introduction to vegetarianism essay

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Introduction

Ancient origins

The 17th through 19th centuries.

• Modern developments

vegetarianism

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• PBS - The History Kitchen - From Pythagorean to Pescatarian - The Evolution of Vegetarianism
• Ancient Origins - Unearthing the Ancient Roots of Vegetarianism
• UNESCO World Heritage Convention - Vegetarianism and Vegan Diet
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Moral Vegetarianism
• Verywell Fit - What Is the Vegetarian Diet?
• The Nemours Foundation - For Parents - Vegetarianism
• The Nemours Foundation - For Teens - Becoming a Vegetarian
• Mayo Clinic - Vegetarian diet: How to get the best nutrition
• Northern Illinois University - Department of Philosophy - Vegetarianism
• Workforce Libretexts - Vegetarianism
• vegetarianism - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• vegetarianism - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

vegetarianism , the theory or practice of living solely upon vegetables , fruits , grains , legumes , and nuts —with or without the addition of milk products and eggs —generally for ethical , ascetic , environmental, or nutritional reasons. All forms of flesh (meat, fowl, and seafood ) are excluded from all vegetarian diets, but many vegetarians use milk and milk products; those in the West usually eat eggs also, but most vegetarians in India exclude them, as did those in the Mediterranean lands in Classical times. Vegetarians who exclude animal products altogether (and likewise avoid animal-derived products such as leather , silk , honey , and wool ) are known as vegans . Those who use milk products are sometimes called lacto-vegetarians, and those who use eggs as well are called lacto-ovo vegetarians; those who exclude land-based meats, like vegetarians, but consume fish and shellfish are called pescatarians . Among some agricultural peoples, flesh eating has been infrequent except among the privileged classes; such people have rather misleadingly been called vegetarians.

Deliberate avoidance of flesh eating probably first appeared sporadically in ritual connections, either as a temporary purification or as qualification for a priestly function. Advocacy of a regular fleshless diet began about the middle of the 1st millennium bce in India and the eastern Mediterranean as part of the philosophical awakening of the time. In the Mediterranean, avoidance of flesh eating is first recorded as a teaching of the philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (c. 530 bce ), who alleged the kinship of all animals as one basis for human benevolence toward other creatures. From Plato onward many pagan philosophers (e.g., Epicurus and Plutarch ), especially the Neoplatonists , recommended a fleshless diet; the idea carried with it condemnation of bloody sacrifices in worship and was often associated with belief in the reincarnation of souls and, more generally, with a search for principles of cosmic harmony in accord with which human beings could live. In India, followers of Buddhism and Jainism refused on ethical and ascetic grounds to kill animals for food. Human beings, they believed, should not inflict harm on any sentient creature. This principle was soon taken up in Brahmanism and, later, Hinduism and was applied especially to the cow . As in Mediterranean thought, the idea carried with it condemnation of bloody sacrifices and was often associated with principles of cosmic harmony.

In later centuries the history of vegetarianism in the Indic and Mediterranean regions diverged significantly. In India itself, though Buddhism gradually declined, the ideal of harmlessness ( ahimsa ), with its corollary of a fleshless diet, spread steadily in the 1st millennium ce until many of the upper castes , and even some of the lower, had adopted it. Beyond India it was carried, with Buddhism, northward and eastward as far as China and Japan . In some countries, fish were included in an otherwise fleshless diet.

West of the Indus the great monotheistic traditions were less favorable to vegetarianism. The Hebrew Bible , however, records the belief that in paradise the earliest human beings had not eaten flesh. Ascetic Jewish groups and some early Christian leaders disapproved of flesh eating as gluttonous, cruel, and expensive. Some Christian monastic orders ruled out flesh eating, and its avoidance has been a penance and a spiritual exercise even for laypersons. A number of saints, such as St. Anthony of Egypt , were noted vegetarians. Many Muslims have been hostile to vegetarianism, yet some Muslim Sufi mystics recommended a meatless diet for spiritual seekers.

The 17th and 18th centuries in Europe were characterized by a greater interest in humanitarianism and the idea of moral progress, and sensitivity to animal suffering was accordingly revived. Certain Protestant groups came to adopt a fleshless diet as part of the goal of leading a perfectly sinless life. Persons of diverse philosophical views advocated vegetarianism; for example, Voltaire praised it, and Percy Bysshe Shelley and Henry David Thoreau practiced the diet. In the late 18th century the utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham asserted that the suffering of animals, like the suffering of humans, was worthy of moral consideration, and he regarded cruelty to animals as analogous to racism .

Vegetarians of the early 19th century usually condemned the use of alcohol as well as flesh and appealed as much to nutritional advantages as to ethical sensibilities. As before, vegetarianism tended to be combined with other efforts toward a humane and cosmically harmonious way of life. Although the vegetarian movement as a whole was always carried forward by ethically inclined individuals, special institutions grew up to express vegetarian concerns as such. The first vegetarian society was formed in England in 1847 by the Bible Christian sect, and the International Vegetarian Union was founded tentatively in 1889 and more enduringly in 1908.

• IELTS Scores
• Life Skills Test
• Find a Test Centre
• Alternatives to IELTS
• General Training
• Academic Word List
• Topic Vocabulary
• Collocation
• Phrasal Verbs
• Writing eBooks
• Reading eBook
• All eBooks & Courses
• Sample Essays

Vegetarianism Essay

This is a model  vegetarianism essay .

As I always stress, you should  read the question very carefully  before you answer it to make sure you are writing about the right thing.

Take a look at the question:

Every one of us should become a vegetarian because eating meat can cause serious health problems.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

Staying on topic

If you rush to start writing and don't analyse the question and brainstorm some ideas you may include the wrong information.

There are religious or moral arguments for not eating meat, but if you discuss those you will be going off topic .

This question is specifically about the health problems connected to eating meat.

So you must discuss in your answer what some of these problems are and if you think there are real health risks or not.

Knowing about the topic

And don't get worried that you do not know much about diet and health.

As part of your IELTS study it will help if you know the basics of most topics such as some health vocabulary in this case, but you are not expected to be an expert on nutrition.

Remember, you are being judged on your English ability and your ability to construct an argument in a coherent way, not to be an expert in the subject matter. So relax and work with

Organisation

In this vegetarianism essay, the candidate disagrees with the statement, and is thus arguing that everyone does not need to be a vegetarian.

The essay has been organised in the following way:

Body 1: Health issues connected with eating meat (i.e. arguments in support of being a vegetarian Body 2: Advantages of eating meat

Now take a look at the model answer.

Model Essay

You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.

Write about the following topic:

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own experience or knowledge.

Write at least 250 words.

IELTS Vegetarianism Essay - Sample Answer

Vegetarianism is becoming more and more popular for many people, particularly because of the harm that some people believe meat can cause to the body. However, I strongly believe that it is not necessary for everybody to be a vegetarian.

Vegetarians believe that meat is unhealthy because of the diseases it has been connected with. There has been much research to suggest that red meat is particularly bad, for example, and that consumption should be limited to eating it just a few times a week to avoid such things as cancer. Meats can also be high in saturated fats so they have been linked to health problems such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

However, there are strong arguments for eating meat. The first reason is that as humans we are designed to eat meat, which suggests it is not unhealthy, and we have been eating meat for thousands of years. For example, cavemen made hunting implements so that they could kill animals and eat their meat. Secondly, meat is a rich source of protein which helps to build muscles and bones. Vegetarians often have to take supplements to get all the essential vitamins and minerals. Finally, it may be the case that too much meat is harmful, but we can easily limit the amount we have without having to cut it out of our diet completely.

To sum up, I do not agree that everyone should turn to a vegetarian diet. Although the overconsumption of meat could possibly be unhealthy, a balanced diet of meat and vegetables should result in a healthy body.

(264 words)

You should begin by intoducing the topi c. The introduction in this vegetarianism essay begins by mentioning vegetarians and the possible harm of eating meat .

It then goes on to the thesis statement , which makes it clear what the candidate's opinion is.

The first body paragraph has a topic sentence which makes it clear that the paragraph is going to address the possible health issues of eating meat.

Some reasons and examples are then given to support this.

The second body paragraph then has a topic sentence which makes it clear that the main idea is now about the arguments for eating meat .

The conclusion in this vegetarianism essay then repeats the opinion and gives the candidates final thoughts.

<<< Back

Next >>>

More Agree / Disagree Essays:

Return of Historical Objects and Artefacts Essay

This essay discusses the topic of returning historical objects and artefacts to their country of origin. It's an agree/disagree type IELTS question.

Essay for IELTS: Are some advertising methods unethical?

This is an agree / disagree type question. Your options are: 1. Agree 100% 2. Disagree 100% 3. Partly agree. In the answer below, the writer agrees 100% with the opinion. There is an analysis of the answer.

Ban Smoking in Public Places Essay: Should the government ban it?

Ban smoking in public places essay: The sample answer shows you how you can present the opposing argument first, that is not your opinion, and then present your opinion in the following paragraph.

Employing Older People Essay: Is the modern workplace suitable?

Employing Older People Essay. Examine model essays for IELTS Task 2 to improve your score. This essay tackles the issue of whether it it better for employers to hire younger staff rather than those who are older.

IELTS Sample Essay: Is alternative medicine ineffective & dangerous?

IELTS sample essay about alternative and conventional medicine - this shows you how to present a well-balanced argument. When you are asked whether you agree (or disagree), you can look at both sides of the argument if you want.

Human Cloning Essay: Should we be scared of cloning humans?

Human cloning essay - this is on the topic of cloning humans to use their body parts. You are asked if you agree with human cloning to use their body parts, and what reservations (concerns) you have.

Paying Taxes Essay: Should people keep all the money they earn?

Paying Taxes Essay: Read model essays to help you improve your IELTS Writing Score for Task 2. In this essay you have to decide whether you agree or disagree with the opinion that everyone should be able to keep their money rather than paying money to the government.

Dying Languages Essay: Is a world with fewer languages a good thing?

Dying languages essays have appeared in IELTS on several occasions, an issue related to the spread of globalisation. Check out a sample question and model answer.

Extinction of Animals Essay: Should we prevent this from happening?

In this extinction of animals essay for IELTS you have to decide whether you think humans should do what they can to prevent the extinction of animal species.

Airline Tax Essay: Would taxing air travel reduce pollution?

Airline Tax Essay for IELTS. Practice an agree and disagree essay on the topic of taxing airlines to reduce low-cost air traffic. You are asked to decide if you agree or disagree with taxing airlines in order to reduce the problems caused.

Sample IELTS Writing: Is spending on the Arts a waste of money?

Sample IELTS Writing: A common topic in IELTS is whether you think it is a good idea for government money to be spent on the arts. i.e. the visual arts, literary and the performing arts, or whether it should be spent elsewhere, usually on other public services.

IELTS Internet Essay: Is the internet damaging social interaction?

Internet Essay for IELTS on the topic of the Internet and social interaction. Included is a model answer. The IELTS test usually focuses on topical issues. You have to discuss if you think that the Internet is damaging social interaction.

Internet vs Newspaper Essay: Which will be the best source of news?

A recent topic to write about in the IELTS exam was an Internet vs Newspaper Essay. The question was: Although more and more people read news on the internet, newspapers will remain the most important source of news. To what extent do you agree or disagree?

Scientific Research Essay: Who should be responsible for its funding?

Scientific research essay model answer for Task 2 of the test. For this essay, you need to discuss whether the funding and controlling of scientific research should be the responsibility of the government or private organizations.

Examinations Essay: Formal Examinations or Continual Assessment?

Examinations Essay: This IELTS model essay deals with the issue of whether it is better to have formal examinations to assess student’s performance or continual assessment during term time such as course work and projects.

Truthfulness in Relationships Essay: How important is it?

This truthfulness in relationships essay for IELTS is an agree / disagree type essay. You need to decide if it's the most important factor.

Free University Education Essay: Should it be paid for or free?

Free university education Model IELTS essay. Learn how to write high-scoring IELTS essays. The issue of free university education is an essay topic that comes up in the IELTS test. This essay therefore provides you with some of the key arguments about this topic.

Technology Development Essay: Are earlier developments the best?

This technology development essay shows you a complex IELTS essay question that is easily misunderstood. There are tips on how to approach IELTS essay questions

Role of Schools Essay: How should schools help children develop?

This role of schools essay for IELTS is an agree disagree type essay where you have to discuss how schools should help children to develop.

Multinational Organisations and Culture Essay

Multinational Organisations and Culture Essay: Improve you score for IELTS Essay writing by studying model essays. This Essay is about the extent to which working for a multinational organisation help you to understand other cultures.

Any comments or questions about this page or about IELTS? Post them here. Your email will not be published or shared.

Band 7+ eBooks

"I think these eBooks are FANTASTIC!!! I know that's not academic language, but it's the truth!"

Linda, from Italy, Scored Band 7.5

Bargain eBook Deal! 30% Discount

All 4 Writing eBooks for just  $25.86 Find out more >>

IELTS Modules:

Other resources:.

• All Lessons
• Band Score Calculator
• Writing Feedback
• Speaking Feedback
• Teacher Resources
• Free Downloads
• Recent Essay Exam Questions
• Books for IELTS Prep
• Useful Links

Recent Articles

IELTS Essay: Living with Climate Change

Aug 23, 24 02:37 AM

Grammar in IELTS Listening

Aug 22, 24 02:54 PM

IELTS Line Graph: Governments Expenditure on Research

Jul 23, 24 01:27 PM

Important pages

IELTS Writing IELTS Speaking IELTS Listening   IELTS Reading All Lessons Vocabulary Academic Task 1 Academic Task 2 Practice Tests

Connect with us

Before you go...

30% discount - just $25.86 for all 4 writing ebooks.

Copyright © 2022- IELTSbuddy All Rights Reserved

IELTS is a registered trademark of University of Cambridge, the British Council, and IDP Education Australia. This site and its owners are not affiliated, approved or endorsed by the University of Cambridge ESOL, the British Council, and IDP Education Australia.

Home — Essay Samples — Life — Lifestyle & Interests — Vegetarianism

Essays on Vegetarianism

Vegetarianism is a lifestyle choice that has gained popularity in recent years due to its many health and environmental benefits. The decision to become a vegetarian is often based on ethical, environmental, and health concerns. As a result, there are many different aspects of vegetarianism that can be explored in an essay. In this article, we will discuss a wide range of essay topics related to vegetarianism, including the importance of the topic, advice on choosing a topic, and a.

The Importance of the Topic

Vegetarianism is an important topic because it has the potential to have a significant impact on both our health and the environment. Many people choose to become vegetarians because they believe it is a more ethical and sustainable way of living. By reducing or eliminating the consumption of animal products, individuals can help reduce the demand for factory farming, which is a major contributor to environmental degradation and animal cruelty.

In addition to the ethical and environmental benefits, vegetarianism has also been linked to improved health outcomes. Research has shown that a plant-based diet can lower the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancer. By exploring essay topics related to vegetarianism, individuals can gain a better understanding of the potential benefits and challenges of this lifestyle choice.

Advice on Choosing a Topic

When choosing a topic for an essay on vegetarianism, it is important to consider the specific aspects of the lifestyle that are of interest. Some potential essay topics include the health benefits of a vegetarian diet, the environmental impact of animal agriculture, the ethical considerations of consuming animal products, and the challenges of maintaining a vegetarian lifestyle. By choosing a topic that is personally meaningful, individuals can create a more compelling and well-researched essay.

In addition to choosing a topic that is of personal interest, it is also important to consider the audience for the essay. For example, if the essay is intended for a general audience, it may be beneficial to choose a topic that provides an overview of vegetarianism and its potential benefits. On the other hand, if the essay is intended for a more specialized audience, such as individuals interested in nutrition or environmental sustainability, it may be beneficial to choose a more specific topic that delves into the science or policy implications of vegetarianism.

In conclusion, vegetarianism is an important topic that has the potential to have a significant impact on both our health and the environment. By exploring a wide range of essay topics related to vegetarianism, individuals can gain a better understanding of the potential benefits and challenges of this lifestyle choice. Whether the essay focuses on the health benefits of a vegetarian diet, the environmental impact of animal agriculture, the ethical considerations of consuming animal products, or the challenges of maintaining a vegetarian lifestyle, there are many different aspects of vegetarianism that can be explored. By choosing a topic that is of personal interest and considering the audience for the essay, individuals can create a compelling and well-researched essay that contributes to the ongoing conversation about vegetarianism.

Why Everyone Should Choose to Become Vegetarian: a Research Paper

Vegetarianism as a way of life, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

Each essay is customized to cater to your unique preferences

+ experts online

Why The Consumption of Meat for Human Enjoyment is Immoral

The benefits of plant-based diet over one which involves meat, vegetarianism: introduction, positive and negative sides, vegetarianism and an argument against factory farming, let us write you an essay from scratch.

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

The Benefits of Vegetarianism in Contrast to Meat Eating

Research of the health benefits of vegetarianism, why vegetarianism is better than meat eating: health, environmental, and ethical reasons, research paper on the benefits of the vegetarian lifestyle, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

Expert-written essays crafted with your exact needs in mind

Research Paper on Vegetarian Diet for Adults

Research paper on the motivations for becoming a vegetarian, han kang’s the vegetarian review – a remarkable tale of family fallout, the physiological and psychological implications of a vegetarian/vegan diet on endurance athletes, the cost of meat eating vs the benefits of vegetarianism, how invaders influenced indian cuisine and its common elements and spices, heal the world: the benefits of vegetarian diet, vegetarians eat animal crackers, relevant topics.

• Bucket List
• Healthy Lifestyle
• Being a Good Person

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

• Entertainment
• Environment
• Information Science and Technology
• Social Issues

Home Essay Samples Life

Essay Samples on Vegetarianism

Vegetarian vs. meat eater: a comparative analysis.

The choice between a vegetarian and a meat-based diet has sparked numerous discussions about health, ethics, and environmental impact. This essay aims to provide a comprehensive comparison and contrast between these two dietary choices. By examining their health implications, ethical considerations, and environmental effects, this...

• Vegetarianism

Is It Ethical to Eat Meat: Navigating the Moral Dilemma

Is it ethical to eat meat? The ethicality of consuming meat is a topic that has gained significant attention in recent years. As concerns about animal welfare, environmental impact, and health considerations grow, individuals are grappling with the question of whether eating meat aligns with...

• Ethical Dilemma

A Lot of Conflicting Ideas About the Vegetarian Diet

Humans create inventions to solve a certain issue. where if an issue occurs then a person would start to think of solution to this issue and therefore this person called an inventor. An invention is something that would have influence in the living style to...

• Eating Habits

Moral Vegetarianism: Responsibility Or Necessity

Recent trends in modern eating habits have brought upon a wave of new discussions and one of them being the never seemingly ending debate of vegetarianism. The trend rose to convert our standard diets and health recommendations that mankind has known and followed for centuries...

• Responsibility

Vegetarianism: Meat Eating Versus Nutrition

Vegetarianism may seem like a popular diet fad, but it has been advocated by many cultures around the world. Restaurants advertising “vegetarian options” on their menu is becoming customary. Vegetarianism is a dietary choice, to abstain from meat, that people adopt for many reasons. There...

Stressed out with your paper?

Consider using writing assistance:

• 100% unique papers
• 3 hrs deadline option

Problem Solving Ability And Adjustment In Relation To Vegetarian And Non Vegetarian

Introduction Adolescence is considered as a nutritionally critical period of life for several reasons. Firstly, manifold increase in physical growth and development put greater pressure on the need for nutrients. Secondly, adolescence can be the second opportunity to catch up with growth, if nutrient intake...

Vegetarianism And Practice Of Not Eating Meat

Why would anyone consider becoming a vegetarian? Is a vegetarian diet healthier, or are there too many risks? The article, “Vegetarian Diets: Health Benefits and Associated Risks” by Navneet Kumar Kaushik, Anup Aggarwal, Mohita Singh, Shelja Deswal, and Priyanka Kaushik discusses the popularity in recent...

Non Vegetarian Diet Vs Vegetarian Diet: The Question About Nutrition

Diet plays a major role in determining the person’s overall health and body functioning. The type of the food intake by a person have a direct effect on the person’s metabolism rate, hormonal system and sometimes the physiology. The overall diet is broadly divided into...

Nutritional Benefits of Vegetarian and Plant-Based Diet

Abstract: There is no doubt that nutritionists all around the world have been doing a research whether vegetarian and plant-based diets are healthy or not which can reduce the risk of obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and other cancers that can increase longevity. Vegetarian diets contains...

The Need of Converting American Citizens to Vegetarianism

The meat industry has created major issues for the population of the United States and the world altogether. Vegetarians live a much longer, enjoyable life as their antioxidant filled diets keep them mentally and physically healthy. Those that choose to consume animals are automatically put...

• American Food and Nutrition

The Benefits of Vegetarianism and Detrimental Effects of Meat Consumption

Since the dawning of life, food has always been a necessity for survival. From simple, unicellular bacteria to complex, multicellular human beings, a source of energy must be consumed in order to give rise to a living organism. However, the nutritional value of the food...

• Healthy Food

The Benefits Of A Plant-Based Diet For Health

Dr. Charles Ross presented the misconceptions involved in regularly consuming milk and dairy products, as well as their negative effects on our health. He included an article by Dr. Neal Barnard that highlights the top five myths surrounding milk and dairy products to argue that;...

• Healthy Lifestyle

The Hidden Politics Of Vegetarianism Caste And The Hindu Canteen

Food practices varies in Indian culture with its diverse traditions. Hindus are considered as vegetarians, as a common assumption though the fact remains some of them including Brahmins, eat meat. The Vedic texts strongly recommend non-violence against all life forms while it doesn’t explicitly prohibit...

Best topics on Vegetarianism

1. Vegetarian vs. Meat Eater: A Comparative Analysis

2. Is It Ethical to Eat Meat: Navigating the Moral Dilemma

3. A Lot of Conflicting Ideas About the Vegetarian Diet

4. Moral Vegetarianism: Responsibility Or Necessity

5. Vegetarianism: Meat Eating Versus Nutrition

6. Problem Solving Ability And Adjustment In Relation To Vegetarian And Non Vegetarian

7. Vegetarianism And Practice Of Not Eating Meat

8. Non Vegetarian Diet Vs Vegetarian Diet: The Question About Nutrition

9. Nutritional Benefits of Vegetarian and Plant-Based Diet

10. The Need of Converting American Citizens to Vegetarianism

11. The Benefits of Vegetarianism and Detrimental Effects of Meat Consumption

12. The Benefits Of A Plant-Based Diet For Health

13. The Hidden Politics Of Vegetarianism Caste And The Hindu Canteen

• Career Goals
• Personality
• Actions Speak Louder Than Words

Need writing help?

You can always rely on us no matter what type of paper you need

*No hidden charges

100% Unique Essays

Absolutely Confidential

Money Back Guarantee

By clicking “Send Essay”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement. We will occasionally send you account related emails

You can also get a UNIQUE essay on this or any other topic

Thank you! We’ll contact you as soon as possible.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Int J Environ Res Public Health

Vegetarian Diet: An Overview through the Perspective of Quality of Life Domains

Shila minari hargreaves.

1 Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Brasilia (UnB), Campus Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, Brasilia, DF 70910-900, Brazil; rb.bnu@zpataner

António Raposo

2 CBIOS (Research Center for Biosciences and Health Technologies), Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal

Ariana Saraiva

3 Department of Animal Pathology and Production, Bromatology and Food Technology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Trasmontaña s/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain; tp.kooltuo@32_anaira

Renata Puppin Zandonadi

Associated data.

The study did not report any data.

Vegetarianism has gained more visibility in recent years. Despite the well-described effects of a vegetarian diet on health, its influence on the quality of life of the individuals who follow it still needs to be properly investigated. Quality of life relates to a subjective perception of well-being and functionality, and encompasses four main life domains: physical, psychological, social, and environmental. The adoption of a vegetarian diet, despite being a dietary pattern, could potentially influence and be influenced by all of these domains, either positively or negatively. This review aims to present an overview of the background, conceptualization, features, and potential effects of vegetarianism in all quality of life domains. The choice of adopting a vegetarian diet could have positive outcomes, such as better physical health, positive feelings related to the adoption of a morally correct attitude, an increased sense of belonging (to a vegetarian community), and lower environmental impact. Other factors, however, could have a negative impact on the quality of life of those choosing to abstain from meats or other animal products, especially when they go beyond one’s control. These include the environment, the social/cultural group in which a person is inserted, gender-based differences, economic aspects, and a limited access to a wide variety of plant-based foods. It is important to understand all the effects of adopting a vegetarian diet—beyond its nutritional aspects. Not only do studies in this area provide more consistent data, but they may also contribute to mitigating all factors that might prevent individuals from adopting a vegetarian diet, or that may have a negative impact on the quality of life of those who already follow it.

1. Introduction

Vegetarianism has its origins in 3200 BC, when ancient Egyptian civilizations started adopting vegetarian diets based on the belief that abstaining from meat consumption would facilitate reincarnation [ 1 ]. In India, another important cradle of vegetarianism, this practice was also associated with the fact that Hindus see cows as sacred and uphold nonviolence principles [ 2 ]. Later, Greek philosophers also adopted a vegetarian diet, with Pythagoras being a leading figure among them—indeed, for many centuries, vegetarianism was known as the “Pythagorean” diet [ 3 , 4 ]. In the Christian Era, vegetarianism lost its strength, gaining some visibility again only in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged the Church’s views that animals had no souls, and that their only purpose on Earth was to serve human beings [ 1 , 5 ].

Throughout history, the expansion of vegetarianism has been associated with religions that preach respect for all living beings and adopt nonviolence principles, such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism, the Hare Krishna movement, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. In addition, in the 20th and 21st centuries, science has observed several health benefits potentially associated with the reduction in meat consumption. Such benefits have strengthened the practice of vegetarianism around the world, and attracted more and more followers [ 4 ].

Currently, the worldwide prevalence of vegetarianism is not uniform. Asia is the continent with the highest prevalence, with 19 percent of the population adopting this practice [ 6 ]. India, the single country with the highest prevalence in the world (almost 40 percent of the population), contributes to the results of the Asian continent [ 7 ]. The prevalence in Africa and the Middle East is about 16 percent; and in Central and South America, 8 percent. The lowest prevalence of vegetarianism is found in North America (about 6 percent of the population are vegetarians) and Europe, where vegetarianism is adopted by only 5 percent of the population.

Vegetarianism encompasses different types of diets, classified according to how restrictive they are. Generally, vegetarianism is understood as the exclusion of meat from one’s diet, but other less restrictive eating patterns can also be classified within the scope of vegetarianism. These include, for example, flexitarians, who consume meat sporadically, or even once a week; pescatarians, who avoid all meat, except fish and seafood; and ovolactovegetarians, who banish all types of meat but consume products of animal origin, such as eggs and dairy products. A strict vegetarian diet, on the other hand, excludes all foods of animal origin. Veganism is a broader concept, which involves the adoption of a strict vegetarian diet, as well as the exclusion of other consumer items made from animal products, or which rely on animal exploitation, such as cosmetics and clothing items [ 8 , 9 ]. For didactic purposes, a strict vegetarian diet is often referred to as a vegan diet.

Different motivations can lead to adopting a vegetarian diet [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Ethical concerns are the main reasons, building on the idea that animal slaughter for human consumption is morally inappropriate. Another important motivation is health and the potential beneficial effects of vegetarianism. Religions that encourage abstaining from meat consumption and concerns about the environmental impacts of meat production are also important motivators for adopting vegetarianism [ 7 , 9 ].

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), quality of life (QoL) is a subjective concept that comprehends physical, psychological, social, environmental, and spiritual aspects [ 14 , 15 ]. Changes in eating patterns can influence individuals’ QoL, both positively and negatively [ 16 ]. A systematic review study assessed the nutritional quality of vegetarian diets, and found—based on data from 12 surveys—higher nutritional quality levels among vegetarians than omnivores [ 17 ]. According to the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics [ 18 ], vegetarian diets are nutritionally adequate for all stages of life, as long as they are well planned. However, some precautions need to be taken to minimize the risk of nutritional deficiencies.

In view of the recent growth in the number of individuals adopting a vegetarian diet, as well as the wider interest in the topic in recent years, it is critical to understand the different effects of vegetarianism on one’s QoL. Therefore, this review aims to present an overview of the background, conceptualization, features and potential effects of vegetarianism considering all QoL domains.

2. Historical Background of Vegetarianism

Over most of their 24 million years of evolution, humans’ anthropoid ancestors were almost exclusively vegetarian, except for the occasional ingestion of insects and larvae. Anatomically, both humans and their ancestors present significant features that distance them from meat-eating animals, including, for example, wide flat teeth and more mobile jaws, which facilitate the chewing of grains and seeds, as opposed to sharp teeth and jaw movements on a vertical axis, which are characteristic of carnivores. In addition, carnivorous animals have shorter intestines, which enable the rapid elimination of toxins, unlike humans and other predominantly herbivorous animals, with long intestines that allow longer digestion, fermentation and absorption processes [ 19 , 20 ].

However, possibly due to other reasons linked to survival, self-defense and territorial protection, hominids began hunting other species, which led to the introduction of meat in the diet of Homo erectus , considered the first hunters. Humans’ ability to survive on different types of food was an essential factor in our evolution, which allowed our species, Homo sapiens sapiens , to adapt to the most diverse conditions and spread throughout the planet [ 19 , 20 ].

During the Paleolithic era, different food types were consumed, such as wild plants, seafood, reptiles, birds, and mammals. After the emergence of agricultural practices (about 13,000 years ago), there is no evidence that humans were essentially vegetarian, and the domestication of animals, including for consumption, became a routine activity by that time. However, it is speculated that many farmers lived primarily as vegetarians due to the wider availability of crops [ 19 ].

It is not known for certain when people started voluntarily abstaining from meat. However, the first reports date from 3200 BC in ancient Egypt, when the practice was motivated by religious factors, based on the belief that not consuming meat would facilitate reincarnation [ 1 ]. Another important region that is part of the history of vegetarianism is India, where the practice is also linked to religious issues. Hinduism has two basic principles among its foundations: ahimsa, or the principle of nonviolence (which includes violence against humans and other animals); and the recognition of the cow as a sacred animal [ 2 ].

Some of the philosophers of the pre-Christian era also contributed to the spread of vegetarianism. The practice was adopted at that time for health reasons as well as for religious, ecological, and philosophical reasons. It was believed that the act of killing another living being for food would have a brutal influence on one’s mind, negatively affecting one’s body and soul [ 3 ]. The supporters of vegetarianism included big names like Plato, Prophyry, Diogenes and Plutarch. The most prominent philosopher in this field was Pythagoras, who lived in the 6th century BC. Due to his influence, vegetarianism was known as the “Pythagorean” diet over many centuries, a name that lasted until the middle of the 19th century in Europe and the Mediterranean region [ 4 , 19 ].

In Ancient Greece, it was believed that animals could think and communicate, and that humans should be responsible for their lives. In addition, the Greeks believed that eating meat would be harmful to one’s health and mind [ 21 ]. Vegetarianism was also present during the Roman Empire, influenced by the Greek culture. However, with the rise of Christianity, abstaining from animal consumption lost its importance. Famous Christian thinkers such as Saint Thomas Aquinas and Saint Augustine sought to provide rational justifications for the exploitation and consumption of animals, spreading the idea that, unlike animals, human beings have souls and free will, and that animals are inferior beings, placed on Earth at the service of humans [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Only a few monks still maintained the practice, based on the belief that meat consumption would hinder their spiritual progress in some way because it was linked to impulsive behaviors [ 5 ].

In the 15th century, vegetarianism was advocated by Leonardo da Vinci, who believed that there was no distinction between the murder of humans and animals. However, it was only after the spread of Darwin’s theory of evolution that vegetarianism gained strength again in the late 18th century and early 19th century. Darwinism refuted the idea that human beings are fundamentally different from other animals—therefore, there were no plausible justifications for meat consumption [ 5 ]. At that time, the first vegetarian societies also began to emerge, and some Christian groups began to preach in favor of abstaining from meat based on the belief that animals should also be worthy of pity. It was only then that the term “vegetarianism” came to be used. Despite the general belief that it refers to “eating vegetables”, the term actually derives from “vegetus”, a Latin word that means “active” or “vigorous” [ 22 ]. An important name in the history of vegetarianism, in addition to the various vegetarian groups and societies that emerged in the 20th century, was Mahatma Gandhi, who contributed to its dissemination [ 19 ].

Albert Einstein believed that humanity’s evolution toward a vegetarian diet would be fundamental for the survival of life on Earth [ 21 ]. In Europe, the first International Vegetarian Union was founded in 1908, after other vegetarian societies had already emerged in several countries. From the 1960s onwards, a greater concern with food and health, associated with evidence of the potential benefits of a vegetarian diet for disease prevention, contributed to the spread of vegetarianism. Religious practices that preach respect for life and adopt nonviolence principles, such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism, the Hare Krishna movement, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church, were also fundamental to this growth. Therefore, the world has seen a significant rise and expansion of the practice since the mid-20th century [ 4 ].

In recent years, vegetarianism has gained more visibility and a greater number of followers. Rosenfeld [ 23 ] describes a great expansion in the scientific literature on the psychological and social effects of choosing a vegetarian diet. Some topics started to attract more attention, such as motivations; barriers to adopting such diets; differences between vegetarians and vegans; morality; and gender differences. New research lines have emerged to explore issues associated with personal identity and social and cultural experiences [ 23 ].

Adherence to a vegetarian diet goes beyond food. Vegetarianism can be considered a social identity, as it reflects the motivations, feelings, and attitudes of those who choose to adopt it [ 24 ]. The main motivations for choosing a vegetarian diet are related to ethical and health aspects. Animal welfare is the main motivator, followed by concerns with major environmental impacts caused by the production and consumption of food of animal origin. Regarding health, general well-being and weight maintenance are the factors that most motivate the adoption of vegetarianism [ 23 ]. In addition, religious aspects can lead individuals to adopt a vegetarian diet, and religions such as Hinduism, Adventism and Spiritism preach abstaining from meat. Other less frequent factors, such as aversion to the taste of meat, food intolerances and allergies, and the influence of other people (family members, for example) can also be considered motivators for adopting a vegetarian diet [ 4 , 7 , 9 , 21 ].

There are several types of vegetarian diets commonly described in the literature. The most consensual classification consists of four different types, namely: (1) flexitarian or semivegetarian diet, in which people consume meat sporadically (up to once a week) or exclude red meat, but consume white meat; (2) pesco-vegetarian or pescatarian diet, which excludes all meats, except fish and seafood; (3) ovolactovegetarian diet, which excludes all types of meat, but allows products of animal origin, such as dairy products and eggs; and (4) strict vegetarianism, which excludes all products of animal origin [ 8 , 25 ].

In addition to these categories, other diets can be considered subclassifications of vegetarianism, namely: (1) raw vegan diet, which is mostly based on food in its most natural (raw) state, with an emphasis on the choice of organic and self-grown products; (2) frugal or frugivorous diet, which is similar to the raw vegan diet, but with 70–80 percent of the diet being composed of fruits, with a small proportion of nuts, seeds and some vegetables; and (3) macrobiotic diets, which encompass various degrees of restriction but are primarily composed of whole grains, soybeans, algae and some vegetables [ 25 , 26 ].

3. Quality of Life

According to the WHO, QoL is a multifactorial concept that includes the following domains: physical (physical state), psychological (affective and cognitive state), social (interpersonal relationships and social roles in the lives of individuals) and environmental (quality of the environment in which individuals live). Conceptual, pragmatic and empirical dimensions, as well as spiritual and religious aspects, can also contribute to people’s QoL and their ability to perform certain activities, or “functionality”. Building on that, QoL is defined as “individuals’ perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns” [ 14 , 15 ].

The terms “quality of life” and “well-being” are often used to indicate how well an individual feels. There is, however, a problem of interpretation resulting from the subjectivity of these concepts, which may acquire a broader or more specific connotation depending on the context. QoL can be subdivided into: the quality of the environment in which one lives, involving the physical structure of the environment and people’s integration in the society in which they live; physical and mental health, encompassing a wide range of individual capacities; usefulness, which involves the feeling of “being useful”, contributing to the welfare of other people, society, and the environment; and the appreciation of life, which is associated with tangible (wealth, for example) and intangible (such as life satisfaction and happiness) aspects [ 27 ].

Although it is difficult to group all these qualities into a single concept, the best general indicator of QoL would be how happy you feel and how long you live. The concept of “well-being”, in turn, usually denotes QoL in a wider sense, as well as a positive subjective assessment of life, or an appreciation of life. However, sometimes the concepts of “well-being” and “quality of life” are used interchangeably [ 27 ].

The connection between vegetarianism and QoL may be analyzed through different perspectives [ 14 , 15 ]. In the context of vegetarianism, each QoL domain proposed by the WHO (physical, psychological, social, and environmental) may be influenced by the adoption of a vegetarian diet. The opposite may also be said, that is, specific aspects of each domain might influence one’s decision to adopt a vegetarian diet. Moreover, these influences could be either positive or negative. The possible connections between vegetarianism and QoL domains are illustrated in Figure 1 .

Connections between aspects of vegetarianism and quality of life domains. The arrows indicate the direction of the influence, that is, whether a given domain influences or is influenced by certain aspects of vegetarianism. The plus (+) and minus (−) symbols indicate positive and negative influences, respectively. NCD: noncommunicable diseases; VD: vegetarian diet.

3.1. Physical Domain

The physical domain refers to aspects as pain, discomfort, energy, fatigue, sleep, and rest. Aspects that positively contribute to a general feeling of physical well-being are therefore relevant for understanding QoL. These include better general health, lower rates of chronic and inflammatory diseases, and lifespan [ 28 ].

3.1.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Physical Domain

Positive influence.

Following a vegetarian diet may lead to better health outcomes and a lower risk of noncommunicable diseases, which could positively influence the QoL physical domain ( Figure 1 ). A nutritionally adequate diet is essential to achieving and maintaining good overall health. A systematic review published by Parker and Vadiveloo [ 17 ] compared the quality of vegetarian and nonvegetarian diets based on diet quality indexes. That review included 12 studies and showed that vegetarians have better diet quality results than omnivores. Furthermore, among vegetarians, vegans achieved the best results. Although different indexes were used in the studies, several common points allowed a combined analysis of the results. Higher consumption of fruits, green vegetables, whole grains, and vegetable sources of protein—and lower consumption of saturated fat and sodium—contributed to the best results found among vegetarians [ 17 ].

A cross-sectional study carried out with vegetarians in Brazil (n = 3319) observed that vegetarians have better diet quality markers than the general Brazilian population, according to parameters used in a national annual survey carried out by the Ministry of Health [ 29 , 30 ]. It was observed that a higher proportion of vegetarians had a more adequate daily consumption of fruits and vegetables [ 29 ] compared to the general Brazilian population (38.1 percent versus 23.1 percent), based on WHO recommendations (five servings a day) [ 31 ]. In addition, a lower regular weekly consumption of soft drinks and artificial juices was also observed among vegetarians (3.9 percent versus 14.4 percent). Of the different types of vegetarians, vegans showed the best results. It was also observed that vegetarians in Brazil follow the recommendations set out in the Dietary Guidelines for the Brazilian Population with regard to consuming more fresh foods and fewer processed and ultraprocessed foods [ 32 ].

Vegetarian diets, including strict vegetarianism (veganism), are considered healthy and nutritionally adequate, and can supply people’s nutritional needs at all life stages, as long as such diets are well planned [ 18 ]. Moreover, the benefits related to the prevention and better control of chronic diseases among vegetarians have already been described, and could also lead to positive outcomes in their QoL.

The role of intestinal microbiota in the regulation of several biological functions and in the prevention of chronic diseases is well known, as well as the fundamental role of the diet in the microbiota and intestinal health of individuals [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. Excessive protein consumption could alter intestinal microbiota patterns by stimulating the proliferation of bacteria capable of fermenting amino acids. Such fermentation results in the production of molecules responsible for increased intestinal permeability, inflammation, and even cancer [ 36 ]. The consumption of vegetable sources of protein, on the other hand, is not associated with such adverse effects, possibly because they contain carbohydrates and fibers, which could mitigate the potentially deleterious effects observed in the intestine caused by the ingestion of proteins [ 36 ]. The intake of saturated fats, present mainly in animal foods, is another factor that contributes to an increase in systemic inflammation, possibly through the activation of Toll-like receptors (TLR), which, once activated, trigger a proinflammatory intestinal and systemic immune response [ 37 ]. The activation of TLRs and the subsequent inflammatory cascade result in an increased risk of metabolic disorders and chronic diseases, such as cancer, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular diseases [ 37 ].

Vegetarian diets usually have a higher content of carbohydrates and fibers, in addition to lower levels of proteins and fats—in particular saturated fats. Studies comparing the microbiota of vegetarians and nonvegetarians show that a plant-based diet can benefit the diversity and profile of the bacteria that make up the intestinal microbiota. In addition to differences observed in the microbiota, with a more favorable bacterial profile, a vegetarian diet (with high consumption of whole foods, fruits, and vegetables) leads to increased production of metabolites from the fermentation of prebiotics and phytochemicals by these bacteria, which also have a positive effect on the host’s health, both at intestinal and systemic levels, contributing to the prevention of chronic diseases [ 38 ].

Among chronic diseases, cardiovascular diseases account for 43.6 percent of deaths worldwide [ 39 ]. Positive results in the control of cardiovascular disease risk factors were observed in clinical trials that promoted lifestyle changes, including adopting vegetarian, vegan, and plant-based diets [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ]. A review of observational studies conducted in 2018 assessed cardiovascular risk factors in vegans. In most countries, vegetarian diets were associated with a lower intake of energy and saturated fat, and a better cardiovascular profile (lower body weight, LDL cholesterol levels, blood pressure, fasting glucose, and triglycerides) [ 44 ].

A 2019 review study conducted by the Diabetes and Nutrition Study Group (DNSG) of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) associated vegetarian eating patterns with a 28 percent reduction in the incidence of coronary heart disease, and a 22 percent drop in mortality from such conditions. That study gathered data from systematic reviews with meta-analyses correlating different dietary patterns and cardiometabolic outcomes in diabetic patients [ 45 ]. Following a balanced vegetarian diet can reduce systemic inflammation and the risk of diabetes, two factors that are closely linked to the onset and progression of cardiovascular disease [ 46 ].

The consumption of refined carbohydrates, saturated fats, processed meats, and sugary drinks increases the risk of type-2 diabetes, especially when combined with low consumption of dietary fibers. On the other hand, a low-calorie plant-based diet has a protective effect [ 47 ].

The prevalence of diabetes among vegetarians is 1.6 to 2 times lower than among omnivores [ 48 ]. In a 24-week controlled trial with diabetics, the individuals who followed a vegetarian diet showed greater weight loss (6.2 kg versus 3.2 kg, on average), better insulin sensitivity (30 percent versus 20 percent), greater reduction in visceral fat and medication use, in addition to a better hormonal profile (increased adiponectin and reduced leptin) and better levels of antioxidants, as compared to the ones following a standard diet for diabetes control [ 49 ].

Several factors contribute to the reduction in risks and a better control of diabetes. The first one is vegetarians’ better weight control. It is known that both obesity and the accumulation of visceral fat are linked to increased insulin resistance, which contributes to the onset of diabetes [ 47 ]. Vegetarians’ lower intake of saturated fats [ 17 ] also contributes to reducing the risk of diabetes. It has been shown that reducing the consumption of saturated fats or replacing them with unsaturated fats may contribute to improving insulin sensitivity [ 50 ]. Other factors, such as higher fiber intake [ 51 ], lower ferritin levels and lower intake of heme iron [ 52 ] among vegetarians are also related to better insulin resistance and lower risk of diabetes.

A vegetarian diet may also contribute to improving inflammation control. Foods of plant origin—when consumed in their most natural form—are rich in antioxidants, which can assist directly in the control of free radicals in the body (as in the case of antioxidant vitamins C and E), or even through several signaling pathways that modulate our immune response and the production of antioxidant compounds and enzymes, suppressing inflammatory responses [ 48 , 53 , 54 ]. Therefore, a plant-based diet that is rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, seeds, and nuts can help to control inflammatory processes.

A vegetarian diet may also bring benefits regarding cancer prevention. In addition to vegetarians’ better weight control results [ 55 ], which can be considered a protective factor against cancer [ 56 ], their higher consumption of dietary fibers could have protective effects due to the modulation of the intestinal microbiota. In addition, as previously described, excessive protein consumption can lead to an increased production of inflammatory metabolites by the intestinal microbiota [ 36 ], and the consumption of saturated fats (found mainly in foods of animal origin) is capable of activating Toll-like receptors in immune system cells. This stimulates the production of proinflammatory cytokines [ 37 ], and all these factors together can create a cancer-promoting environment.

In addition to the most common chronic diseases mentioned above, adopting a vegetarian diet can help to prevent and treat other inflammatory diseases. A healthier microbiota, higher consumption of antioxidants and lower consumption of potentially inflammatory compounds, in addition to better weight control, are important factors that positively contribute to the health of vegetarians. In fact, how long an individual has been following a vegetarian diet may have an important influence on their results—which depend on continuous exposure to this type of dietary pattern. In a study that evaluated only individuals who had been on a vegetarian diet for at least 15 years (n = 45), lower levels of oxidative stress markers were observed compared to omnivorous individuals (n = 30) [ 57 ].

Furthermore, promising results have already been achieved with the adoption of a vegetarian diet by individuals suffering from fibromyalgia, for example, including improvements in pain symptoms, QoL, sleep quality, and anxiety depression [ 58 ]. In autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and legumes—and low in animal foods—can help to control some of the symptoms [ 59 ]. A vegetarian diet could also be a beneficial tool to prevent other autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis [ 60 ], due to its role in the health of the intestinal microbiota [ 61 ].

Several factors related to lifestyle may influence the emergence of diseases and how long an individual can live. Habits such as regular physical activities, stress control, good personal relationships, and a balanced diet have a positive impact on longevity [ 62 ]. A more detailed analysis of the dietary patterns followed by the world’s longest-living populations, who live in regions known as Blue Zones, can help us understand important food-related aspects that might contribute to improving people’s health and life expectancy. The five regions considered Blue Zones are: Loma Linda (California—United States), Nicoya (Costa Rica), Sardinia (Italy) Ikaria (Greece), and Okinawa (Japan). In all of them, individuals adopt a predominantly plant-based diet, with sporadic meat consumption (on average five times a month, in small portions). On the other hand, the consumption of legumes is frequent in all of them, being part of their daily diet, in addition to vegetables, tubers, cereals, fruits, and other regional foods, including dairy products [ 63 ].

The increased consumption of fruits and vegetables—rich in phytochemicals—may contribute to longevity through several mechanisms. The control of low-grade inflammation provided by antioxidant protection can prevent cell structure damage, slowing down the aging process [ 64 ]. On the other hand, prioritizing the consumption of proteins from animal sources could have a negative impact on one’s life expectancy. The profile of the amino acids found in these foods, with a higher content of methionine and branched-chain amino acids, leads to greater stimulation of IGF-1 and mTOR, in addition to greater cell proliferation. This contributes to the cellular senescence process and, consequently, to aging [ 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ].

These potential health benefits of consuming a mostly or strictly plant-based diet can contribute to better physical health and well-being, resulting in better QoL. In fact, a cross-sectional study conducted with a total of 4628 individuals in the United Kingdom (with a wide range of diseases and conditions) showed that people who were ill had lower QoL scores than those feeling well. Post hoc comparisons indicated higher differences in the physical domain, especially among patients with musculoskeletal conditions (arthritis/arthroplasty, chronic pain), and those with cardiovascular disease awaiting a heart transplant [ 69 ]. Therefore, a diet that helps to prevent chronic and inflammatory diseases could also reduce the negative effects of these conditions on people’s QoL.

Negative Influence

Despite the potential health benefits from adopting a vegetarian diet, special attention should be given to the adequacy of iron, zinc, vitamins B12 and D, calcium, iodine, omega-3, and protein in adults [ 70 ], and especially in infants [ 71 ]. Low intake of such nutrients could lead to nutritional deficiencies and impair an individual’s health [ 70 , 72 ], with a negative impact on their QoL.

Vitamin B12 deficiency should be highlighted, as this nutrient can only be found in animal-origin foods. Vegetarians (especially vegans) have been shown to have lower levels of serum vitamin B12. In addition, increased homocysteine levels [ 73 , 74 , 75 ] are observed, a metabolite that is elevated due to deficiency of vitamin B12 (and other nutrients), and which is associated with increased inflammation. B12 deficiency and increased homocysteine can lead to neurological problems, anemia and developmental delay in children, in addition to increasing the risks of cardiovascular disease, dementia, osteoporosis and death [ 73 , 75 ]. For this reason, it is necessary to monitor and supplement vitamin B12 levels among this groups, and possibly encourage the intake of fortified foods.

Iron, an essential mineral used for hemoglobin formation and oxygen transport in the body, also needs to be carefully adjusted. Vegetarians have been shown to have lower serum ferritin levels, a protein responsible for storing iron in the body. Lower levels of iron could increase the risk of developing anemia [ 76 ], which might also be caused by vitamin B12 deficiency [ 75 ]. In this scenario, an inadequately planned vegetarian diet could negatively affect aspects related to “energy and fatigue” in the physical domain of QoL [ 28 ].

Bone health should also be addressed when considering the potential negative effects of a vegetarian diet. A systematic review published in 2019 showed that vegetarians and vegans had lower bone mineral density than omnivores, and vegans also had higher fracture rates. Such results were unlikely explained only by lower calcium intake, as bone health encompasses many complex mechanisms and depends on different nutrients [ 77 ]. A recent cross-sectional study also found lower bone health in vegans when compared to omnivores (measured using quantitative ultrasound—QUS) [ 78 ], which reinforces the need for proper diet planning and careful bone health monitoring among vegetarians.

3.1.2. Influence of the Physical Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

Seeking health improvement is one of the reasons why people chose to adopt a vegetarian diet [ 7 ]. According to Hopwood et al. [ 79 ], health was the most common reason why nonvegetarians considered adhering to a vegetarian diet. Vegetarianism is currently being more widely studied, and a growing number of scientific papers about the topic have been published over the past few years [ 80 ]. Consequently, the topic has received more attention from the media, and more information is reaching the general population. As more people are informed about the health benefits of adopting a vegetarian diet, the need or desire to improve their health might serve as a trigger. A study conducted in Germany with 329 vegans showed that more than two-thirds of them (69.6 percent), despite having more than one motive for following the diet, included health and well-being among them [ 81 ].

In this sense, following a vegetarian diet is both the cause and consequence of the positive outcomes related to the physical domain. People who seek health improvement may be prone to adopting a vegetarian diet; and, once they do it, the physical benefits may serve as further motivation for maintaining their new diet.

3.2. Psychological Domain

The psychological domain is related to positive or negative feelings, self-esteem and body image/appearance, and thinking/learning/memory/concentration. Different aspects of vegetarianism can either influence or be influenced by psychological factors ( Figure 1 ) [ 28 ].

3.2.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Psychological Domain

Avoiding meat and other animal products can enhance positive feelings arising from the fact that person is adopting an attitude that confirms their beliefs. The positive psychological impact goes beyond the individual sphere, as it can also increase social connections with others adopting similar ideas and behaviors. According to Rosenfeld and Burrow [ 24 ], being a vegetarian goes beyond the choice of a dietary pattern, as it gives individuals a new social identity, which influences their way of thinking, behaving, and socializing. The adoption of a plant-based diet can have a positive effect on well-being and contentment, which could positively impact someone’s QoL [ 82 ].

The different motivations for adopting vegetarianism are also able to influence individuals psychologically. Those who adopt vegetarianism for ethical reasons tend to create more aversion to meat due to the association between its consumption and animal suffering. Such individuals also exclude more animal foods and tend to adopt stricter diets than those who become vegetarians for health or environmental reasons [ 23 ]. That does not necessarily implicate a negative outcome, though. As it has been shown by Cruwys et al. [ 83 ], vegetarians and vegans are more likely to report no barriers to diet adherence (25.2 percent of vegans and 15.6 percent of vegetarians) when compared to individuals following a gluten-free, paleo, or weight-loss diet. Indeed, both vegans and vegetarians had higher diet adherence when compared to the other groups, which might be connected to positive psychological effects related to the social identification within the vegetarian/vegan community.

Potentially negative outcomes of vegetarianism in the psychological domain could be related to mental health impairment. The data related to the effect of vegetarianism on mental health are conflicting. Adopting a vegetarian diet was positively associated with a better mood in a cross-sectional study with Seventh-day Adventists [ 84 ]. A study of South Asians living in the United States found that the likelihood of depression was 43 percent lower among vegetarians [ 85 ]. However, a contrary association has also been observed: in the United Kingdom, a positive association of depressive symptoms was found in men, even after adjusting for confounding factors such as nutritional deficiencies and sociodemographic data [ 86 ]. Similar results were found among adolescents in a study conducted in Turkey, in which higher levels of anxiety, as well as eating disorders, were observed. That study raises the possibility that a vegetarian diet might be adopted among young people as a way of limiting food intake, and that it might be related to preexisting eating disorders [ 87 ].

Discrepant results have already been observed in a study that evaluated mental health in representative population samples from Germany, Russia, and the United States, in addition to samples from students in China and Germany. An increase in anxiety and depression was observed only in the sample from China, but the result was considered mild since a vegetarian diet would explain only 1 percent of the variance in cases of depression and anxiety. In addition, the motivations that led Chinese students to adopt a vegetarian diet differed from those of the other groups studied, being more related to cultural and economic factors [ 88 ]. A study with Chinese elderly people also found a positive association between adopting a plant-based diet and depression compared to a meat-based diet. However, the correlation was observed only in men [ 89 ].

A French cohort’s cross-section study carried out a separate analysis by types of vegetarian diets, and identified a positive association between depressive symptoms and a fish diet and an ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet. However, no association was found with a vegan diet, which contradicts the idea that a stricter diet (excluding more or all animal products) would lead to more severe symptoms of depression [ 90 ]. The authors claim that differences in motivation (between vegans and other vegetarians) may have contributed to this group’s lack of association. In addition, the same study found a positive association between depressive symptoms and the exclusion of items from the diet, both for foods of animal and vegetable origin. That is, the more items excluded (not types of food, but number of products excluded), the greater the symptoms. Such a result could indicate that the higher levels of depression found in vegetarians in several studies could reflect an increase in risk related to diet restriction, and not necessarily to vegetarianism itself [ 90 ].

Another point that needs to be considered is that studies on depression in vegetarians are predominantly transversal, and therefore do not enable the determination of a cause-and-effect relationship. A study that evaluated mental disorders and adopting a vegetarian diet in the previous 12 months (through interviews with a population sample in Germany) also found a positive association between the two variables. However, the time difference between the beginning of both suggests that mental disorders preceded the change in diet, thus refuting the hypothesis that vegetarianism might cause mental disorders [ 91 ].

A systematic review study carried out by Medawar et al. [ 92 ] points out that, despite several health benefits related to adopting a vegetarian diet, its effect on mental health has yet to be properly studied. It is possible that nutritional deficiencies, such as lower levels of vitamin B12, contribute to worsening the nervous system’s health. On the other hand, a diet that favors a more balanced intestinal microbiota, such as a vegetarian diet, positively contributes to the maintenance of neurological functions due to its importance in modulating the gut-brain axis [ 92 ]. In a meta-analysis study published in 2016, it has also been observed that the consumption of fruits and vegetables is inversely associated with the risk of depression [ 93 ]. Vegetarians consume more fruits and vegetables than omnivorous individuals [ 17 ], and also tend to have better health markers and lower risk of other chronic diseases [ 94 ]. In view of this, the conflicting results on the relationship between vegetarianism and depression may reflect a lack of standardization with regard to diet quality and adequate intake (or supplementation) of nutrients in some of the studies, as well as the possibility already raised of reverse causality.

3.2.2. Influence of the Psychological Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

The main reason individuals decide to adopt a vegetarian diet is because of ethical/moral reasons [ 7 , 9 ], which is related to compassion and empathy towards the animals. Since some people feel that eating animal products is wrong, abstaining from their consumption could contribute to a better psychological state. Adopting a vegetarian diet can bring about positive feelings, such as altruism and a sense of purpose, while the pursuit of such guilt-free peace of mind could also positively influence one’s choice to adopt a vegetarian diet. A study conducted by Antonetti and Maklan [ 95 ] showed that experiencing either guilt or pride could change consumers’ behavior and their intention to purchase more sustainable products. Building on that, feeling guilty about eating animal products could lead to a behavioral change, and feeling proud of doing it could reinforce the maintenance of a vegetarian diet.

Moreover, some individuals adopt a vegetarian diet due to spiritual or religious reasons [ 7 ]. Spirituality is a concept related to people’s quest for the meaning in life and a connection to a higher or sacred power. On the other hand, religiousness is related to the degree in which an individual believes, follows, and practices a religion, which might influence how one chooses to live their lives [ 96 ]. An individual who follows a religion that preaches abstention from animal products might feel encouraged to adopt a vegetarian diet. Good adherence to the diet could, in this case, be a positive psychological reinforcement, as it would be in line with their own beliefs. As it has already been demonstrated, high levels of spirituality and religiosity are associated with better social, psychological, and environmental QoL outcomes [ 96 ].

Despite the positive outcomes related to the adoption of a vegetarian diet, some challenges can be found. For many, the barriers to adopting vegetarianism outweigh the possible benefits, and may prevent them from taking that step. Studies corroborate the evidence that attachment to the taste of meat constitutes an obstacle to adopting vegetarianism [ 97 , 98 ]. In addition, other barriers may be considered, such as the fear that a vegetarian diet could be nutritionally inadequate or monotonous, or that it may not favor satiety; the belief that preparing vegetarian meals is harder; difficulties in finding options when eating in restaurants; living with people who eat meat; and a lack of knowledge about meat-free eating [ 97 , 99 , 100 , 101 ]. Especially among men, meat is considered a “comfort food”, and its intake is associated with strength, muscle building, and masculinity. These beliefs represent a barrier to reducing meat consumption, as demonstrated by a study with soldiers from Norway who evaluated their perception of the implementation of the “Meatless Monday” program [ 97 ]. The program is a worldwide campaign, adopted in more than 40 countries, which aims to make people aware of the advantages of reducing meat consumption [ 102 ].

These results are in line with older studies conducted by Lea et al. [ 103 , 104 ]. Having a taste for meat was considered the main barrier for the adoption of a vegetarian diet, but other important factors have also been described, such as, for example, difficulties in changing one’s eating pattern; the fact that family and friends may still eat meat; little knowledge about the subject; and difficulties in finding vegetarian options when eating out [ 103 ].

Moreover, according to another study from Lea et al. [ 104 ], some of the factors that prevent or hinder the adoption of a plant-based dietary pattern are related to one’s family (family members or close people do not adopt this eating pattern); convenience (difficulty finding options or preparing food); health (fear of iron, protein and other nutrient deficiencies); cost and lack of options for eating out; and lack of information about vegetarianism. The low prevalence of adopting a plant-based diet among the participants demonstrates that several factors discourage its adoption—even though it is a more flexible dietary pattern than a vegetarian diet.

All these barriers interconnect with the social domain, as they are influenced by the social context in which an individual is inserted. Nevertheless, the negative psychological effects refer to how individuals react to these fears or barriers, which might negatively affect their choice of adopting a vegetarian diet. As described by Schmitt et al. [ 105 ], the perception of discrimination, both about an individual and a group, has an impact on well-being, with potential psychological consequences (contributing to mental stress, anxiety, depression) and affecting other aspects, such as self-esteem, humor, and satisfaction with life [ 105 ].

3.3. Social Domain

The social domain related to QoL includes personal relationships and social support [ 28 ]. In fact, having good social connections is essential for mental health and well-being, positively influencing one’s QoL. In this case, the consequences of adopting a vegetarian diet have to be analyzed based on the social and cultural group in which an individual is inserted, as well as the attitudes of close people towards vegetarianism.

3.3.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Social Domain

Unlike other dietary patterns, vegetarianism goes beyond the definition of one’s food choices. Rather, it is defined as a social identity, which consists of how a person identifies themselves in terms of the social group in which they believe to belong. A study conducted with young vegan women revealed that not only did they identify with the diet, but they also passionately engaged in a “vegan lifestyle”. The choice of becoming a vegan had positive effects in many different ways, including social relationships, and identification and sense of connection with the vegan subculture [ 106 ]. Therefore, the choice of following a vegetarian diet can enhance one’s connection with other people who share the same life philosophy [ 107 ], strengthening social bonds and positively influencing one’s QoL ( Figure 1 ).

Many of those who decide to adopt vegetarianism suffer rejection from others and are victims of stereotyping and discrimination. Such negative attitudes towards vegetarians and vegans are known as “vegaphobia” or “veganophobia”, a term already spread in the scientific literature. A possible explanation for the discrimination against vegetarians and vegans is related to the cognitive dissonance suffered by individuals who eat meat. In this context, cognitive dissonance refers to the contradiction experienced by individuals who like animals and feel compassion for them, but, at the same time, consume meat. Therefore, individuals who eat meat may discriminate against vegetarians not out of fear or dislike, but because they represent an affirmation that eating meat is not necessary and is, therefore, unjustified [ 108 ].

In order to avoid conflict and embarrassment, many vegetarians prefer to omit their dietary choice. In fact, social aspects are so relevant that the greatest reason why vegetarians make exceptions and eat meat is due to pressure from friends, family, and coworkers. According to Rosenfeld and Tomiyama [ 109 ], in a qualitative study that evaluated dieters’ motivations to break their diet, 51 percent of individuals reported having already eaten meat after adopting vegetarianism. In general, their justifications do not involve missing meat itself, but rather an attempt to avoid uncomfortable situations in a social context. The fear of being rude or offending some family culture or tradition, the need to make a good impression, or the fear of being stigmatized are some of the most important factors that lead vegetarians to stop following their diets momentarily. Such a study reinforces the idea that vegetarianism goes far beyond a dietary choice, creating a social identity that influences the entire context in which an individual is inserted [ 109 ].

The negative consequences of a vegetarian identity usually have a stronger impact on vegans than vegetarians because the former suffer more rejection and are viewed more negatively by omnivores [ 23 ]. Such discrimination comes not only from nonvegetarian people, but also from the media, as demonstrated by Cole and Morgan [ 110 ] in a study that evaluated how veganism was reported in UK newspapers. Such a study concluded that the media tends to present vegans as sentimentalists, fanatics and extremists, in addition to mocking veganism and considering it impossible to maintain in practice.

3.3.2. Influence of the Social Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

Vegetarians and vegans also showed more adherence to their diet when compared to individuals who follow a paleo, gluten-free, or weight-loss diet. Social identification was an important predictor of adherence in both quantitative and qualitative analyses. According to Cruwys et al. [ 83 ], vegetarians and vegans described their diet not as an individual choice, but as a manifestation of their social ethics. Ethical and moral concerns were considered the most important facilitators of diet adherence, and a lack of adherence would go against the group’s moral code. Feeling part of a social group can also positively influence how strictly one sticks to a dietary pattern. The sense of belonging and the in-group social reinforcement could make it easier for individuals to maintain their dietary patterns, provided they feel supported by the group.

Vegetarians that have a close circle of vegetarian contacts (friends, family or coworkers) have been shown to have higher QoL than those who do not [ 13 ]. In this case, they can be positively influenced by their social environment. Moreover, just as the social context in which vegetarians are inserted may influence their adherence to the diet, individuals who eat meat may also be influenced by living with vegetarians. In their study, Geerts, Backer, and Erreygers [ 108 ] described some characteristics of meat-consuming individuals, with emphasis on the fact that meat consumption is considerably lower among those living with vegetarians in the same household. In addition, discrimination against vegetarians was less common among individuals who had vegetarians in their household or circle of friends. Thus, greater acceptance and lower levels of veganophobia among meat consumers (resulting from their close contacts with vegetarians) may have a positive influence on other individuals’ feeling more comfortable when adopting a vegetarian diet.

Cultural aspects are relevant predictors of meat consumption. The consumption of different species of animals varies between cultures. Animals considered suitable for consumption in some countries may not be seen in the same way by individuals of other nationalities. As demonstrated by Ruby [ 111 ], in countries considered individualistic (such as the United States and Canada), a feeling of disgust is the primary attitude of certain individuals when faced with the idea of eating certain animals. On the other hand, in more collectivist nations, such as China and India, cultural norms influence individual emotions and the sense of morality, being the greatest predictor for not consuming meat.

Moreover, gender differences may also influence one’s choice of eating or avoiding animal products. Meat consumption is usually seen as a symbol of masculinity and dominance over other species in several cultures where meat is considered a proper food for men [ 23 , 97 ]. In addition, men tend to eat less fruits and vegetables; care less about the nutritional properties of the food they eat; and agree more with the belief that a healthy diet needs to include meat [ 7 , 112 ]. According to Rosenfeld and Tomiyama [ 98 ], men are more resistant to adopting a vegetarian diet, mainly because they believe that a meatless diet would not be tasty. In addition, women are more likely to believe that meat consumption is harmful to the environment and that adopting vegetarianism is a plausible and healthy choice [ 113 ]. In fact, large population studies such as the Epic-Oxford [ 114 ] and the Adventist Health Study 2 [ 115 ] identified a higher proportion of females among vegetarians, with 78 percent and 65 percent of the sample consisting of women.

Such gender differences may influence the adoption of vegetarianism depending on the sociocultural context in which an individual is inserted. A study by Ruby et al. [ 116 ] with participants from Argentina, Brazil, the United States, and France (countries that are among the largest consumers of beef in the world) revealed that men consume beef more frequently and enjoy the taste of it more, while women show more negative attitudes towards the consumption of red meat, such as disgust. The same study also demonstrated that there are cultural differences related to the acceptance of vegetarianism. American women showed greater admiration for vegetarianism, while French women were the ones who admired vegetarians the least. Participants from Brazil and Argentina, considering the entire sample, demonstrated more positive attitudes toward beef consumption, followed by participants from France and, finally, from the United States [ 116 ].

3.4. Environmental Domain

The environment in which an individual is inserted also exerts an important influence on their QoL. Living in a safe and healthy environment, with proper social care and an efficient transport system, opportunities for acquiring new information and skills, as well as recreation/leisure areas, are all relevant factors. Moreover, having good financial resources can positively contribute to a good QoL. On the other hand, factors that have a negative impact on the environment, such as pollution and climate change, could also negatively affect one’s QoL [ 28 ].

3.4.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Environmental Domain

Following a more sustainable diet, which will contribute to a healthier environment, could positively influence QoL ( Figure 1 ). In general, plant-based diets are more sustainable than those based on animal foods, as they require fewer natural resources for food production and have a lower impact on the environment. An omnivorous diet is estimated to require 2.9 times more water, 2.5 times more energy, 13 times more fertilizers, and 1.4 times more pesticides than a vegetarian diet [ 117 ]. In addition, meat and dairy production contribute 80 percent of all gas emissions from food production, and 24 percent of total greenhouse gases coming from food. Livestock production uses about 70 percent of all agricultural land globally, and consumes 29 percent of all water spent on agriculture [ 118 ].

Regarding the analysis of different types of diets, the data from 34 articles gathered in a systematic review showed that the more a diet is plant-based, the more sustainable it is. The vegan diet was considered the most sustainable of all, with the lowest greenhouse gas emissions and the least environmental impact, especially when based on locally produced foods and with a lower consumption of ultraprocessed meat substitutes. Ovolactovegetarian diets have a greater environmental impact than vegan diets, and it has been shown that 40 percent of greenhouse gases from ovolactovegetarian diets are attributed to the consumption of dairy products [ 118 ].

The production of animal-origin food is very inefficient in terms of energy, as it requires the use of many resources (water, energy, land, food) to keep animals alive. The animals themselves use much of the energy and nutrients in the form of food to maintain their metabolism, whereas only a small part of it is actually stored and converted into food for humans in the form of meat. This amount of energy wasted during production, standardized through the rate of the conversion of energy into protein, varies considerably from one animal to another. Whereas 4 calories from fossil fuels are required for each calorie of chicken protein that is produced, 40 calories are required for the production of 1 calorie of beef protein. For pork and dairy production, the rate is 14 fuel calories for each calorie of protein. In the case of eggs, the value is similar to that of beef (39 calories). On average, the energy used to produce each gram of animal protein (25 kcal/g) is 11 times greater than that used to produce vegetable proteins (2.2 kcal/g) [ 119 ].

In general, in the case of plant-origin foods, the higher the protein concentration, the greater the energy efficiency (which means that such foods need less energy to provide greater amounts of protein, as they are more concentrated in protein). Such an association does not exist for foods of animal origin, as their energy demand is very high—in fact, a decline in energy efficiency is observed as protein concentration increases (that is, foods with a higher protein concentration are those that demand more energy) [ 120 , 121 ].

According to Aleksandrowicz et al. [ 122 ], the change from a typical Western diet to more sustainable food patterns could reduce greenhouse gas emissions and land use related to food production by up to 80 percent, in addition to a 50 percent reduction in water use. In that study, all diets involved reducing or replacing animal foods with others of plant origin (such as, for example, vegetarian, vegan, Mediterranean and pescatarian diets), in addition to replacing the consumption of ruminant animals with monogastric animals [ 122 ]. Similar results were observed in a study by Rosi et al. [ 12 ] in Italy, which showed that vegetarian diets (ovolactovegetarian and vegan) had a lower ecological footprint in the three aspects assessed: CO 2 production, water consumption, and land use. Corroborating these data, a global analysis of different dietary strategies to reduce the environmental impact and improve health estimated that, in developed countries, the replacement of animal foods with plant-origin foods could reduce the number of premature deaths by up to 12 percent, and greenhouse gas emissions by up to 84 percent [ 123 ].

3.4.2. Influence of the Environmental Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

Environmental issues are part of the motivations that lead individuals to reduce meat consumption or adopt a vegetarian diet. The concept of sustainability applied to food refers to a diet that, in addition to being nutritionally adequate and healthy, respects biodiversity and ecosystems, is accessible, culturally accepted, and contributes to preserving natural resources [ 124 ].

A motivation to live in a healthier and more sustainable environment may positively influence people to adopt and maintain a vegetarian diet, as it has already been proved that a more plant-based diet has a lower environmental impact when compared to animal-based diets [ 122 ]. Individuals who are naturally engaged in sustainability and environmental issues are more likely to have positive feelings related to a sense of altruism achieved from adopting a vegetarian diet. The possibility of protecting their own environment and contributing to a better world can bring a sense of purpose in life [ 125 ], which could positively influence diet adherence and QoL.

Adopting a vegetarian diet may depend on other factors beyond an individual’s will. Economic aspects, both at the global level (economic situation of the country) and the individual level (income and social status), could influence food choices. In general, the lower the income, the greater its influence on food. People with higher income suffer less from fluctuations in food prices and are more demanding in their choices. Likewise, in poorer countries, the consumption of certain foods is highly influenced by their prices, which does not occur with the same intensity in developed countries [ 126 ]. The influence of economic aspects on the nutritional quality of a diet is quite variable. For example, it has been shown that increased income leads to a higher intake of fruit. However, the same increase might lead to eating out more often, or consuming more processed foods, in addition to eating more meat and fewer legumes [ 126 ]. Moreover, a cross-sectional study carried out in the United States showed that lower income levels were associated with poorer quality of food—in particular, lower consumption of fruits and vegetables and higher consumption of sugary drinks and frozen desserts [ 127 ].

The economic context is one of the factors that may influence the adoption of vegetarianism. On the one hand, the price of animal-origin foods may cause individuals to reduce their consumption. A study carried out in Canada found that an increase in meat price led 37.9 percent of individuals to reduce or eliminate their consumption. Still, as it is a food that is part of local culture, individuals value meat consumption more than any other food group. Therefore, despite economic issues, cultural aspects may also be considered an important barrier to reducing meat consumption [ 128 ]. In Australia, it has been shown that price increases are the biggest motivators for reductions in meat consumption, a factor that was considered more relevant than health, religious, ethical, and environmental aspects, among others [ 129 ]. Therefore, understanding the economic context in which individuals live is essential for understanding the motivations that lead them to reduce their meat consumption and possibly adopt vegetarianism.

Reducing meat consumption also depends on access to various plant-origin foods, which is also limited by economic issues. In Brazil, for example, the consumption of fruits and vegetables is influenced by prices and family income, with the cost burden being indicated as the primary barrier [ 130 ]. Data from the Brazilian Household Budget Survey (POF) showed that individuals from lower income groups spend a higher percentage of their budget on food. Families with a monthly income of up to BRL 1908.00 spend 22.6 percent of their household budget on food, compared with only 7.6 percent among families whose monthly income exceeds BRL 23,850.00 [ 131 ]. One of the barriers to adopting a vegetarian diet is the perception that it would be more expensive [ 98 ]. However, a vegetarian diet could be considered cheaper than an omnivorous diet, since meat is often the most expensive food item. In Brazil, a national survey from 2017–18 revealed that over 20 percent of all household food expenses were spent on “meats, viscera and fish”, a percentage higher than to any other food item [ 131 ]. Still, a vegetarian diet could become more expensive when more meat-substitute foods (which are less accessible) are consumed [ 132 ].

Another factor that could hinder the adoption of a healthy vegetarian diet is the logistics involving access to fresh fruits and vegetables. As they are perishable foods and are usually eaten fresh (unlike meats and other foods, which are often frozen and stored for longer), many types of fruits and vegetables require more frequent trips to the market, and adequate storage to minimize losses. Therefore, the consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables could be affected by people’s lack of time to purchase these foods frequently, and by losses resulting from inadequate storage. In other words, the perishability of fruits and vegetables could generate a cost increase. In addition, especially among low-income individuals, a more restricted access to fresh food is a factor that negatively influences its consumption [ 133 ]. Moreover, lower education levels could also negatively influence one’s decision to adopt a vegetarian diet, as a positive association has been demonstrated between higher educational levels and the adoption of a vegetarian diet [ 114 , 134 ]. In view of this, educating individuals to make healthier and more economically viable choices could encourage more people to adopt vegetarianism. Public policies that help reduce prices and facilitate access to fruits, vegetables, and other plant-origin foods could also help more people to reduce their meat consumption.

4. Vegetarians’ Quality of Life

A vegetarian diet’s effect on QoL was assessed in a cross-sectional study carried out with runners. A convenience sample was selected from German-speaking countries, namely Germany, Switzerland and Austria, and a total of 281 individuals (158 vegetarians and 123 omnivores) participated in the study. The instrument used to assess QoL was the WHOQOL-BREF, which was applied virtually to the study subjects. The results showed that all participants scored high on QoL, regardless of the type of diet adopted, with no difference between groups. Therefore, it was concluded that runners have high levels of QoL, and that a vegetarian diet was as good as an omnivorous diet for this population segment [ 135 ].

In Brazil, a specific questionnaire to evaluate the QoL of vegetarians was developed and validated, since other studies used only general questionnaires or others that were not specific to vegetarians [ 13 ]. The responses showed that vegetarians have satisfactory levels of QoL (average scores between 70 and 80 on a 100-point scale). Among the different types of vegetarians, vegans were the ones with the highest scores. Other factors that had an influence on participants’ QoL included their age, how long they had been following a vegetarian diet, and whether they had other vegetarians in their close circle of contacts [ 13 ].

In a clinical trial conducted with diabetic patients, the effect of a vegetarian diet on their QoL and eating behavior was compared to a standard diet used to treat type 2 diabetes. QoL was assessed using the Obesity and Weight-Loss QoL questionnaire (OWQOL) and Weight-Related Symptom Measure questionnaire (WRSM). Both diets led to positive effects on QoL and mood, but the effect was stronger in the group that followed a vegetarian diet, demonstrating that such a dietary pattern can have positive effects not only on the physical health, but also on the mental health of patients with type 2 diabetes [ 136 ].

Older studies [ 137 , 138 , 139 ] show similar results, with positive QoL outcomes when individuals were exposed to a vegetarian diet. Katcher, Ferdowsian, Hoover, Cohen, and Barnard [ 137 ] developed a workplace study in a US-based company as part of a health promotion program, in which volunteers adopted a vegan diet for 22 weeks. At the beginning and the end of the period, individuals answered the Food Acceptability Questionnaire—FAQ (SF) and the Work Productivity and Activity Impairment questionnaire (WPAI). The responses to the questionnaires showed that individuals who adopted the vegan diet reported improvement in general health, physical fitness, mental health, vitality and overall satisfaction with the diet, in addition to the reduced cost of food items. However, they reported more difficulty in finding options when eating out. Still, the vegan diet was effective in improving the participants’ QoL. QoL was also assessed in a study conducted at a health institute in the United States that offers a raw vegan diet to visitors and guests. Participants who remained at the institute for at least a week and who would maintain the raw vegan diet after leaving the institute were selected. A QoL analysis was performed at the beginning of the study and 12 weeks after the intervention, with a questionnaire that evaluated individual satisfaction with taste, food cost, convenience (ease of buying, planning and preparing food), and self-care perception. Individuals who followed the raw vegan diet for 12 weeks were compared to those who did not. There was an improvement both in the parameters of general QoL (assessed by SF-36), as well as in the QoL associated with changes in the diet, cost aspects and the perception of self-care. This shows the positive effect that this type of food can have in QoL, when used as a clinical treatment [ 138 ]

A study conducted in the United States by Barnard, Scialli, Bertron, Hurlock, and Edmonds [ 139 ] assessed the acceptability of a low-fat vegan diet in women. The study was carried out with 35 nonmenopausal women divided into two groups: one adopting the diet for a period equivalent to two menstrual cycles, and the other group not following any diet, with a crossover design. The low-fat vegan diet had high adherence and good acceptability, although the participants reported that maintaining the diet required more effort. They also reported weight loss and improved sleep, digestion and energy levels, which can positively contribute to improving QoL.

5. Summary of Knowledge and Future Directions

Adopting a vegetarian diet can have a positive influence on all four QoL domains. Better health outcomes and lower rates of noncommunicable diseases have a positive impact on the physical domain. Positive feelings associated with doing something good, together with a feeling of belonging or stronger in-group bonds created with the vegetarian community, have a positive effect on the psychological and social domains, respectively. Finally, the lower environmental impact of vegetarian diets benefits the environmental domain.

On the other hand, negative effects on QoL might also result from adopting a vegetarian diet. Despite better overall health, a nonbalanced vegetarian diet could lead to nutritional deficiencies that would be detrimental to health, affecting the physical domain. As vegetarians are still a minority group, rejection and stigmatization from nonvegetarians may have a negative impact on the social domain. The psychological and mental effects of a vegetarian diet are not clear, although some studies point to an increased risk of depression.

Several aspects of different QoL domains can also have an impact on one’s decision whether or not to adopt a vegetarian diet. Improving one’s health can be an important motivator to try a vegetarian diet. Ethical/moral and religious/spiritual reasons are important psychological aspects that can lead to the adoption of vegetarianism, while an attempt to reduce one’s environmental impact can motivate someone to adopt such a diet. Becoming part of a social group and achieving a sense of belonging can also be a trigger for someone to become vegetarian.

Just as some individuals might feel motivated to follow a vegetarian diet for a number of different reasons, others might feel discouraged due to psychological, social, or environmental factors. A fear of being stigmatized or excluded from their social group could hinder one’s intention of becoming a vegetarian. Moreover, cultural aspects that enhance meat consumption could have the same effect, together with the connection that people make between meat and masculinity. Finally, since the adoption of an alternative dietary pattern also relies on environmental factors, such as food availability and economics, individuals may face difficulties when adopting a vegetarian diet if they lack a good supply of plant-based food options.

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, vegetarianism can either influence or be influenced by different QoL domains. The choice of adopting a vegetarian diet can have positive consequences, such as better physical health, positive feelings related to the adoption of a morally correct attitude, an increased sense of belonging (to a vegetarian community) and lower environmental impact. On the other hand, factors that go beyond an individual’s control, such as the environment and social/cultural group in which they are inserted, as well as gender-based differences, economic aspects, and limited access to a wide variety of plant-based foods, can negatively impact the QoL of those choosing to abstain from meats or other animal products. Despite the low number of studies on vegetarianism and quality of life, the existing evidence points toward a more positive impact. It is important to understand all the effects of adopting a vegetarian diet—beyond its nutritional aspects. Not only do studies in this area provide more consistent data, but they may also contribute to mitigating all factors that might prevent individuals from adopting a vegetarian diet, or that may have a negative impact on the quality of life of those who already follow it. Further studies are necessary to understand how strongly these connections between QoL domains and vegetarianism can influence the individuals who adopt this dietary pattern.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknoledge the “Programa de Pós Graduação em Nutrição Humana da Universidade de Brasília (PPGNH/UnB)” and Luiz Eduardo S. Hargreaves for the support.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; methodology, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; investigation, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; writing—review and editing, S.M.H., A.R., A.S. and R.P.Z.; visualization, S.M.H., R.P.Z., A.R.; supervision, R.P.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Home / IELTS, CAE, FCE Writing Samples / IELTS Writing Task 2: Vegetarianism

IELTS Writing Task 2: Vegetarianism

As veganism trending is becoming extremely common, many people hold the view that people can maintain a healthy lifestyle without the need of meat. I agree that being a vegetarian means being healthier. However, I would argue that remove meat from daily diet can lead to variously-detrimental consequences which directly associates to our health (1) . To begin with, there are many undeniable positive aspects of having a vegetarian diet. The most significant benefit is that this diet helps reverse several chronic illnesses such as heart disease, cancer or obesity. This is mainly because plant-based foods consume less cholesterol so consequently, there will be a lower level of blood pressure and cholesterol (2) . Another advantage is that vegetarians are less likely to be overweight as the amount of fat in vegetables is extremely lower than that in meat (3) . However, meat can nourish our body more than plant-based foods can. Firstly, vegetables are deficient in protein whereas a large amount of this is found in meat (4) . The main reason why human’s body needs to consume a balanced diet of protein is to build and repair tissue as well as maintain a healthy body, which is vital when doing anything energetic (5) . Secondly, besides promoting mental health, meat also improve physical health as meat is extremely rich in various vitamins and minerals such as vitamin A, B, D (6) . It has been proven that these vitamins play an important role in promoting good vision, stronger teeth and bones system (7) . In conclusion, it is true that following vegetarian diets results in many benefits such as lowering risks of getting chronic illnesses. However, I believe that meat is highly required while maintaining healthy diets (8) . 283 words

The commentaries are marked in brackets with number (*). The numbered commentaries are found below. The part in  italics  is taken from the text, the word  underlined  is the suggested correction. Words in (brackets) are the suggested addition to the original phrase or sentence.

• However, I would argue that removing  meat from daily diet can lead to variously detrimental consequences for our health . — a gerund form is needed instead of ‘remove’. You don’t need a hyphen between ‘variously’ and ‘detrimental’. I have shortened your construction because the extra words do not add anything to the text. In that case the syntax was wrong too. Using more words that do not add any meaning is bad for your final score.
• This is mainly because plant-based foods contain  less cholesterol so consequently, blood pressure will be lower. — ‘Cholesterol’ is pretty difficult to paraphrase, avoid using it twice in the same sentence.
• Another advantage is that vegetarians are less likely to be overweight as the amount of fat in vegetables is much  lower than that in meat.  — don’t forget that you are making a comparison here, a comparative adjective should be used.
• Firstly, vegetables are deficient in protein whereas a large amount of it  is found in meat. — ‘it’ should be used to refer to something mentioned just now.
• The main reason why human’s body needs (to have ) a balanced diet of protein is to build and repair tissue (what tissue?) as well as maintain a healthy body, which is vital when doing anything energetic. — ‘to have a diet’ is a better collocation . Alternatively (and preferably), it could be omitted (the text in the brackets is optional). The second part of the sentence is a bit vague — it lacks specific information and hardly adds anything new to the essay. It states the obvious, like ‘you need a healthy body to do something that requires energy’. Use your essay to conduct more interesting thoughts and less trite ideas e.g. ‘A healthy, energetic lifestyle is rare nowadays as most people spend their time in front of their computers. To maintain an active life like this, one has to have a balanced diet’. This is just an example of how you can use the precious writing space to convey a message.
• Secondly, besides promoting mental health, meat also improves physical health as it  is extremely rich in various vitamins and minerals such as vitamin A, B, D. — ‘meat’ is singular. Also avoid using this word twice — I have replaced it with with a pronoun.
• It has been proven that these vitamins play an important role in ensuring  good vision, stronger teeth and bones  — ‘Promote’ is not the best verb for this context. I have also dropped ‘system’ as it is redundant here.
• However, I believe that meat is highly recommended  while maintaining healthy diets — ‘highly required’ is rarely used, and almost all the uses are by foreign speakers (or so my Google research indicates). Use ‘highly recommended’ or simply ‘required’.

The essay has adequate structure — both positive and negative aspects of the approach are given equal attention. The reader would be well-informed on the issue of vegetarianism. The language is fairly varied, with a good range of health-related vocabulary. Occasional mistakes and inaccuracies do not stand in the way of understanding the message. The author occasionally repeats the same word — proof-reading the essay would have helped eliminate this.

Vegetarianism Essay Writing: Essay on Vegetarian Food IELTS Writing Exam

Vegetarianism essay-ielts writing section.

The following is the template for the vegetarianism essay.

We always tell the fact that you should read the query question carefully. This is important because you should know at what topic you are going to write.

Let’s see the following example question

We should divert our eating habits towards vegetarian because if you eat too much meat then you can have health problems.  How much you disagree or agree with the above statement?

Some important points to be considered before starting writing your opinion on the given topic.

• Staying on the Topic

It is very important that you should stay on the topic while writing a response to the question. If you don’t look carefully at the question and don’t try to brainstorm some of the ideas, then it is very likely that you will end up including the vague information. For example, consider the above statement which contains arguments that are related to morals and religion but if you include those then you’ll be off-topic.

So, looking at the above statement it can be inferred that you should only add that information which is related to health problems caused by the meat.

• Having All of the Information

You don’t have to worry if you do not have much information about the given topic which in this case is health and diet. The examiner does not want you to write the complex vocabulary words but wants to test your ability of English writing. If you’re having the information about the basics of the topic and know only some basic vocabulary, then you are good to go.

The examiner will only judge you on the basis that how beautifully you have constructed the argument even when you are not the subject expert. So, be relax and write what you know about the topic.

Organization of the Essay in IELTS Writing Section

In the model answer given in this article then we have disagreed with the above statement thus saying that everyone should not eat vegetables.

The model essay is organized as follows

It explains the issues of health caused by consuming meat. This is the argument that supports the fact of being vegetarian.  

I t explains the benefits of consuming meat.

Given Below is the example essay.

Model Essay

You have 40 minutes to complete the following task.

Write a response to the following topic.

Give appropriate reasons in support of your answer and also include the examples relevant to the topic based on your knowledge or experience.

You must write 250 words at least.

Model Answer:

Consuming vegetable diet is becoming popular nowadays and many people are diverting their eating habits towards eating vegetables from eating meat. This is mainly because people think that consuming meat will cause harm to their bodies. However, I believe that consuming vegetables is not compulsory for everyone.

Vegetarians strongly believe that consuming meat is very unhealthy as it can cause a lot of diseases to them. Moreover, there is also scientific evidence that suggests that eating red meat can cause diseases. One should eat red meat less such as once or twice a week to prevent cancer from happening. Additionally, meat has a high amount of saturated fats which cause the problems of health such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

However, on the other hand, there are arguments which support that humans should eat meat. Firstly, the human body is designed in a way that it must consume meat, which tells us that eating meat is not dangerous. Moreover, humans have been consuming meat since the dawn of the time which tells us that our bodies have adapted to it. Secondly, meat has a lot of protein in it which is needed by our body to build muscles. People who are vegetarian have to eat some supplements which contain such minerals and vitamins they can’t have from vegetables. So, eating too much meat can cause harm but if we limit our meat consumption and have a balanced diet then we can avoid diseases.

In conclusion, I would say that not everyone should turn towards a vegetarian diet. Although eating excessive meat can always cause diseases. So, we should turn ourselves towards having the diet which is a balance between meat and vegetables to keep our bodies healthy.

Comments and Suggestions for writing Essay in IELTS Writing Section

You should always begin the essay by the introduction of the topic. In our case, we have started by giving the vegetarianism introduction and telling about the harms of consuming meat.

Further, it depends upon a thesis statement to make it very clear that what is the opinion of the candidate.

The second paragraph has topic sentence. This makes clear that the following paragraph will tell about the issues of health caused by eating meat. Examples are also given in support of the argument.

The third paragraph also has the topic sentence. This also makes clear that further information will be on the benefits of eating meat.

Lastly, the conclusion is given in the final paragraph by giving the final thoughts.

China Scholarship Council

What is minimum ielts score required for canada express entry 2020 canadian english language proficiency index score., ielts speaking part 1 topics & questions, related articles.

Rules of Punctuation’s In IELTS Exam: A Complete Guide of Punctuation’s In IELTS Exam

IELTS Academic Writing Task 1: A Complete Guide for all

How to Write an Animal Rights Essay in IELTS Writing Exam?

IELTS Writing: Advantage and Disadvantage Essay Writing Part in IELTS Exam

Leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

IELTS Essay: Vegetarianism

by Dave | EBooks | 5 Comments

This is an IELTS writing task 2 sample answer essay on the topic of vegetarianism from the real IELTS exam:

Everyone should become vegetarian because they do not need to eat meat to have a healthy diet.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

This one is only available for subscribers on my Patreon. You can sign up here .

Recommended For You

Latest IELTS Writing Task 1 2024 (Graphs, Charts, Maps, Processes)

by Dave | Sample Answers | 147 Comments

These are the most recent/latest IELTS Writing Task 1 Task topics and questions starting in 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023, and continuing into 2024. ...

Recent IELTS Writing Topics and Questions 2024

by Dave | Sample Answers | 342 Comments

Read here all the newest IELTS questions and topics from 2024 and previous years with sample answers/essays. Be sure to check out my ...

Find my Newest IELTS Post Here – Updated Daily!

by Dave | IELTS FAQ | 18 Comments

IELTS Essay: Globalisation

by Dave | EBooks | 1 Comment

This is an IELTS writing task 2 sample answer essay that is only available on my Patreon based on a real question from the IELTS exam. ...

IELTS Essay: International Stars and Historic Figures

by Dave | Real Past Tests | 13 Comments

This is an IELTS writing task 2 sample answer essay on the topic of international stars and historic figures and why young people are more interested ...

IELTS Writing Task 1 Sample Answer Essay: UK Households Bar Chart

by Dave | Sample Answers | 4 Comments

This is an IELTS writing task 1 sample answer essay related to the number of people living in households in the UK (a bar chart). ...

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

You must be logged in to post a comment.

There is a statement that people should place barely vegetables in diets and abandon meat from desks, as meat is not necessary for health. In my opinion, I disagree with forcing people to eat vegetables. Because eating meat not only entertains people who like them, but also keeps the ecosystem in a normal situation.

On the one hand, there are a lot of people who like eating meat, which is not harmful for their health. There are plenty of delicious dishes which are made with meat. Steaks in Australia, cow meat in Japan, and various meat dishes in China are famous around the world, and loved by many people. It would be unkind to stop them from eating what they love. Moreover, a global diet survey indicates that the country that has the biggest meat consumption is America. There are more than 300 million citizens in the US. Most of them live healthy lives, which may be thanks to various kinds of protein that meat provides. 

On the other hand, the ecosystem is based on relationships with eating. Many animals, such as rabbits and cows, eat plants, and other animals, such as lions and tigers, eat animals that are meat. In the popular cartoon film The Lion King, the lion king, Mufasa, tells his son Simba that lions eat animals that eat grass, and the lion’s body will become grass after their death, which is the cycle of life. From this story, the ecosystem is combined by not only the grass eater, but also the meat eater. If the lions are all gone, the number of grass-eaters will increase, and the consumption of grass will go up, which will lead to the vanishment of grass, grass-eaters’ extinction later, and the disaster of an ecosystem. Similar to the earth, once human stops eating meat, animals that rely on plants become more, the plants themselves will face a calamity later, and human lives are harder at last.

In sum, eating meat is not harmful to health, and it also brings happiness to people and the balance of the ecosystem. In addition, becoming a vegetarian or not is solely a personal choice rather than an option of better lives, and both of them should be respected and understood.

Great, Gakki – nice use of vocabulary and grammar throughout!

Hello, sir . I will be grateful if you could evaluate this essay.

In past few years, vegetarianism has entered the mainstream of many societies. It is often argued that individuals can maintain a healthy lifestyle without the need of meat. I agree that being a vegetarian means being healthier. However, I argue they removing meat completely from a diet can lead to various nutrition deficiencies. Proponents of solely vegetarian diet often point out its accessibility, affordability and nutritional value. Vegetarian food options are cheaper and easily accessible in supermarkets and local shops because they require minimum special arrangements, such as, cold storage, to keep them fresh. Moreover,there plant based food are cheaper, hence, rich or people from any socio-economic background can afford it. Lastly, vegetables and fruits are rich in vitamins and natural sugars, which is essential for the functioning of healthy body. Nonetheless, obsoleting meat completely from a diet would do more harm than good as it is an essential element of a healthy diet. Various non vegetarian foods are often rife with protein which is essential for music building and strong immune systems. Moreover, meat is a rich source of vitamin B complex that is crucial for nervous system. Those following strict vegetarian diet, must rely on supplements to fulfil their daily nutritional requirements. Therefore, it is not feasible to supplant a balance diet containing both vegetables and meat with a pure vegetarian one. To sum up, although many individuals are following ‘veg-only’ trend these days , however, I believe that an individual’s well- being and life-expectancy is wholly depend on an overall balance diet. People, therefore, strive to select healthy options whenever possible.

I think you have used the word rife in a wrong context because often used for something unpleasant

Ok. Thanx for reply!

Exclusive Ebooks, PDFs and more from me!

Sign up for patreon.

Don't miss out!

"The highest quality materials anywhere on the internet! Dave improved my writing and vocabulary so much. Really affordable options you don't want to miss out on!"

Minh, Vietnam

Hi, I’m Dave! Welcome to my IELTS exclusive resources! Before you commit I want to explain very clearly why there’s no one better to help you learn about IELTS and improve your English at the same time... Read more

Patreon Exclusive Ebooks Available Now!

Cornell Chronicle

• Architecture & Design
• Arts & Humanities
• Business, Economics & Entrepreneurship
• Computing & Information Sciences
• Energy, Environment & Sustainability
• Food & Agriculture
• Global Reach
• Health, Nutrition & Medicine
• Law, Government & Public Policy
• Life Sciences & Veterinary Medicine
• Physical Sciences & Engineering
• Social & Behavioral Sciences
• Coronavirus
• News & Events
• Public Engagement
• New York City
• Photos of the Week
• Big Red Sports
• Freedom of Expression
• Student Life
• University Statements
• Around Cornell
• All Stories
• In the News
• Expert Quotes
• Cornellians

Online crowds wield power, for good and bad

By tom fleischman, cornell chronicle.

How do online crowds form, grow and behave? How do they wield influence? What distinguishes desirable crowd activism from mob harassment?

In the summer of 2022, Cornell Tech and Cornell Law School professor  James Grimmelmann and postdoctoral fellow Charles Duan hosted a virtual workshop in which participants attempted to answer these questions and more.

At the end of the two-day online workshop Grimmelmann, the Tessler Family Professor of Digital and Information Law at Cornell Tech and at Cornell Law School, and co-organizer Duan, now an assistant professor of law at American University’s Washington College of Law, asked participants to reflect on the conversations and identify important themes about platforms and crowds.

The result: “ The Barons and the Mob: Essays on Centralized Platforms and Decentralized Crowds,” an introduction to the complexities of online crowds and the importance of understanding their nature in the context of efforts toward online platform regulation.

The introduction references a pair of online user “revolts.” In 2007, one of the users of news aggregator Digg posted an encryption key that could be used to circumvent copyright protection on Blu-Ray discs. Sixteen years later, Grimmelmann and Duan wrote, “history rhymed with itself” when Reddit, in preparation for a rumored IPO, started charging developers to access its previously free application programming interface. Users of both platforms rose up in revolt. In Digg’s case, the crowd won the revolt – not so with Reddit.

“The Digg disruption and the Reddit rebellion,” they wrote, “demonstrate the conflict between the two great sources of power on the Internet: the centralized platforms that control the infrastructure of online communities, and the decentralized crowds of users who come together in them.”

In all, a dozen experts share their perspectives in “The Barons and the Mob,” tackling what makes an online crowd; the influence of money on crowds; identifying misinformation; authenticity; network economics and other topics.

Grimmelmann spoke with the Chronicle about the essay collection:

Question: What was the impetus behind the workshop?

Answer: The idea came out of seeing some of the ways that crowds were self-consciously being weaponized for political and commercial purposes. The “to the moon” sentiment of the  wallstreetbets subreddit wasn’t all that different from the kind of online energy associated with political movements or with influencer beefs. But platforms seemed to consider some of these crowds to be serious problems they had to block, and some of them to be benign intended uses. That paradox led us to look more closely at how platforms and crowds related to each other.

Q: Are there other moments in history that radically changed the dynamic between the “barons” and the “mob” – perhaps the invention of the printing press?

A: The printing press definitely helped catalyze new kinds of distributed groups, from scientific collaborations to journalism for “the public.” The age of revolution – starting especially with the French Revolution – demonstrated the dramatic power of the mob on the street compared with old aristocratic hierarchies. The mobs prevailed in the long run: Old forms of centralized power were swept aside and gave way to new political forms that were more responsive to mass public sentiment.

Q: Has the power dynamic between platforms and crowds morphed over time? Have crowds learned how to wield greater power over the last 20 to 30 years?

A: The Reddit moderator revolt last summer was a really striking moment, because Reddit explicitly decided that it was willing to take on the full power of a highly organized user group. It was a big bet, and Reddit basically won: Its IPO went ahead, and today the site has much more effective power over its user base. The pendulum seems to have swung in the direction of the platforms; they’re better able to predict and steer crowd dynamics than they were a few years ago.

You can see TikTok as an extreme example of this trend: The site harnesses crowd energy and enthusiasm but systematically works to prevent crowds from forming and sustaining themselves in ways that would form durable power alternatives.

Q: Do you see an ultimate “winner” in this push-and-pull between the “lords” (platforms) and the “commoners” (users)? Can there ever be a winner?

A: No – the tension is eternal. Without either of these forms, social media wouldn’t function. Platforms need crowds in order to be viable businesses, and crowds need platforms as a place to gather. They each have an interest in the other’s existence.

Q: Are there other big questions to be addressed in this space?

A: Yes – we don’t know how online crowds are catalyzed and controlled. We don’t know how to think about them as groups with agency for economic purposes. We don’t know what legitimate and effective forms of moderation to respond to them look like. We don’t know how regulations will go awry when crowds respond to them. And there are many more: This report is just a starting point, and a way of inviting people to think seriously about these issues.

Media Contact

Becka bowyer.

Get Cornell news delivered right to your inbox.

You might also like

Gallery Heading

Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025

The former president and his backers aim to strengthen the power of the White House and limit the independence of federal agencies.

Donald J. Trump intends to bring independent regulatory agencies under direct presidential control. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

Supported by

• Share full article

By Jonathan Swan Charlie Savage and Maggie Haberman

• Published July 17, 2023 Updated July 18, 2023

Donald J. Trump and his allies are planning a sweeping expansion of presidential power over the machinery of government if voters return him to the White House in 2025, reshaping the structure of the executive branch to concentrate far greater authority directly in his hands.

Their plans to centralize more power in the Oval Office stretch far beyond the former president’s recent remarks that he would order a criminal investigation into his political rival, President Biden, signaling his intent to end the post-Watergate norm of Justice Department independence from White House political control.

Mr. Trump and his associates have a broader goal: to alter the balance of power by increasing the president’s authority over every part of the federal government that now operates, by either law or tradition, with any measure of independence from political interference by the White House, according to a review of his campaign policy proposals and interviews with people close to him.

Mr. Trump intends to bring independent agencies — like the Federal Communications Commission, which makes and enforces rules for television and internet companies, and the Federal Trade Commission, which enforces various antitrust and other consumer protection rules against businesses — under direct presidential control.

He wants to revive the practice of “impounding” funds, refusing to spend money Congress has appropriated for programs a president doesn’t like — a tactic that lawmakers banned under President Richard Nixon.

He intends to strip employment protections from tens of thousands of career civil servants, making it easier to replace them if they are deemed obstacles to his agenda. And he plans to scour the intelligence agencies, the State Department and the defense bureaucracies to remove officials he has vilified as “the sick political class that hates our country.”

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .

Advertisement

Vegetarian or Meat Eaters Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Works cited.

It is very difficult to say whether all human beings should be vegetarians or non-vegetarians. However, there is no strong case to conclusively prove either of the beliefs. Most studies have so far suggested that humans are primarily omnivorous, meaning that humans tend to eat what ever is available. As vegetarians humans can only eat fruits and certain varieties of leaves but not everything that grows. The human intestine is not designed to digest so many of the different plants.

On the contrary a human being if left to fend for himself in remote areas such as jungles and mountains will be able to survive by eating meat, but will not be able to survive on plants as it would be difficult to identify as which is fit for human consumption. Non-vegetarians argue that we as humans have the traces of canine teeth which none of the herbivorous living beings have. All animals that only eat plants are known to have stomachs that allow them to ruminate while humans do not have this facility thus indicating that we were made to become non-vegetarians. It is thus clear that there is no authentic opinion about either of the eating habits and ultimately the choice boils down to individual preferences which are primarily guided by health and social concerns.

Although I never make attempts to canvas in support of vegetarianism but I have been fully convinced that in the world that we live in today, and in keeping with our body adaptability as related to our lifestyle, it is better to adopt vegetarianism as the primary dietary habit. With me it is not that I am a strict vegetarian and that I will not touch meat, but as a lifestyle choice I prefer to remain a vegetarian as far as possible. I have made the decision in favor of vegetarianism due to the large number of advantages that result from eating such food especially in view of the dormant physical environment that we live in today. I also supplement my vegetarian eating habits with a routing that is physically active and includes regular exercise and work outs.

Vegetarianism has distinct advantages in regard to nutrition, spirituality and morality. Nutrition does not result effectively amongst meat eaters since the digestive system is not able to substantially break down the acids and cholesterol as present in non vegetarian food. Medical experts have proved that the incidence of colon cancer amongst meat eaters is much higher since there is lower evacuation and slower putrefaction of the remnants of meat in the colon.

Vegetarians are known to be totally free from such illnesses. Once an animal is killed its oils and flesh become unhealthy in terms of getting putrefied. Contrary to the belief that meat is a great source of proteins, the quality of the protein in meat products is considered to be very poor since there is lack of proper combination of amino acids which are the main elements in building proteins. It has been amply proved that more and better quality of proteins is found in Soya beans and tofu than in meat products.

It is well known that meat takes a longer time to digest and can remain in the intestines for up to four days, the effect of which can be seen if we leave a piece of meat in the sun for four days. During the time the meat is in the intestines it waits for a passage while it continues to cause harm to the digestive system by way of the uric acid that it contains and the constant fermentation that results within the intestine which is extremely harmful in the long run. This is the main cause of colon related illnesses.

The presence of meat in the intestines provides ground for the breeding of several undesired orgasms which cannot be overcome by the friendly bacteria which are supposed to cater to the development needs of a healthy body. Meat products provide a much greater amount of proteins than required by the human body and it is common medical knowledge that excess presence of proteins in the body will prove to be dangerous by way of the uric acid attacking the kidneys and destroying its cells called nephrons, thus resulting in the disease nephritis which ultimately renders the kidneys to become function less.

In contrast, vegetarians feel much lighter and better after they eat since there is lesser formation of protein digestive substances (keytones) when vegetarian proteins are digested. With the eating of excessive meat, more of ketones are formed which makes the person to have a nauseating feeling that reduces the desire to eat further until the adverse effect is diminished. Further complications result in the occurrence of acidosis which is the high level of acidic blood in the body resulting from higher levels of blood ketone in the system.

Lions and tigers eat meat and it serves them well because their digestive systems are acid based in having intestines that are only five feet in length and which are straight unlike the human intestines which are twenty feet long and are twisted and turned in layers within a small compact area. Such an intestine design does not facilitate proper digestion of meat in the human body. More disturbing is the fact that the meat of animals is sometimes found to have some cancerous growth which is just removed by the butchers and the remaining parts are sent to be sold for human consumptions. There is possibly no check to stop such practices thus proving to be health risks that meat eaters run in consuming such meat.

Meat is much costlier than vegetables and upon removing it from one’s diet a whole new world of eating habits is opened up. In fact lesser time is taken in cooking vegetarian food; it costs almost half as compared to meat and there is a wide array of continental, Spanish, French, Indian and Chinese styles of vegetarian food to choose from which are more nutritious than non vegetarian food. Meat products do not allow one to have a wide variety of foods as compared to vegetarian food and one need to be creative and to have the knack to enjoy the vast variety of seeds, nuts, wheat, legumes and beans to realize the utility of this variety. There is a choice in having cereals, vegetables, lentils and several other roots and beans to supplement the vegetarian diets which prove to be of better vitality to the human body. Cooking vegetarian food does not require any special technique as required in most non vegetarian food items which take a longer time and do not prove to be as nutritious.

It is known that more vegetarians are spiritually inclined which caters very well for human existence. Spirituality entails that we move away from meat eating habits towards vegetarianism so that one is led towards higher levels of self. Vegetarianism ensures a cool temperament, and reduces aggressive attitudes which are believed to be the prime reason for an unfulfilled life. Animal instincts are known to become stronger every time a person eats meat.

When an animal is being killed to be consumed as meat it undergoes intense fear which is engulfed within its cells and which in turn is consumed by humans as meat. This invariably has adverse impact on the human psyche in bringing about some effect in behavior. Spiritual people are known to have an aura around them, the course for which is set by of the vegetarian diet that forms their life style and food habits. Conversely the animal aura is adopted when one consumes meat products.

There is a moral aspect attached to eating meat in that one must consider the moral responsibility and the karma associated with the killing of animals. This is irrespective of the fact that every body has his or her own concepts in life as far as food habits are concerned; at the same time one must consider the impact that is being created on the body, mind and soul in consuming what we consume. The body and mind are essentially made by what we eat, which further makes way for our thinking patterns and attitudes, which further make us to behave in our own specific styles. Our actions and behavior decide the results that we get in life which determine the levels of happiness that we have. Hence there is a strong linkage between eating habits and happiness. It does appear to be far fetched, but then all the good things in life come only upon making constructive changes within ourselves.

Vegetarianism can solve the world food crisis because almost half the world production of corn is fed to animals in order that they grow healthy to be ultimately butchered to be eaten as good quality meat by humans. Given that about forty thousand people die every day due to starvation, it would do well for the same corn and other agricultural produce to be fed to the children and others that die of food shortage. Although appearing to be almost impossible, there would be an end to the adverse situation if people become vegetarians and transfer these resources for human consumption. There would be an improvement in environmental conditions since more land is used in rearing animals for human consumption than what is used for agriculture. It is also known that nitrogen emitted by animal manure causes acid rain in many parts of the world thus polluting drinking water used by humans. The lesser the animals, the lesser will be the incidents of such rain.

Abhinabha Tangerman, Benefits and Advantages of Vegetarianism , Web.

Bernard G. Prusak, All we can eat? Thinking about vegetarianism, (2007), Thomson Gale Information Sheet, Vegetarian Society, Web.

Rejecting meat ‘keeps weight low’, (2006), BBC News Vegetarianism in a Nutshell , Web.

• Nutrition and Cancer Rates
• The Social Relations Inscribed in a Chocolate Bar
• Difference Between Grass-Eater and Meat-Eater
• Why You Should Not Be a Vegetarian
• Vegetarianism and Its Causes
• Concepts of Eating Disorders
• Unhealthy Lifestyle Among the Singapore Youth
• Weight Loss Program: Behavior Modification Project for a College Class
• Pork Meat as a Human Nutrition
• School-Based Nutrition Health Promotion Program
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2021, December 4). Vegetarian or Meat Eaters. https://ivypanda.com/essays/vegetarian-or-meat-eaters/

"Vegetarian or Meat Eaters." IvyPanda , 4 Dec. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/vegetarian-or-meat-eaters/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Vegetarian or Meat Eaters'. 4 December.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Vegetarian or Meat Eaters." December 4, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/vegetarian-or-meat-eaters/.

1. IvyPanda . "Vegetarian or Meat Eaters." December 4, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/vegetarian-or-meat-eaters/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Vegetarian or Meat Eaters." December 4, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/vegetarian-or-meat-eaters/.