, minorities provoke a more systematic consideration of arguments, and possibly, an internal acceptance of their position. (Nemeth, 1987) Majorities tend to have a greater impact on public conformity, whereas minorities tend to have more effect on private conformity. (Chaiten & Stangor, 1987)

Chap 2. Forced compliance theory and cognitive dissonance

In When Prophecy Fails , the story of a UFO cult was detailed. When the doomsday prophecy failed, most people left, but some became even firmer believers.

(My own example, not appearing in the book.) In Borges's story A Problem , Borges asks, how would Don Quixote react if he kill a man?

Having killed the man, don Quixote cannot allow himself to think that the terrible act is the work of a delirium; the reality of the effect makes him assume a like reality of cause, and don Quixote never emerges from his madness.

This chapter reviews of Cognitive consequences of forced compliance (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959)

• Participants were asked to do an extremely boring task.
• Then the experimenter asked the participant to deceive the next participant that the experiment was fun. Half were paid $1, another half paid $20.
• A control group was not asked to lie.
• Then they were nudged to take a survey about how they felt about the experiment.

The result is that, those paid $1 thought the experiment was fun, and those paid $20 thought it was boring, and those that didn't get asked to lie thought it was very boring.

Festinger explains this by the theory of cognitive dissonance:

• An attitude (thinking the experiment was boring) and a behavior (saying it was fun) clashes, creating an uncomfortable feeling.
• The participant then is motivated to remove the discomfort by changing the attitude by rationalization (thinking the experiment was actually fun).
• If the participant was paid $20, then there was no dissonance, as there was a ready explanation of the dissonant behavior.
• If the participant was paid $1, then there was dissonance, because the participant regarded the lying behavior as mostly voluntary .

An alternative explanation from Self-perception: An alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena (Bem, 1967) :

• We don't form beliefs about ourselves by direct introspection, instead, we infer it through
• When we behave against previously self-beliefs, this creates an update on our self-beliefs.

See also Chap 14 for more on the lack of introspection.

Current consensus is that both theories are correct, in different situations. The self-perception effect happens when the behavior is mildly different from self-beliefs, and the cognitive dissonance effect happens when the behavior is grossly different.

There are also many complications, such as in Double forced compliance and cognitive dissonance theory (Girandola, 1997) , which reported that even if participants performed a boring task, then told others about how boring it was, afterwards they still felt the task was more interesting afterwards.

There is a lot of ongoing research.

Chap 3. Suffering can create liking

Such curious phenomena as hazing has been studied since The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group (Aronson, 1959)

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that persons who undergo an unpleasant initiation to become members of a group increase their liking for the group; that is, they find the group more attractive than do persons who become members without going through a severe initiation.

The group was a made-up thing by the experimenters. It purports to discuss interesting sexual things, but the participants, after finally "joining", would only hear a very boring group discussion about animal sex.

This hypothesis was derived from Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance." 3 conditions were employed: reading of "embarrassing material" before a group, mildly embarrassing material to be read, no reading. The results clearly verified the hypothesis.

The "embarrassing material" are lists of obscene words. The "mildly embarrassing material" are lists of mildly sexual words.

Result: the very embarrassing ritual increased liking for the group.

Explanation was by the theory of cognitive dissonance: "I have already invested so much to join the group. I must be a fool if the group turned out to be bad! And I'm not a fool."

Cognitive dissonance has been used for brainwashing, persuasion, education, and many other kinds of things.

One of the authors learned from an investigative journalist about how a dodgy car company... had customers unnecessarily wait or hours while their finance deal was supposedly being negotiated upstairs.

[ Commitment and community: Communes and utopias in sociological perspective (Kanter, 1972)] noted that

19th-century utopian cults requiring their member to make significant sacrifices were more successful. For example, cults that had their members surrender all their personal belongings lasted much longer than those that did not.

Some bad investments are continued far after they had become clearly unprofitable, this is the sunk cost fallacy .

Chap 4. Just following orders

The banality of evil is the theory that everyday people can do great evils such as the Holocaust, by simply following orders.

Behavioral study of obedience (Milgram, 1965) reported the famous Milgram experiment . A video recreation is here .

This is a very famous experiment with many followups. There is sufficient material freely online, such as the Wikipedia page. So I won't recount it here.

I was most surprised to learn that personality had very little effect. That is, obedience exhibited by the participants in this experiment was mostly situational , instead of stemming from the personality of the participants.

Chap 5. Bystander apathy effect

The murder of Kitty Genovese stimulated research into the "bystander effect". On March 13, 1964 Genovese was murdered... 38 witnesses watched the stabbings but did not intervene or even call the police until after the attacker fled and Genovese had died...

In Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility (Latané & Darley, 1968) attributed the lack of help by witnesses to diffusion of responsibility : because each saw others witnessing the same event, they assumed that the others would take responsibility.

This phenomenon has a big literature, and is very popularly known, possibly due to the dramatic stories.

Concerning the original experiment by Latane and Darley, I was again surprised that personality factors had little effect, except one: growing up in a big community is correlated with a lower probability of helping.

Chap 6. The effect of an audience

When people perform a task in the presence of others, they perform better if the task is easy, and worse if the task is hard. One theory is that presence of others increases physiological arousal , which then enhances performance of simple tasks and decreases performance of hard tasks. Other theories

In Social enhancement and impairment of performance in the cockroach (Zajonc, 1969) , it is found that this is true even for cockroaches. In the experiment, Zajonc gave cockroaches two possible tasks: going through a straight maze, or a more complex maze. They either did the task alone, or while being watched by others outside (the maze was transparent).

While being watched, cockroaches solved faster on the straight maze but slower on the complex maze. This demonstrates that the physiological arousal theory is correct in cockroaches: the effect of an audience can happen without any complex cognitive ability.

However, complex cognitive ability sometimes does occur in humans. As reported in Social facilitation of dominant responses by the presence of an audience and the mere presence of others (Cottrell et al, 1968) , blindfolded audience does not exert an effect on the performer.

Chap 7. Group conflicts from trivial groups

This chapter begins with the Robbers Cave experiment , which was a study that investigates the realistic conflict theory , which sounds very common-sense:

• group conflicts and feelings of resentment for other groups arise from conflicting goals and competition over limited resources
• length and severity of the conflict is based upon the perceived value and shortage of the given resource
• positive relations can only be restored with goals that require cooperation between groups

Then it recounts the blue eyes-brown eyes experiment . The problem, then, is, what is the least amount of group-difference in order to make a difference? Enter the minimal group paradigm of Experiments in intergroup discrimination (Tajfel, 1970) . Participants first took a test on estimating dot numbers, then divided into "overestimators" and "underestimators", while in truth they were random. Then, they were given points (convertible to cash) to divide among the groups. Participants favored their own groups significantly more.

In fact, the most favored strategy was to maximize (own group) - (other group), even though it did not maximize (own group). Thus, even the most minimal social groups induced ingroup-outgroup conflict.

The minimal group paradigm has been studied in many ways. It was also found that outgroup homogeneity effect , that is, "they are all the same; we are diverse", could also arise from minimal groups.

One theoretical explanation is Tajfel and Turner's social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) , which states that: 0. A person's self-esteem depends on having a good identity.

• A person's identity has two parts: personal and social.
• Personal identity are about one's own traits and outcomes.
• Social identity are derived from social groups and comparison between groups.
• A person is motivated to improve self-esteem, and thus social identity.
• Thus, one is motivated to improve the standings of one's ingroups and decrease the standings of one's outgroups.

One supporting evidence is that when a person has more self-esteem, they are less discriminating against outgroups (Crocker et al, 1987) .

Chap 8. The Good Samaritan Experiment

In the parable of the Good Samaritan ,

a traveller is stripped of clothing, beaten, and left half dead alongside the road. First a priest and then a Levite comes by, but both avoid the man. Finally, a Samaritan happens upon the traveller. Samaritans and Jews despised each other, but the Samaritan helps the injured man.

This inspired an experiment reported in "From Jerusalem to Jericho": A study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior. (Darley & Batson, 1973) , participants were theology students asked to give a short talk in another building.

People going between two buildings encountered a shabbily dressed person slumped by the side of the road. Subjects in a hurry to reach their destination were more likely to pass by without stopping.

The experiment was 2 x 3: the participant was asked to either give a short talk on the parable of the Good Samaritan, or on an irrelevant topic. They were either very hurried, hurried, or not hurried by the experimenter.

Hurrying made significant difference in the likelihood of their giving the victim help. The topic of the talk had some influence, according to a reanalysis by (Greenwald, 1975) , despite the original paper's claim of no influence. Self-reported personality and religiosity made no difference.

The lesson from this as well as many other social psychology experiments is that seemingly trivial situational variables have a greater impact than personality variables, even though people tend to explain behaviors using personality. See The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology (Lee Ross, Richard E. Nisbett, 2011)

Chap 9. External motivation harms internal motivation

Extrinsic motivations are motivations that "come from the outside", such as money, praise, food. Intrinsic motivations are from the inside, such as self-esteem, happiness. Both can motivate behaviors. However, it's interesting that sometimes extrinsic motivations can harm internal motivation.

In Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the" overjustification" hypothesis (Lepper et al, 1973) , children are given markers to draw with. Some were told that they would be rewarded with a prize for playing, others got a prize unexpectedly, others were left alone as control group.

After some days, the amount of time children spent playing the markers were: got expected prize < control group < got unexpected prize

The book didn't talk much about why the unexpected prize created higher motivation, but I think it is similar to how gambling addiction comes from variable reward .

There are some explanations for why extrinsic reward lowered subsequent motivation. One is that extrinsic reward provides overjustification effect , where external rewards "crowd out" internal rewards,

Once rewards are no longer offered, interest in the activity is lost; prior intrinsic motivation does not return, and extrinsic rewards must be continuously offered as motivation to sustain the activity.

Another explanation is that humans heuristically view means to an end as undesirable. In (Sagotsky et al, 1982) , children were given two activities, playing with crayons and markers. They were equally fun at the beginning, but one group was told that in order to play with crayons, they had to play with markers first. After a while, they became less interested in playing with markers. The other group, the reverse.

I think this is the psychological basis of some ethical intuitions in the style of Kant :

we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity as a means only but always as an end in itself.

A third explanation is that people consider extrinsic rewards a threat to their freedom and autonomy, and thus tend to rebel against it. I saw a news today about Amazon's program to gamify work . Some complained that it was threatening the workers' autonomy, which is a strange complaint: if gamification actually increases intrinsic motivation for work, doesn't it increase autonomy? Autonomy is freedom to follow one's intrinsic motivation, and thus, if a worker acquires an intrinsic motivation to do a good job, they would have more autonomy.

I think this complaint can be explained as a different kind of autonomy: freedom from prediction. Humans are evolved to want to be unpredictable (at least by others), because to be predictable is to be threatened by manipulation, which often decreases fitness.

Chap 10. Actor-observer asymmetry

Other people did what they did because of who they are. We did what we did because of outside events.

In 1975, parts of the Watergate scandal was recreated in a very dramatic psychology experiment, reported in Ubiquitous Watergate: An attributional analysis (West, 1975) .

80 criminology students were asked to meet the experimenter privately for a mysterious reason. There, they were asked to join a burglary team for secret documents in an ad agency. There were four versions presented:

• The burglary plan was sponsored by a government agency, for secret investigation purposes. Government would provide immunity if caught.
• Same, but without immunity.
• The plan was sponsored by a rival ad agency, with $2000 reward.
• The student was asked to only join a test run of the plan, without stealing anything.

Afterwards, they were debriefed and asked to explain their decision to join/not join.

Separately, 238 psychology students were presented the above situation, and asked to guess what percentage would agree to the plan.

Then, half of the participants were asked, "Suppose John agreed to participate, explain why John agreed."

• About 45% of participants agreed to join the burglary in the government-with-immunity situation. Otherwise, about 10%.
• Most students in the second part thought they would not agree to the burglary plan.
• Students in the first part who agreed to join the burglary explained their behavior as due to the circumstances.
• Students in the second part explained the hypothetical John's behavior as due to John's personality.

The criminology students were "actors", and the psychology students were "observers". An asymmetry was that actors attributed their behavior to situations, while the observers attributed to personalities. This is the actor-observer asymmetry.

Complications in this asymmetry are noted in The actor-observer asymmetry in attribution: A (surprising) meta-analysis (Malle, 2006) . Malle found that there are two kinds of biases: when the behavior is negative, the actor blames the situation and the observer blames the person. When the behavior is positive, the reverse happens. As such, this can be explained as a self-serving bias.

The authors conclude with a funny note:

it's interesting to how athletes often publically thank the Lord for a personal victory, but do not publically blame the Lord for a defeat!

Chap 11. We are number 1

They never shout, "They are number 1."

People like to think good about themselves. Even in collectivistic societies, people regard themselves as above average in collectivistic traits, according to Pancultural self-enhancement (Sedikides et al, 2003)

Americans... self-enhanced on individualistic attributes, whereas Japanese... self-enhanced on collectivistic attributes

An experiment is reported in Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies (Ciadini et al, 1976) , where students are asked to describe a recent university sports team's victory/defeat. Before that, half received criticisms that decreased to their self-esteem, and others received praises that increased their self-esteem.

The result was that among those who had higher self-esteem, they described the sports outcome using "we won" or "we lost" 1/4 of the times. For those who had lower self-esteem, they used "we won" 40% of the times when the team won, but used "we lost" only 14% of the times when the team lost.

The explanation is that people in need of boosts to self-esteem try to BIRG (Basking in reflected glory) and CORF (Cut off from reflected failures). Reflected glory also improves their social standing.

Methods of increasing one's social standing are called impression management , and include:

• BIRG and CORF, as noted above;
• ingratiation: we praise and agree with others, so as to be liked;
• self-handicapping: a student gets drunk before a big test, so that if they fail, they could blame on the drunkenness instead of their study ability;
• exemplification: behave virtuously and make sure others saw it.

A lot of these techniques are listed in (Jones and Pittman, 1982) .

Chap 12. Deindividuation

Effects of deindividuation variables on stealing among Halloween trick-or-treaters (Diener et al, 1976) reported an experiment in real life .

The experiment was run in a Halloween. An experimenter place a bowl of candy in her living room for trick-or-treaters. A hidden recorder observes. In one condition, the woman asked the children identification questions such as their names. In the other condition, children were completely anonymous. Some children came individually, others in a group.

In each condition, the woman invited the children in, claimed she had something in the kitchen she had to tend to, and told each child to take only one candy.

Result: being in a group and being anonymous both increased frequency of transgression (taking more than one candy). If the first child to take candies in a group transgressed, other children were also more likely to transgress.

The authors then defined deindividuation as when private self-awareness is reduced.

The truly deindividuated person is alleged to pay scant atetntion to personal values and moral codes... to be inordinately sensitive to cues in the immediate environment.

One study, The baiting crowd in episodes of threatened suicide (Mann, 1981) , examined 21 cases from newspapers, in which crowds were present when a person threatened to jump off a high place.

Baiting or jeering occurred in 10 of the cases. Analysis of newspaper accounts of the episodes suggested several deindividuation factors that might contribute to the baiting phenomenon: membership in a large crowd, the cover of nighttime, and physical distance between crowd and victim (all factors associated with anonymity).

Two theories of why deindividuation were given. One is that anonymity makes people feel safe to transgress. Another is that (Reicher & Postmes, 1995) people in a crowd would categorize themselves mainly by their social identity, and their behaviors would reflect the group norm than their personal norms.

I was disappointed that the authors did not give evolutionary psychological explanations for deindividuation. Humans are the only animals that wage wars. A deindividuation effect can be an evolutionary adaptation to prepare humans to fight more effectively in a crowd.

Chap 13. Mere exposure effect

People prefer familiar things. Really, that's quite a banal observation. What's delightful about this chapter is the ingenuity of the experiment design.

Think about your own face. You see them in a mirror image (unless you take a selfie), but others see it directly. This means that you are familiar with your face in the mirror image, but others in the direct image.

This is exploited in Reversed facial images and the mere-exposure hypothesis (Mita et al, 1977) . Couples were separately shown photos of the female one's face, some mirrored, others not. They were asked to pick the one they prefer. The female one preferred the mirrored photo, and the male one preferred the direct photo.

Mere exposure effect is robust in real life and across species. (Grush et al, 1978) found that

previous or media exposure alone successfully predicted 83% of the [US congress election] primary winners

And (Cross et al, 1967) found rats who heard Mozart music in infancy preferred Mozart over Schoenberg as adults, and vice versa.

One possible evolutionary psychological explanation were given: preference familiarity is safer, and thus more adaptive. The authors warned however that it's not so simple, as people also have a preference for mild novelty.

Chap 14. Shortcomings of introspection

This chapter reviews a study that shows a particular instance of introspection failure:

people's ideas about how their minds work stem not from private insights but from public knowledge. Unfortunately, however, this public knowledge is often not accurate. It is based on intuitive theories, widely shared throughout society, that are often mistaken.

The book referenced Verbal reports about causal influences on social judgments: Private access versus public theories (Nisbett, 1977) , although I find Telling More Than We Can Know: Verbal Reports on Mental Processes (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977) to be better.

Subjects are sometimes (a) unaware of the existence of a stimulus that importantly influenced a response, (b) unaware of the existence of the response, and (c) unaware that the stimulus has affected the response. It is proposed that when people attempt to report on their cognitive processes... they do not do so on the basis of any true introspection. Instead, their reports are based on a priori , implicit causal theories, or judgments about the extent to which a particular stimulus is a plausible cause of a given response.

In the experiment, a subject is given a fictitious application from Jill for the job of staff at crisis center. These applications are the same except on a few attributes of the applicant: attractiveness, intelligence, etc. Then, the subject is asked how much each attribute is correlated with the decision to accept.

The situation is then described to some observers (who didn't do the job application review), who are asked how much each attribute is correlated with the decision of the subject to accept.

Subjects who read that Jill had once been involved in a serious car accident claimed that the event had made them view her as a more sympathetic person. However, according to the ratings they later gave, this event had exerted no impact... the only exception pertained to ratings of Jill's intelligence. Here, an almost perfect correlation emerged between how subjects' judgments had actually shifted and how much they believed they had shifted. Why so? The researchers argued that there are explicit rules, widely known throughout a culture, for ascribing intelligence to people. Because subjects could readily recognize whether a given factor was relevant to intelligence, they could reliably guess whether they would have taken it into consideration.

The determinations of subjects and observers coincided almost exactly.

There are other introspection failures demonstrated by social psychology. People are unaware of the halo effect at work in their own judgments of others (Nisbett &Wilson, 1977) . People are unaware of the source of their own arousal . People are unaware of their bias even if they know of such bias (Pronin et al, 2002) .

In a further twist, introspection can degrade judgment. In (Wilson & Kraft, 1993) , participants reported how they felt about their romantic partners. Their expressed feelings correlated well with the duration of relationship. However, if they introspected on the reason of their feelings, before reporting their feelings, the correlation disappeared.

The authors conclude by suggesting that traveling, by putting oneself into novel situations, would be particularly helpful for one to know oneself.

Chap 15. Self-fulfilling prophecies

Again, a very well-known subject with a lot already written. This chapter reviews Social perception and interpersonal behavior: On the self-fulfilling nature of social stereotypes (Snyder et al, 1977)

Male "perceivers" interacted with female "targets" whom they believed to be physically attractive/unattractive. Tape recordings of each participant's conversational behavior were analyzed by naive observer judges for evidence of behavioral confirmation... targets who were perceived to be physically attractive came to behave in a friendly, likeable, and sociable manner in comparison with targets whose perceivers regarded them as unattractive. It is suggested that theories in cognitive social psychology attend to the ways in which perceivers create the information that they process in addition to the ways that they process that information.

Philosophically, a self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction about a future that is true iff the act of prediction is done. Usually, predictions themselves are supposed to be independent of the future that they talk about. Of course, all useful predictions must affect the future -- the predictor would try to profit from the prediction. However, such effects on the future are on the predictor , not on the predicted .

Social psychologists have found that human behaviors are more influenced by the situation than the personality (as noted in The Person and the Situation book). Snyder et al suggested that, in fact, personality traits are one of those self-fulfilling prophecies.

our believing that others possess certain traits may cause us to behave in certain consistent ways toward them. This may cause them to behave in consistent ways in our presence.

In other words, a lot of the persistence of personality could arise from the fundamental attribution error .

Chap 16. How to live like a predeterminist

So then, God has mercy on whom he chooses to have mercy, and he hardens whom he chooses to harden. -- Romans 9:18, which Calvinists quote a lot.

Suppose an urge to smoke and a propensity to lung cancer are both genetically determined, and smoking does not cause lung cancer, why not smoke? If you feel the urge to smoke, it's already too late.

Believers of Calvinism think that God has chosen some people to be saved, and others are damned. Those who are favored by God would both be naturally free from the urge to sin in this world, and enjoy paradise after death. Those who are not, would feel the urge to sin in this world, and go to hell after death.

So if a Calvinist feels an urge to sin, it's already too late. Why not sin? Instead, Calvinists keep resisting the urge to sin, and moreover, deny that they are resisting such urges, and insisting that they are effortlessly virtuous, evidence of God's favor.

In Causal versus diagnostic contingencies: On self-deception and on the voter's illusion (Quattrone & Tversky, 1984) two experiments are reported.

In the first one, participants exercised, then were asked to put their hands in ice water until the pain makes them withdraw. Then they were told a version of the lung cancer puzzle: There are two kinds of hearts, type 1 and type 2, caused by unchangeable genetics. Type 1 heart is associated both with health and with a higher tolerance to the ice water after exercise. Type 2 heart is associated with early death and a lower tolerance. They then did the ice water test again, and they exhibited longer tolerance to the ice water, even though many of them denied that they were trying to do so.

In the second experiment, subjects encountered one of two theories about the sort of voters who determine the margin of victory in an election. Only one of the theories would enable voting subjects to imagine that they could "induce" other like-minded persons to vote. As predicted, more subjects indicated that they would vote given that theory than given a theory in which the subject's vote would not be diagnostic of the electoral outcome, although the causal impact of the subject's vote is the same under both theories

One explanation is that the unconsciousness deceived the consciousness, but the authors find this unreasonable, for it still does not explain what motivates the unconsciousness to deceive. They instead favored Greenwald's theory that people avoid analyzing in detail threatening information, just like how we throw away junk mail without looking in detail.

In conclusion, self-deception is not the result of one center of intelligence hoodwinking the other. Rather, it is the result of a low-level screening process that banishes suspicious cognitions before they have the opportunity to be fully entertained by the conscious mind.

Similarity to superrationality and acausal trade.

The behavior of Calvinists is similar to superrationality and acausal trade , in which agents behave in a way that is diagnostic of good outcomes, even if it does not cause good outcomes.

Assuming the superrational player has access to their opponents' source codes/simulations, the superrationality strategy can be justified, but then it would just be usual rationality.

I think normative decision theories are incompatible with sufficiently good prediction. Normative decisions are only defined for agents with apparent free will. An agent apparently has free will only to someone who cannot predict the agent's behavior well. Superrationality and acausal trade both attempt to make a decision theory for agents that are aware that they are too predictable (to themselves or to someone they play with). This is similar to the situation where someone sees the future and then "decides" to rebel against the future. Either they saw the true future and did not rebel, or they did not see the true future at all. It's illogical to say they both saw the future and rebelled against it.

Similar problems happen with Scott Aaronson's solution to Newcomb's paradox (I'm a "Wittengenstein"). A determinist who is self-aware of their determinism would, instead of offering a decision theory ("I should take one box because..."), offer a prediction theory ("I probably would take one box because...").

Chap 17. Partisan perceptions of media bias

People often complain of media biases. People report differently about the same event. Why?

In The hostile media phenomenon: biased perception and perceptions of media bias in coverage of the Beirut massacre (Vallone et al, 1985) , the researchers studied how people perceived news about the Bairut massacre ,

killing of civilians, mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shiites... carried out by the militia under the eyes of their Israeli allies.

The researchers took some neutral reports on the event, and as expected, pro-Israel people thought they are biased to be anti-Israel, while anti-Israel people thought they are biased to be pro-Israel.

In a study on biases (Lord et al, 1984) , participants avoided bias by this command:

"Ask yourself at each step whether you would have made the same evaluations had exactly the same study produced results on the other side of the issue.

Chap 18. Empathy-altruism hypothesis

Several theorized psychological mechanisms of human altruistic actions are studied in More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation (Batson, 1982) reported an experiment on whether people would help a person in need.

It was found that: If (empathy OR guilt), then (helping). That is, people can be motivated to act altruistically by empathy without expectation of gain, or to gain relief from guilt. This argues against the theory of psychological hedonism .

Other potential sources of altruism are collectivism (act for the benefit of a group) and principlism (uphold a principle for its own sake). Effective altruism is one example of principlism based on utilitarianism.

Chap 19. Expanding the self to include the other

A psychological phenomenon of love (close personal relationships, such as lover, best friend) is to include that person in one's self. This involves perceiving, and allocating resources to, that person, in a similar way as to one's self.

Three experiments are described, from Close relationships as including other in the self (Aron, 1991) .

When allocating money, they allocate about the same to themself as to their friend.

They were asked to imagine nouns paired with their selves, mothers, or strangers. They recalled fewer nouns imagined with self or mother than nouns imagined with a stranger, suggesting that mother was processed more like self than a stranger. They explained the reason why it was recalled less by that we usually look at strangers directly, but only ourselves upon reflection (literal or not), and so it's harder to imagine ourselves than strangers.

When faced with a task to sort a list of adjectives into 4 piles: "true/false about me, and true/false about my spouse", they reacted slower on adjectives that were true about one but false about the other. This was explained by that differences between one's own and a close other's properties caused dissonance in the same way that holding opposite attitudes within oneself can cause dissonance.

Chap 20. Believing precedes disbelieving

Descartes divided the mind up into intellect and will. The intellect writes up potential beliefs about the world; the will then chooses which to endorse. Spinoza said that we believe everything that we happen to understand, and then disbelieve only if we find it necessary. You Can't Not Believe Everything You Read (Gilbert, 1993) presented three experiments that supports Spinoza's theory, and discussed its sociological effect.

... we asked subjects in Experiment 1 to play the role of a trial judge and to make sentencing decisions about an ostensibly real criminal defendant. Subjects were given some information about the defendant that was known to be false and were occasionally interrupted [by a distraction task]... We predicted that interruption would cause subjects to continue to believe the false information they accepted on comprehension and that these beliefs would exert a profound influence on their sentencing of the defendant...

Experiments 1 and 2 provide support for the Spinozan hypothesis: When people are prevented from unbelieving the assertions they comprehend... they did not merely recall that such assertions were said to be true, but they actually behaved as though they believed the assertions.

If you want to read more, I have written in detail about this .

Chap 21. Inferred memories

When we recall a memory, that memory is an inference about past based on a number of clues that we have in the present. It is not necessarily accurate.

Experiment from Women's theories of menstruation and biases in recall of menstrual symptoms (McFarland, 1989) found that when women report, day-to-day, their unpleasant emotions, there is no difference between premenstrual, menstrual, and inter-menstrual days (they feel equally unpleasant). But when asked to recall how unpleasant it was, they recall significantly more unpleasant pre-menstrual and menstrual days, and less unpleasant inter-menstrual days.

This is explained by that, when they recall, they used intuitive theories about PMS to infer "how it must have felt" instead of "how it actually felt". This also, as a side effect, casts doubt on whether PMS actually exists .

Memories can be completely made up, as in repressed memory therapies .

The fact that those inferences about the past are felt as genuine recalls, shows how little conscious introspection can give true knowledge about the self.

Chap 22. Ironic process theory

Try to not to think of a polar bear!

The theory of ironic process is that there is a cognitive process called intender who is looking for contents that matches some desired mental state. There is also a monitor who notifies consciousness about errant thoughts.

The intender is a costly process, and the monitor is a cheap process, so when one is under cognitive load, the intender doesn't work well, but the monitor still works well, and ironically, trying to not think of something results in thinking of it.

Ironic Processes of Mental Control (Wegner, 1994) reported an experiment. Participants were asked to consciously improve/deprove their moods with happy/sad thoughts. Half were also asked to do a memory task as cognitive load .

Those not under cognitive load were successful in their mood control, while those under cognitive load achieved the opposite.

This suggests that if you are under some cognitive load (such as busy studying), and you want to improve your mood, you should try consciously to feel worse. Also, if you are in a noisy and distracting environment, and want to sleep, you should try to stay awake.

Another experiment showed that people who try to avoid sexist language become ironically more prone to sexist language when under cognitive load. This is true no matter if they are sexist or not.

Chap 23. Implicit Association Test

In Single-target implicit association tests (ST-IAT) predict voting behavior of decided and undecided voters in swiss referendums (Raccuia, 2016) , compared to self-reported political orientation, implicit association was found to be a weaker, but somewhat independent, predictor of voting behavior.

Other similar methods to probe the unconsciousness are studied, and the results are new and mixed.

Chap 24. Prospect theory

People don't behave as expectation-maximizers. Instead they are better modelled by prospect theory:

• Gains and losses are measured compared to a changeable default, instead of an absolute zero.
• Losses are weighted more than gains, and both have decreasing marginal utilities.

An experiment The systematic influence of gain-and loss-framed messages on interest in and use of different types of health behavior (Rothman et al, 1999) . It was found that people used more bacteria-killing mouth wash, if they received positive advertising (about maintaining good health). They used more disclosing mouth wash (which merely detects dental diseases) if they received negative advertising (about the potential disease).

This theory, along with some others, is explained in great detail in Thinking, Fast and Slow (Kahnemann, 2011) , which I recommend.

Other mental heuristics include mental accounting (Thaler, 1980) , with its own set of irrational effects.

Chap 25. Social isolation increases aggression

If you can't join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior (Twenge, 2001)

Social exclusion was manipulated by telling people that they would end up alone later in life or that other participants had rejected them. These manipulations caused participants to behave more aggressively. Excluded people issued a more negative job evaluation against someone who insulted them, blasted a target with higher levels of aversive noise both when the target had insulted them and when no interaction had occurred. However, excluded people were not more aggressive toward someone who issued praise.

In particular,

These responses were specific to social exclusion and were not mediated by emotion.

This was shown by two experimental facts:

Participants who were told they would end up alone later in life or that other participants had rejected them, did not feel worse than average.

Participants who were told they would end up unlucky later in life, did not act more aggressively than average.

Some psychological theories are given. One is self-determination theory from Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being (Deci and Ryan, 2000) , which says that people have three needs:

• relatedness (to some other people)
• efficacy (can do important things)
• autonomy (can control their own future)

Other relevant factors are self-esteem, and stability over time. Stability and level of self-esteem as predictors of anger arousal and hostility (Kernis et al, 1989) found that in feelings of anger and hostility,

unstable high self-esteem > low self-esteem > stable high self-esteem

There is no evolutionary explanation, though. Social exclusion causes fewer offsprings, and aggression only worsens it. An evolutionary psychological explanation would be good. Either it has evolutionary benefit, or it is a side effect of something else.

Chap 26. Social effects of gossiping

Gossip is found to have a prosocial function. The virtues of gossip: Reputational information sharing as prosocial behavior (Feinberg, 2012)

... prosocial gossip , the sharing of negative evaluative information about a target in a way that protects others from antisocial or exploitative behavior.

In the study, they found experimental support for four hypotheses about the function of gossip:

• prosocial : gossip is motivated by a desire to protect vulnerable people, without promise of material reward.
• frustration : seeing antisocial behavior makes people feel bad, which . Prosocial people are more prone to this frustration.
• relief : gossiping reduces the frustration.
• deterrence : threat of gossip makes antisocial people behave more prosocially.

Chap 27. Fear of death

Good news: we will be worm food one day!

Good news for worms, I meant.

Terror management theory argues that the terror of death creates such a profound, subconscious, anxiety, that humans spend their lives denying it in various ways, creating culture, religion, and many other social phenomena in the process.

In this chapter are reviewed the first 4 of the 7 experiments from How sweet it is to be loved by you: the role of perceived regard in the terror management of close relationships (CR Cox, J Arndt, 2012) . This paper studies

... whether people turn to close relationships to manage the awareness of mortality because they serve as a source of perceived regard.

Perceived regard means "am I a good person as viewed by someone else?" The paper in particular showed that people who have death on their mind exaggerate how much they think they are loved by a partner. Perceived regard from their own selves, and from average strangers, did not change. Having intense physical pain on the mind also did nothing.

They also found that having death on the mind makes people claim to love their partners more. They theorized that this is mediated by increased perceived regard:

death on the mind -> more perceived regard from their partner -> more love for their partner

Study 4 revealed that activating thoughts of perceived regard from a partner in response to MS reduced death-thought accessibility. Studies 5 and 6 demonstrated that MS led high relationship contingent self-esteem individuals to exaggerate perceived regard from a partner, and this heightened regard led to greater commitment to one's partner. Study 7 examined attachment style differences and found that after MS, anxious individuals exaggerated how positively their parents see them, whereas secure individuals exaggerated how positively their romantic partners see them. Together, the present results suggest that perceptions of regard play an important role in why people pursue close relationships in the face of existential concerns.

Personal comment : It has been commented that Transhumanism can be analyzed as a religion. Is there value in analyzing transhumanism through terror management theory? There is at least one paper, Software immortals: Science or faith? (Proudfoot, 2012) , that did so. This is important, because if transhumanism is indeed a religion, then the chance is high that it is deluded/unfalsifiable, like most religions have been shown to be.

Also, this would explain why moral nihilism is usually suffered as a mental disease than accepted as a working hypothesis. Despite its theoretical simplicity and moderate empirical support, it just doesn't offer any protection against terror of death.

Chap 28. Motivated belief in free will

Free to punish: A motivated account of free will belief (Clark, 2014)

a key factor promoting belief in free will is a fundamental desire to hold others morally responsible for their wrongful behaviors

Five experiments from the paper are recounted in detail. The authors praised the paper highly for its comprehensiveness.

participants reported greater belief in free will after considering an immoral action than a morally neutral one... due to heightened punitive motivations... reading about others’ immoral behaviors reduced the perceived merit of anti-free-will research... the real-world prevalence of immoral behavior (as measured by crime and homicide rates) predicted free will belief on a country level.

Taken together, these results provide a potential explanation for the strength and prevalence of belief in free will: It is functional for holding others morally responsible and facilitates justifiably punishing harmful members of society.

Personal comment : Instead of philosophically studying whether free will exists, it's more productive to assume it doesn't exist , and see what behaviors can be explained. If everything can be explained without free will, then the problem of free will dissolves. Else, we will have concentrated what free will is for, and made subsequent studies more focused.

It is also useful to study the human intuitive belief in free will, as important phenomena about humans, independent of whether they are right or wrong. This is analogous to the study of folk psychology and naive physics . See From Uncaused Will to Conscious Choice: The Need to Study, Not Speculate About People’s Folk Concept of Free Will (Monroe, 2009)

the core of people’s concept of free will is a choice that fulfills one’s desires and is free from internal or external constraints. No evidence was found for metaphysical assumptions about dualism or indeterminism.

In the "Afterthoughts", the authors considered what a post-free-will society could be like. I think that such a society's theory of crime and punishment would be more like "because this follows the natural order of things", than "because criminals are morally bad".

Think of the joke about "my brain made me commit the crime"

The criminal: "My brain made me commit the crime." The judge: "My brain made me sentence you."

And now, instead of taking it as a joke, imagine both of them saying them very seriously. That's what I think could be true in the future.

The first edition of this book was published in 2003. In 2005, Ioannidis' paper "Why Most Published Research Findings Are False" started the reproducibility avalanche. How well have these experiments replicated? My university library only has the first edition. I can see from the Amazon preview of the second edition (2017) that the authors address this, but I can't see enough pages to see what their response is. I understand from other sources that priming and ego-depletion have not stood up well.

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500+ Psychology Research Topic Ideas

Table of Contents

Psychology is a vast field that encompasses a wide range of topics and research areas. From the study of cognition and behavior to the exploration of mental health disorders, there are countless avenues for researchers to explore within this field. Whether you are a college student, graduate student, or professional in the field of psychology, selecting a research topic can be a daunting task. To help guide your research endeavors, we have compiled a list of 500+ unique psychology research topic ideas across various subfields of psychology. These research topics range from the study of abnormal psychology and cognitive psychology to military psychology and education. With this extensive list, we hope to provide you with inspiration and ideas to jumpstart your research journey.

Psychology Research Topic Ideas

Psychology Research Topic Ideas are as follows:

• The effects of social media on self-esteem in adolescents
• The role of parenting styles in shaping children’s personality development
• The impact of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction in adults
• The influence of music on mood and emotional regulation
• The effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive functioning
• The relationship between personality traits and job satisfaction
• The effects of physical exercise on mental health
• The role of culture in shaping social identity and behavior
• The impact of peer pressure on decision-making in adolescents
• The effects of childhood trauma on adult attachment styles
• The influence of personality on romantic relationships
• The effects of bullying on mental health in children and adolescents
• The role of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The impact of positive psychology interventions on well-being
• The effects of social support on coping with stress
• The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement
• The effects of technology use on cognitive functioning
• The influence of gender roles on social behavior
• The effects of pet ownership on mental health
• The role of attachment styles in parent-child relationships
• The impact of social comparison on body dissatisfaction in women
• The effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on chronic pain management
• The relationship between personality disorders and criminal behavior
• The effects of stereotype threat on academic performance
• The influence of self-esteem on romantic relationships
• The effects of environmental factors on cognitive development in children
• The role of resilience in coping with trauma
• The effects of gaming on cognitive functioning and addiction
• The impact of mindfulness interventions on workplace productivity
• The relationship between social support and physical health.
• The relationship between self-compassion and mental health
• The impact of cognitive biases on decision-making
• The role of attachment styles in romantic relationships
• The effects of social isolation on mental health
• The influence of cultural values on parenting practices
• The relationship between social media use and body image dissatisfaction
• The effects of childhood obesity on mental health and well-being
• The impact of mindfulness-based interventions on addiction recovery
• The role of personality in predicting job performance and success
• The effects of sleep quality on academic achievement
• The influence of social identity on intergroup conflict
• The effects of nature exposure on stress reduction
• The impact of meditation on empathy and compassion
• The role of emotion regulation in coping with chronic illness
• The effects of gratitude interventions on well-being and life satisfaction
• The relationship between personality traits and leadership effectiveness
• The impact of trauma on brain development in children
• The role of social norms in shaping behavior
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on eating disorders
• The influence of cultural factors on mental health stigma
• The effects of emotional intelligence on workplace relationships and team effectiveness
• The relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement
• The impact of exercise on cognitive aging and dementia prevention
• The role of empathy in moral decision-making
• The effects of social comparison on academic motivation
• The influence of cultural factors on the perception of mental illness
• The effects of childhood bullying on long-term mental health outcomes
• The role of personality in romantic partner selection and satisfaction
• The impact of parental divorce on children’s emotional and behavioral outcomes
• The relationship between personality traits and coping strategies in stressful situations.
• The impact of personality disorders on interpersonal relationships
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on workplace stress and burnout
• The role of emotional intelligence in romantic relationships
• The effects of cultural factors on the development of eating disorders
• The relationship between attachment styles and emotional regulation
• The impact of early childhood education on cognitive development
• The effects of exposure to violence on mental health outcomes
• The role of motivation in academic achievement and success
• The influence of culture on the perception of intelligence and academic achievement
• The effects of technology use on social skills and communication
• The relationship between self-esteem and social anxiety
• The impact of trauma on memory processing and recall
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement
• The effects of exercise on mental health outcomes in older adults
• The influence of cultural factors on romantic attraction and mate selection
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on depression and anxiety
• The relationship between personality traits and substance abuse
• The impact of environmental factors on child development
• The role of motivation in workplace productivity and job satisfaction
• The effects of social media use on sleep quality and quantity
• The influence of cultural factors on the perception and treatment of addiction
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety disorder
• The relationship between personality traits and risk-taking behavior
• The impact of prenatal stress on child development and behavior
• The role of emotional intelligence in leadership effectiveness
• The effects of meditation on attention and focus
• The influence of cultural factors on mental health treatment-seeking behavior
• The effects of traumatic events on personal growth and resilience
• The relationship between personality traits and creativity
• The impact of mindfulness interventions on emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents.
• The effects of social comparison on body dissatisfaction
• The impact of parental stress on child behavior and development
• The role of mindfulness in stress management during pregnancy
• The effects of cultural factors on the development of social anxiety disorder
• The relationship between personality traits and procrastination
• The impact of trauma on addiction and substance abuse
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health treatment
• The effects of exercise on self-esteem and body image
• The influence of personality traits on the development of eating disorders
• The relationship between childhood trauma and adult mental health outcomes
• The impact of meditation on academic performance and focus
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards body image and appearance
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on chronic pain management
• The relationship between personality traits and moral decision-making
• The impact of early childhood attachment on romantic relationships
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards sexuality and sexual behavior
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in older adults
• The influence of personality traits on the development of obsessive-compulsive disorder
• The relationship between childhood bullying and adult mental health outcomes
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on panic disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards substance use and addiction
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on insomnia and sleep quality
• The relationship between personality traits and social comparison behavior
• The impact of parental divorce on romantic relationship outcomes
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards aging and age-related changes
• The effects of social support on stress management in college students
• The influence of personality traits on the development of anxiety disorders
• The relationship between childhood trauma and romantic relationship outcomes
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards masculinity and femininity
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on work-related stress
• The relationship between personality traits and forgiveness
• The impact of peer pressure on adolescent substance abuse
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health stigma
• The effects of social support on stress management in healthcare workers
• The influence of personality traits on the development of depression
• The relationship between childhood trauma and substance abuse
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on depression
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards body modification and cosmetic surgery
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on emotional regulation in adolescents.
• The effects of social media on self-esteem and body image in adolescent girls
• The impact of parental emotional neglect on adult mental health outcomes
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards gender and sexual orientation identity
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on post-traumatic stress disorder
• The relationship between personality traits and attachment styles in romantic relationships
• The impact of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic illness
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards disability and ableism
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on emotional eating and food addiction
• The influence of personality traits on the development of borderline personality disorder
• The relationship between childhood adversity and adult mental health outcomes
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on generalized anxiety disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards aging and dementia
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic pain
• The relationship between personality traits and coping strategies in response to stress
• The impact of maternal mental health on child behavior and development
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health in the workplace
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on stress and burnout in healthcare professionals
• The influence of personality traits on the development of narcissistic personality disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and sleep disorders
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on bipolar disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards diversity and inclusion
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in refugees and immigrants
• The relationship between personality traits and empathy
• The impact of social comparison on academic performance and motivation
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health in the military
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on addiction recovery and relapse prevention
• The influence of personality traits on the development of antisocial personality disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and borderline personality disorder
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social skills and communication in autism spectrum disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health in the LGBTQ+ community
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with substance use disorder
• The relationship between personality traits and creativity in the arts and sciences
• The impact of early childhood exposure to violence on adult mental health outcomes
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and aging in rural communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and self-care
• The influence of personality traits on the development of schizophrenia
• The relationship between childhood trauma and dissociative identity disorder
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety in children and adolescents
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and spirituality
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic stress.
• The impact of personality traits on job performance and satisfaction
• The relationship between childhood trauma and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• The effects of exposure therapy on phobias and anxiety disorders
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health in minority communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in caregivers of individuals with chronic illness or disability
• The relationship between cognitive flexibility and problem-solving abilities
• The impact of psychoeducation on stigma reduction towards mental illness
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and substance use in college students
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on academic performance and stress in college students
• The influence of personality traits on the development of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• The relationship between childhood trauma and depression in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on depression and anxiety in cancer patients
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and body image in men
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome
• The relationship between resilience and post-traumatic growth
• The impact of music therapy on mental health outcomes in individuals with schizophrenia
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and motherhood
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on emotional regulation and mood disorders in adolescents
• The influence of personality traits on the development of hoarding disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and substance use disorder in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on insomnia and sleep disorders
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and masculinity
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic migraines
• The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness
• The impact of group therapy on social skills and communication in individuals with autism spectrum disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and aging in urban communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on compassion and empathy in healthcare professionals
• The influence of personality traits on the development of postpartum depression
• The relationship between childhood trauma and bipolar disorder in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on self-esteem and body image in individuals with eating disorders
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and family dynamics in immigrant families
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic gastrointestinal disorders
• The relationship between personality traits and self-compassion
• The impact of play therapy on social-emotional development in children with autism spectrum disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and aging in LGBTQ+ communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on anxiety and depression in individuals with chronic pain
• The relationship between childhood trauma and borderline personality disorder symptoms in adolescence
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms in children and adolescents.
• The effects of physical exercise on mood and anxiety in older adults
• The relationship between childhood trauma and attachment styles in romantic relationships
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on body dysmorphic disorder symptoms
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and spirituality in indigenous communities
• The relationship between personality traits and risky behavior in adolescence
• The influence of parental bonding on the development of borderline personality disorder in young adults
• The impact of mindfulness interventions on stress and burnout in healthcare professionals
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and disability in rural communities
• The effects of psychotherapy on self-compassion in individuals with depression
• The relationship between childhood trauma and dissociative symptoms in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety disorder in individuals with autism spectrum disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and help-seeking behaviors in Asian American communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• The influence of family functioning on the development of substance use disorders in adolescents
• The impact of expressive writing on emotional processing in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in survivors of domestic violence
• The relationship between childhood trauma and disordered eating behaviors in young adults
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on panic disorder symptoms in individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community support in refugee populations
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD)
• The relationship between personality traits and romantic relationship satisfaction
• The influence of childhood attachment on the development of post-traumatic stress disorder in adulthood
• The impact of group therapy on social skills and self-esteem in individuals with social anxiety disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and faith-based support in African American communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on emotion regulation and coping skills in individuals with borderline personality disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and anxiety sensitivity in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on health anxiety symptoms in individuals with chronic illnesses
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and social stigma in Hispanic/Latino communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic hepatitis C
• The relationship between personality traits and decision-making processes
• The influence of parent-child communication on the development of eating disorders in adolescents
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on gambling disorder symptoms
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and access to care in rural communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with bipolar disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and rumination in adulthood
• The impact of group therapy on self-esteem and assertiveness in individuals with avoidant personality disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Native American populations.
• The effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance and decision-making
• The relationship between personality traits and addiction susceptibility
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on hoarding disorder symptoms
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and spirituality in Hispanic/Latino communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with multiple sclerosis
• The relationship between childhood trauma and emotional regulation in adulthood
• The influence of social media on body image and self-esteem in adolescents
• The impact of mindfulness interventions on impulsivity and self-control in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and help-seeking behaviors in LGBTQ+ communities
• The effects of cognitive training on cognitive performance and brain structure in older adults
• The relationship between personality traits and risk-taking behaviors in college students
• The impact of family therapy on communication and conflict resolution in families with a history of domestic violence
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Asian American communities
• The relationship between childhood trauma and interpersonal functioning in adulthood
• The influence of cultural identity on mental health outcomes in immigrant populations
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on eating disorder symptoms in individuals with type 1 diabetes
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and stigma in Arab American communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• The relationship between childhood trauma and attachment styles in adulthood friendships
• The impact of expressive writing on stress and immune function in caregivers of individuals with dementia
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in rural Native American communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic pain and depression
• The relationship between personality traits and emotional intelligence
• The influence of parental warmth and discipline on the development of anxiety disorders in children
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on postpartum depression symptoms
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and access to care in South Asian communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with borderline personality disorder
• The relationship between childhood trauma and resilience in adulthood
• The impact of group therapy on social anxiety and loneliness in individuals with hearing loss
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community support in Pacific Islander communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and depression
• The relationship between personality traits and leadership styles
• The influence of peer relationships on the development of depressive symptoms in adolescents
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on body image and self-esteem in individuals with gender dysphoria
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Middle Eastern communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and addiction
• The relationship between childhood trauma and substance use disorders in adulthood
• The impact of group therapy on emotion regulation and self-esteem in individuals with personality disorders
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in immigrant and refugee communities.
• Sure, here are 40 more psychology research topic ideas:
• The effects of meditation on creativity and divergent thinking
• The relationship between personality traits and career satisfaction
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on sleep disturbances in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and help-seeking behaviors in Black communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI)
• The relationship between childhood trauma and attachment styles in romantic relationships in adulthood
• The influence of social norms on substance use behaviors in college students
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Indigenous communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with chronic pain
• The impact of group therapy on emotion regulation and social connectedness in individuals with eating disorders
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in African immigrant communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with spinal cord injuries (SCI)
• The relationship between childhood trauma and the development of eating disorders in adulthood
• The influence of social identity on stereotype threat and academic performance in college students
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms in individuals with Parkinson’s disease
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and help-seeking behaviors in Southeast Asian communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• The relationship between personality traits and coping strategies in individuals with chronic pain
• The impact of group therapy on emotion regulation and social support in individuals with borderline personality disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Muslim communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and depression
• The relationship between childhood trauma and emotional intelligence in adulthood
• The influence of attachment styles on romantic relationship satisfaction in adults
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety symptoms in individuals with social communication disorder (SCD)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in refugee communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with substance use disorders
• The relationship between personality traits and resilience in individuals with chronic illnesses
• The impact of group therapy on emotion regulation and social skills in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Caribbean communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with fibromyalgia and depression
• The influence of social comparison on body dissatisfaction and eating disorder behaviors in adolescents
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on depression symptoms in individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Native Hawaiian communities
• The relationship between personality traits and coping strategies in individuals with traumatic brain injuries (TBI)
• The impact of group therapy on social anxiety symptoms in individuals with intellectual disabilities
• The role of social comparison in body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors in men
• The effects of parental attachment on romantic relationships in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety symptoms in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS)
• The relationship between cultural values and parenting practices in Latino families
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and anxiety
• The role of social norms in shaping attitudes towards mental health and help-seeking behaviors in South Asian communities
• The influence of personality traits on academic achievement in college students
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on depression symptoms in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis (RA)
• The relationship between attachment styles and romantic relationship satisfaction in same-sex couples
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with schizophrenia
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Arab communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic pain and anxiety
• The relationship between childhood adversity and substance use disorders in adulthood
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety symptoms in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• The role of cultural beliefs about mental illness and stigma in Latino communities
• The effects of social identity on stereotype threat and academic achievement in minority college students
• The relationship between personality traits and coping strategies in caregivers of individuals with dementia
• The impact of group therapy on depression symptoms in individuals with traumatic brain injuries (TBI)
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in LGBTQ+ communities
• The relationship between attachment styles and romantic relationship satisfaction in individuals with chronic illnesses
• The influence of personality traits on stress and coping in police officers
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety symptoms in individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD)
• The role of cultural beliefs about mental illness and stigma in Asian communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and depression
• The relationship between childhood trauma and interpersonal relationships in adulthood
• The impact of group therapy on anxiety symptoms in individuals with social phobia
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Native American communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with postpartum depression
• The relationship between personality traits and burnout in healthcare professionals
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety symptoms in individuals with chronic pain and fibromyalgia
• The role of cultural beliefs about mental illness and stigma in African American communities
• The effects of social support on mental health outcomes in individuals with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and anxiety
• The relationship between childhood trauma and emotional regulation in adolescence
• The influence of personality traits on well-being and life satisfaction in older adults
• The impact of group therapy on depression symptoms in individuals with borderline personality disorder
• The role of culture in shaping attitudes towards mental health and community resources in Hispanic/Latino communities
• The effects of mindfulness interventions on self-compassion and emotional regulation in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• The relationship between attachment styles and emotional regulation in individuals with substance use disorders

Psychology Research Topic Ideas College Students

• The effects of virtual reality exposure therapy on anxiety and phobias among college students
• The relationship between attachment styles and romantic relationship satisfaction among college students
• The impact of social norms on substance use among college students
• The effects of cultural identity on mental health and academic achievement among college students
• The role of self-compassion in reducing burnout among college students
• The relationship between social media use and FOMO (fear of missing out) among college students
• The impact of environmental factors on mental health and well-being among college students
• The effects of self-esteem on social anxiety and social skills among college students
• The role of positive psychology interventions in promoting well-being and academic success among college students
• The relationship between gender identity and mental health outcomes among college students
• The impact of parental communication on mental health and academic performance among college students
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on PTSD symptoms among college students
• The relationship between personality traits and academic procrastination among college students
• The role of humor in reducing stress and promoting well-being among college students
• The impact of social identity on academic motivation and achievement among college students
• The effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on academic performance and mental health among college students
• The relationship between academic stress and substance use among college students
• The role of cultural competence in promoting diversity and inclusion on college campuses
• The impact of emotional intelligence on academic success and career readiness among college students
• The effects of peer mentoring programs on academic motivation and success among college students
• The relationship between exercise and cognitive functioning in college students
• The role of optimism in promoting resilience and well-being among college students
• The impact of music therapy on anxiety and depression among college students
• The effects of exposure to nature on mental health and well-being among college students
• The relationship between parental involvement and emotional regulation among college students
• The role of forgiveness in promoting well-being and interpersonal relationships among college students
• The impact of social comparison on body image and self-esteem among college students
• The effects of attachment styles on coping with stress among college students
• The relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic performance among college students
• The role of grit in promoting academic perseverance and achievement among college students
• The impact of COVID-19 on mental health and well-being among college students
• The effects of peer pressure on substance use and risky behaviors among college students
• The relationship between social support and academic engagement among college students
• The role of cognitive biases in promoting or hindering academic success among college students
• The impact of physical activity on mental health and well-being among college students
• The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on academic motivation and success among college students
• The relationship between perfectionism and academic burnout among college students
• The role of parental support in promoting academic resilience and success among college students with disabilities
• The impact of diversity education on promoting empathy and reducing prejudice among college students
• The effects of assertiveness training on communication skills and interpersonal relationships among college students.

Graduate Psychology Research Topic Ideas

• The impact of mindfulness-based interventions on reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression in clinical populations
• The role of self-compassion in promoting emotional well-being among adults with chronic illness
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on PTSD symptoms in military veterans
• The relationship between sleep quality and cognitive functioning in aging populations
• The impact of positive psychology interventions on well-being and resilience among individuals with chronic pain
• The role of emotion regulation in reducing symptoms of borderline personality disorder
• The effects of virtual reality exposure therapy on social anxiety in individuals with autism spectrum disorder
• The relationship between executive functioning and academic achievement in children with ADHD
• The impact of family-based interventions on reducing symptoms of substance use disorders among adolescents
• The role of mindfulness in promoting emotional regulation and stress management in healthcare professionals
• The effects of cognitive remediation therapy on cognitive functioning in individuals with schizophrenia
• The relationship between attachment styles and therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy
• The impact of cultural factors on the manifestation and treatment of eating disorders
• The role of emotion regulation in reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety in postpartum women
• The effects of acceptance and commitment therapy on reducing symptoms of OCD
• The relationship between childhood ADHD and adult executive functioning and academic achievement
• The impact of animal-assisted therapy on reducing symptoms of PTSD in veterans
• The role of social support in promoting resilience and well-being among individuals with chronic illness
• The effects of cognitive remediation therapy on reducing negative symptoms in individuals with schizophrenia
• The relationship between executive functioning and social skills in children with autism spectrum disorder
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on reducing symptoms of hoarding disorder
• The role of emotion regulation in reducing symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder
• The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on reducing symptoms of burnout among healthcare professionals
• The relationship between social support and quality of life in individuals with multiple sclerosis
• The impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on reducing symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder
• The role of mindfulness in promoting well-being and emotional regulation in individuals with chronic pain
• The effects of cognitive remediation therapy on reducing negative symptoms in individuals with bipolar disorder
• The relationship between executive functioning and academic achievement in children with learning disabilities
• The impact of acceptance and commitment therapy on reducing symptoms of social anxiety disorder
• The role of emotion regulation in reducing symptoms of borderline personality disorder in adolescents
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on reducing symptoms of panic disorder
• The relationship between social support and depression in individuals with HIV/AIDS
• The impact of cognitive remediation therapy on reducing symptoms of ADHD in adults
• The role of mindfulness in promoting well-being and emotional regulation in individuals with depression
• The effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on reducing symptoms of substance use disorders in individuals with co-occurring PTSD
• The relationship between executive functioning and quality of life in individuals with traumatic brain injury
• The impact of acceptance and commitment therapy on reducing symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder
• The role of emotion regulation in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression in adolescents with chronic illness
• The effects of cognitive remediation therapy on reducing cognitive impairment in individuals with Parkinson’s disease.

Military Psychology Research Topic Ideas

• The impact of military deployment on the mental health and well-being of service members
• The role of resilience in promoting posttraumatic growth among military personnel
• The effects of combat exposure on emotional regulation and decision-making abilities
• The relationship between military leadership styles and team cohesion
• The impact of military culture on help-seeking behaviors among service members with mental health concerns
• The role of perceived social support in promoting resilience among military spouses during deployment
• The effects of military service on identity formation and self-concept
• The relationship between deployment-related stress and marital satisfaction among military couples
• The impact of military sexual trauma on mental health outcomes and treatment seeking behaviors among service members
• The role of mindfulness in reducing symptoms of PTSD among military personnel
• The effects of trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy on reducing symptoms of PTSD among military veterans
• The relationship between military deployment and substance use disorders
• The impact of military deployment on parent-child relationships and child outcomes
• The role of perceived organizational support in promoting job satisfaction and retention among military personnel
• The effects of exposure therapy on reducing combat-related nightmares and sleep disturbances among military personnel
• The relationship between military service and risk-taking behaviors
• The impact of military culture on mental health stigma and treatment seeking behaviors among service members
• The role of positive psychology interventions in promoting resilience and well-being among military personnel and their families
• The effects of virtual reality exposure therapy on reducing symptoms of specific phobias among military personnel
• The relationship between military service and traumatic brain injury
• The impact of deployment on career development and job satisfaction among military personnel
• The role of cognitive appraisal in the stress and coping process among military personnel
• The effects of a peer support program on reducing symptoms of PTSD among military personnel
• The relationship between military service and intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization
• The impact of military deployment on parenting practices and child outcomes among military families
• The role of perceived organizational justice in promoting job satisfaction and retention among military personnel
• The effects of acceptance and commitment therapy on reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety among military personnel
• The relationship between military service and suicidal ideation and behavior
• The impact of military deployment on social support networks and social integration
• The role of perceived unit cohesion in promoting resilience and mental health among military personnel
• The effects of cognitive remediation therapy on improving cognitive functioning and job performance among military personnel with traumatic brain injury
• The relationship between military service and alcohol misuse and addiction
• The impact of military deployment on sibling relationships and family functioning
• The role of perceived leadership support in promoting job satisfaction and retention among military personnel
• The effects of exposure therapy on reducing symptoms of phobic avoidance among military personnel
• The relationship between military service and eating disorders
• The impact of military deployment on community reintegration and social support among veterans
• The role of perceived control in the stress and coping process among military personnel
• The effects of a mindfulness-based intervention on reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety among military spouses during deployment
• The relationship between military service and personality disorders.

Psychology Research Topic Ideas in Education

• The effects of mindfulness practices on student well-being and academic performance
• The impact of classroom diversity on student attitudes and academic achievement
• The role of parent-teacher communication in promoting student success
• The effects of differentiated instruction on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between school climate and student mental health outcomes
• The impact of technology integration on student learning outcomes
• The role of teacher-student relationships in promoting student engagement and academic success
• The effects of social-emotional learning programs on student behavior and academic performance
• The relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement
• The impact of peer tutoring on student academic performance
• The role of motivation in promoting student academic success
• The effects of educational gaming on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between parental involvement and student academic achievement
• The impact of teacher expectations on student academic performance
• The role of goal-setting in promoting student academic success
• The effects of growth mindset interventions on student motivation and academic achievement
• The relationship between teacher burnout and student academic outcomes
• The impact of teacher diversity on student attitudes and academic achievement
• The role of classroom management in promoting student engagement and academic success
• The effects of student-centered learning on student academic performance
• The relationship between teacher empathy and student academic outcomes
• The impact of school-based mental health services on student mental health outcomes and academic achievement
• The role of parental involvement in homework on student academic success
• The effects of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between student motivation and academic achievement in STEM fields
• The impact of teacher professional development on student academic outcomes
• The role of teacher feedback in promoting student academic success
• The effects of cooperative learning on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between classroom climate and student academic outcomes
• The impact of restorative justice practices on student behavior and academic achievement
• The role of teacher support in promoting student academic success
• The effects of flipped classrooms on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between teacher autonomy and student academic outcomes
• The impact of teacher collaboration on student academic performance
• The role of metacognition in promoting student academic success
• The effects of active learning on student engagement and academic achievement
• The relationship between student engagement and academic achievement in language learning
• The impact of teacher coaching on student academic outcomes
• The role of self-regulated learning in promoting student academic success
• The effects of outdoor learning on student engagement and academic achievement.

Cognitive Psychology Research Topic Ideas

• The role of attention in perception and memory
• The effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive functioning
• The relationship between creativity and cognitive flexibility
• The cognitive processes involved in decision-making
• The impact of stress on cognitive performance
• The role of working memory in problem-solving
• The cognitive factors involved in language acquisition
• The relationship between attention and executive functions
• The effect of aging on cognitive abilities
• The role of attention in visual perception
• The cognitive processes involved in learning and memory
• The impact of technology on cognitive development
• The relationship between cognition and emotion
• The effect of anxiety on cognitive performance
• The cognitive processes involved in attentional control
• The role of executive functions in decision-making
• The effect of mindfulness practices on cognitive functioning
• The relationship between language and cognition
• The cognitive processes involved in reading comprehension
• The impact of nutrition on cognitive development
• The role of working memory in language processing
• The effect of exercise on cognitive performance
• The cognitive processes involved in mental rotation tasks
• The relationship between cognitive load and learning
• The effect of multitasking on cognitive performance
• The cognitive processes involved in problem-solving
• The role of executive functions in goal-directed behavior
• The impact of cognitive training on cognitive abilities
• The relationship between attention and perception
• The effect of music on cognitive performance
• The cognitive processes involved in decision-making under uncertainty
• The role of cognitive control in self-regulation
• The impact of bilingualism on cognitive development
• The relationship between cognitive biases and decision-making
• The effect of caffeine on cognitive performance
• The cognitive processes involved in face recognition
• The role of cognitive dissonance in attitude change
• The impact of mindfulness-based interventions on cognitive functioning
• The relationship between cognitive styles and problem-solving
• The cognitive processes involved in mental imagery.

Forensic Psychology Research Topic Ideas

• The impact of childhood trauma on criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of forensic psychological evaluations in court proceedings
• The role of mental illness in criminal behavior
• The effect of substance abuse on criminal behavior
• The impact of eyewitness testimony on legal outcomes
• The role of psychopathy in criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of restorative justice practices
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and criminal behavior
• The effect of media coverage on public perceptions of crime
• The impact of prison environment on offender rehabilitation
• The role of the insanity defense in criminal cases
• The effectiveness of sex offender treatment programs
• The relationship between domestic violence and homicide
• The effect of legal representation on trial outcomes
• The impact of juvenile delinquency prevention programs
• The role of cultural factors in criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of parole and probation programs
• The relationship between mental illness and violence
• The effect of polygraph testing on legal outcomes
• The impact of criminal profiling on law enforcement investigations
• The role of victim impact statements in sentencing
• The effectiveness of correctional education programs
• The relationship between childhood attachment styles and criminal behavior
• The effect of cognitive biases in legal decision-making
• The impact of witness identification procedures on accuracy
• The role of forensic hypnosis in criminal investigations
• The effectiveness of drug court programs
• The relationship between alcohol use and criminal behavior
• The effect of societal stereotypes on criminal sentencing
• The impact of prison overcrowding on offender rehabilitation
• The role of cultural competence in forensic assessments
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders
• The relationship between trauma and criminal behavior in women
• The effect of plea bargaining on legal outcomes
• The impact of social support on offender rehabilitation
• The role of forensic psychology in counterterrorism efforts
• The effectiveness of offender reentry programs
• The relationship between intellectual disability and criminal behavior
• The effect of forensic testimony on jury decision-making.

Abnormal psychology research topic ideas

• The effects of childhood trauma on the development of anxiety disorders
• The relationship between depression and sleep disturbances
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder
• The impact of social media on body image and eating disorders
• The role of genetics in the development of schizophrenia
• The effect of early intervention on the progression of psychosis
• The impact of stigma on help-seeking behaviors for mental health disorders
• The relationship between substance use disorders and mental health
• The effect of exercise on symptoms of depression and anxiety
• The impact of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy on post-traumatic stress disorder
• The role of attachment styles in the development of personality disorders
• The effectiveness of cognitive remediation therapy for schizophrenia
• The relationship between childhood ADHD and the development of anxiety disorders
• The effect of mindfulness meditation on symptoms of depression and anxiety
• The impact of cultural factors on the diagnosis and treatment of mental health disorders
• The role of neuroplasticity in the treatment of addiction
• The effectiveness of exposure therapy for specific phobias
• The effect of stress on the development of mental health disorders
• The impact of sleep disturbances on the onset of bipolar disorder
• The role of trauma in the development of dissociative disorders
• The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia
• The relationship between childhood abuse and the development of borderline personality disorder
• The effect of peer support on the recovery of individuals with mental health disorders
• The impact of cultural differences on the presentation of mental health symptoms
• The role of cognitive biases in the maintenance of anxiety disorders
• The effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder
• The relationship between early life stressors and the development of depression
• The effect of nutrition on mental health
• The impact of virtual reality exposure therapy on phobia treatment
• The role of genetics in the development of mood disorders
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy for anxiety disorders
• The relationship between childhood trauma and the development of dissociative identity disorder
• The effect of stigma on treatment outcomes for individuals with mental health disorders
• The impact of childhood adversity on the development of personality disorders
• The role of emotional regulation in the treatment of borderline personality disorder
• The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy for depression
• The relationship between sleep disturbances and the development of anxiety disorders
• The effect of stigma on mental health professionals’ treatment decisions
• The impact of cultural factors on the expression of bipolar disorder symptoms.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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61 intriguing psychology research topics to explore

Last updated

11 January 2024

Reviewed by

Brittany Ferri, PhD, OTR/L

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Psychology is an incredibly diverse, critical, and ever-changing area of study in the medical and health industries. Because of this, it’s a common area of study for students and healthcare professionals.

We’re walking you through picking the perfect topic for your upcoming paper or study. Keep reading for plenty of example topics to pique your interest and curiosity.

• How to choose a psychology research topic

Exploring a psychology-based topic for your research project? You need to pick a specific area of interest to collect compelling data. 

Use these tips to help you narrow down which psychology topics to research:

Focus on a particular area of psychology

The most effective psychological research focuses on a smaller, niche concept or disorder within the scope of a study. 

Psychology is a broad and fascinating area of science, including everything from diagnosed mental health disorders to sports performance mindset assessments. 

This gives you plenty of different avenues to explore. Having a hard time choosing? Check out our list of 61 ideas further down in this article to get started.

Read the latest clinical studies

Once you’ve picked a more niche topic to explore, you need to do your due diligence and explore other research projects on the same topic. 

This practice will help you learn more about your chosen topic, ask more specific questions, and avoid covering existing projects. 

For the best results, we recommend creating a research folder of associated published papers to reference throughout your project. This makes it much easier to cite direct references and find inspiration down the line.

Find a topic you enjoy and ask questions

Once you’ve spent time researching and collecting references for your study, you finally get to explore. 

Whether this research project is for work, school, or just for fun, having a passion for your research will make the project much more enjoyable. (Trust us, there will be times when that is the only thing that keeps you going.) 

Now you’ve decided on the topic, ask more nuanced questions you might want to explore. 

If you can, pick the direction that interests you the most to make the research process much more enjoyable.

• 61 psychology topics to research in 2024

Need some extra help starting your psychology research project on the right foot? Explore our list of 61 cutting-edge, in-demand psychology research topics to use as a starting point for your research journey.

• Psychology research topics for university students

As a university student, it can be hard to pick a research topic that fits the scope of your classes and is still compelling and unique. 

Here are a few exciting topics we recommend exploring for your next assigned research project:

Mental health in post-secondary students

Seeking post-secondary education is a stressful and overwhelming experience for most students, making this topic a great choice to explore for your in-class research paper. 

Examples of post-secondary mental health research topics include:

Student mental health status during exam season

Mental health disorder prevalence based on study major

The impact of chronic school stress on overall quality of life

The impacts of cyberbullying

Cyberbullying can occur at all ages, starting as early as elementary school and carrying through into professional workplaces. 

Examples of cyberbullying-based research topics you can study include:

The impact of cyberbullying on self-esteem

Common reasons people engage in cyberbullying 

Cyberbullying themes and commonly used terms

Cyberbullying habits in children vs. adults

The long-term effects of cyberbullying

• Clinical psychology research topics

If you’re looking to take a more clinical approach to your next project, here are a few topics that involve direct patient assessment for you to consider:

Chronic pain and mental health

Living with chronic pain dramatically impacts every aspect of a person’s life, including their mental and emotional health. 

Here are a few examples of in-demand pain-related psychology research topics:

The connection between diabetic neuropathy and depression

Neurological pain and its connection to mental health disorders

Efficacy of meditation and mindfulness for pain management

The long-term effects of insomnia

Insomnia is where you have difficulty falling or staying asleep. It’s a common health concern that impacts millions of people worldwide. 

This is an excellent topic because insomnia can have a variety of causes, offering many research possibilities. 

Here are a few compelling psychology research topics about insomnia you could investigate:

The prevalence of insomnia based on age, gender, and ethnicity

Insomnia and its impact on workplace productivity

The connection between insomnia and mental health disorders

Efficacy and use of melatonin supplements for insomnia

The risks and benefits of prescription insomnia medications

Lifestyle options for managing insomnia symptoms

The efficacy of mental health treatment options

Management and treatment of mental health conditions is an ever-changing area of study. If you can witness or participate in mental health therapies, this can make a great research project. 

Examples of mental health treatment-related psychology research topics include:

The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for patients with severe anxiety

The benefits and drawbacks of group vs. individual therapy sessions

Music therapy for mental health disorders

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for patients with depression 

• Controversial psychology research paper topics

If you are looking to explore a more cutting-edge or modern psychology topic, you can delve into a variety of controversial and topical options:

The impact of social media and digital platforms

Ever since access to internet forums and video games became more commonplace, there’s been growing concern about the impact these digital platforms have on mental health. 

Examples of social media and video game-related psychology research topics include:

The effect of edited images on self-confidence

How social media platforms impact social behavior

Video games and their impact on teenage anger and violence

Digital communication and the rapid spread of misinformation

The development of digital friendships

Psychotropic medications for mental health

In recent years, the interest in using psychoactive medications to treat and manage health conditions has increased despite their inherently controversial nature. 

Examples of psychotropic medication-related research topics include:

The risks and benefits of using psilocybin mushrooms for managing anxiety

The impact of marijuana on early-onset psychosis

Childhood marijuana use and related prevalence of mental health conditions

Ketamine and its use for complex PTSD (C-PTSD) symptom management

The effect of long-term psychedelic use and mental health conditions

• Mental health disorder research topics

As one of the most popular subsections of psychology, studying mental health disorders and how they impact quality of life is an essential and impactful area of research. 

While studies in these areas are common, there’s always room for additional exploration, including the following hot-button topics:

Anxiety and depression disorders

Anxiety and depression are well-known and heavily researched mental health disorders. 

Despite this, we still don’t know many things about these conditions, making them great candidates for psychology research projects:

Social anxiety and its connection to chronic loneliness

C-PTSD symptoms and causes

The development of phobias

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) behaviors and symptoms

Depression triggers and causes

Self-care tools and resources for depression

The prevalence of anxiety and depression in particular age groups or geographic areas

Bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder is a complex and multi-faceted area of psychology research. 

Use your research skills to learn more about this condition and its impact by choosing any of the following topics:

Early signs of bipolar disorder

The incidence of bipolar disorder in young adults

The efficacy of existing bipolar treatment options

Bipolar medication side effects

Cognitive behavioral therapy for people with bipolar 

Schizoaffective disorder

Schizoaffective disorder is often stigmatized, and less common mental health disorders are a hotbed for new and exciting research. 

Here are a few examples of interesting research topics related to this mental health disorder:

The prevalence of schizoaffective disorder by certain age groups or geographic locations

Risk factors for developing schizoaffective disorder

The prevalence and content of auditory and visual hallucinations

Alternative therapies for schizoaffective disorder

• Societal and systematic psychology research topics

Modern society’s impact is deeply enmeshed in our mental and emotional health on a personal and community level. 

Here are a few examples of societal and systemic psychology research topics to explore in more detail:

Access to mental health services

While mental health awareness has risen over the past few decades, access to quality mental health treatment and resources is still not equitable. 

This can significantly impact the severity of a person’s mental health symptoms, which can result in worse health outcomes if left untreated. 

Explore this crucial issue and provide information about the need for improved mental health resource access by studying any of the following topics:

Rural vs. urban access to mental health resources

Access to crisis lines by location

Wait times for emergency mental health services

Inequities in mental health access based on income and location

Insurance coverage for mental health services

Systemic racism and mental health

Societal systems and the prevalence of systemic racism heavily impact every aspect of a person’s overall health.

Researching these topics draws attention to existing problems and contributes valuable insights into ways to improve access to care moving forward.

Examples of systemic racism-related psychology research topics include: 

Access to mental health resources based on race

The prevalence of BIPOC mental health therapists in a chosen area

The impact of systemic racism on mental health and self-worth

Racism training for mental health workers

The prevalence of mental health disorders in discriminated groups

LGBTQIA+ mental health concerns

Research about LGBTQIA+ people and their mental health needs is a unique area of study to explore for your next research project. It’s a commonly overlooked and underserved community.

Examples of LGBTQIA+ psychology research topics to consider include:

Mental health supports for queer teens and children

The impact of queer safe spaces on mental health

The prevalence of mental health disorders in the LGBTQIA+ community

The benefits of queer mentorship and found family

Substance misuse in LQBTQIA+ youth and adults

• Collect data and identify trends with Dovetail

Psychology research is an exciting and competitive study area, making it the perfect choice for projects or papers.

Take the headache out of analyzing your data and instantly access the insights you need to complete your next psychology research project by teaming up with Dovetail today.

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

Do you share your research findings with others?

Do you analyze research data?

Start for free today, add your research, and get to key insights faster

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Psychological Research

The scientific process, learning objectives.

• Explain the steps of the scientific method
• Differentiate between theories and hypotheses

Figure 1 . Some of our ancestors, across the world and over the centuries, believed that trephination—the practice of making a hole in the skull, as shown here—allowed evil spirits to leave the body, thus curing mental illness and other disorders. (credit: “taiproject”/Flickr)

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical : It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see the behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This module explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.

Process of Scientific Research

Figure 2 . The scientific method is a process for gathering data and processing information. It provides well-defined steps to standardize how scientific knowledge is gathered through a logical, rational problem-solving method.

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method. Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on.

The basic steps in the scientific method are:

• Observe a natural phenomenon and define a question about it
• Make a hypothesis, or potential solution to the question
• Test the hypothesis
• If the hypothesis is true, find more evidence or find counter-evidence
• If the hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try again
• Draw conclusions and repeat–the scientific method is never-ending, and no result is ever considered perfect

In order to ask an important question that may improve our understanding of the world, a researcher must first observe natural phenomena. By making observations, a researcher can define a useful question. After finding a question to answer, the researcher can then make a prediction (a hypothesis) about what they think the answer will be. This prediction is usually a statement about the relationship between two or more variables. After making a hypothesis, the researcher will then design an experiment to test their hypothesis and evaluate the data gathered. These data will either support or refute the hypothesis. Based on the conclusions drawn from the data, the researcher will then find more evidence to support the hypothesis, look for counter-evidence to further strengthen the hypothesis, revise the hypothesis and create a new experiment, or continue to incorporate the information gathered to answer the research question.

Basic Principles of the Scientific Method

Two key concepts in the scientific approach are theory and hypothesis. A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that can be used to make predictions about future observations. A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a theory. It is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests.

Figure 3 . The scientific method involves deriving hypotheses from theories and then testing those hypotheses. If the results are consistent with the theory, then the theory is supported. If the results are not consistent, then the theory should be modified and new hypotheses will be generated.

Other key components in following the scientific method include verifiability, predictability, falsifiability, and fairness. Verifiability means that an experiment must be replicable by another researcher. To achieve verifiability, researchers must make sure to document their methods and clearly explain how their experiment is structured and why it produces certain results.

Predictability in a scientific theory implies that the theory should enable us to make predictions about future events. The precision of these predictions is a measure of the strength of the theory.

Falsifiability refers to whether a hypothesis can be disproved. For a hypothesis to be falsifiable, it must be logically possible to make an observation or do a physical experiment that would show that there is no support for the hypothesis. Even when a hypothesis cannot be shown to be false, that does not necessarily mean it is not valid. Future testing may disprove the hypothesis. This does not mean that a hypothesis has to be shown to be false, just that it can be tested.

To determine whether a hypothesis is supported or not supported, psychological researchers must conduct hypothesis testing using statistics. Hypothesis testing is a type of statistics that determines the probability of a hypothesis being true or false. If hypothesis testing reveals that results were “statistically significant,” this means that there was support for the hypothesis and that the researchers can be reasonably confident that their result was not due to random chance. If the results are not statistically significant, this means that the researchers’ hypothesis was not supported.

Fairness implies that all data must be considered when evaluating a hypothesis. A researcher cannot pick and choose what data to keep and what to discard or focus specifically on data that support or do not support a particular hypothesis. All data must be accounted for, even if they invalidate the hypothesis.

Applying the Scientific Method

To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. As you’ll learn in a later module, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear.

Remember that a good scientific hypothesis is falsifiable, or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory module that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors. However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

Figure 4 . Many of the specifics of (a) Freud’s theories, such as (b) his division of the mind into id, ego, and superego, have fallen out of favor in recent decades because they are not falsifiable. In broader strokes, his views set the stage for much of psychological thinking today, such as the unconscious nature of the majority of psychological processes.

In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable hypotheses, such as the one described above. Some individuals who suffer significant injuries to their spinal columns are unable to feel the bodily changes that often accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we could test the hypothesis by determining how emotional experiences differ between individuals who have the ability to detect these changes in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact, this research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of people deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be less intense, they still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, & Gallagher, 1988).

Link to Learning

Want to participate in a study? Visit this Psychological Research on the Net website and click on a link that sounds interesting to you in order to participate in online research.

Why the Scientific Method Is Important for Psychology

The use of the scientific method is one of the main features that separates modern psychology from earlier philosophical inquiries about the mind. Compared to chemistry, physics, and other “natural sciences,” psychology has long been considered one of the “social sciences” because of the subjective nature of the things it seeks to study. Many of the concepts that psychologists are interested in—such as aspects of the human mind, behavior, and emotions—are subjective and cannot be directly measured. Psychologists often rely instead on behavioral observations and self-reported data, which are considered by some to be illegitimate or lacking in methodological rigor. Applying the scientific method to psychology, therefore, helps to standardize the approach to understanding its very different types of information.

The scientific method allows psychological data to be replicated and confirmed in many instances, under different circumstances, and by a variety of researchers. Through replication of experiments, new generations of psychologists can reduce errors and broaden the applicability of theories. It also allows theories to be tested and validated instead of simply being conjectures that could never be verified or falsified. All of this allows psychologists to gain a stronger understanding of how the human mind works.

Scientific articles published in journals and psychology papers written in the style of the American Psychological Association (i.e., in “APA style”) are structured around the scientific method. These papers include an introduction, which introduces the background information and outlines the hypotheses; a methods section, which outlines the specifics of how the experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis; a results section, which includes the statistics that tested the hypothesis and state whether it was supported or not supported, and a discussion and conclusion, which state the implications of finding support for, or no support for, the hypothesis. Writing articles and papers that adhere to the scientific method makes it easy for future researchers to repeat the study and attempt to replicate the results.

Notable Researchers

Psychological research has a long history involving important figures from diverse backgrounds. While the introductory module discussed several researchers who made significant contributions to the discipline, there are many more individuals who deserve attention in considering how psychology has advanced as a science through their work. For instance, Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology. Her research focused on animal behavior and cognition (Margaret Floy Washburn, PhD, n.d.). Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was a preeminent first-generation American psychologist who opposed the behaviorist movement, conducted significant research into memory, and established one of the earliest experimental psychology labs in the United States (Mary Whiton Calkins, n.d.).

Figure 5 . (a) Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to earn a doctorate degree in psychology. (b) Psychologist Inez Beverly Prosser, who was the first African American woman to earn a PhD in psychology.

Francis Sumner (1895–1954) was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in 1920. His dissertation focused on issues related to psychoanalysis. Sumner also had research interests in racial bias and educational justice. Sumner was one of the founders of Howard University’s department of psychology, and because of his accomplishments, he is sometimes referred to as the “Father of Black Psychology.” Thirteen years later, Inez Beverly Prosser (1895–1934) became the first African American woman to receive a PhD in psychology. Prosser’s research highlighted issues related to education in segregated versus integrated schools, and ultimately, her work was very influential in the hallmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional (Ethnicity and Health in America Series: Featured Psychologists, n.d.).

Although the establishment of psychology’s scientific roots occurred first in Europe and the United States, it did not take much time until researchers from around the world began to establish their own laboratories and research programs. For example, some of the first experimental psychology laboratories in South America were founded by Horatio Piñero (1869–1919) at two institutions in Buenos Aires, Argentina (Godoy & Brussino, 2010). In India, Gunamudian David Boaz (1908–1965) and Narendra Nath Sen Gupta (1889–1944) established the first independent departments of psychology at the University of Madras and the University of Calcutta, respectively. These developments provided an opportunity for Indian researchers to make important contributions to the field (Gunamudian David Boaz, n.d.; Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, n.d.).

When the American Psychological Association (APA) was first founded in 1892, all of the members were white males. However, by 1905, Mary Whiton Calkins was elected as the first female president of the APA, and by 1946, nearly one-quarter of American psychologists were female. Psychology became a popular degree option for students enrolled in the nation’s historically black higher education institutions, increasing the number of black Americans who went on to become psychologists. Given demographic shifts occurring in the United States and increased access to higher educational opportunities among historically underrepresented populations, there is reason to hope that the diversity of the field will increasingly match the larger population, and that the research contributions made by the psychologists of the future will better serve people of all backgrounds (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.).

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2.2 Generating Good Research Questions

Learning objectives.

• Describe some common sources of research ideas and generate research ideas using those sources.
• Describe some techniques for turning research ideas into empirical research questions and use those techniques to generate questions.
• Explain what makes a research question interesting and evaluate research questions in terms of their interestingness.

Good research must begin with a good research question. Yet coming up with good research questions is something that novice researchers often find difficult and stressful. One reason is that this is a creative process that can appear mysterious—even magical—with experienced researchers seeming to pull interesting research questions out of thin air. However, psychological research on creativity has shown that it is neither as mysterious nor as magical as it appears. It is largely the product of ordinary thinking strategies and persistence (Weisberg, 1993). This section covers some fairly simple strategies for finding general research ideas, turning those ideas into empirically testable research questions, and finally evaluating those questions in terms of how interesting they are and how feasible they would be to answer.

Finding Inspiration

Research questions often begin as more general research ideas—usually focusing on some behavior or psychological characteristic: talkativeness, memory for touches, depression, bungee jumping, and so on. Before looking at how to turn such ideas into empirically testable research questions, it is worth looking at where such ideas come from in the first place. Three of the most common sources of inspiration are informal observations, practical problems, and previous research.

Informal observations include direct observations of our own and others’ behavior as well as secondhand observations from nonscientific sources such as newspapers, books, and so on. For example, you might notice that you always seem to be in the slowest moving line at the grocery store. Could it be that most people think the same thing? Or you might read in the local newspaper about people donating money and food to a local family whose house has burned down and begin to wonder about who makes such donations and why. Some of the most famous research in psychology has been inspired by informal observations. Stanley Milgram’s famous research on obedience, for example, was inspired in part by journalistic reports of the trials of accused Nazi war criminals—many of whom claimed that they were only obeying orders. This led him to wonder about the extent to which ordinary people will commit immoral acts simply because they are ordered to do so by an authority figure (Milgram, 1963).

Practical problems can also inspire research ideas, leading directly to applied research in such domains as law, health, education, and sports. Can human figure drawings help children remember details about being physically or sexually abused? How effective is psychotherapy for depression compared to drug therapy? To what extent do cell phones impair people’s driving ability? How can we teach children to read more efficiently? What is the best mental preparation for running a marathon?

Probably the most common inspiration for new research ideas, however, is previous research. Recall that science is a kind of large-scale collaboration in which many different researchers read and evaluate each other’s work and conduct new studies to build on it. Of course, experienced researchers are familiar with previous research in their area of expertise and probably have a long list of ideas. This suggests that novice researchers can find inspiration by consulting with a more experienced researcher (e.g., students can consult a faculty member). But they can also find inspiration by picking up a copy of almost any professional journal and reading the titles and abstracts. In one typical issue of Psychological Science , for example, you can find articles on the perception of shapes, anti-Semitism, police lineups, the meaning of death, second-language learning, people who seek negative emotional experiences, and many other topics. If you can narrow your interests down to a particular topic (e.g., memory) or domain (e.g., health care), you can also look through more specific journals, such as Memory & Cognition or Health Psychology .

Generating Empirically Testable Research Questions

Once you have a research idea, you need to use it to generate one or more empirically testable research questions, that is, questions expressed in terms of a single variable or relationship between variables. One way to do this is to look closely at the discussion section in a recent research article on the topic. This is the last major section of the article, in which the researchers summarize their results, interpret them in the context of past research, and suggest directions for future research. These suggestions often take the form of specific research questions, which you can then try to answer with additional research. This can be a good strategy because it is likely that the suggested questions have already been identified as interesting and important by experienced researchers.

But you may also want to generate your own research questions. How can you do this? First, if you have a particular behavior or psychological characteristic in mind, you can simply conceptualize it as a variable and ask how frequent or intense it is. How many words on average do people speak per day? How accurate are children’s memories of being touched? What percentage of people have sought professional help for depression? If the question has never been studied scientifically—which is something that you will learn in your literature review—then it might be interesting and worth pursuing.

If scientific research has already answered the question of how frequent or intense the behavior or characteristic is, then you should consider turning it into a question about a statistical relationship between that behavior or characteristic and some other variable. One way to do this is to ask yourself the following series of more general questions and write down all the answers you can think of.

• What are some possible causes of the behavior or characteristic?
• What are some possible effects of the behavior or characteristic?
• What types of people might exhibit more or less of the behavior or characteristic?
• What types of situations might elicit more or less of the behavior or characteristic?

In general, each answer you write down can be conceptualized as a second variable, suggesting a question about a statistical relationship. If you were interested in talkativeness, for example, it might occur to you that a possible cause of this psychological characteristic is family size. Is there a statistical relationship between family size and talkativeness? Or it might occur to you that people seem to be more talkative in same-sex groups than mixed-sex groups. Is there a difference in the average level of talkativeness of people in same-sex groups and people in mixed-sex groups? This approach should allow you to generate many different empirically testable questions about almost any behavior or psychological characteristic.

If through this process you generate a question that has never been studied scientifically—which again is something that you will learn in your literature review—then it might be interesting and worth pursuing. But what if you find that it has been studied scientifically? Although novice researchers often want to give up and move on to a new question at this point, this is not necessarily a good strategy. For one thing, the fact that the question has been studied scientifically and the research published suggests that it is of interest to the scientific community. For another, the question can almost certainly be refined so that its answer will still contribute something new to the research literature. Again, asking yourself a series of more general questions about the statistical relationship is a good strategy.

• Are there other ways to operationally define the variables?
• Are there types of people for whom the statistical relationship might be stronger or weaker?
• Are there situations in which the statistical relationship might be stronger or weaker—including situations with practical importance?

For example, research has shown that women and men speak about the same number of words per day—but this was when talkativeness was measured in terms of the number of words spoken per day among college students in the United States and Mexico. We can still ask whether other ways of measuring talkativeness—perhaps the number of different people spoken to each day—produce the same result. Or we can ask whether studying elderly people or people from other cultures produces the same result. Again, this approach should help you generate many different research questions about almost any statistical relationship.

Evaluating Research Questions

Researchers usually generate many more research questions than they ever attempt to answer. This means they must have some way of evaluating the research questions they generate so that they can choose which ones to pursue. In this section, we consider two criteria for evaluating research questions: the interestingness of the question and the feasibility of answering it.

Interestingness

How often do people tie their shoes? Do people feel pain when you punch them in the jaw? Are women more likely to wear makeup than men? Do people prefer vanilla or chocolate ice cream? Although it would be a fairly simple matter to design a study and collect data to answer these questions, you probably would not want to because they are not interesting. We are not talking here about whether a research question is interesting to us personally but whether it is interesting to people more generally and, especially, to the scientific community. But what makes a research question interesting in this sense? Here we look at three factors that affect the interestingness of a research question: the answer is in doubt, the answer fills a gap in the research literature, and the answer has important practical implications.

First, a research question is interesting to the extent that its answer is in doubt. Obviously, questions that have been answered by scientific research are no longer interesting as the subject of new empirical research. But the fact that a question has not been answered by scientific research does not necessarily make it interesting. There has to be some reasonable chance that the answer to the question will be something that we did not already know. But how can you assess this before actually collecting data? One approach is to try to think of reasons to expect different answers to the question—especially ones that seem to conflict with common sense. If you can think of reasons to expect at least two different answers, then the question might be interesting. If you can think of reasons to expect only one answer, then it probably is not. The question of whether women are more talkative than men is interesting because there are reasons to expect both answers. The existence of the stereotype itself suggests the answer could be yes, but the fact that women’s and men’s verbal abilities are fairly similar suggests the answer could be no. The question of whether people feel pain when you punch them in the jaw is not interesting because there is absolutely no reason to think that the answer could be anything other than a resounding yes.

A second important factor to consider when deciding if a research question is interesting is whether answering it will fill a gap in the research literature. Again, this means in part that the question has not already been answered by scientific research. But it also means that the question is in some sense a natural one for people who are familiar with the research literature. For example, the question of whether human figure drawings can help children recall touch information would be likely to occur to anyone who was familiar with research on the unreliability of eyewitness memory (especially in children) and the ineffectiveness of some alternative interviewing techniques.

A final factor to consider when deciding whether a research question is interesting is whether its answer has important practical implications. Again, the question of whether human figure drawings help children recall information about being touched has important implications for how children are interviewed in physical and sexual abuse cases. The question of whether cell phone use impairs driving is interesting because it is relevant to the personal safety of everyone who travels by car and to the debate over whether cell phone use should be restricted by law.

Feasibility

A second important criterion for evaluating research questions is the feasibility of successfully answering them. There are many factors that affect feasibility, including time, money, equipment and materials, technical knowledge and skill, and access to research participants. Clearly, researchers need to take these factors into account so that they do not waste time and effort pursuing research that they cannot complete successfully.

Looking through a sample of professional journals in psychology will reveal many studies that are complicated and difficult to carry out. These include longitudinal designs in which participants are tracked over many years, neuroimaging studies in which participants’ brain activity is measured while they carry out various mental tasks, and complex nonexperimental studies involving several variables and complicated statistical analyses. Keep in mind, though, that such research tends to be carried out by teams of highly trained researchers whose work is often supported in part by government and private grants. Keep in mind also that research does not have to be complicated or difficult to produce interesting and important results. Looking through a sample of professional journals will also reveal studies that are relatively simple and easy to carry out—perhaps involving a convenience sample of college students and a paper-and-pencil task.

A final point here is that it is generally good practice to use methods that have already been used successfully by other researchers. For example, if you want to manipulate people’s moods to make some of them happy, it would be a good idea to use one of the many approaches that have been used successfully by other researchers (e.g., paying them a compliment). This is good not only for the sake of feasibility—the approach is “tried and true”—but also because it provides greater continuity with previous research. This makes it easier to compare your results with those of other researchers and to understand the implications of their research for yours, and vice versa.

Key Takeaways

• Research ideas can come from a variety of sources, including informal observations, practical problems, and previous research.
• Research questions expressed in terms of variables and relationships between variables can be suggested by other researchers or generated by asking a series of more general questions about the behavior or psychological characteristic of interest.
• It is important to evaluate how interesting a research question is before designing a study and collecting data to answer it. Factors that affect interestingness are the extent to which the answer is in doubt, whether it fills a gap in the research literature, and whether it has important practical implications.
• It is also important to evaluate how feasible a research question will be to answer. Factors that affect feasibility include time, money, technical knowledge and skill, and access to special equipment and research participants.
• Practice: Generate five research ideas based on each of the following: informal observations, practical problems, and topics discussed in recent issues of professional journals.
• Practice: Generate five empirical research questions about each of the following behaviors or psychological characteristics: long-distance running, getting tattooed, social anxiety, bullying, and memory for early childhood events.
• Practice: Evaluate each of the research questions you generated in Exercise 2 in terms of its interestingness based on the criteria discussed in this section.
• Practice: Find an issue of a journal that publishes short empirical research reports (e.g., Psychological Science , Psychonomic Bulletin and Review , Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin ). Pick three studies, and rate each one in terms of how feasible it would be for you to replicate it with the resources available to you right now. Use the following rating scale: (1) You could replicate it essentially as reported. (2) You could replicate it with some simplifications. (3) You could not replicate it. Explain each rating.

Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67 , 371–378.

Weisberg, R. W. (1993). Creativity: Beyond the myth of genius . New York, NY: Freeman.

Research Methods in Psychology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

20+ Psychology Research Project Ideas for High Schoolers

By Jordan Ellington

Project Support Manager at Polygence

11 minute read

Do you ever find yourself pondering why certain individuals act the way that they do? Why is it that sudden behaviors are triggered in one person but have no effect on the next? If this sounds like you, it’s time to explore the field of psychology! Whether you’re eager to learn more about mental health, functions of the brain, human behavior and motivations, or child development, this could be the sign you’ve been needing to further inspect the world of psychology.

There are many types of psychology research and fields. Here’s a list of project ideas and areas of focus to help inspire you as you get started doing psychology research .

5 Psychology Experiment Research and Passion Project Ideas

Experiments allow psychologists to determine causation (i.e., that something caused another thing to happen). These research projects study how one group of participants (those in the “control” condition) compares to another group of participants (those in the “experimental” condition). Importantly, participants are randomly assigned to conditions - they don’t get to choose which one they are in. 

Here are some psychology experiments that you can do, along with a few things to consider for each one:  

1. Does meditation improve the mental health of people who feel lonely?

Make sure to standardize the way that participants meditate each day (e.g., duration, any apps that they use). What would be a good control condition for this experiment?

Idea by psychology research mentor Kristen

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2. How can psychologists improve mental health?

This is a broad research question - you should narrow it down to a specific area of focus, such as anxiety, depression, and self-esteem. Design an activity for participants to do in order to improve their mental health in this area. Both project #1 and #2 are types of experiments called “interventions”.

Idea by psychology research mentor Tanya

3. Is stress contagious?

This is another broad research question. You can be creative about how you decide to study this idea. Perhaps you will have two “participants” sit side-by-side as they complete a math test. In the experimental condition, one “participant” will actually be a fake participant who’s a member of the research team and acts very nervous while taking the test. In one control condition, both participants will be real. In another control condition, one participant will be “fake,” but they won’t act nervous. How will you measure stress in this experiment? You can use self-report questionnaires, but maybe there is a better way. You should also study how the average score on the test compares between conditions.

Idea by psychology research mentor Stephen

4. What’s more effective for studying: digital study tools or traditional textbook review?

Think about which subjects students typically use digital study tools for (e.g., flashcards). Math is probably not the best subject in this case. Doing the experiment on students in a real classroom on a real test would probably be best, but how can you ensure that students stick to their assigned study method? How can you recreate a classroom in a laboratory setting?

Idea by psychology research mentor Noel

5. Does color impact memory?

In this experiment, you could give participants a list of words in different colors and see how well they remember them based on the color.

Idea by psychology research mentor Aya

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4 Survey-based Psychology Research and Passion Project Ideas

Survey-based research involves analyzing word-based information, such as what participants express in interviews and open-ended response questions, or numerical information (e.g.,when participants answer questions on a scale from 1 to 5). Researchers usually conduct survey-based research when it would be unethical or impossible to do an experiment about the topic. 

When you are asking survey questions, especially about sensitive topics, there are important aspects to consider. Try your best to make participants feel comfortable answering the questions. You can do this by emphasizing that responses will be confidential. Avoid asking leading questions and questions that can be answered with a simple “yes or no.” Doing survey-based research online allows you to have more participants. However, during an in-person interview, you can ask follow-up questions about anything interesting that the participant says. 

Here are ideas of survey-based psychology research projects: 

1. Who uses apps and websites that offer virtual counseling?

How do these digital tools compare to in-person counseling? In this survey, you can ask participants who use virtual tools versus in-person therapy why they use their respective mediums. Ideally, it would be great to find someone who has tried both virtual and in-person therapy.

2. How does the relationship between mountain biking on physical and mental health compare to other types of physical exercise?

This project is interesting because you can’t ethically conduct an experiment and tell participants to do a dangerous activity like mountain biking. Thus, a survey is a better approach. Get participants who do a variety of physical activities and ask them why they chose the activity. Be creative with your questions!

Idea by psychology research mentor Haille  

3. How do members of your family, community, peers, or a specific population think about mental health counseling?

What do they think of people who utilize therapy? After understanding these perceptions of therapy, you can come up with interventions that can challenge stigma around going to therapy. Reducing stigma can encourage people to go to therapy and thus improve mental health outcomes!

Idea by mentor psychology research mentor Nat

4. Think about your high school and ask yourself the question: “Do/Would students from different backgrounds feel welcomed here?”

In this project, you will interview students and teachers to document how your school can better champion diversity and inclusion efforts. You will use primary and secondary sources to uncover themes and gaps in your school’s equity policies and practices.

Idea by psychology research mentor Lydia

5 Psychology Literature Review Research and Passion Project Ideas 

A literature review (sometimes shortened to “lit review”) is a written summary of key work that has been conducted about a psychological topic over several years. It’s a type of secondary research that describes how different studies relate to each other and how the field has developed over time. To write a lit review, the first step is to use an academic journal database (e.g., Google Scholar ) to find and skim academic articles . 

Keep notes about the key findings from each study and how it built off of previous research. What open questions did the researchers hope to resolve by conducting their study? How were the results the same between similar studies and how were the results different? What methods did different researchers use? How has researchers’ understanding of the field changed in light of new and potentially conflicting evidence? 

It can be overwhelming to decide what to include in your literature review because there are tons of psychological articles on a given topic. I like to start with a promising paper in Google Scholar and then look at sources that the paper references. You can also read other literature reviews that other researchers have conducted and note which papers they discuss. In both cases, make sure to go to the original sources and read the actual papers they referenced. Also, use the search filters to ensure that your literature review covers a wide span of years. 

Examples of literature review psychology research project ideas you could do: 

1. How do only-children compare to children who have siblings?

There are many different questions you could focus on: Are only-children more independent? Are children with siblings better at cooperating with others? How does birth order (e.g., being the oldest or youngest sibling) play a role in development?

2. How might family socioeconomic circumstances impact child development?

Consider styles, home (in)stability, local school quality, and more to understand the consequences that different environments could have on children.

Idea by psychology research mentor Katrina

3. Why do certain exercises in specific environments promote different benefits?

You can consider indoor versus outdoor workouts, as well as whether the participants did the exercise alone or with others.

Idea by psychology research mentor Daphne

4. How has our understanding of a particular psychological disorder advanced over the years?

Pick a psychological disorder and write a review paper on recent advances in neuroscience that have improved our understanding of the disorder’s development and treatment.

Idea by psychology research mentor Phil

5. How can existing evidenced-based psychological interventions, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to treat anxiety, be adapted to be more culturally sensitive?

Cultural sensitivity involves “recognizing and respecting the beliefs, perspectives, and values of clients from a particular race, ethnicity, or region” and also addresses other important factors, such as age, gender, and sexual orientation. For this literature review, it will probably be best to focus on a particular culture since there are so many different cultures that you could choose from.

Idea by psychology research mentor Kaley

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2+ Psychology Research and Passion Project Ideas Using Scientific Communication

Another type of project focuses on communicating scientific ideas to a lay audience. This project is similar to a literature review because it involves reading and synthesizing scientific articles. However, literature reviews are generally written for an academic audience. The fun thing about a scientific communication project is that you get to be creative! You want to keep your audience engaged. There are many different ways to communicate science, including: 

1. Science blog

You can pick a psychological disorder, and write a blog describing recent advances in neuroscience that have improved our understanding of the disorder’s causes and treatment. Consider the broad impact of the work you review (i.e., why should people care?). 

2. Science podcast

Decide on a subfield of psychology that interests you, such as how researchers use psychology to improve learning and teaching. You could then interview people you know about their experiences with the psychological topic. For example, what learning and teaching strategies work best for them?

Idea by psychology research mentor Yinuo

For any type of scientific communication project, you’ll need to identify your target audience and think about the language that you’ll use to communicate your ideas. For example, I (Logan) generally write psychology-related blogs for high school students, and if I was writing for a younger audience I would explain topics using simpler language. Another thing to consider is the format of your project. A podcast is a more natural format if you want to include interviews. You should also think about where you will publish your work. You’ll have to do some research on the best place to publish a blog! It is fairly easy to publish your podcast on Spotify. 

I’m also going to add that a YouTube channel and a website are two more fun ways to communicate science! I actually have a YouTube channel about juggling , and I’ve really enjoyed posting videos there for over two years.

2 Data-Based Psychology Research and Passion Project Ideas

Other psychology projects involve analyzing large amounts of data. These projects yield interesting results because they allow you to study something “big” that would be difficult to do by hand. To do this type of project, you’ll need some comfort with Microsoft Excel/Google Sheets and statistical analysis. Potentially, you’ll also need to know computer science. Here are a few ideas: 

1. Use publicly available datasets to analyze the availability of mental health services in a U.S. state over time.

How does the availability of services for children compare to that of adults and older adults? What proportion of facilities accept Medicaid/Medicare/public funds (making services accessible to low income populations)?

Example data source: National Mental Health Services Survey

Idea by psychology research mentor Juliana

2. Identifying gender and race/ethnicity biases in sentiment analysis.

Sentiment analysis is a popular form of text analysis that uses artificial intelligence to predict the specific emotion that the writer of the text was feeling. However, we know from prior research in linguistics that there are differences between gender and racial subgroups on how language is used. Thus, these popular sentiment analysis tools, which do not differentiate between gender and race, might lead to biased scores that have important future consequences. This project investigates the degree to which popular sentiment analysis models exhibit gender and racial-ethnic biases. You could ask your friends of different races and genders to write a paragraph using happy, sad, angry, and neutral language, and see how accurately the sentiment analysis predicts their emotions.

Idea by psychology research mentor Steven

2 Other Psychology Research and Passion Project Ideas

1. observational research.

People may behave differently when they know that someone is monitoring their behavior, such as in experiments and surveys. Thus, the goal of observational research is to study how people behave when they don’t know that they are in a research study. Observe how children of different age groups play. First, conduct a literature review to better understand the different levels of social and emotional development throughout childhood. Go to any area where children are playing in order to evaluate how children within different age groups are interacting with one another. How do your observations compare to academic research?

Idea by psychology research mentor Ellyn

2. Media analysis

When portrayed in the media, mental illness is typically exaggerated. Because it is shown to be unpredictable and dangerous, many individuals do not have a good understanding of what mental illness even is. Do a deep analysis of how movies and/or TV shows portray mental illness. Consider the best way to disseminate your findings and discuss what the media gets right and wrong about mental illness. 

Idea by psychology research mentor Urveesha

Psychology Research and Passion Project Resources

The ideas on this list are just a handful of the many types of psychology research projects that you can do!  Here is another list of creative ways you can explore your passions . For even more inspiration, check out the database of projects completed by Polygence students . 

Did you know that doing a research project can really give you an edge on your college application ? 

Read this article about collecting data in psychology to learn more about experimental, survey-based, and observational research.

Before conducting any research project with real participants, make sure to get IRB approval .

After you complete your psychology research or passion project, you may want to write a research paper .

Do Your Own Research Through Polygence

Your passion can be your college admissions edge! Polygence provides high schoolers a personalized, flexible research experience proven to boost your admission odds. Get matched to a mentor now!"

Understanding and developing a rationale and hypotheses for an experiment

This teaching resource helps students understand and apply the importance of having a rationale when writing up a research proposal in a research methods course.

• Conducting Research
• Teaching Psychology as a Subject

The APA Committee on Associate and Baccalaureate Education awarded a Teaching Resources Award to Vanessa Woods, PhD, for her submission of the assignment on Understanding and Developing a Rationale and Hypotheses for an Experiment. This exemplar (PDF, 230KB) is featured in APA Project Assessment .

About the author

• Psychology Teacher Network

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Research Paper Guide

Psychology Research Topics

Last updated on: Dec 19, 2023

Psychology Research Topics - 170+ Ideas for Your Paper

By: Nathan D.

17 min read

Reviewed By: Jacklyn H.

Published on: Feb 10, 2023

Choosing psychology research topics is not as easy as one might think. If you have to write a good research paper, choosing a good topic is the foremost step. You may have several ideas in your mind while thinking of a topic for the research paper.

Good  research paper writing  needs a good topic. If you have chosen a broad topic, you will have to do a lot of research and background study. It is better to choose a narrow topic to focus on a particular subject while researching and writing.

Psychology is a vast subject that discusses different multidisciplinary issues and brings together a wide range of topics.

You can conduct analysis and research before deciding your topic. This is the reason that it is better to go for a narrow topic. It is also easier for the researcher to research the topic in psychology and conduct analysis with proper details.

On this Page

How to Choose a Topic?

You can choose a topic from any social branch of psychology. You can also select a topic that is related to some sort of mental illness or mental disorder.

The topic may be complex and require a lot of research and analytical study. But the writer can cover all the aspects of the specific topic.

Choosing a good topic is the essential step when you start writing a research proposal. An interesting and new topic is what catches your teacher’s attention. And it gets your idea accepted, apart from, of course, a well-written proposal itself.

Studying some good psychology topics for your papers is the first step when conducting research. Once you have selected the topic, the next step is writing the research paper.

Discover Captivating Topics in a Click!

Psychology Research Topics For High School Students

High school students often explore psychology through research as a great way to learn more. With so many interesting topic, it can be hard to decide which one to study. 

Here are some ideas for psychological research topics that may help narrow down your search.

• How does color affect human behavior?
• Examine the mental health of children with disabilities
• Analyzing the effects of racism on an individual's mental health 
• The role of technology in student learning
• Investigating the correlation between depression and social media usage 
• Is there a connection between video games and violence?
• Understanding the impact of childhood trauma on adult behavior 
• Exploring gender identity in adolescence 
• How does sleep deprivation affect mental health?
• Examine the psychological effects of media consumption on teenagers

Psychology Research Topics for College Students

If you are a psychology student struggling to develop a topic for your research, the following ideas will be helpful. The professional writers of 5StarEssays.com have gathered some exceptional topics to help college students draft compelling papers.

• The social identity theory of Tajfel and Turner.
• Significance of strong self-perception?
• REM phase and continuous sleep disruption.
• How does the brain function when a person is in love?
• Differences in the functioning of the brain of a man and woman.
• How do different forms of amnesia damage brain activity?
• Can PTSD lead to Alzheimer’s disease?
• Impact of yoga on human psychology.
• An autistic brain under MRI.
• Causes and effects of sleep paralysis
• How to treat multiple personality disorders?
• Symptoms and treatment of ADHD
• Social factors that trigger panic attacks.
• Symptoms, causes, and treatment of dementia
• Similarities and differences among midlife crises of a man and a woman.

Research Topics In Psychology For University Students

Psychology allows us to explore the depths of human behavior and gain insight into why people think, feel, and act the way they do. For university students interested in exploring this area further, there are many interesting research topics to choose from. 

Here are some options to consider:

• The Role of Genetics in Mental Health
• How Technology Impacts Mental Health Outcomes
• The Psychological Impact of Racism
• Cyberbullying Prevention Strategies
• Sleep and Memory
• The Influence of Social Media on Adolescents’ Self-Esteem
• The Effects of Music on Emotion
• Mental Health Stigma in the Workplace
• The Role of Gender in Mental Health
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy as a Treatment for Stress

Criminal Psychology Research Paper Topics

• The Impact of Childhood Trauma on Criminal Behavior 
• Examining the Impact of Poverty and Socioeconomic Disadvantage on Crime Rates 
• Exploring the Role of Technology in Modern Day Crime 
• Investigating Media Portrayals of Criminals and their Effectiveness 
• Analyzing Trends and Patterns in Juvenile Delinquency 
• Examining the Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Treatment Programs on Criminal Behavior 
• Understanding the Relationship between Mental Illness and Crime 
• Exploring Effective Strategies for Rehabilitating Criminals in Prisons 
• Investigating the Impact of Religion on Criminal Mindsets 
• Examining Gender Differences in Criminal Behavior 

Biological Psychology Research Paper Topics

• The Role of Neurotransmitters in Emotional Regulation 
• Brain Development and the Impact of Early Childhood Experiences 
• Exploring Neural Network Connectivity and Its Role in Behavior 
• How Do Cortical Mechanisms Contribute to Cognitive Processes? 
• The Effects of Stress on Memory Formation 
• The Impact of Social Interactions on the Development of Mental Illness 
• Examine the Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Cognitive Functioning 
• Investigating Neuroplasticity in Response to Environmental Stimuli 
• Exploring Hormone-Induced Changes in Brain Activity  
• The Role of Neurotransmitters in Addiction 
• Exploring Sex Differences in Brain Circuitry and its Impact on Behavior.

Social Psychology Research Topics

• Racism and its effects
• What is Homophobia?
• Social issues involving or related to culture
• What is social depression?
• What is social cognition?
• How does social anxiety affect people?
• Gender roles in our society
• Gender discrimination and its causes
• How does peer pressure affect teenagers?
• Effect of marital disputes on children
• How do violent video games affect children and their brain development?
• Effect of violent cartoons on children's behavior and mental state
• How does divorce affect the emotional development of a child?
• Social anxiety and social depression on an introverted child
• How does bullying affect the social interaction of teenagers in high school or college?

Cognitive Psychology Research Topics

• What are the effects of attention deficit or hyperactivity disorder on the development of a child?
• Discuss the effects of Autism.
• How is color psychology effective in cognitive development studies?
• What is the attention span, and how to measure it?
• Memory loss and different ways to recover it
• How do memories affect the behavior of individuals?
• Which factors can help improve problem-solving abilities in children?
• What is a speech disorder, and how does it affect cognitive development?
• What is critical thinking, and how to measure its ability in cognitive psychology?
• How can subconsciousness affect decision-making ability?
• Increasing violence among teenagers and children
• What causes bullying behavior among children?
• Factors that can contribute to delay in the mental development of a child.
• The effect of romantic movies on a child
• Is single parenting suitable for a child’s mental development?

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Controversial Psychology Research Paper Topics

• The influence of video games on aggression in teenagers
• Gender roles in society: An analysis of stereotypes
• The impact of race and ethnicity on mental health
• The effects of television violence on children’s behavior
• Attitudes towards death penalty: Should it be abolished?
• Causes and effects of anxiety disorders
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating depression
• The role of media in promoting body image dissatisfaction among youth
• Is intelligence determined mainly by genetics or environment?
• Impact of poverty on psychological development
• Workplace bullying and its consequences for employees’ mental health 

Cultural Psychology Research Paper Topics

• Analyzing the Role of Social Communication Platforms in Shaping Culture 
• Examining the Impact of Cultural Diversity on Mental Health 
• Exploring Linguistic Influences on Cognitive Development 
• Investigating How Media Portrayal Affects Cultural Expectations and Ideologies 
• Assessing the Influence of Different Cultural Values on Identity Development 
• Studying the Relationship between Cultural Practices and Gender Roles 
• Examining Intergenerational Transmission of Culture through Family Dynamics 
• Analyzing the Effects of Political and Economic Structures on Cultural Beliefs and Behaviors 
• Understanding How Social Norms Impact Moral Decision Making 
• Investigating the Impact of Religion on Cultural Attitudes and Practices 

Developmental Psychology Research Topics

• Bullying and its effect on mental development.
• The role of media and cartoons in increasing violence.
• How violent video games and cartoons can make children violent?
• Underlying causes that can create a serial killer
• Causes of increase in the psychopathic behavior of teenagers and youth
• Stereotypes and gender roles in our society
• Abusive parents and child development
• Effects of child abuse on the mental development of a child
• Factors that can accelerate the aging process
• Is psychology related to the aging process?
• Long term effects of mental health issues
• How can drugs affect our youth’s mental health in the long run?
• The effects of medication on your mental health
• Effects of postpartum depression on mental health
• How does sleeping disorder lead to other mental illnesses?

Found a topic to write about but don’t know how to start? Here’s an informative video on how to write your research paper.

Abnormal Psychology Research Topics

• What are the causes of the increasing anorexia rate in children?
• Causes of anorexia in adults
• Causes of anxiety disorder and how to overcome it
• Why is there an increase in eating disorders among the youth?
• What are the factors that contribute to an eating disorder?
• Is lying related to the psychology of a person?
• Causes of the rise in teenage suicides
• Is asexuality related to the psychology of a person?
• Psychology and suicidal thoughts
• How to control anxiety and depressing thoughts regarding death?
• What factors can cause multiple personality disorders?
• Violent video games are a cause of mood disorders among children.
• Reasons for phobias and how to deal with them
• Causes of PTSD in offices or workplace
• Is stalking considered a psychological disorder?

Clinical Psychology Research Topics

• Psychology can be used to get control of chronic pain.
• Recent studies suggest that anxiety and panic attacks can be treated using cognitive therapy.
• Is behavioral therapy effective in treating criminals?
• Antidepressants can be addictive, and their usage should be avoided.
• Factors that contribute to post-traumatic stress disorder
• What are the therapy practices effective in dealing with depression?
• Effect of an abusive relationship on the psychology of the victim
• Are antidepressants effective as a remedy for therapy?
• Insomnia – How to treat it in a clinical scenario?
• Which therapy practices are effective in treating addictions?
• Panic attacks and anxiety disorder - How to treat them through therapies?
• Psychological disorders and their clinical treatments
• Causes of Social anxiety and how to treat them?
• Phobias and Paranoias - Treatment through medication and therapy.
• Schizophrenia and the recommended therapies.

Child Psychology Research Topics

• Describe the legal, ethical, and psychological aspects of adoption.
• Negligence of parents is the main cause of childhood obesity. Agreed?
• What are the reasons behind the rising depression in children?
• Explain the introvert personality. What are the consequences of being an introvert, especially in children?
• What are the psychological effects of child abuse? Explain the preventive and remedial measures of childhood abuse.
• What are the consequences of a self-centered mother on a child’s mental wellbeing?
• Explain the phases of a child’s psychological development and growth.
• Does the birth order have any effect on a child’s personality and accomplishments? If yes, then explain how and why?
• How do violent music and video games impact a child’s behavior and mind?
• What are the different kinds of torture, and what are their effects on a child’s mind and adult life?
• Causes of increasing depression among the youth
• What are the physical symptoms of a mental disorder in children?
• Causes of antisocial behavior among teenagers
• Causes and effects of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children
• Impact of spanking on child’s psychology.

Sports Psychology Research Topics

• What are the future trends in sports psychology? Explain the arguments in light of the high chances of head injuries in football, hockey, and rugby.
• What are the recent changes in team sport and locker room dynamics in sports? Explain your claims with solid evidence and present some future implications also.
• What are the reasons for low health in low-income neighborhoods? How can we use sports and physical activities to promote good health?
• What are the effects and role of the Olympics in promoting sports in the nations that are not active in sports due to underfunding? How can they change their state and invest in games?
• What role do the psychological tests play in determining whether a new athlete coming from the collegiate level will be prone to steroids or violence?
• What are the psychological implications of having a well-known coach on the team? Does it matter if the coach is famous?
• What are the problems faced by young and new coaches? Do they feel pressured and are more prone to injuries? State the reasons with examples.
• Explain the term team chemistry. What is the role of team chemistry in building a sound team and supporting the teammates?
• What are the tactics that athletes can use to control and manage their emotions effectively? Discuss the role of negative emotions in violent sports like boxing.
• How has sport psychology evolved in the last twenty years?
• Significance of sports psychology to promote mental health.
• Effects of steroids on the mental activity of athletes. How does it negatively affect you? What can be done to avoid it?
• Relationship issues and the sports performance of an athlete. How are they related?
• Are panic attacks common in a sportsman’s life? How to deal with them?
• How does a sleeping disorder influence the stamina of the sportsman?

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Experimental Psychology Research Topics

• Can colors play a role in enhancing a person’s mood? Explain how the color blue can make a person feel relaxed and calm.
• Explain the notorious human experiments in history. What are their ethical shortcomings?
• What is the impact of breakfast on a person's overall day-to-day activities?
• What is the relationship between the use of social media and the rising cases of violence in adolescents?
• It is said that geniuses are made, not born. How true is this statement?
• Explain the term Mood Freezing and its implications.
• What is hindsight bias, and how can it be prevented?
• What is a double foot-in-door, and how is it used to manipulate someone?
• What affects the heuristic? Explain it with examples.
• Human cloning can be the answer for childless couples. How true is the statement?
• Causes and effects of dehumanization in Stanford prison.
• Analysis of Milgram’s shock experiment on the unfamiliar environment.
• How can aggression be controlled?
• Obedience and compliance as a function of social status.
• How does group belonging influence an individual’s behavior?

Forensic Psychology Research Topics

• The increasing susceptibility that has led to more home-grown terrorists emerging
• The effectiveness of rehabilitation in prisons and the criminal justice system
• Juvenile murders and what factors affect areas with higher rates of murders carried out by children.
• How does a role in law enforcement impact an individual’s private life?
• Is enough being done to minimize the risks of those in special education ending up in the penal system?
• What is the cause of mass killings in the U.S.?
• Is society neglecting domestic violence that is aimed towards men?
• Explain the role of the internet, movies, and video games in augmenting copycat crimes.
• What is internet police? Explain some useful strategies for effective internet policing.
• What is the role of upbringing in preventing the making of a serial killer? Can a better upbringing prevent it?
• Rules of conduct to follow by the forensic psychologist in the court.
• Risk factors for unreliable evidence.
• Reliability and legitimacy of an eyewitness’s memory.
• The credibility of the statement of a mentally challenged eyewitness.
• Rules to follow by psychologists when verbally interacting with criminals in court.

Interesting Psychology Research Topics

• The effects of media exposure on mental health 
• The role of social media in the formation of relationships 
• How childhood experiences shape personality development 
• The impact of personality traits on academic performance 
• Relationship between drug use and criminal behavior 
• Understanding the motivations behind substance abuse 
• The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy 
• Exploring the effects of different parenting styles 
• Investigating the role of memory in decision making 
• Examining gender roles and their impact on behavior 
• Analyzing the relationships between emotion and cognition

Another easy way to choose psychology research paper topics for your research paper is to write about a famous historical person.

The topic, as narrow as it is, allows the researcher to focus on specific areas. You can also choose to research and write about a psychology career. A case study on an individual by providing a detailed analysis using your research techniques will be great.

Some additional  research paper topics  will help you carry out meaningful and interesting research.

Tips to Write a Research Paper

However, there are no universal processes for writing a good research paper, but you can follow the following steps:

1. Develop an outline

Before you start writing your research paper, it’s important to develop an outline that will guide your writing process.  An outline should include the main points and arguments you want to make throughout the paper. It will help keep your ideas organized and help you stay on track.

2. Research thoroughly

Research is the most important part of writing a research paper. 

Make sure you do your due diligence in researching thoroughly and that you’re gathering reliable sources from trusted experts or academics.

3. Develop a thesis statement

Once you have researched, it’s time to develop a thesis statement that’ll act as the main argument throughout your paper. This should be clear and concise while still conveying all the most important points you want to make.

4. Write a first draft

Once you’ve developed an outline and a thesis statement, it’s time to start writing your first draft. This is where you can really get creative and start fleshing out your ideas and arguments in full sentences. 

Remember not to get too bogged down in the details. Just focus on getting your ideas on paper.

5. Use citations

Once you’ve finished your research, it’s important to correctly cite all your sources. 

This will ensure that you’re giving credit where it’s due. It will also help your readers verify the accuracy of your research.

6. Revise and proofread

Once you’ve finished your first draft, it’s time to go back over it and make any necessary revisions or edits. Make sure that all of your arguments are still clear and supported by evidence and that your paper flows in a logical and coherent manner. 

Additionally, make sure you check for any typos, spelling errors, and grammatical mistakes.

After you’ve revised and proofread your research paper, it’s time to submit it! 

Make sure that you follow all the required submission guidelines of the publication or professor you’re submitting to.

Let’s sum it up!

Writing a research paper can seem like an arduous task, but you can write a winning paper with enough determination and focus. Remember to always back up your points with evidence and create a logical flow in order for your message to be effectively communicated. 

With hard work and dedication, you can create an impactful research paper that will engage your readers. So make sure to take the time to hone your skills and craft a compelling piece of writing!

If you need help, here is a complete guide to writing a research paper that includes everything you need to write a perfect paper. 

Not every student has the writing skills or time to dedicate to a research paper. In this case, seeking help from professional writers is the best available option.

5StarEssays.com has a team of professional writers who can write high-quality academic papers, including term papers to custom essays. Ask our writers to ‘ write my essay ’ and avail of all the professional services.

Our professional essay writers have exceptional writing skills, and they can help you with writing assignments within your deadline.

You can also check out AI essay typer and generate parts of your research paper through it with accurate citations to use as reference. 

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Nathan completed his Ph.D. in journalism and has been writing articles for well-respected publications for many years now. His work is carefully researched and insightful, showing a true passion for the written word. Nathan's clients appreciate his expertise, deep understanding of the process, and ability to communicate difficult concepts clearly.

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Four High School Psychology Project Ideas: Fun Ideas that are not Boring!

• Stephanie Torreno
• Categories : Great ideas for science fair projects
• Tags : Homework help & study guides

Ideas for Projects

The study of psychology includes such different topics that all relate to human behavior. Whether you’re taking an introductory to psychology or an advanced placement course, you will study how individuals learn and what influences cognition and memory. In topics related to social psychology, you may better understand how prejudices and stereotypes are formed and how people act and think in groups. All of these topics can become project ideas when a question is asked and research is conducted to answer that question. Below are four project ideas about these various topics and suggestions for conducting a your report.

**What Factors Influence Academic Performance? **

1. What is the effect of noise distraction on test scores? Your hypothesis will probably read that noise distraction will have a negative influence on test scores. Give a group of students a test, such as an SAT practice test, during two sessions. During the first session, play distracting music or a language CD. Have the students take the same test under quiet conditions. Did students score better during one session than the other?

2. Does academic achievement influence a student’s self-esteem? With the teacher’s cooperation, ask two classes to fill out the Rosenberg self-esteem scale a week before a test. Return to the classes and ask the students to retake the self-esteem scale after their tests had been returned to them. Before returning the tests to one class, though, ask the teacher to give grades one letter grade below their true grade. The other class receives their correct test scores. Did the students’ grades affect their self-esteem? Be sure to immediately inform students and give them their correct test scores after they complete the scale.

**How do we Remember? **

3. Does color enhance memory? Compose three lists of 12 words that are not used in daily conversation. On the first list, print the 12 words in black ink. On the second list of the same 12 words, print 11 in black ink and 1 in red ink. On the third list of the same 12 words, print 6 in black ink and 6 in red ink. Give three classes a different style of the same words on an overhead. Instruct the students to look at the lists of words for one minute each. At the end of one minute, remove the list of words and asked students to write down as many of the words as they remember. Collect the data and compute the results. Did students remember the red words better?

How Influencial are Stereotypes & Prejudices on our Judgment?

4. Cut out pictures of two models from magazines. One model should be thin and the other one should be full-figured. Write a short survey with questions such as: Which model looks healthier? Which model looks more attractive? Which model looks happier? Ask four categories of people to take the survey – male teens, female teens, males over 40, and females over 40. Collect the data and compute the results. Did the models’ weight influence participants’ answers?

In completing your project, remember to use the same language throughout your research report. When writing the results of your project, use the phrase “research shows” or “research indicates,” not “research proves,” since nothing is proven in psychology. Also think about other variables or factors that could have influenced your research, whether your hypothesis was supported or not.

• Source: Psychology & Human Behavior: Science Fair Projects and Experiments. (2010). Science fair project guide. Retrieved July 3, 2010, from www.juliantrubin.com/psychologyprojects.html

January 31, 2024

Here’s the Happiness Research that Stands Up to Scrutiny

From meditation to smiling, researchers take a second look at studies claiming to reveal what makes us happy

By Amber Dance & Knowable Magazine

Yagi Studio/Getty Images

We all want to be happy — and for decades, psychologists have tried to figure out how we might achieve that blissful state. The field’s many surveys and experiments have pointed to a variety of approaches, from giving stuff away to quitting Facebook to forcing one’s face into a toothy grin.

But psychology has undergone serious upheaval over the last decade, as researchers realized that many studies were unreliable and unrepeatable. That has led to a closer scrutiny of psychological research methods, with the study of happiness no exception. So — what  really  makes us happy? Under today’s more careful microscope, some routes to happiness seem to hold up, while others appear not to, or have yet to re-prove themselves. Here’s what we know so far, and what remains to be reassessed,  according to a new analysis  in the  Annual Review of Psychology .

Put on a happy face

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One long-standing hypothesis is that smiling makes you feel happier. In a classic 1988 study, researchers asked 92 Illinois undergraduates to hold a felt tip pen in their mouth either with their teeth, forcing an unnatural grin, or with their lips, making them pout. The students then looked at four examples of  The Far Side  comics . On average, those with the forced smiles  found the one-panel comics slightly funnier  than those with the forced pouts.

But when 17 different research labs got together to retest the pen-clench smile’s effects on 1,894 new participants, the finding  failed to hold up , the researchers reported in 2016.

The repetition study was part of a broader effort to counter  psychology’s reproducibility crisis , which in part has been attributed to the variety of ways in which researchers could examine and reanalyze their data until they arrived at publishable results. “It’s kind of like shooting a bunch of arrows at the wall and drawing the bullseye on after,” says Elizabeth Dunn, a social psychologist at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver and coauthor of the new  Annual Review of Psychology  paper.

One solution has been for scientists to publicly declare, or preregister, their analysis plans before they conduct their experiments. In other words, they draw the bullseye first. Dunn and her graduate student, Dunigan Folk, homed in on such preregistered studies in their analysis, which narrowed the vast field of happiness research to just 48 published papers. Even that small number is encouraging, says Brian Nosek, a psychologist at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville and executive director of the Center for Open Science, which aims to improve research reproducibility. “I was actually surprised that there were as many papers that qualified,” he says. “That really demonstrates that this area of research has adopted a lot of these new rigor-enhancing practices.”

Preregistration alone doesn’t guarantee that results will be correct, nor does it solve all of psychology’s reproducibility problems. Quality studies also require sound methods and large and diverse sets of participants, for example. And indeed, most of the papers reviewed were high quality in those features beyond just preregistration, Dunn says. Even under the regimen of renewed scrutiny, some of the paths to happiness held up, the researchers found — including practicing gratitude, acting sociable and spending money on other people.

Take gratitude. In one of the recent studies, researchers asked hundreds of parents to either write about how they spent their week, or pen a gratitude letter to someone they knew. Expressing gratitude  resulted in more positive moods . In another recent study, scientists asked more than 900 undergraduates to express gratitude in letters, texts or social media, or to list their daily activities. Those in the gratitude group  scored as happier and more satisfied  with their lives the following day. In both cases, it’s unclear how long these effects would persist.

Three different preregistered studies pointed to sociability as beneficial. In one, scientists assigned 71 adults to act extroverted — “bold, talkative, outgoing, active and assertive” — for a week, and another 76 to be “unassuming, sensitive, calm, modest and quiet.” Participants in the extroverted condition  reported better moods  during the study week, though the benefits were less for those who were naturally introverted.

And surprise! Smiling to promote happiness was also supported by new, preregistered research — once scientists switched to more natural grins. About two dozen labs from 19 different countries worked together to test the instruction to grip a pen in the teeth or to mimic the expression of a smiling person in nearly 4,000 subjects. The pen clenching still didn’t work, but people who were told to copy a smile  did report better moods . Remarkably, this was true  even if the subjects didn’t believe it would work , another team reported in 2023.

Researchers have also found that external agencies can promote people’s happiness. Giving people cash promoted life satisfaction, as did workplace interventions such as naps.

Dunn cautions, however, that participation in preregistered studies tends to yield small effects on happiness overall, in part because scientists can’t massage the data to get bigger numbers. If the interventions were a diet program, she says, users might drop about four pounds.

Nice ideas, poor results

Other well-known happiness approaches haven’t measured up to Dunn and Folk’s standards — at least, not yet. The researchers didn’t find clear evidence of benefits for volunteering, performing random acts of kindness or meditation. For example, a recent, preregistered study asked participants to perform acts of kindness for others, or for themselves, or simply to list what they did each day. Being kind to others over a four-week period  made no difference to well-being .

Dunn and Folk didn’t find any preregistered studies at all on  exercising  or spending  time in nature , two  oft-recommended strategies . That doesn’t mean those strategies don’t or can’t work, Dunn says — just that as the preregistered landscape now stands, research hasn’t weighed in. The pair considered only two preregistered studies on meditation, and did not include meditation research on people with diagnosed mental health problems.

Such rigor is admirable, but it also means one can miss things, says Simon Goldberg, a psychologist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He studies the effects of meditation, including research among people who have  psychological problems such as depression and anxiety . He noted that because of Dunn and Folk’s strict criteria, they omitted hundreds of studies on  meditation’s benefits . “It’s, in the spirit of rigor, throwing lots of babies out with the bathwater,” he says. “It’s really very obvious that meditation training reduces symptoms of anxiety and depression.”

Dunn agrees that the review only covered the tip of the iceberg of happiness research. But that tip should expand as more psychologists preregister their science as part of  what some call a renaissance  in the field. As Dunn and Folk conclude, “happiness research stands on the brink of an exciting new era.”

This article originally appeared in Knowable Magazine , an independent journalistic endeavor from Annual Reviews. Sign up for the newsletter .

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Looking for ideas for a simple psychological experiment.

I’m taking a course in Research Methods and I’m tasked to create a simple psychological experiment.

Could be anything, like sleep deprivation linked to short term memory loss, or walking faster/slower while listening to music.

Any ideas would be greatly appreciated!

AI Generator

When doing a research action plan students in school would know that the first thing to do is to know your topic well enough. From expecting science projects to work based on your predictions and the results that may have been quite the opposite from how you depicted them. This also rings true in businesses. There is a term for that and it is often associated with the subject Science, but can also be associated with business . Scientific method  or a hypothesis.

What Is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a scientific wild guess, a prediction in research . A wild guess, a say from someone without any known proof.  A hypothesis can also mean a scientific, educated guess that most scientists and researchers do before planning out or doing experiments to check if their guesses or their scientific ideas based on their topics are exact or correct.

Hypothesis Format

A well-structured hypothesis is crucial for guiding scientific research. Here’s a detailed format for writing a hypothesis, along with examples for each step:

1. Start with a Research Question

Before writing a hypothesis, begin with a clear and concise research question . This question identifies the focus of your study.

Example Research Question: Does the amount of daily exercise affect weight loss?

2. Identify the Variables

Identify the independent and dependent variables in your research question.

• Independent Variable: The variable you manipulate (e.g., amount of daily exercise).
• Dependent Variable: The variable you measure (e.g., weight loss).

3. Formulate the Hypothesis

Use the identified variables to create a testable statement . This statement should clearly express the expected relationship between the variables.

• If [independent variable], then [dependent variable].
• [Independent variable] will [effect] [dependent variable].

Directional vs. Non-Directional Hypothesis:

• Specifies the direction of the expected relationship.
• Does not specify the direction of the expected relationship, only that a relationship exists.

4. Example Hypotheses Using the Format

Research question: does caffeine affect cognitive performance, if-then statement:.

• Example: If individuals consume caffeine, then their cognitive performance will improve.

Direct Statement:

• Example: Caffeine consumption will improve cognitive performance.

Null Hypothesis (H0):

• Example: There is no significant effect of caffeine consumption on cognitive performance.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1):

• Example: There is a significant effect of caffeine consumption on cognitive performance.

Directional Hypothesis:

Non-directional hypothesis:.

• Example: There is a relationship between caffeine consumption and cognitive performance.

5. Refining the Hypothesis

Ensure that your hypothesis is specific, measurable, and testable. Avoid vague terms and focus on a single independent and dependent variable.

Hypothesis Examples in Research

A hypothesis is a statement that predicts the relationship between variables. It serves as a foundation for research by providing a clear focus and direction for experiments and data analysis . Here are examples of hypotheses from various fields of research:

Research Question:

Does sunlight exposure affect plant growth?

Hypotheses:

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in plant growth between plants exposed to sunlight and those kept in the shade.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Plants exposed to sunlight grow taller than those kept in the shade.
• Directional Hypothesis: Increased sunlight exposure will lead to increased plant growth.
• If-Then Statement: If plants are exposed to more sunlight, then they will grow taller.

2. Psychology

Does sleep duration affect memory retention?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in memory retention between individuals who sleep for 8 hours and those who sleep for 4 hours.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Individuals who sleep for 8 hours will have better memory retention than those who sleep for 4 hours.
• Directional Hypothesis: Longer sleep duration will improve memory retention.
• If-Then Statement: If individuals sleep for 8 hours, then their memory retention will improve compared to those who sleep for 4 hours.

3. Education

Do interactive teaching methods improve student engagement?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in student engagement between interactive teaching methods and traditional lecture-based methods.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Interactive teaching methods result in higher student engagement compared to traditional lecture-based methods.
• Directional Hypothesis: Interactive teaching methods will increase student engagement.
• If-Then Statement: If teachers use interactive teaching methods, then student engagement will increase.

4. Medicine

Does a new drug reduce blood pressure more effectively than the standard medication?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in blood pressure reduction between the new drug and the standard medication.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The new drug reduces blood pressure more effectively than the standard medication.
• Directional Hypothesis: The new drug will reduce blood pressure more than the standard medication.
• If-Then Statement: If patients take the new drug, then their blood pressure will decrease more than if they take the standard medication.

5. Sociology

Does socioeconomic status affect access to higher education?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant relationship between socioeconomic status and access to higher education.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Higher socioeconomic status is associated with greater access to higher education.
• Directional Hypothesis: Individuals with higher socioeconomic status will have greater access to higher education.
• If-Then Statement: If individuals have a higher socioeconomic status, then they will have greater access to higher education.

Hypothesis Examples in Psychology

Psychology research often explores the relationships between various cognitive, behavioral, and emotional variables. Here are some well-structured hypothesis examples in psychology:

1. Sleep Duration and Memory Retention

• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between sleep duration and memory retention.

2. Exercise and Anxiety Levels

Does regular exercise reduce anxiety levels?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in anxiety levels between individuals who exercise regularly and those who do not.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Individuals who exercise regularly will have lower anxiety levels than those who do not.
• Directional Hypothesis: Regular exercise will decrease anxiety levels.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between regular exercise and anxiety levels.
• If-Then Statement: If individuals exercise regularly, then their anxiety levels will decrease.

3. Social Media Usage and Self-Esteem

Does social media usage affect self-esteem in teenagers?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant relationship between social media usage and self-esteem in teenagers.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): High social media usage is associated with lower self-esteem in teenagers.
• Directional Hypothesis: Increased social media usage will decrease self-esteem in teenagers.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between social media usage and self-esteem in teenagers.
• If-Then Statement: If teenagers spend more time on social media, then their self-esteem will decrease.

4. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Depression

Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) effective in reducing symptoms of depression?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in depression symptoms between individuals who undergo CBT and those who do not.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Individuals who undergo CBT will experience a greater reduction in depression symptoms than those who do not.
• Directional Hypothesis: CBT will reduce symptoms of depression.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between undergoing CBT and reduction in depression symptoms.
• If-Then Statement: If individuals undergo CBT, then their symptoms of depression will decrease.

5. Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement

Does parental involvement influence academic achievement in children?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement in children.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Higher levels of parental involvement are associated with higher academic achievement in children.
• Directional Hypothesis: Increased parental involvement will improve academic achievement in children.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement in children.
• If-Then Statement: If parents are more involved in their children’s education, then their children will achieve higher academic success.

Hypothesis Examples in Science

Scientific research often involves creating hypotheses to test the relationships between variables. Here are some well-structured hypothesis examples from various fields of science:

1. Biology: Sunlight and Plant Growth

• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between sunlight exposure and plant growth.

2. Chemistry: Temperature and Reaction Rate

Does temperature affect the rate of a chemical reaction?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in the reaction rate of a chemical reaction at different temperatures.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Increasing the temperature will increase the reaction rate.
• Directional Hypothesis: Higher temperatures will increase the reaction rate.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between temperature and the reaction rate.
• If-Then Statement: If the temperature of a reaction increases, then the reaction rate will increase.

3. Physics: Mass and Free Fall Speed

Does the mass of an object affect its speed when falling?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in the falling speed of objects with different masses.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Objects with greater mass fall faster than those with lesser mass.
• Directional Hypothesis: Heavier objects will fall faster than lighter objects.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between the mass of an object and its falling speed.
• If-Then Statement: If an object’s mass increases, then its falling speed will increase.

4. Environmental Science: Fertilizers and Water Quality

Do chemical fertilizers affect water quality in nearby lakes?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant effect of chemical fertilizers on the water quality of nearby lakes.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Chemical fertilizers negatively affect the water quality of nearby lakes.
• Directional Hypothesis: The use of chemical fertilizers will decrease the water quality of nearby lakes.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between the use of chemical fertilizers and the water quality of nearby lakes.
• If-Then Statement: If chemical fertilizers are used, then the water quality in nearby lakes will decrease.

5. Earth Science: Soil Composition and Erosion Rate

Does soil composition affect the rate of erosion?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference in the erosion rate of soils with different compositions.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Soil composition affects the rate of erosion.
• Directional Hypothesis: Soils with higher clay content will erode more slowly than sandy soils.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between soil composition and the rate of erosion.
• If-Then Statement: If soil has a higher clay content, then its erosion rate will be lower compared to sandy soil.

Hypothesis Examples in Biology

In biology, hypotheses are used to explore relationships and effects within biological systems. Here are some well-structured hypothesis examples in various areas of biology:

1. Photosynthesis and Light Intensity

How does light intensity affect the rate of photosynthesis in plants?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): Light intensity has no significant effect on the rate of photosynthesis in plants.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Light intensity significantly affects the rate of photosynthesis in plants.
• Directional Hypothesis: Increased light intensity will increase the rate of photosynthesis in plants.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between light intensity and the rate of photosynthesis in plants.
• If-Then Statement: If light intensity increases, then the rate of photosynthesis in plants will increase.

2. Temperature and Enzyme Activity

How does temperature affect the activity of the enzyme amylase?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): Temperature has no significant effect on the activity of the enzyme amylase.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Temperature significantly affects the activity of the enzyme amylase.
• Directional Hypothesis: Increasing the temperature will increase the activity of the enzyme amylase up to an optimal point, after which activity will decrease.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between temperature and the activity of the enzyme amylase.
• If-Then Statement: If the temperature increases, then the activity of the enzyme amylase will increase up to an optimal temperature, after which it will decrease.

3. Nutrient Availability and Plant Growth

Does the availability of nutrients in soil affect the growth of plants?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): Nutrient availability has no significant effect on the growth of plants.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Nutrient availability significantly affects the growth of plants.
• Directional Hypothesis: Increased nutrient availability will enhance plant growth.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between nutrient availability and plant growth.
• If-Then Statement: If nutrient availability in the soil increases, then the growth of plants will be enhanced.

4. Genetic Variation and Disease Resistance

Does genetic variation in a population affect its resistance to diseases?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): Genetic variation has no significant effect on disease resistance in a population.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Genetic variation significantly affects disease resistance in a population.
• Directional Hypothesis: Populations with greater genetic variation will have higher resistance to diseases.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between genetic variation and disease resistance in a population.
• If-Then Statement: If a population has greater genetic variation, then its resistance to diseases will be higher.

5. Water pH and Aquatic Life Health

Does the pH level of water affect the health of aquatic life?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): The pH level of water has no significant effect on the health of aquatic life.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The pH level of water significantly affects the health of aquatic life.
• Directional Hypothesis: Extreme pH levels (both high and low) will negatively affect the health of aquatic life.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between the pH level of water and the health of aquatic life.
• If-Then Statement: If the pH level of water is too high or too low, then the health of aquatic life will be negatively affected.

Hypothesis Examples in Sociology

In sociology, hypotheses are used to explore and explain social phenomena, behaviors, and relationships within societies. Here are some well-structured hypothesis examples in various areas of sociology:

1. Education and Social Mobility

Does access to higher education affect social mobility?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): Access to higher education has no significant effect on social mobility.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Access to higher education significantly affects social mobility.
• Directional Hypothesis: Increased access to higher education will improve social mobility.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between access to higher education and social mobility.
• If-Then Statement: If individuals have increased access to higher education, then their social mobility will improve.

2. Income Inequality and Crime Rates

Does income inequality influence crime rates in urban areas?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): Income inequality has no significant effect on crime rates in urban areas.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Income inequality significantly affects crime rates in urban areas.
• Directional Hypothesis: Higher income inequality will lead to higher crime rates in urban areas.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between income inequality and crime rates in urban areas.
• If-Then Statement: If income inequality increases, then crime rates in urban areas will increase.

3. Social Media Use and Social Interaction

Does the use of social media affect face-to-face social interactions among teenagers?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): The use of social media has no significant effect on face-to-face social interactions among teenagers.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The use of social media significantly affects face-to-face social interactions among teenagers.
• Directional Hypothesis: Increased use of social media will decrease face-to-face social interactions among teenagers.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between the use of social media and face-to-face social interactions among teenagers.
• If-Then Statement: If teenagers use social media more frequently, then their face-to-face social interactions will decrease.

4. Gender Roles and Career Choices

Do traditional gender roles influence career choices among young adults?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): Traditional gender roles have no significant effect on career choices among young adults.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Traditional gender roles significantly affect career choices among young adults.
• Directional Hypothesis: Adherence to traditional gender roles will limit career choices among young adults.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between traditional gender roles and career choices among young adults.
• If-Then Statement: If young adults adhere to traditional gender roles, then their career choices will be limited.

5. Cultural Diversity and Workplace Productivity

Does cultural diversity in the workplace affect productivity levels?

• Null Hypothesis (H0): Cultural diversity in the workplace has no significant effect on productivity levels.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Cultural diversity in the workplace significantly affects productivity levels.
• Directional Hypothesis: Increased cultural diversity will improve productivity levels in the workplace.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: There is a relationship between cultural diversity in the workplace and productivity levels.
• If-Then Statement: If the workplace has increased cultural diversity, then productivity levels will improve.

More Hypothesis Samples & Examples in PDF

1. research hypothesis.

2. Education Hypothesis

3. Basic Hypothesis

4. Hypothesis Statement Template

5. Hypothesis in PDF

6. Hypothesis Format

7. Hypothesis Examples

8. Simple Hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested and is often used in scientific research to propose a relationship between two or more variables. Understanding the different types of hypotheses is essential for conducting effective research. Below are the main types of hypotheses:

1. Null Hypothesis (H0)

The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the variables being studied. It assumes that any observed effect is due to chance. Researchers often aim to disprove the null hypothesis.

Example: There is no significant difference in test scores between students who study with music and those who study in silence.

2. Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha)

The alternative hypothesis suggests that there is a relationship between the variables being studied. It is what researchers seek to prove.

Example: Students who study with music have higher test scores than those who study in silence.

3. Simple Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis predicts a relationship between a single independent variable and a single dependent variable.

Example: Increasing the amount of sunlight will increase the growth rate of plants.

4. Complex Hypothesis

A complex hypothesis predicts a relationship involving two or more independent variables and/or two or more dependent variables.

Example: Increasing sunlight and water will increase the growth rate and height of plants.

5. Directional Hypothesis

A directional hypothesis specifies the direction of the expected relationship between variables. It suggests whether the relationship is positive or negative.

Example: Students who study for more hours will score higher on exams.

6. Non-Directional Hypothesis

A non-directional hypothesis does not specify the direction of the relationship. It only states that a relationship exists.

Example: There is a difference in test scores between students who study with music and those who study in silence.

7. Statistical Hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis involves quantitative data and can be tested using statistical methods. It often includes both null and alternative hypotheses.

Example: The mean test scores of students who study with music are significantly different from those who study in silence.

8. Causal Hypothesis

A causal hypothesis proposes a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. It suggests that one variable causes a change in another.

Example: Smoking causes lung cancer.

9. Associative Hypothesis

An associative hypothesis suggests that variables are related but does not imply causation.

Example: There is an association between physical activity levels and body weight.

10. Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a broad statement that serves as the foundation for the research study. It is often the same as the alternative hypothesis.

Example: Implementing a new teaching strategy will improve student engagement and performance.

How To Use Hypothesis for Research?

A hypothesis is a critical component of the research process, providing a clear direction for the study and forming the basis for drawing conclusions. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to use a hypothesis in research:

1. Identify the Research Problem

Before formulating a hypothesis, clearly define the research problem or question. This step involves understanding what you aim to investigate and why it is significant.

Example: You want to study the impact of sleep on academic performance among college students.

2. Review Existing Literature

Conduct a thorough review of existing literature to understand what is already known about the topic. This helps in identifying gaps in knowledge and forming a basis for your hypothesis.

Example: Previous studies suggest a positive correlation between sleep duration and academic performance but lack specific data on college students.

Based on the research problem and literature review, formulate a clear and testable hypothesis. Ensure it is specific and relates directly to the variables being studied.

Types of Hypotheses:

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant relationship between sleep duration and academic performance among college students.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a significant relationship between sleep duration and academic performance among college students.

4. Define Variables

Clearly define the independent and dependent variables involved in the hypothesis.

• Independent Variable: Sleep duration
• Dependent Variable: Academic performance (e.g., GPA)

5. Design the Study

Choose an appropriate research design to test the hypothesis. This could be experimental, correlational, or observational, depending on the nature of your research question.

Example: Conduct a correlational study to examine the relationship between sleep duration and GPA among college students.

6. Collect Data

Gather data through surveys, experiments, or secondary data sources. Ensure the data collection methods are reliable and valid to accurately test the hypothesis.

Example: Use a questionnaire to collect data on students’ sleep duration and their GPAs.

7. Analyze the Data

Use appropriate statistical methods to analyze the data. This step involves testing the hypothesis to determine whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis.

Example: Perform a Pearson correlation analysis to examine the relationship between sleep duration and GPA.

8. Interpret the Results

Interpret the results of the statistical analysis. Determine if the data supports the alternative hypothesis or if the null hypothesis cannot be rejected.

Example: If the analysis shows a significant positive correlation, you can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis that sleep duration is related to academic performance.

9. Draw Conclusions

Draw conclusions based on the results of the hypothesis testing. Discuss the implications of the findings and how they contribute to the existing body of knowledge.

Example: Conclude that longer sleep duration is associated with higher GPA among college students and discuss potential implications for student health and academic policies.

10. Report and Share Findings

Write a detailed report or research paper presenting the hypothesis, methodology, results, and conclusions. Share your findings with the academic community or relevant stakeholders.

Example: Publish the study in a peer-reviewed journal or present it at an academic conference.

How to Write a Hypothesis?

Writing a hypothesis is a crucial step in the scientific method. A well-constructed hypothesis guides your research, helping you design experiments and analyze results. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to write an effective hypothesis:

1. Understand the Research Question

Start by clearly understanding the research question or problem you want to address. This helps in formulating a focused hypothesis.

Example: How does sunlight exposure affect plant growth?

2. Conduct Preliminary Research

Review existing literature related to your research question. This helps in understanding what is already known and identifying gaps in knowledge.

Example: Studies show that plants generally grow better with more sunlight, but the optimal amount varies.

3. Identify Variables

Determine the independent and dependent variables for your study.

• Independent Variable: The factor you manipulate (e.g., sunlight exposure).
• Dependent Variable: The factor you measure (e.g., plant growth).

4. Formulate a Simple Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis involves one independent and one dependent variable. Clearly state the expected relationship between these variables.

Example: Increasing sunlight exposure will increase plant growth.

5. Choose the Type of Hypothesis

Decide whether your hypothesis will be null or alternative, directional or non-directional.

• Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no relationship between the variables.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a relationship between the variables.
• Directional Hypothesis: Specifies the direction of the relationship.
• Non-Directional Hypothesis: Does not specify the direction.

Example of Directional Hypothesis: Plants exposed to more sunlight will grow taller than those exposed to less sunlight.

6. Ensure Testability

Make sure your hypothesis can be tested through experiments or observations. It should be measurable and falsifiable.

Example: Plants will be grown under different levels of sunlight, and their growth will be measured over time.

7. Write the Hypothesis

Write your hypothesis in a clear, concise, and specific manner. It should include the variables and the expected relationship between them.

Example: If plants are exposed to increased sunlight, then they will grow taller compared to plants that receive less sunlight.

8. Refine the Hypothesis

Ensure that your hypothesis is specific and narrow enough to be testable but broad enough to cover the scope of your research.

Example: If tomato plants are exposed to 8 hours of sunlight per day, then they will grow taller and produce more fruit compared to tomato plants exposed to 4 hours of sunlight per day.

How Do You Formulate a Hypothesis?

To formulate a hypothesis, identify the research question, review existing literature, define variables, and create a testable statement predicting the relationship between the variables.

What Is the Difference Between Null and Alternative Hypotheses?

The null hypothesis (H0) states there is no effect or relationship, while the alternative hypothesis (H1) proposes that there is an effect or relationship.

Why Is a Hypothesis Important in Research?

A hypothesis provides a clear focus for the study, guiding the research design, data collection, and analysis, ultimately helping to draw meaningful conclusions.

Can a Hypothesis Be Proven True?

A hypothesis cannot be proven true; it can only be supported or refuted through experimentation and analysis. Even if supported, it remains open to further testing.

What Makes a Good Hypothesis?

A good hypothesis is clear, concise, specific, testable, and based on existing knowledge. It should predict a relationship between variables that can be measured.

How Is a Hypothesis Tested?

A hypothesis is tested through experiments or observations, collecting and analyzing data to determine if the results support or refute the hypothesis.

What Are the Types of Hypotheses?

Types of hypotheses include null, alternative, simple, complex, directional, non-directional, statistical, causal, and associative.

What Is a Directional Hypothesis?

A directional hypothesis specifies the expected direction of the relationship between variables, indicating whether the effect will be positive or negative.

What Is a Non-Directional Hypothesis?

A non-directional hypothesis states that a relationship exists between variables but does not specify the direction of the relationship.

How Do You Refine a Hypothesis?

Refine a hypothesis by ensuring it is specific, measurable, and testable. Remove any vague terms and focus on a single independent and dependent variable.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

10 Examples of Public speaking

20 Examples of Gas lighting

What’s wrong with shame?

Shame gets a bad rep these days. It appears to be some kind of psychological scapegoat. Allegedly, shame can explain why people feel really bad all the time or have bad relationships . It could be a sign of religious fanaticism. The “walk of shame” is viewed as a consequence of sexual promiscuity. Some influencers go as far as to label shame as “dangerous.”

I’ll zag here and make the opposite claim. Shame is useful. It’s beneficial. And it’s necessary for healthy social development.

But what exactly is shame? Shame stems from our moral conscience . It’s a signal that goes off when we’ve done something wrong in social contexts. When people are caught breaking a rule or violating a norm, they may feel shame as a result.

We go to great lengths to avoid feeling ashamed. It’s painful for a reason—it keeps our dark impulses in check. It’s our mind’s way of letting us know when we’ve done something bad, in part because we care about our social reputations and don’t want others to view us unfavorably. Without shame, people would behave like lunatics. When we describe someone as “shameless,” we mean it as a pejorative.

What makes shame different from guilt?

Some might push back at my claim by noting that guilt (not shame) is actually the emotion that occurs after we’ve done something bad and that shame is different because it’s about one’s feelings of self-worth as a whole person. Others might posit that shame is a more “public” emotion that occurs when others judge us, and we internalize this judgment, whereas guilt is a more “private” emotion that occurs when people feel that they’ve violated their own personal standards.

I disagree with both of these framings.

Research suggests that shame can be experienced internally and externally but that in the majority of cases , people feel these emotions publicly. Private feelings of shame or guilt are less common. Mostly, people experience these feelings in the presence of others that they know well (e.g., significant others, family members), although embarrassment tends to be more common in front of acquaintances or strangers.

Studies show that shame and guilt overlap in substantial ways . People generally rate them as intense and unpleasant feelings that lasted a while and occurred in very serious situations. Participants who described their experiences with each emotion said that they felt personally responsible for their (wrong) actions, a sense of responsibility, and a desire to make amends. They also felt other co-occurring emotions, such as anger and disgust, which were directed inward.

That means people felt high arousal negativity as a result of their own actions, which warranted them to display humbleness and seek forgiveness . People were also harsher on themselves than they believed others felt towards them. Overall, the evidence suggests that psychological experiences of guilt and shame are more similar than different.

Is shame actually useful?

OK, so shame and guilt are comparable emotions, and they mostly occur in the presence of others. But does that mean they’re helpful? What do people want to do with these feelings?

To answer this, researchers asked people about instances where they felt guilt, shame, regret, or embarrassment and also asked participants what they wanted to do in response to those emotions. They found that people reported strong motivations not only for social repair (e.g., to make an apology) but also to improve themselves (e.g., “I felt the urge to be a better person”). This motivation for self-improvement was even stronger following shame than for guilt, embarrassment, or regret.

The researchers noted that, in some cases, guilt can be alleviated by simply apologizing but not necessarily changing one’s behavior moving forward. The reason why shame might feel weightier and more difficult to alleviate is because it doesn’t go away with a mere apology—it requires holistic self-development. Shame causes people to want to be better humans. And that’s not easy! Despite the anguish, shame had the strongest potential to promote growth, compared to other emotions. This makes shame a double-edged sword.

The study authors ended their paper with a quote attributed to Blaise Pascal: “The only shame is to have none.” I suggest we all dwell on this idea.

Ferreira, C., Moura-Ramos, M., Matos, M., & Galhardo, A. (2022). A new measure to assess external and internal shame: Development, factor structure and psychometric properties of the external and internal shame scale. Current Psychology, 41 (4), 1892-1901.

Lickel, B., Kushlev, K., Savalei, V., Matta, S., & Schmader, T. (2014). Shame and the motivation to change the self. Emotion, 14 (6), 1049.

Tangney, J. P., Miller, R. S., Flicker, L., & Barlow, D. H. (1996). Are shame, guilt, and embarrassment distinct emotions? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70 (6), 1256.

Dylan Selterman, Ph.D., is an Associate Teaching Professor at Johns Hopkins University in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences. He teaches courses and conducts research on personality traits, happiness, relationships, morality/ethics, game theory, political psychology, and more.

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How to Conduct a Psychology Experiment

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Conducting your first psychology experiment can be a long, complicated, and sometimes intimidating process. It can be especially confusing if you are not quite sure where to begin or which steps to take.

Like other sciences, psychology utilizes the  scientific method  and bases conclusions upon empirical evidence. When conducting an experiment, it is important to follow the seven basic steps of the scientific method:

• Ask a testable question
• Define your variables
• Conduct background research
• Design your experiment
• Perform the experiment
• Collect and analyze the data
• Draw conclusions
• Share the results with the scientific community

At a Glance

It's important to know the steps of the scientific method if you are conducting an experiment in psychology or other fields. The processes encompasses finding a problem you want to explore, learning what has already been discovered about the topic, determining your variables, and finally designing and performing your experiment. But the process doesn't end there! Once you've collected your data, it's time to analyze the numbers, determine what they mean, and share what you've found.

Find a Research Problem or Question

Picking a research problem can be one of the most challenging steps when you are conducting an experiment. After all, there are so many different topics you might choose to investigate.

Are you stuck for an idea? Consider some of the following:

Investigate a Commonly Held Belief

Folk knowledge is a good source of questions that can serve as the basis for psychological research. For example, many people believe that staying up all night to cram for a big exam can actually hurt test performance.

You could conduct a study to compare the test scores of students who stayed up all night with the scores of students who got a full night's sleep before the exam.

Review Psychology Literature

Published studies are a great source of unanswered research questions. In many cases, the authors will even note the need for further research. Find a published study that you find intriguing, and then come up with some questions that require further exploration.

Think About Everyday Problems

There are many practical applications for psychology research. Explore various problems that you or others face each day, and then consider how you could research potential solutions. For example, you might investigate different memorization strategies to determine which methods are most effective.

Define Your Variables

Variables are anything that might impact the outcome of your study. An operational definition describes exactly what the variables are and how they are measured within the context of your study.

For example, if you were doing a study on the impact of sleep deprivation on driving performance, you would need to operationally define sleep deprivation and driving performance .

An operational definition refers to a precise way that an abstract concept will be measured. For example, you cannot directly observe and measure something like test anxiety . You can, however, use an anxiety scale and assign values based on how many anxiety symptoms a person is experiencing. 

In this example, you might define sleep deprivation as getting less than seven hours of sleep at night. You might define driving performance as how well a participant does on a driving test.

What is the purpose of operationally defining variables? The main purpose is control. By understanding what you are measuring, you can control for it by holding the variable constant between all groups or manipulating it as an independent variable .

Develop a Hypothesis

The next step is to develop a testable hypothesis that predicts how the operationally defined variables are related. In the recent example, the hypothesis might be: "Students who are sleep-deprived will perform worse than students who are not sleep-deprived on a test of driving performance."

Null Hypothesis

In order to determine if the results of the study are significant, it is essential to also have a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the prediction that one variable will have no association to the other variable.

In other words, the null hypothesis assumes that there will be no difference in the effects of the two treatments in our experimental and control groups .

The null hypothesis is assumed to be valid unless contradicted by the results. The experimenters can either reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis or not reject the null hypothesis.

It is important to remember that not rejecting the null hypothesis does not mean that you are accepting the null hypothesis. To say that you are accepting the null hypothesis is to suggest that something is true simply because you did not find any evidence against it. This represents a logical fallacy that should be avoided in scientific research.  

Conduct Background Research

Once you have developed a testable hypothesis, it is important to spend some time doing some background research. What do researchers already know about your topic? What questions remain unanswered?

You can learn about previous research on your topic by exploring books, journal articles, online databases, newspapers, and websites devoted to your subject.

Reading previous research helps you gain a better understanding of what you will encounter when conducting an experiment. Understanding the background of your topic provides a better basis for your own hypothesis.

After conducting a thorough review of the literature, you might choose to alter your own hypothesis. Background research also allows you to explain why you chose to investigate your particular hypothesis and articulate why the topic merits further exploration.

As you research the history of your topic, take careful notes and create a working bibliography of your sources. This information will be valuable when you begin to write up your experiment results.

Select an Experimental Design

After conducting background research and finalizing your hypothesis, your next step is to develop an experimental design. There are three basic types of designs that you might utilize. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses:

Pre-Experimental Design

A single group of participants is studied, and there is no comparison between a treatment group and a control group. Examples of pre-experimental designs include case studies (one group is given a treatment and the results are measured) and pre-test/post-test studies (one group is tested, given a treatment, and then retested).

Quasi-Experimental Design

This type of experimental design does include a control group but does not include randomization. This type of design is often used if it is not feasible or ethical to perform a randomized controlled trial.

True Experimental Design

A true experimental design, also known as a randomized controlled trial, includes both of the elements that pre-experimental designs and quasi-experimental designs lack—control groups and random assignment to groups.

Standardize Your Procedures

In order to arrive at legitimate conclusions, it is essential to compare apples to apples.

Each participant in each group must receive the same treatment under the same conditions.

For example, in our hypothetical study on the effects of sleep deprivation on driving performance, the driving test must be administered to each participant in the same way. The driving course must be the same, the obstacles faced must be the same, and the time given must be the same.

Choose Your Participants

In addition to making sure that the testing conditions are standardized, it is also essential to ensure that your pool of participants is the same.

If the individuals in your control group (those who are not sleep deprived) all happen to be amateur race car drivers while your experimental group (those that are sleep deprived) are all people who just recently earned their driver's licenses, your experiment will lack standardization.

When choosing subjects, there are some different techniques you can use.

Simple Random Sample

In a simple random sample, the participants are randomly selected from a group. A simple random sample can be used to represent the entire population from which the representative sample is drawn.

Drawing a simple random sample can be helpful when you don't know a lot about the characteristics of the population.

Stratified Random Sample

Participants must be randomly selected from different subsets of the population. These subsets might include characteristics such as geographic location, age, sex, race, or socioeconomic status.

Stratified random samples are more complex to carry out. However, you might opt for this method if there are key characteristics about the population that you want to explore in your research.

Conduct Tests and Collect Data

After you have selected participants, the next steps are to conduct your tests and collect the data. Before doing any testing, however, there are a few important concerns that need to be addressed.

Address Ethical Concerns

First, you need to be sure that your testing procedures are ethical . Generally, you will need to gain permission to conduct any type of testing with human participants by submitting the details of your experiment to your school's Institutional Review Board (IRB), sometimes referred to as the Human Subjects Committee.

Obtain Informed Consent

After you have gained approval from your institution's IRB, you will need to present informed consent forms to each participant. This form offers information on the study, the data that will be gathered, and how the results will be used. The form also gives participants the option to withdraw from the study at any point in time.

Once this step has been completed, you can begin administering your testing procedures and collecting the data.

Analyze the Results

After collecting your data, it is time to analyze the results of your experiment. Researchers use statistics to determine if the results of the study support the original hypothesis and if the results are statistically significant.

Statistical significance means that the study's results are unlikely to have occurred simply by chance.

The types of statistical methods you use to analyze your data depend largely on the type of data that you collected. If you are using a random sample of a larger population, you will need to utilize inferential statistics.

These statistical methods make inferences about how the results relate to the population at large.

Because you are making inferences based on a sample, it has to be assumed that there will be a certain margin of error. This refers to the amount of error in your results. A large margin of error means that there will be less confidence in your results, while a small margin of error means that you are more confident that your results are an accurate reflection of what exists in that population.

Share Your Results After Conducting an Experiment

Your final task in conducting an experiment is to communicate your results. By sharing your experiment with the scientific community, you are contributing to the knowledge base on that particular topic.

One of the most common ways to share research results is to publish the study in a peer-reviewed professional journal. Other methods include sharing results at conferences, in book chapters, or academic presentations.

In your case, it is likely that your class instructor will expect a formal write-up of your experiment in the same format required in a professional journal article or lab report :

• Introduction
• Tables and figures

What This Means For You

Designing and conducting a psychology experiment can be quite intimidating, but breaking the process down step-by-step can help. No matter what type of experiment you decide to perform, always check with your instructor and your school's institutional review board for permission before you begin.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

More From Forbes

17 industry tips every junior marketer should know.

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As any veteran communications or marketing professional will tell you, embarking on a career in this industry can feel like navigating an endless maze. Reflecting on the journey, many professionals wish they had grasped certain key pieces of advice early on that could have accelerated their growth and effectiveness in their roles.

Below, Forbes Communications Council members share insider industry knowledge they wish they'd had when they started their careers, as well as explain how this knowledge can smooth your professional path and amplify the impact of every campaign and strategy you develop.

1. Know The Ins And Outs Of The Business

Understand the business—the strategy, the revenue, the problems to solve and what really makes it tick. To market and communicate effectively, you must have a depth of knowledge of where the business is headed and why it exists. This will help turn ideas into great stories and campaigns that have true impact. - Brian Dema , Department of Growth

2. Let Communications Drive The Messaging

There is a pervasive feeling—at least in my career—that the communications function sits under marketing, but I truly wish I had pushed to have communications drive the marketing messaging in so many instances. To do so means singing from the same song sheet, which builds organic efficiency from the top-down, bottom-up and across functions. - Jennifer Shah , Flock Freight

3. Track Your Campaigns

Always track and measure your marketing campaigns. It's easy to get bogged down in your day-to-day jobs and tasks, but find time to do the above. Doing marketing without data is like running around like a headless chicken. Showcasing impact through tracked improvements is one of the surefire ways for junior marketers to advance their careers. - Lauren Parr , RepuGen

‘Squad’ Rep. Jamaal Bowman Unseated By Latimer In Pricey New York Primary

Sha’carri richardson, cole hocker, and anna hall dominate u.s. track & field olympic trials, the 11 best mattresses of 2024, according to testing, 4. know your audience.

Truly understanding and empathizing with your target audience goes beyond knowing their demographic characteristics or behaviors. It's about deeply understanding their needs, frustrations, desires and perceptions of the world. Creating meaningful relationships directly with customers and prospects leads to more compelling, engaging and effective marketing messages and campaigns. - Trish Nettleship , NCR Voyix

5. Create Value

Your job is to create value, and there are only two ways to do so: Increase revenue or lower costs through efficiency. If you aren't doing either of those, you are just SG&A on the financial report. - Salim Gheewalla , Calian IT & Cyber Solutions

6. Ask For Feedback

I now realize that evaluating my own work and seeking feedback would've been much more beneficial. It would've accelerated my development and shown my colleagues I was keen to collaborate, not just follow orders. - Cade Collister , Metova

Forbes Communications Council is an invitation-only community for executives in successful public relations, media strategy, creative and advertising agencies. Do I qualify?

7. Network Beyond Your Team

Build relationships outside of your marketing team. Successful marketing and comms pros help break down silos inside their organizations. Those collaborations make your job easier, make you more valuable to the company and naturally lead to more opportunities. Learning how other teams work within the company is also extremely valuable as you advance your career. - Tom Wozniak , OPTIZMO Technologies, LLC

8. Familiarize Yourself With Behavioral Psychology

Spend less time studying marketing itself and more time studying behavioral psychology—in particular, what drives people to make decisions. At the end of the day, all great marketing comes down to understanding your customer really well. - Nate Roy , Constructor

9. Deliver Results

Marketing and communications will always be considered a "cost center." We don't generate revenue (we don't make or sell products or services), and our return on investment is not always easily quantifiable. As a result, we're often in the uncomfortable position of having to justify our existence. Make it very difficult for anyone to question your value. When in doubt: Deliver, deliver, deliver. - Nick Karoglou , ACI Worldwide

10. Be Ready To Learn

Early on (and ongoing), it’s important to continually listen, absorb and learn. Staying curious is vital to enhancing your skills and understanding your audiences. With rapid industry changes, young professionals need an open mind about roles and shifting strategies. Embracing change as an opportunity can unlock new possibilities. - Alyssa Kopelman , Healthline Media

11. Utilize A/B Testing

Be open to testing and learning. Marketing is not magic but is built on hypotheses about user journeys and behaviors. Drawing up a solid hypothesis and a good A/B test plan is something I recommend to my team all the time. Even if the test fails, you learn and pivot fast. You always learn something from a good A/B test. - Jayashree Rajan , Jitterbit

12. Know It’s Not Personal

Do not take things personally. A piece you designed or the results you have gotten are not yours. Learn to separate them from your identity. Otherwise, it can be incredibly hard to take critiques or deal with changes to strategy. This is easier said than done because we often spend hours working on our projects, but you will be happier if you can let go. - Sarah Lero , A.L. Huber

13. Remember The Small Details

Sometimes, at the earlier stages of your career, there's this sense of urgency that prevents you from understanding why the small, finite details matter so much to a large-scale project. They do. When you nail those little details, your work becomes that much more thoughtful and intentional. There is no detail too small in the stories and messages you craft. - Melissa Kandel , little word studio

14. Be Aware Of Your Company’s Strategy

Even when you're early in your marketing career, it's important to understand your company's strategy. Every single role at a company, even the most junior, is in service of its strategic objectives. In my experience, understanding company strategy helped me be a better teammate (marketing success requires collaboration) and frame my own contributions in terms of how they drove company goals. - Rekha Thomas , Path Forward Marketing LLC

15. Have Conversations With Customers

Nothing can reveal a customer’s needs like a conversation with them in their own work environment. Conversations don’t have the same boundaries as some aspects of market research, so you can observe how customers interact with similar products, ask more probing questions and note the challenges they face. Identifying additional solutions will make you, your product and your business stand out. - Kay Midthun , Wisconsin Reinsurance Corporation

16. Ask The Right Questions

Understand the power of asking strategic questions early on. Don't just take a brief at face value. Dig deeper to understand the campaign's true goals, the target audience's mindset and how success will be measured. This kind of clarity from the start saves you from misdirected efforts and makes you far more impactful. - Patrick Ward , NanoGlobals

17. Be Okay With Not Having All The Answers

Be comfortable saying, “I don't know, but I will get back to you.” So often, professionals feel compelled to have an answer for senior members of their teams when they don't have the data to back it up. Being honest not only builds your credibility but also gives you a chance to gather yourself and perform the due diligence necessary to deliver an answer that is better thought out. - Joe Garber , Kainos Consulting

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