research questions natural resources

Research Topics & Ideas: Environment

100+ Environmental Science Research Topics & Ideas

Finding and choosing a strong research topic is the critical first step when it comes to crafting a high-quality dissertation, thesis or research project. Here, we’ll explore a variety research ideas and topic thought-starters related to various environmental science disciplines, including ecology, oceanography, hydrology, geology, soil science, environmental chemistry, environmental economics, and environmental ethics.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps . In this post, we’ll kickstart the process by sharing some research topic ideas within the environmental sciences. This is the starting point though. To develop a well-defined research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , along with a well-justified plan of action to fill that gap.

If you’re new to the oftentimes perplexing world of research, or if this is your first time undertaking a formal academic research project, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course. Also be sure to also sign up for our free webinar that explores how to develop a high-quality research topic from scratch.

Overview: Environmental Topics

• Ecology /ecological science
• Atmospheric science
• Oceanography
• Soil science
• Environmental chemistry
• Environmental economics
• Environmental ethics
• Examples  of dissertations and theses

Topics & Ideas: Ecological Science

• The impact of land-use change on species diversity and ecosystem functioning in agricultural landscapes
• The role of disturbances such as fire and drought in shaping arid ecosystems
• The impact of climate change on the distribution of migratory marine species
• Investigating the role of mutualistic plant-insect relationships in maintaining ecosystem stability
• The effects of invasive plant species on ecosystem structure and function
• The impact of habitat fragmentation caused by road construction on species diversity and population dynamics in the tropics
• The role of ecosystem services in urban areas and their economic value to a developing nation
• The effectiveness of different grassland restoration techniques in degraded ecosystems
• The impact of land-use change through agriculture and urbanisation on soil microbial communities in a temperate environment
• The role of microbial diversity in ecosystem health and nutrient cycling in an African savannah

Topics & Ideas: Atmospheric Science

• The impact of climate change on atmospheric circulation patterns above tropical rainforests
• The role of atmospheric aerosols in cloud formation and precipitation above cities with high pollution levels
• The impact of agricultural land-use change on global atmospheric composition
• Investigating the role of atmospheric convection in severe weather events in the tropics
• The impact of urbanisation on regional and global atmospheric ozone levels
• The impact of sea surface temperature on atmospheric circulation and tropical cyclones
• The impact of solar flares on the Earth’s atmospheric composition
• The impact of climate change on atmospheric turbulence and air transportation safety
• The impact of stratospheric ozone depletion on atmospheric circulation and climate change
• The role of atmospheric rivers in global water supply and sea-ice formation

Topics & Ideas: Oceanography

• The impact of ocean acidification on kelp forests and biogeochemical cycles
• The role of ocean currents in distributing heat and regulating desert rain
• The impact of carbon monoxide pollution on ocean chemistry and biogeochemical cycles
• Investigating the role of ocean mixing in regulating coastal climates
• The impact of sea level rise on the resource availability of low-income coastal communities
• The impact of ocean warming on the distribution and migration patterns of marine mammals
• The impact of ocean deoxygenation on biogeochemical cycles in the arctic
• The role of ocean-atmosphere interactions in regulating rainfall in arid regions
• The impact of ocean eddies on global ocean circulation and plankton distribution
• The role of ocean-ice interactions in regulating the Earth’s climate and sea level

Tops & Ideas: Hydrology

• The impact of agricultural land-use change on water resources and hydrologic cycles in temperate regions
• The impact of agricultural groundwater availability on irrigation practices in the global south
• The impact of rising sea-surface temperatures on global precipitation patterns and water availability
• Investigating the role of wetlands in regulating water resources for riparian forests
• The impact of tropical ranches on river and stream ecosystems and water quality
• The impact of urbanisation on regional and local hydrologic cycles and water resources for agriculture
• The role of snow cover and mountain hydrology in regulating regional agricultural water resources
• The impact of drought on food security in arid and semi-arid regions
• The role of groundwater recharge in sustaining water resources in arid and semi-arid environments
• The impact of sea level rise on coastal hydrology and the quality of water resources

Topics & Ideas: Geology

• The impact of tectonic activity on the East African rift valley
• The role of mineral deposits in shaping ancient human societies
• The impact of sea-level rise on coastal geomorphology and shoreline evolution
• Investigating the role of erosion in shaping the landscape and impacting desertification
• The impact of mining on soil stability and landslide potential
• The impact of volcanic activity on incoming solar radiation and climate
• The role of geothermal energy in decarbonising the energy mix of megacities
• The impact of Earth’s magnetic field on geological processes and solar wind
• The impact of plate tectonics on the evolution of mammals
• The role of the distribution of mineral resources in shaping human societies and economies, with emphasis on sustainability

Topics & Ideas: Soil Science

• The impact of dam building on soil quality and fertility
• The role of soil organic matter in regulating nutrient cycles in agricultural land
• The impact of climate change on soil erosion and soil organic carbon storage in peatlands
• Investigating the role of above-below-ground interactions in nutrient cycling and soil health
• The impact of deforestation on soil degradation and soil fertility
• The role of soil texture and structure in regulating water and nutrient availability in boreal forests
• The impact of sustainable land management practices on soil health and soil organic matter
• The impact of wetland modification on soil structure and function
• The role of soil-atmosphere exchange and carbon sequestration in regulating regional and global climate
• The impact of salinization on soil health and crop productivity in coastal communities

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Chemistry

• The impact of cobalt mining on water quality and the fate of contaminants in the environment
• The role of atmospheric chemistry in shaping air quality and climate change
• The impact of soil chemistry on nutrient availability and plant growth in wheat monoculture
• Investigating the fate and transport of heavy metal contaminants in the environment
• The impact of climate change on biochemical cycling in tropical rainforests
• The impact of various types of land-use change on biochemical cycling
• The role of soil microbes in mediating contaminant degradation in the environment
• The impact of chemical and oil spills on freshwater and soil chemistry
• The role of atmospheric nitrogen deposition in shaping water and soil chemistry
• The impact of over-irrigation on the cycling and fate of persistent organic pollutants in the environment

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Economics

• The impact of climate change on the economies of developing nations
• The role of market-based mechanisms in promoting sustainable use of forest resources
• The impact of environmental regulations on economic growth and competitiveness
• Investigating the economic benefits and costs of ecosystem services for African countries
• The impact of renewable energy policies on regional and global energy markets
• The role of water markets in promoting sustainable water use in southern Africa
• The impact of land-use change in rural areas on regional and global economies
• The impact of environmental disasters on local and national economies
• The role of green technologies and innovation in shaping the zero-carbon transition and the knock-on effects for local economies
• The impact of environmental and natural resource policies on income distribution and poverty of rural communities

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Ethics

• The ethical foundations of environmentalism and the environmental movement regarding renewable energy
• The role of values and ethics in shaping environmental policy and decision-making in the mining industry
• The impact of cultural and religious beliefs on environmental attitudes and behaviours in first world countries
• Investigating the ethics of biodiversity conservation and the protection of endangered species in palm oil plantations
• The ethical implications of sea-level rise for future generations and vulnerable coastal populations
• The role of ethical considerations in shaping sustainable use of natural forest resources
• The impact of environmental justice on marginalized communities and environmental policies in Asia
• The ethical implications of environmental risks and decision-making under uncertainty
• The role of ethics in shaping the transition to a low-carbon, sustainable future for the construction industry
• The impact of environmental values on consumer behaviour and the marketplace: a case study of the ‘bring your own shopping bag’ policy

Examples: Real Dissertation & Thesis Topics

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various environmental science-related degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• The physiology of microorganisms in enhanced biological phosphorous removal (Saunders, 2014)
• The influence of the coastal front on heavy rainfall events along the east coast (Henson, 2019)
• Forage production and diversification for climate-smart tropical and temperate silvopastures (Dibala, 2019)
• Advancing spectral induced polarization for near surface geophysical characterization (Wang, 2021)
• Assessment of Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter and Thamnocephalus platyurus as Tools to Monitor Cyanobacterial Bloom Development and Toxicity (Hipsher, 2019)
• Evaluating the Removal of Microcystin Variants with Powdered Activated Carbon (Juang, 2020)
• The effect of hydrological restoration on nutrient concentrations, macroinvertebrate communities, and amphibian populations in Lake Erie coastal wetlands (Berg, 2019)
• Utilizing hydrologic soil grouping to estimate corn nitrogen rate recommendations (Bean, 2019)
• Fungal Function in House Dust and Dust from the International Space Station (Bope, 2021)
• Assessing Vulnerability and the Potential for Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) in Sudan’s Blue Nile Basin (Mohamed, 2022)
• A Microbial Water Quality Analysis of the Recreational Zones in the Los Angeles River of Elysian Valley, CA (Nguyen, 2019)
• Dry Season Water Quality Study on Three Recreational Sites in the San Gabriel Mountains (Vallejo, 2019)
• Wastewater Treatment Plan for Unix Packaging Adjustment of the Potential Hydrogen (PH) Evaluation of Enzymatic Activity After the Addition of Cycle Disgestase Enzyme (Miessi, 2020)
• Laying the Genetic Foundation for the Conservation of Longhorn Fairy Shrimp (Kyle, 2021).

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are quite specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. To create a top-notch research topic, you will need to be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you’ll need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

Need more help?

If you’re still feeling a bit unsure about how to find a research topic for your environmental science dissertation or research project, be sure to check out our private coaching services below, as well as our Research Topic Kickstarter .

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• UConn Library
• Natural Resources and the Environment Subject Guide
• Research Topics

Natural Resources and the Environment Subject Guide — Research Topics

• Starting Your Research Project
• Searching Scholarly Databases
• Encyclopedias & Handbooks
• Finding Books
• Useful Tools
• Other Information Sources

Narrowing a topic

Sometimes narrowing to a specific topic does not come naturally and can be a difficult task. Here are some techniques available to make this process simpler.

• First, pick a topic in which you are interested. You will spend a lot of time with your topic and you will do a better job with it if you find the topic enjoyable. As you search through potential topics, note which pique your interest and follow them further.
• Look for a topic with some recent controversy or a set of related topics which can be compared and contrasted.
• Pick a topic which you have some hope of understanding. If you cannot understand the basics you will not be able to write about it. Not all topics are appropriate for undergraduate paper writing.

Some additional sites with help on choosing and narrowing topics are listed below.

• Choosing and Narrowing a Topic
• Narrowing a Topic
• Narrowing a Topic and Developing a Research Question
• Identifying when a Topic is Too Narrow or Too Broad

Where to find possible topics for science papers

If you don't know on what topic you want to write a paper, start by looking in sources with broad spreads of relevant information. 

• Search any database by a particular journal or review journal (Science, Nature, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, etc.)
• Look for a classic topic in your textbook 
• Scan popular science sciences magazines such as Bioscience, Scientific American, Discover, etc.
• Go to the popular  website  www.sciencedaily.com which covers most aspects of science and search for a topic
• Search for ideas in the encyclopedias, handbooks or other books listed in this guide on a separate page
• If you have some idea of a topic, search for review articles on that topic in one of the science databases listed in this guide
• Search the table of contents of a journal which specializes in review articles, such as Trends in Ecology and Evolution

Search Strategies for Topics

Part of picking a topic will involve conducting literature searches. As you search for your topic(s) start with searches as BROAD as possible, while remaining relevant to your topic. Starting broad will give a breadth of coverage that allows you easy options for narrowing your topic. If you start with a narrow topic it is much harder to broaden your topic later to explore more options.

Describe your topic in a sentence.

How did carnivorous plants evolve digestive enzymes?

What are your major concepts? Identify the main elements of your topic.

Think of related terms for your concepts. Use both common words and scientific terms.

Add Boolean Operators (AND & OR) to structure the search in a database search interface.

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Twenty Key Challenges in Environmental and Resource Economics

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• Published: 16 October 2020
• Volume 77 , pages 725–750, ( 2020 )

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• Lucas Bretschger 1 &
• Karen Pittel 2  

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Economic and ecological systems are closely interlinked at a global and a regional level, offering a broad variety of important research topics in environmental and resource economics. The successful identification of key challenges for current and future research supports development of novel theories, empirical applications, and appropriate policy designs. It allows establishing a future-oriented research agenda whose ultimate goal is an efficient, equitable, and sustainable use of natural resources. Based on a normative foundation, the paper aims to identify fundamental topics, current trends, and major research gaps to motivate further development of academic work in the field.

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1 Introduction

1.1 research frontier.

The research agenda in environmental and resource economics has always been very broad and dynamic, reflecting the ways our economies interact with the natural environment. While in classical economics of the eighteenth century the factor land played a dominant role, the effects of pollution externalities, resource scarcities, ecosystem services, and sustainability became important in subsequent time periods. These issues have triggered different waves of research with very prominent results, specifically on optimal policies in the presence of externalities (Pigou 1920 ), optimal extraction of non-renewable resources (Hotelling 1931 ), optimal capital accumulation in the presence of resource scarcities (Dasgupta and Heal 1974 ), and sustainable development (Hartwick 1977 ; Pearce et al. 1994 ). Of course, the list of topics has already been very diverse in the past but has increasingly become so with recent global environmental problems challenging the functioning of a world economy which is growing at a high rate and heavily relies on an international division of labour and trade.

In the past, new research challenges emerged and manifested in different ways: Some topical fields became increasingly relevant due to new technological developments, new ecological or societal challenges or new political agendas. Others arose in fields that were already well researched but rose in importance. Not all challenges were of a topical nature. In some fields, we found our methodological tool-kit not equipped to deal with new problems or in need of extension to find new (and better) answers to old questions. At the same time, it has become increasingly clear that we have to reach out to other disciplines to meet new and often immense challenges. In environmental economics it is key to seek a good balance between disciplinary excellence, interdisciplinary collaboration, and political impact.

Environmental and resource economics is a dynamic field, in which new key topics emerge frequently. So, while the topical and methodological challenges that the paper identifies will be important for some time to come, they will and should also be subject to further development over the next years and decades. The paper aims to identify and address the variety of new complex problems generated by humans when they exploit natural resources and the environment. We specifically identify Twenty Challenges that we feel will be important for environmental and resource economists to address. We are aware that such a list will never be unanimously agreed upon and we do not even lay claim on the list being complete; the next section provides a background to the compilation of the list. Nevertheless, we feel it to be important to (at best) point researchers in directions important to work in in the future or (at least) to launch a new—controversial but productive—discussion on the development of our field. In any case, the paper should support the profession to operate at the research frontier generating novel theories, empirical designs, and workable policies. But, before we turn to the Twenty Challenges , we aim to motivate the framing of research in our field—past, present and future.

1.2 Identification of Research Challenges

To provide a normative foundation for our research agenda we characterize our underlying assumptions and generalized views on the nature of research in the field. This set of basic assumptions motivates the criteria of importance, activeness, and distinction of the selected topics as well as our choices with respect to design, methodology and research methods. Identifying the relevant issues, i.e. the mere choice of what to study in environmental economics imposes specific values on the subjects. In our view, the guiding principle in the normative framework is that environmental economics differs from general economics by its ontology, i.e. the system of belief that reflects the interpretation of what constitutes an important fact. It is a deep and serious concern about the state of the natural environment that drives the economic analysis of ecological processes. Nature is not simply part of the economic system but a different system with its own very complex regularities and dynamics; ecosystem values are not reducible to market exchange values. The task to integrate the ecological and economic systems to a holistic framework in an appropriate manner and to derive valid guidelines for the economy under the restrictions imposed by the environment lies at the heart of our research. Central parts of the ontology are the valuation of ecosystems, the increasing scarcities in natural resources and sinks, the effects of environmental externalities, the long-term orientation of planning, an important role of uncertainty, and the existence of irreversible processes. The anthropocentric view and the use of utilitarianism do not imply that individuals are purely self-centered and narrowly selfish. It highlights the indistinguishable role of human decision making for the future of the planet and aims at decision making that cares for efficiency, equity, and posterity. Based on a broad utilitarian setup, growth is not valued in terms of material consumption but in terms of wellbeing, which includes elements like social preferences, work-life balance, appreciation of nature etc. Posterity reflects our care for future generations, whose welfare should not be harmed by the activities of current generations. Fundamental changes of the economy e.g. the phase-out of fossil fuels, includes policy-induced decrease of activities, a role for technology, substitutability in production and consumption, a decoupling from natural resource use, and internalizing cost to correct market failures. Substantive transitions are very difficult to implement, as important lock-in mechanisms such as habit persistence, built infrastructure, and supporting policies such as subsidies stabilize current practices. To achieve a change of mindset in politics to achieve a transition to a green economy is a difficult task. A fundamental systems change, as discussed by many these days, is undoubtedly much more complex to accomplish; its impacts are uncertain and may delay the necessary steps which are important to rapidly improve the state of our ecosystems.

We acknowledge that one can always challenge an ontological position because it reflects ethical principles. In our research agenda there is no external reality, independent of what we may think or understand it to be. We reduce economic and ecological complexity through our personal system of belief to design our preferred map, which by definition is not the territory. In his survey of ecological research issues for the economists, Ehrlich ( 2008 ) refers to his ”own mental meta-analysis” to motivate his choices and to alert us to the importance of research on big issues like the meaning of life, mortality, and death. At the same time, he acknowledges that the emergence of pervasive new environmental problems, such as climate change and biodiversity loss, requires to flexibly adjust research programs to societal demand. Adjustments of the agenda may also be supply driven, when new methods allow for more effective engagement with important issues like risk and uncertainty or assessment of empirical regularities with superior estimation methods.

1.3 Forming a Research Agenda

Environmental economics is closely linked to general economics in its epistemology, i.e. the validity, scope and methods of acquiring knowledge by using models, distinguishing between positive and normative models, and testing hypotheses with empirical methods and experiments. An important cornerstone for economic research has always been the analysis of economic efficiency. Since the early days of environmental economics research, this has also held for our field whether it concerned the efficiency in the use of natural resources or the design of policies. Although research in our field has become much more interdisciplinary and policy-oriented, this still constitutes common ground. It is still a prime duty of the economist to point at the potentially vast allocative inefficiencies of the use of natural resources in pure market economies. Efficiency is a necessary condition for optimal states of the economic-ecological system and the foundation for policies maximizing social welfare.

The pursuit of optimality has to be complemented by a requirement to take care of equity and posterity enabling sustainability of development. In this long-run perspective, economics has to highlight the substitution effect as a powerful mechanism establishing consistency between humanity and its natural environment. Substitution comes in many guises, e.g. as substitution between clean and dirty production, renewable and exhaustible resources, extractive and conservationist attitude, pollution intensive and extensive consumption, etc. This dynamic analysis is crucial in many respects. It has recently been included at all levels of research in the fields. The same holds for the issue of risk and uncertainty, a pervasive topic when dealing with the environment.

In many cases, there has been a significant discrepancy between the theoretical derivation of social optima in academia and the attempts to foster their implementation under realistic policy conditions. As a consequence, policies dealing with environmental issues have been of very different quality and effectiveness. The reduction of acid rains, the protection of the ozone layer, and cutbacks of particulate matter emissions in many world regions were among the prominent successes. Global warming, extraction of rare earth elements, and loss of biodiversity are not yet addressed in a comprehensive manner. Political resistance against the protection of nature often refers to the economic costs of policies, including the concerns of growth reduction, employment loss, and adverse effect on income distribution. The lack of success in many policy areas has led to reformulation and extension of the research agenda. In the future, research should focus more on strengthening the links between theory and policy.

Our selection of the Twenty Challenges is also based on the potential of research in these areas to contribute and leverage social welfare and sustainable development. We specifically look for areas that are either inherently new to the research agenda in environmental and resource economics or in which research stagnates. We present the challenges in a specific order and like to highlight the links between them before we enter into the details. The aim of net zero carbon emission by the mid of the century dominates current policy debates and unites basically all important elements of our discipline; it thus constitutes a good starting point. Decarbonization necessarily involves a deep understanding of systems dynamics and of risk and resilience, which are presented next. An important and not sufficiently addressed research issue is the emergence of disruptive development during a substantive transition, the next challenge for our research. Extending the scope, we then address human and government behaviour. In the context of environmental policy, the popular and sometimes underrated request of an equitable use of the environment has emerged as a dominant topic, a next issue for further research. As natural capital involves many more elements than the climate, biodiversity and general ecosystem services are included in the sequence. Broadening the scope to the big problems of human behaviour with natural resources we then turn to political conflicts, population development and conflicting land use. Shifting the focus on induced movements of the labour force we go on by dealing with environmental migration and urbanization. These affect welfare of the individuals in a major way, like health and the epidemiological environment as a next research challenge. In terms of the reorganization of the transition to a green economy we highlight the central role of finance and the implementation of new measures in the dominant energy sector. The final three research challenges are motivated by advances in the methodology. Big data and machine learning offer new perspectives in sustainability research, refined methods and increasing experience improve our simulation models and structural assessment modelling, which forms the last three challenges of our list.

1.4 Links to Current Research

In order to put our agenda into a broader perspective and to concretize the selected challenges, we believe it is important to show the relationship between our research agenda and the priorities in current literature and policy debates. We have considered three main links. First, we conducted a quantitative and qualitative literature review and analyzed current research as presented at international conferences (World Conference of Environmental and Resource Economics in 2018, the SURED conference in 2018, Meetings of the American, European, and Asian Associations of Environmental and Resource Economics in 2019). The aim of this analysis was to see where our profession moves and which of the currently hotly debated topics offers a high potential for future research. Second, we took the discussions in interdisciplinary research fora into consideration to identify further fields that are of high importance for future resource use, sustainable development and environmental outcomes but have so far not been adequately addressed from an economics perspective. Information on this research was gained through interdisciplinary research initiatives (for example The Belmont Forum, Future Earth and National Research Funding Activities). Involvement in interdisciplinary and globally oriented research councils provided further access to the discussions in other disciplines. Third, we draw conclusions from current policies and news as well as our involvement in the policy arena. The authors are involved in a number of institutionalized policy-oriented activities on the regional, national and international level (Regional Climate Councils, National Climate Policy Platforms as well as the UN climate negotiations).

The paper relates to similar contributions in recent literature. Based on citation data Auffhammer ( 2009 ) identifies important topics and scholars and provides a brief historical overview of the discipline from exhaustible and renewable resources to sustainability, pollution control, development, international trade, climate change, international agreements, and non-market valuation. Polyakov et al. ( 2018 ) analyze authorship patterns using text analysis for classification of articles in Environmental and Resource Economics. Based on 1630 articles published in the Journal from 1991 to 2015 they document the importance of applied and policy-oriented content in the field. They identify non-market valuation, recreation and amenity, and conservation, as popular topics and growing when measured by both number of articles and citations. Costanza et al. ( 2016 ) investigate the most influential publications of Ecological Economics in terms of citation counts both within the journal itself and elsewhere. Important topics turn out to be social aspects of environmental economics and policy, valuation of environmental policy, governance, technical change, happiness and poverty, and ecosystem services. A contemporary analysis of how research issues have developed in the Journal of Environmental Economics and Management in the time of its existence is provided by Kubea et al. ( 2018 ). These authors show that the sample of topics has broadened from the core issues of non-market valuation, cost-benefit analysis, natural resource economics, and environmental policy instruments to a more diversified array of research areas, with climate change and energy issues finding their way into the journal. In addition, increasing methodological plurality becomes apparent. They conclude that energy, development, and health are on the rise and that natural resources, instrument choice, and non-market valuation will endure; multidisciplinary work will be increasingly important. An excellent survey on research in the central field of sustainable development is provided in Polasky et al. ( 2019 ), which explicitly shows where the collaboration between economists and the other disciplines is currently insufficient and how it should be intensified in the future.

Regarding the literature that we connect our Twenty Challenges to, we naturally face the problem that some challenges have so far not been addressed adequately in the (economics) literature. In these cases we also reference papers from other disciplines. We, however, also take basic literature and recent research in environmental and resource economics into account. As we often deal with emerging topics, we cite some of this work even when not yet published. In other cases, where future research can build on or learn from past research, we also go back in time and reference older papers. Ultimately, neither our list of challenges nor the literature we base our analysis on will be satisfying to everybody. Our selection cannot be comprehensive and does not claim to be. But the specific task to identify future-oriented topics ultimately lasts on a subjective individual assessment of the authors. Nevertheless, hopefully it imparts impulses for future research in the different subfields of environmental and resource economics.

2 Twenty Challenges

The ordering of the following challenges should not be understood to perfectly reflect their individual importance (beyond what we explained in the previous sections). Also, many of the fields discussed are inherently related, creating some unavoidable overlap. We feel that efforts to bring the challenges into some complete ’natural order’ are not only doomed to fail but also would not do them justice as they relate to very different areas and can/should not be weighed against each other. Also, attempting to show their interrelations would result in a 20-by-20 matrix that would not provide more clarity.

Deep decarbonization and climate neutrality To limit global warming to a maximum of 1.5 degrees Celsius, a state of net zero greenhouse gas emissions—i.e. climate neutrality—should be reached by the mid of the century (IPCC 2018 ). The directly following and unprecedented challenge is to decarbonize the global economy in very a narrow time window (Hainsch et al. 2018 ). This holds especially as the threshold for 1.5 degrees is expected to be passed around 2040 (IPCC 2018 ). Countries must increase their NDC ambitions of the Paris Agreement more than fivefold to achieve the 1.5 degree goal (UN - United Nations 2019 ). The time window for necessary decisions is closing fast. Infrastructure that is installed today often has a life span that reaches until and beyond 2050. Decisions on investments today therefore affect the ability to reach climate targets not only in 2030 but also 2050 and beyond. And while the necessity of reaching net zero emissions by mid century is reflected by, e.g., the European Commission’ Green Deal, much uncertainty remains regarding its implementation. This holds to an even larger extent with respect to other countries and regions. The fundamental challenge is to better understand economically viable deep decarbonization paths and then to implement incentives for input substitution, technology development, and structural change. More specifically, the vision of these policies has to be long-term and reach beyond phasing out coal and increasing energy efficiency. However, despite recent research efforts in climate economics, many issues around decarbonization, negative emissions and economic development are still controversial or insufficiently understood by economists. Specifically, industry applications for which alternative technologies are not available yet as well as agricultural emissions will have to be addressed. Also, the later greenhouse gas emissions start to fall, the faster their decline will have to ultimately be in order not to overshoot temperature targets (Agliardi and Xepapadeas 2018 ), leading to an increased need for negative emissions. However, potential trade-offs and synergies in the use of land for negative emission technologies, food production and biodiversity are still underresearched. Identifying technologies today that are the most promising in the very long run is subject to high uncertainty. Yet, while investing too early might be costly, delaying investment might cost even more or might lead to a weakening of future climate targets (Gerlagh and Michielsen 2015 ). Also, transition processes may involve strong scale effects implying nonlinear development of abatement cost. Once certain thresholds are reached, lower abatement cost or even disruptive development completely altering the production process could emerge in a later phase of decarbonization. Given the dramatic increase needed in mitigation efforts to reach the 1.5 or even 2 degree target, more attention also has to be devoted to the question of adaptation. Until today, the focus of research as well as policy has been primarily on mitigation rather than adaptation, partially because of expected substitution effects between mitigation and adaptation and partially because adaptation was taken to be automatic (Fankhauser 2017 ). However, as Fankhauser lays out “knowledge gaps, behavioral barriers, and market failures that hold back effective adaptation and require policy intervention”. All of these topics present a wide scope for substantial further research.

Dynamics of the economic-ecological system Depletion of exhaustible resources, harvesting of renewable resources, recycling of raw materials, and accumulation of pollution stocks require basic societal decisions which are of an inherently dynamic nature. Whether the world society will be able to enjoy constant or increasing living standards under such dynamic natural constraints depends on another dynamic process, which is the accumulation of man-made capital. To derive the precise laws of motion in all the stock variables is challenging because general solutions of dynamic systems with several states are usually hard to obtain. An adequate procedure to obtain closed-form solutions may be to link several stocks in a reasonable way, e.g. when simultaneously dealing with resource, pollution, and capital stocks (Peretto 2017 ; Bretschger 2017b ). The specific challenge is then to find the best possible economic justification to motivate the links. One may also focus on a few stocks which are considered the main drivers of economic development and sustainable growth on a global scale (Marin and Vona 2019 ; Borissov et al. 2019 ). When resorting to numerical simulation methods it is a main challenge to provide basic economic results which are sufficiently robust and supported by ample economic intuition. Social-ecological systems are increasingly understood as complex adaptive systems. Essential features of these systems - such as nonlinear feedbacks, strategic interactions, individual and spatial heterogeneity, and varying time scales—pose another set of substantial challenges for modeling in a dynamic framework. A main challenge is the characterization and selection of dynamic paths with multiple equilibria and the overall tractablility of the models, given the diversity of interlinkages and nonlinear relationships. The complexity of economic-ecological systems lead to a main challenge for designing effective policies is taking account of network effects, strategic interaction, sectoral change, path dependencies, varying time lags, and nonlinear feedbacks have to be considered as well as different regional and temporal scales, interdependencies between ecosystems, institutional restrictions and distributional implications (see, e.g., Engel et al. 2008 ; Levin et al. 2013 ; Vatn 2010 ). Optimal policies should also acknowledge the balance between the preservation of the ecology and the development of the economy especially for countries growing out of poverty. Setting a price for ecosystem services and natural capital via policy is important for preventing innovation incentives from being skewed against maintaining natural capital and ecosystem services.

Risk, uncertainty, and resilience The vast majority of contributions in environmental economics use models with a purely deterministic structure. However, large negative environmental events require a completely different framework, which poses specific challenges for modelling. Heatwaves, floods, droughts, and hurricanes are shocks that are very uncertain, arriving at irregular times and with varying intensity. Also, risk and uncertainty about socio-economic impacts and technological development affect the optimal design of policies (see, e.g., Jensen and Traeger 2014 ). Moreover, uncertainty changes the political economy of climate policy and, finally, regulatory and policy uncertainty might create obstacles to reach climate targets through, for example, distortions of investment decisions (Pommeret and Schubert 2018 ; Bretschger and Soretz 2018 ). Stern ( 2016 ) argued forcefully that climate economics research needs to better integrate risk and uncertainty. Bigger disasters or so-called ”tipping points” such as the melting of the Greenland ice sheet, the collapse of Atlantic thermohaline circulation, and the dieback of Amazon rainforest involve an even higher level of uncertainty (Lenton and Ciscar 2013 ) with implications for optimal policy design and capital accumulation (Van der Ploeg and de Zeeuw 2018 ). Understanding the implications of tipping points is further complicated as the different tipping points are not independent of each other (Cai et al. 2016 ). The Economy and the Earth system both form non-deterministic systems; combining the two in an overarching framework and adding institutions for decision making multiplies the degree of complexity for adequate modelling and methods (Athanassoglou and Xepapadeas 2012 ). It is thus a main challenge for further research to provide analytic foundations and policy rules for rational societal decision-making under the conditions of risk and uncertainty up to deep uncertainty (Brock and Xepapadeas 1903 ; Baumgärtner and Engler 2018 ). Future work on policy design under deep uncertainty can build on a wide range of literature ranging from the assessment of the precautionary principle in this context to the fundamental contributions by Hansen and Sargent ( 2001 ) and Klibanoff et al. ( 2005 ) as well as on more recent analyses in the context of environmental and resource economics, e.g. Manoussi et al. ( 2018 ). An important challenge of the environmental discipline is to provide a framework for the global economy providing the conditions for resilience against major shocks and negative environmental events (Bretschger and Vinogradova 2018 ). With deep uncertainty one has to generate rules for deep resilience. Including uncertainty is especially important when environmental events do not occur constantly but cause the crossing of tipping points involving large and sudden shifts. Economic modeling needs to increasingly incorporate tipping points and the value of resilience in theory and to generate and use data supporting the empirical validity. The combination of uncertainty and potential irreversible outcomes (e.g., species extinction) is another big challenge for research.

Disruptive development and path dependencies Substantial and sometimes disruptive changes in behavioral patterns, economic structure and technologies will be required if net zero GHG emissions and the UN sustainable development goals are to be reached. On the bright side, development may exhibit favorable disruptions. Consumers’ preferences and political pressure coupled with new technology achievements may alter certain sectors in a short period of time. Similar to the communication industry which has completely changed, transportation and heat generation could and mst probably will undergo fundamental changes in the near future. The research challenge here is to provide adequate models predicting and adequately analyzing such important transitions and to highlight resisting forces at the same time. In fact, the change of trajectories in development is often hampered by technological, economic and behavioral lock-ins, resulting in path dependencies and inertia. In such situations, history influences current development through, for example, past investment in R&D, the size of established markets, increasing returns or habits acquired (Aghion et al. 2016 ; Barnes et al. 2004 ; Arthur 1989 ). Behavioral path dependencies affect acceptance and adoption of new technologies, hinder social innovation and might render policies aimed at marginal changes ineffective. They can thus postpone the transition to a low-carbon economy, harm efforts in biodiversity conservation and prolong unsustainable resource use patterns and lifestyles, even if they are welfare enhancing in the long-run (e.g. Acemoglu et al. 2012 ; Kalkuhl et al. 2012 ). Inertia and lock-ins may also be policy driven with, for example, political or economics elites trying to block change (Acemoglu and Robinson 2006 ) or clean energy support schemes fostering new technology lock-ins. Whether disruption or a lock-in emerges depends, for example, on expectations determining the steady state of an economy (Bretschger and Schaefer 2017 ). This requires nonlinearities e.g. in capital return, generating overlap regions in which the growth path is indeterminate and could be either driven by history or by expectations. The challenge is to add more substantial research into system dynamics and the political economy of change, to gain a better understanding of the different mechanisms responsible for inertia and disruptive change. So far, the role of path dependencies has often been neglected in empirical as well as theoretical analyses (Calel and Dechezlepretre 2016 ). Also, understanding the triggers or tipping points for disruptive change can help to identify policies that have a big environmental impact with moderate costs in terms of environmental policy.

Behavioral environmental economics Traditionally, economics focuses predominantly on the supply side when analyzing potentials and challenges for environmental policies. Preferences of individuals are mostly assumed to be given with economic analysis confining itself to studying the effects of changing incentives and altering constraints. The change and development of preferences over time plays only a comparative minor role for economic research. Also, the follow-up question whether policies should be allowed to tamper with preferences is rarely discussed with nudging being one big exception to this rule (e.g. Strassheim and Beck 2019 ). While the traditional, supply-side oriented analysis has provided powerful results in positive analysis, it proves to be limited in a field which inherently includes normative conclusions like environmental economics. The path toward sustainable development requires behavioral changes and political actions changing our relationship to the environment. Ultimately, environmental policies have to be decided by the same people overusing the environment in the absence of a policy. In situations where outcomes are inefficient because individuals and political actors follow their own self-interest and ignore external costs and benefits of their actions, it is clearly not sufficient for economists to advocate the implementation of environmental policies. It is crucial to understand under what conditions preferences change and agents support green policies (Casari and Luini 2009 ). So, the challenge to economic research is to better understand the evolution of green attitudes, the emergence of preferences for a clean environment, and expectations in the case of multiple equilibria (Cerda Planas 2018 ). The formation and development of preferences is also not independent from cultural, regional and community aspects. Research that ignores heterogeneity among actors or the role of social and group dynamics and only relies on the traditional, isolated analysis of individual preferences is likely to lead to an incomplete understanding of preference dynamics. As the example of discounting shows, the social context has an impact on myopic attitudes and the motivation to undertake sacrifices for a cleaner future (Galor and Özak 2016 ). Also, attention to behavioral details, that economists might find rather uninteresting from a research perspective, might influence effectiveness of policies tremendously (Duflo 2017 ). Especially with the natural environment, the choice and guise of policy instruments should take these mechanisms into account.

Institutional analysis of environmental policy Virtually every contribution to the environmental and resource economics literature culminates in one or several policy conclusions. However, these results are often received with skepticism from industry and public. Therefore, a continuing key challenge for our profession is a thorough understanding of environmental policy institutions, processes and decision-making; this task has become even more important given the enormous scale and global nature of future policies. Research in this area has, however, the advantage of already looking back on a long tradition (see e.g. the body of work by Daniel Bromley, e.g. Bromley 1989 ). Well-designed institutions support and create incentives to drive development toward a welfare-improving state. Absent, weak, inefficient, or even corrupt governments and institutions are detrimental to successful environmental policy (Pellegrini and Gerlagh 2008 ; Dasgupta and De Cian 2016 ) or might lead to detrimental effects of resource wealth (see Badeeb et al. 2017 for an overview of the related literature). To effectively increase social welfare by, for example, conservation of ecological services, one has to design policies in a way that allow implementation under realistic policy conditions (Rodrik 2008 ). Pure reference to the construct of a social planner is not sufficient. For increasing efficiency in problem solving, the ex-post evaluation of policies has to be expanded and improved. Policy evaluation should not only analyze if regulatory objectives have been reached but also which side-effects arise (OECD 2017 ). Moreover, the comparison with alternative measures and a continuous international exchange of best practices have to be supported by science. A proactive environmental policy analysis should furthermore include studying vested interests, lobbying, political power, policy communication, and voting behavior. Especially insights from behavioral economics may add to our understanding of a proper design of environmental institutions. On the international level, the adequate institutional design for global environmental policy still poses great challenges. Beyond traditional research fields like international environmental agreements in specific areas like climate change, the multi-dimensionality of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and potential trade-offs between different goals need to be explored further. This holds especially given the vast differences in income, vulnerability, and resilience between countries, as well as the need for unanimity and voluntary contributions on the UN level. Relating national to international policies has the potential to be especially rewarding in this context given the SDGs relevance for and acceptance in national as well as international politics. Insights from the analysis of institutions in traditional economic sectors (e.g. on the efficiency of capital markets) should be transferred and applied to the global level (e.g. with respect to investment in the world’s natural capital stock).

Equitable use of the environment We place equity and fairness in dealing with the natural environment on the priority list of our challenges because first and foremost equity is a central requirement for sustainability of development. By definition, sustainable development seeks an equitable treatment across different generations as well as agents living today. We also believe that for successful environmental policies, equity and fairness are crucial complements to the dominant efficiency requirement (Sterner 2011 ). It is a specific challenge of our field to study equity in an economic context and to demonstrate its importance for sustainability to mainstream economics and the public. The first aspect of the problem is the aforementioned unequal vulnerability of countries to environmental changes such as global warming. If vulnerability is higher in less developed countries, the equity perspective is especially striking. As a matter of fact, most of the climate vulnerable countries have a low average income. Global environmental policy is then motivated not only by efficiency but also by the aim of preventing increasing inequalities (Bretschger 2017a ). Global efforts are also indicated to avoid adverse feedback effects of induced inequalities like environmental migration. The second aspect is that acceptance of public policies sharply increases with the perceived fairness of the measure (Pittel and Rübbelke 2011 ; IPCC 2018 ). In the past, economists have often underestimated political resistance against efficient environmental protection, which was mostly related to negative impacts on income distribution. Take carbon pricing and emission regulation as a current example. Although evidence from cross-country studies suggests that regressivity of carbon pricing is much less frequent than often assumed in the public (Parry 2015 ), the perceived distributional impact is often very different (Beck et al. 2016 ). Therefore the impact of environmental policies on income groups, regions, and countries should be better integrated in our analysis and policy recommendations. Where efficient policies are regressive, economists have to evaluate and propose alternative or complementary policy designs. Benefits and costs need to be disaggregated by group (country) with a special attention on the poorest members of society (countries). Internationally, equity concerns need to be addressed especially in situations where the entire world benefits from the protection of natural capital and ecosystem services in poor countries (e.g., of carbon sinks and biodiversity hubs like tropical rain forests). The experience with the REDD+ process shows the complexity of designing such international approaches to incentivize and enable developing countries to protect these global public goods. More economic analysis is needed on all of the above aspects, giving rise to a rich research agenda in theory and applied work.

Loss of biodiversity and natural capital The rate of species extinction today is estimated to be up to 1000 times higher than without human interference (Rockstrom 2009 ). Human activities impact biodiversity through land use change, pollution, habit fragmentation and the introduction of non-native species but also increasingly through climate change and its interaction with already existing drivers of biodiversity change (IPCC 2002 ). In view of this, biodiversity conservation has long been a focus of politics. In 1992, the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity main objectives were stated as ”the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources” (UN - United Nations 1992 ). Yet, although economists have developed conceptual and theoretical frameworks addressing the valuation of biodiversity (Weitzman 1998 ; Brock and Xepapadeas 2003 ) and despite data on valuation having become increasingly available (see, e.g. TEEB 2020 ), Weitzman ( 2014 ) points out, that an objective or even widely agreed measure of biodiversity and its value is still missing. The same holds for an underlying theory framework and a comprehensive measure of natural capital that not only includes biodiversity but also its links to regulating services (e.g., pollution abatement, land protection), material provisioning services (e.g., food, energy, materials), and nonmaterial services (e.g., aesthetics, experience, learning, physical and mental health, recreation). How biodiversity and natural capital should be measured, which societal, political and economic values underlie different measures and valuation and how ecological and economical trade-offs should be dealt with are big challenges left for future research. In order to address these issues, not only do we need to develop appropriate assessment methods, but we also need to disclose the theoretical basics of this assessment and which trade-offs go hand in hand with different assessments (Brei et al. 2020 ; Antoci et al. 2019 ; Drupp 2018 ). Completely new issues for the valuation of biodiversity and natural capital arise with the development of new technologies. Take DSI (digital sequence information), for example. DSI are digital images of genetic resources (DNA) that can be stored in databases. This gives rise not only to new challenges regarding their valuation but also about the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of these resources.

Valuing and paying for ecosystem services Related to the question of biodiversity valuation is the market and non-market valuation of ecosystem services in general and the adequate design of payment for ecosystem services (PES). Overall, research on ecosystem services valuation has made significant progress in the last decades. Nevertheless, challenges remain even in traditional valuation fields (for example, valuation of non-use or interconnected ecosystems). Other, so far underresearched areas that constitute promising fields for future research are health-related valuation aspects (Bratman et al. 2019 ) and nonmaterial ecosystem services, such as amenities of landscapes or cultural ecosystem services (Small et al. 2017 ; James 2015 ). Also, data availability remains a problem in many valuation areas. Although digitized observation and information systems offer large potentials for previously unknown data access, they also raise a whole slew of new ethical, privacy as well as economic questions, especially in areas like health. While a lot of progress has been made in the valuation of ecosystem services, their impact on decision making still lags behind. One factor contributing to this disconnect are prevalent mismatches between regional and temporal scales of economic, institutional and ecological systems that make valuation and policy design complex (Schirpke et al. 2019 ). The challenge is to develop combined natural science-economic models that allow better insights into how changes in economic systems lead to changes in the flows of ecosystem services and vice versa (Verburg et al. 2016 ). This requires a deep understanding of ecological and economic systems as well as other aspects like technologies, regional heterogeneity and system boundaries, i.e. catastrophic events. It also raises classic economic problems, such as choosing an appropriate discount rate and degree of risk aversion. Regarding tools to include ecosystem services in economic decision making, PES are a, by now, well-established (Salzman et al. 2018 ) and also quite well-researched approach for promoting environmental outcomes. Still, the literature has identified a number of aspects to be addressed in the design of PES to make them more effective as well as efficient and to simultaneously improve social outcomes (Wunder et al. 2018 ; Chan et al. 2017 ). A promising area of research rarely addressed are PES to preserve transboundary or global ecosystem services through international payment schemes (for example, in tropical forest preservation). While some work has been done on the conceptual level (e.g. Harstad 2012 ), the REDD+ process (Maniatis et al. 2019 ) and the failure of the Yasuni initiative (Sovacool and Scarpaci 2016 ) show the complexity of such approaches for which a thorough economics analysis is still missing.

Conflicts over natural resources Climate change and decarbonization transform regional and global geopolitical landscapes and might give rise to future domestic as well as international conflicts (Mach et al. 2019 ; Carleton and Hsiang 2016 ). First, decarbonization changes the role of resources and of resource- and energy-related infrastructures. Climate policies affect the rent allocation between different fossil fuels like, for example, coal and natural gas, but might also change the overall rent level (Kalkuhl and Brecha 2013 ). Asset stranding can endanger stability in resource (rent) dependent countries. Conflicts may also arise over materials critical to new, low-carbon energy technologies like rare earth elements but also over access to sustainable energy (Goldthau et al. 2019 ; O’Sullivan et al. 2017 ). Further research is needed to design policies that are better equipped to reduce the vulnerability of economies to changes in resource availability and resource rents. This opens up challenges for future research, especially as restrictions from very diverse institutional capacities have to be considered to render policies efficient and effective. Second, climate change will affect the ability to meet basic human needs through food, land and water. Sulemanaa et al. ( 2019 ) find a positive effect of the occurrence of temperature extremes on conflict incidence. They stress the need for more advanced spatial econometric models to identify effects that are transmitted across space. More research is also needed on the role of institutions and interaction with other phenomena like population dynamics, migration, and environmental degradation. Currently, the role of climate for conflict is still small compared to other causes, many linkages between conflicts and climate change as well as other factors promoting conflict are still uncertain (Mach et al. 2019 ). The challenge to economic research is to get early insights into the nexus of historical and cultural factors, vested interests, population dynamics and climate change in order to help to prevent resource-related conflicts.

Population development and use of the environment Already since antiquity, demographic analysis has been a central topic of human thinking. With the Malthusian predictions of catastrophes caused by population growth, the topic is firmly related to the natural environment and the limits of planet Earth. While limited food production was the dominant topic in the 18th century, the impact of world population on global commons, availability of renewable and exhaustible resources, and ecosystem services have been dominant topics in the last decades. Still, while it is often argued in the public and in natural sciences that world population size should be a concern because of ecological constraints, economics has largely left the topic on the side; the few exceptions (Peretto and Valente 2015 ) and (Bretschger 2013 , 2020 ) point in a different direction, namely the compatibility of population growth and sustainable development under very general conditions. Current trends of demographic transition show significant signs of population degrowth for leading economies while trends for developing countries vary substantially (UN - United Nations 2019 ). Population is forecasted to expand especially in Africa, accounting for more than half of the world’s population growth over the coming decades, raising questions about the effect of this population increase on fragile ecosystems, resource use and ultimately the potential for sustainable growth (African Development Bank 2015 ). Population growth will also promote further urbanization and migration triggered by environmental and resource depletion but also giving rise to new environmental problems (Awumbila 2017 ). Challenges from population development and environment are thus closely linked to the other research topics highlighted in this article. However, population growth is not exogenously given but determined by economic, social as well as environmental factors. Education and income or economic development have long been established as crucial for fertility (see e.g. the reviews of the literature provided by Kan and Lee 2018 ; Fox et al. 2019 ). To integrate these findings into a holistic approach is a mediating challenge for future research. Climate change might affect these channels in different ways, potentially exacerbating global inequality (Casey et al. 2019 ). However, population development, fertility, and mortality are not only affected by climate change but also by other environmental stresses like air pollution (Conforti et al. 2018 ). A successful combination of endogenous fertility and mortality with natural resource scarcity, agricultural production, and pollution accumulation as well as capital and knowledge build-up in a comprehensive framework is a respectable challenge for an economic modeller; we suggest that in the future it should be considered by economists more intensively.

Land use and soil degradation The terrestrial biosphere with its products, functions and ecosystem services is the foundation of human existence, not only for food security but far beyond. Currently, about a quarter of ice-free land area is degraded by human impacts (IPCC 2019 ). The optimal use of scarce land resources becomes an even more urgent topic in the face of the biodiversity crisis and the onset of climate change. This holds especially as the physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food is the basic precondition for human existence. Climate change challenges this access on different levels. On the one hand, climate change increases the pressure on productive land areas (due to extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, forest fires or the shifting of climatic zones). On the other hand, land plays a major role in many climate protection scenarios by reducing emissions from land use and land use change, protecting carbon stocks in soils and ecosystems, and conserving and expanding natural carbon sinks. Also, the capture and storage of CO 2 through carbon dioxide removal technologies plays an increasing role for reaching the Paris climate goals (IPCC 2018 ). The induced increase in the demand for the different services from land inevitably implies trade-offs. However, neither the trade-offs nor the potentials for synergic uses are, as of now, comprehensively understood from an economic point of view and thus pose a challenge for future research. While there is a growing literature on negative emission technologies, their costs, potentials and side effects (Fuss et al. 2019 and references within) as well as on the interaction between climate goals and other SGDs on the global level (von Stechow et al. 2016 ), many research questions still remain to be addressed (Minx et al. 2018 ). This concerns especially a better understanding of opportunity costs, governance requirements, regional and distributional effects as well as of acceptance and ethical considerations. With respect to land degradation and land use for food production, changing climate and weather conditions as well as regional population pressure may raise the rate of land degradation (Fezzi and Bateman 2015 ), hurting food security and calling for preservation policies (Brausmann and Bretschger 2018 ). The overuse of ecosystems like forests and water, which protect and complement land, can accelerate the risk of adverse shocks and thus lower soil fertility, which reveals the close link between the different research subjects. However, much of the agricultural research in this field is still quite distant from mainstream environmental economics which can harm research productivity substantially. It remains a challenge to integrate agricultural and environmental research better, for example by bringing together food production, population, and the environment into a macrodynamic framework (Lanz et al. 2017 ).

Environmental migration Migration in times of climate change is an extraordinarily complex, multicausal and controversial challenge (Adger et al. 2014 ). Heatwaves, droughts, hurricanes, and rising sea levels are likely to motivate or even force a growing number of people to leave their homes moving to presumably safer places. Climate-related migration can take a variety of different forms (Warner 2011) from voluntary to involuntary, from short- to long-distance and from temporary to permanent. Migration decisions are usually based on different motives and personal circumstances (climatically, politically, economically, socially), leading to heterogeneous reactions to climate events and making it often problematic to identify and delineate climate-induced migration. Due to these and other methodological difficulties and the small number of studies so far, no globally reliable forecasts for climate induced migration exist (WBGU - German Advisory Council on Global Change 2018a , b ). At present, the forecasted magnitude of the phenomenon ranges from 25 million up to 1 billion people by 2050 (Ionesco et al. 2017 ). Much of this migration can be expected to take place within countries, for example, from rural to urban areas or from drylands to coastal zones (Henderson et al. 2014 ) with environmental migration being one possible adaptation and survivor strategy in the face of climate change (Millock 2015 ). Given the uncertainty in future migration projections, the challenge is to improve migration models (Cattaneo et al. 2019 ) which includes a better understanding and integration of the microfoundation of agents’ migration decisions. Migration, and especially mass-migration, can have a profound impact on the environment of the new as well as the old settlement location and on their economic structure. Labor and commodities markets will be affected the most, with challenges arising also for education and health systems, government budgets and public spending. By affecting public institutions and the skill-mix of the labor force, migration alters economic development both in the sending and in the receiving countries or regions. More research is needed on these impacts. The influx of environmental migrants to new settlement locations may also trigger hostile attitudes and lead to clashes and even armed conflicts. The migrants may be perceived as rivals for scarce resources (land, clean water) or jobs. The situation may be aggravated by lack of political stability and poor-quality political institutions. Dealing with these aspects gives rise to new challenges in environment and resource economics. Traditional analysis of economic costs and benefits of migration have to be complemented by behavioral economic and political economy analyses.

Urbanization as a key for environmental development In the last 70 years, the urban population has increased fivefold with more than half of the world’s population living in cities today and forecasts projecting the share of urban population to rise to almost 70% in 2050 (UN - United Nations 2018 ). Cities are responsible for about 70% of the world energy use and global CO \(_{2}\) -emissions (Seto et al. 2014 ) and ecological footprints are positively correlated to the degree of urbanization (WBGU - German Advisory Council on Global Change 2016 ). In 2014, about 880 million people were living in slums (UN - United Nations 2016 ) elucidating the problems to make urban development environmentally as well as economically and socially sustainable. The speed of urbanization is projected to be the fastest in low and middle income countries, especially in Africa and Asia (UN - United Nations 2018 ), leading to new challenges for the provision of infrastructure, housing, energy supply, transport and even health care. Climate change can be expected to not only foster urbanization trends (Henderson et al. 2017 ) but also increase the magnitude of urbanization-related challenges. Urban areas are often located close to the coast or rivers basins, making them susceptible to rising sea levels and impacts of extreme weather events. Risks can be expected to be higher for poor households due to settlement in less safe areas and poorer housing (Barata et al. 2011 ), potentially perpetuating existing inequalities. On the other hand, cities might offer more efficient adaptation potentials. To date the consequences of climate change for cities and urbanization are still to be determined in detail but depend heavily on factors like location, size and level of development as well as governance capacities. Making cities, their population and their infrastructure resilient to climate change will be decisive for future development. The main challenge here is to better connect the research fields of environmental and urban economics to understand the drivers and dynamic effects of climate change on urbanization and resulting economic development, on adaptation costs and benefits and on the role of institutions. Insights from regional, political and behavioral economics can help shape effective governance to enhance resilience of cities to climate change.

Health and epidemiological environment Environmental degradation can have profound implications for human health. These implications lead to direct as well as indirect challenges for economic decision making, economic development and thus economic research. While many of these challenges might not be new per se, they can be severely exacerbated by, for example, climate change. Economic implications of long-term increases in vector-borne diseases and heat stress as well as pandemics like the COVID-19 and ozone formation still remain to be analyzed in depth, as do the costs and benefits of adaptation measures dedicated to mitigating these effects (Mendelsohn 2012 ). Climate change also affects human health indirectly through impacts on economic development, land use, and biodiversity - and vice versa. Failed emission reductions and bad environmental management especially impact developing countries negatively through direct effects on health but also through health effects of delayed poverty reduction (Fankhauser and Stern 2020 ). Exposure to diseases or epidemics can increase the risk of civil conflicts and violence (Cervellati et al. 2016 , 2018 ). While research has addressed effects of life-expectancy, diseases and premature mortality on long-run economic development (e.g. Ebenstein et al. 2015 ; Acemoglu and Johnson 2007 ), a thorough analysis of the climate-health-development nexus is still missing. Overall, most research carried out on the interaction between environment, climate and human health has focused on physical health and mortality. The effects of air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels or agriculture on premature deaths, cardiac conditions and respiratory diseases, for example, received not only renewed interest in the wake of recent scandals (see e.g. Alexander and Schwandt 2019 ) but have been an active field of research for a number of years (Schlenker and Walker 2016 ; Tschofen et al. 2019 ). Mental health implications like stress, anxiety or depression on the other hand have received much less attention although, for example, Chen et al. ( 2018 ) in a study on air pollution in China estimate these effects to be on a similar scale to costs arising from impacts on physical health. Also, Danzer and Danzer ( 2016 ) find substantial effects of a large energy-related disaster (the Chernobyl catastrophe) on subjective well-being and mental health. Economic research should take up the challenge and put more effort into the economic evaluation of mental health related effects of climate change and environmental degradation in general. Potential to analyze these and other health-related questions have risen substantially in the last years, method-wise as well as topical, with new large data sets becoming available. Big data from insurance companies, satellite imagery on pollution dispersion and effects of draughts, for example, can provide new insights into the dynamics between environmental changes and health. But digital technologies themselves also generate new research questions addressing, for example, risks, costs and benefits of these new technologies.

Carbon exposure and green finance The impact of climate change and of climate policy on the financial system is a topic of increasing public concern. The transition to a low-carbon economy poses a lot of challenges not only from physical risks and damages but also from transition risks. These accrue in such different areas as climate-related policy making, altered market behavior, changes in international trade patterns, technology development, and consumer behavior. To support a safe and gradual transition to a low-carbon economy, the financial sector needs to evaluate and eventually address the new risks associated with climate change and decarbonization in an efficient manner. There is widespread concern that financial markets currently lack sufficient information about the carbon exposure of assets, resulting in risks from climate change and climate policy for investments (Karydas and Xepapadeas 2018 ). If not anticipated by the markets, climate shocks also cause asset stranding, i.e. unanticipated and premature capital write-offs, downward revaluations, and conversion of assets to liabilities (Rozenberg et al. 2020 ; Bretschger and Soretz 2018 ). The same holds true for climate policies which are not or cannot be correctly anticipated by investors (Dietz et al. 2016 ; Stolbova et al. 2018 ; Sen and von Schickfus 2020 ). The growing awareness of these risks is reflected in the attention that policy makers have devoted to the development of transparency improving information systems and indicators in recent years. However, challenges related the design of these systems and indicators, e.g. with respect to an accurate and encompassing risk assessment, still remain. The importance of addressing these challenges is excerbated by prevalent network effects and counterparty risks that transmit climate-induced financial shocks from individual firms to the broad public holding their capital in stocks of fossil-fuel-related firms, investment funds, and pension funds, which all could suffer from stranded assets (Battiston et al. 2017 ). Divestment campaigns, shareholder engagement, and mandatory disclosure of climate-relevant financial information by companies and investors warrant further theoretical and empirical analysis. Also, a better understanding of the economics behind financing instruments like green bonds is only recently emerging (Agliardi and Agliardi 2019 ). Despite some early studies there is a knowledge gap with respect to the extent of climate and policy risks for central banks and regarding the potential significance of different channels connecting the risks in the real economy with monetary policy. Given the environmental and international policy perspective of the climate problem, the specific contribution of the financial sector and the central banks in the architecture of global climate policy has to be subject to further investigation.

Energy system transformation The transition from a fossil-based to a green economy is needed to combat climate change but requires a thorough transformation of energy systems (Pommeret and Schubert 2019 ) in developed as well as in developing countries. In industrialized countries, challenges arise from the structural transformation of highly complex energy systems and their linkage with other economic sectors. While one hundred years ago, it was the rapid dissemination of fossil-based industrial processes, transportation, and heating that resulted in wide-spread sectoral change, similar adjustments can be expected with the increasing importance of electricity for decarbonization. However, changing the use of energy technologies in practice involves decisions on different levels and constitutes a highly nonlinear process. Future power generation in many countries will increasingly rely on renewable energies like wind and solar energy. To offset intermittent power generation, more and better storage capacities of batteries or pumped hydropower will be needed (Ambec and Crampes 2019 ). Synthetic fuels, heat pumps, fuel cells and e-mobility will increasingly use electricity to replace fossil fuels not only in the power sector but also in traffic and heat generation. While the adoption of renewable technologies like wind and solar was often much faster than predicted in the past, the critical mass of market penetration has still to be reached in other areas to benefit from potential scale effects and cost decreases. Shape and speed of the energy transition are, however, highly dependent on a political process which is hard to predict for market participants. Policy and ecological risks, together with the long-run character of the energy and related infrastructure investments, pose a big challenge for research and practice. In this context, it is especially the economic potential of green hydrogen and/or synthetic fuels that is controversially discussed at present. As production costs are expected to fall (Glenk and Reichelstein 2019 ), interest in hydrogen is increasing sharply (IEA 2019 ) and new research questions arise. For developing countries, clean and decentralized renewable energy technologies offer big potentials for electrification and economic development. However, despite the potential for decarbonization and the reduction of other externalities and health hazards and despite the fact that more than 90% of the annual increase in power generation comes from emerging economies, research on the development and adoption of clean energy technologies still focuses mainly on the developed world. More research on the barriers and challenges for adoption in developing countries is needed, including sustainable financing, institutional framing and the design of regionally tailored policies.

Sustainability perspective on digitalization Digitalization and artificial intelligence are often seen as opportunities for enhancing the efficiency of energy and resource use. They offer new opportunities for circular economy, agriculture, monitoring of ecosystems and biodiversity, sustainable finance and decarbonization (see WBGU 2019 and literature within). However, they may also accelerate energy and resource use, increase inequality between regions and income groups and endanger sustainable development. Digitalization offers new access to markets, impacts market forms and shapes consumer behavior all of which can have extensive implications for the ecological, social and economic dimensions of sustainable development. Digitalization is a cross-cutting theme that reaches across spatial scales (from regional development to globalization) as well as temporal scales (from short-run impacts on energy systems to long-run adaptation to climate change). So far, the potentials and challenges for sustainable development that are associated with digital technologies have mostly been addressed outside of environmental and resource economics. The focus has been on topics such as data security and privacy or, for example, on the implications of the ”fourth industrial revolution” on employment and labor markets. Costs and benefits of digitization, the design and effectiveness of policies in industrialized as well as developing countries have garnered much less attention in the context of environmental, resource, energy and climate economics. Also, impacts of digitization on the behavior of economic agents resulting in, for example, rebound effects or changes in consumption patterns and environmental awareness, have not been addressed comprehensively (Gossar 2015 ). In all of these areas, our limited knowledge base creates opportunities and challenges for future research in the field. But, digitalization not only creates new research questions, it also provides new means to answer them. It has led to new developments in data science, big data analysis, machine learning and artificial intelligence that allow new insights into, for example, material flows, emission patterns and technology diffusion as well as the optimal design, implementation and effectiveness of regulation (Fowlie et al. 2019 ; Weersink et al. 2018 ; Graziano and Gillingham 2015 ).

Quantitative analysis of environmental use Recently, there has been a significant shift in the empirical methods used in economics from traditional regression analysis to random assignment and quasi-experiments. Arguably this can improve the capturing of causal relationships and reduce the biases of traditional study designs. In environmental economics, experimental and quasi-experimental approaches have been applied mainly for capturing individuals’ or firms’ decisions on the use of land, water, resources, and energy (e.g. Allcott 2011 ; Duflo et al. 2013 ; Deschenes et al. 2017 ). Wider applications of these rigorous methods in environmental economics and well-suited empirical designs are desirable but certainly challenging e.g. when assessing aggregate environmental costs from climate change or biodiversity loss. An important but underrated field in applied environmental economics is the ex-post empirical assessment of environmental policies. The challenge is not only to identify environmental externalities, causalities, and impact intensities but also to provide an accurate valuation of the cost of policies, because they vary widely especially in environmental economics. The traditional empirical methods remain to be important and are not simply replaced. The same holds true for empirical designs in a time, cross-country, or panel structure. The increasing availability of large or very large datasets with observations varying widely across time and space offers a different set of options to provide evidence on the impact of environmental damages or policies to abate them (e.g. Currie and Walker 2011 ; Martin et al. 2014 ; Zhang et al. 2018 ). Fast-growing computational power and machine learning provide even more avenues for fruitful applications in environmental economics (see e.g. Abrell et al. 2019 ) but the challenge to use computer power wisely and to derive results which are sufficiently robust remains demanding .

Structural assessment modelling and modelling transparency In an effort to better understand the ramifications of political decisions and technological developments on climate change, energy supply and resource extraction (to name but a few examples), increasingly sophisticated numerical models have been developed in recent decades. It is evident that quantitative economics analysis is important for policy advice. Yet despite their complexity, these models usually still adopt some very simplifying and sometimes ad-hoc assumptions. In particular assumptions used in integrated valuation models have come under heavy criticism in recent years (Stern 2013 ; Pindyck 2013 ). Simplifications concern market structures and market failures, the integration of risk and uncertainty as well as societal, institutional and cultural detail. Also, manifestations of climate change and damages come at very different regional and temporal scales, making a truly integrated assessment of the climate-ecosystem-economy nexus next to impossible. We see it as a major challenge for future research to provide more accurate foundations for integrated assessment models. While simplifications are needed to reduce computational complexity, they raise the question to which extent the results obtained render reliable insights into future developments. Asking for models that are detailed in every dimension and can answer every question resembles of course the search for the holy grail. However, the need for a better understanding of the model dynamics has already led to the development of a new generation of models which have a stronger foundation in theory (Golosov et al. 2014 , Bretschger and Karydas 2019 ). A better understanding of the limits of models and of the questions specific models can and cannot address is still needed as well as transparency in model development. More applied studies, assessments of global environmental trends under different economic assumptions often use ”scenarios” to describe future trajectories. The scenarios are mostly based on expert opinion and do not rely on estimates about the likelihood that such a trajectory will occur. It is also critical that the economics behind the scenarios is often neglected. Prominently, per capita income can be projected using endogenous growth theory, while population development can be evaluated using state-of-the-art theories on fertility and morbidity.

3 Conclusions

This article set out to highlight a number of challenges that are highly relevant for future research in the field of environmental and resource economics. The focus was mainly, although not exclusively, on topical issues. We only briefly touched upon on some methodological advancements that might have the power to further parts of our field. Big data, machine learning and artificial intelligence hold high promise in this regard but their limits and potentials for environment, climate and resource economics have yet to be fully understood.

It should have become clear, that a number of the challenges presented can only be addressed adequately by interdisciplinary research teams with relevant disciplines ranging from climate science, (computer) engineering, sociology, virology to soil sciences. In many cases, economists’ analysis and the derivation of sound policy recommendations require the knowledge available in these fields. However, such research cooperations are by no means one-way streets: Other disciplines need the input of economists in order to assess future development scenarios and implementability of solutions. The knowledge and data required for economics analysis does not always exist yet, but interdisciplinary cooperation can help to identify and close these gaps. Overall, the less economists have already worked on specific challenges, the harder it is to assess best research strategies and the potential for success. Take the digitization-sustainable-development-nexus as an example: best research strategies and success are extremely difficult to predict as not only is the related economics research still in its infancy but also the field itself is extremely dynamic.

As already pointed out in the beginning: We are aware that our selection is bound to create discontent and disagreement. Having said this, it should also be stated that we expect some of our challenges to be more or less universally agreed upon. This holds especially for the broader topics: for example, how to accomplish deep decarbonization; how to deal with risk and uncertainty; or how to assess the role of disruptive development. One reason for this lies in the encompassing nature of these topics. They are relevant for many of the other fields that we have pointed out: For behavioral analyses, the capacity to deal with disruptive change in the face of risk and uncertainty are essential. Loss of biodiversity and natural capital, land degradation, conflicts over resources and migration are exacerbated by climate change. The potential of digitization for sustainable development constitutes disruptive change in itself. Yet, all of these fields are not merely subfields of the more overarching themes, they raise important research questions in their own right.

Nevertheless, it is to be expected that it will be the more specific fields over which disagreement will arise: Are ‘land use and soil degradation’ more important than ‘fisheries’? Is the ‘institutional analysis of environmental policies’ of higher relevance than the ‘development of alternative welfare concepts’ (to pick out some random examples). Of course, there are more fields that could have been included and also, of course, there is no objective criterion for the inclusion or exclusion of fields. The selection of the challenges is based on the analysis and criteria presented in the first section but it is ultimately ours; we are happy if this paper contributes to a lively and constructive discussion about the future of our field.

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Bretschger, L., Pittel, K. Twenty Key Challenges in Environmental and Resource Economics. Environ Resource Econ 77 , 725–750 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10640-020-00516-y

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Are you looking for environmental research paper topics? With ongoing debates about global warming, air pollution, and other issues, there is no shortage of exciting topics to craft a research paper around. Whether you’re studying ecology, geology, or marine biology, developing the perfect environmental research topic to get your science research assignment off the ground can be challenging. Stop worrying – we got you covered. Continue reading to learn about 235 different ideas on environmental research topics. In this article, we will discuss environmental topics and show you how to choose an interesting research topic for your subject. We will also provide a list of various environmental topics from our research paper services . In addition, we will present you with environmental science research topics, discuss other ideas about the environment for research papers, and offer our final thoughts on these topics for research papers.

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Environmental topics provide an analysis of environmental issues and their effect on people, culture, nature, or a particular place, often interdisciplinary, drawing from sciences, politics, economics, sociology, and public policy. Topics about environmental science may include environmental justice, engineering and communication, regulation, economics, and health. Environment research topics may focus on environmental sustainability, impact assessment, management systems, and resources. In addition, these areas for research papers offer a few opportunities to explore our relationship with the environment and consider how human activities influence it through climate change, pollution, or other factors such as natural resource usage as well as biodiversity loss.

When choosing an environmental research topic, it is essential to consider what makes good environmental topics. Below is an expert list outlining what your topic should be like:

When choosing research topics for environmental science, it is essential to research the available information and determine its relevance. It all depends on whether the research topic is feasible and has the potential for exploration. Environmental issue topics should be well-defined and interesting to the researcher. The reason is that the researcher should be able to provide solutions or make suggestions on improvement strategies. You can follow the below steps when choosing environmental science topics for research:

Step 1: Identify topics that are relevant to your research context. Step 2: Develop a list of research areas by extracting critical concepts from the available literature.

Step 3: Select interesting and feasible topics by considering the methods available for analysis.

Step 4: Analyze these topics to identify the gaps in current research and formulate questions for further investigation. Step 5: Review the available literature to gain insights about the chosen topic and develop a research proposal.

Step 6: Consult experts in this field to get feedback and refine the proposed research.

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Environmental topics for a research paper can be overwhelming to navigate due to the vast number of issues you can discuss in your article. To help narrow down your research paper search, below is a list of environmental research topics that include climate change, renewable energy, ecology, pollution, sustainability, endangered species, ecosystems, nature, and water management. You can choose one of them as a guide to writing an excellent essay

Climate change is one of the most pressing issues that humanity is currently facing due to increased temperature levels. Climate change is amongst the most debated environmental research topics among researchers, policymakers, and governments. Here are critical areas related to climate change that you can use for your environmental science research paper topics:

Renewable energy is essential due to its potential to reduce ecological damage from burning fossil fuels and provides valuable topics in environmental science. You can use renewable energy technologies as a cleaner alternative for generating electricity and heating. In addition, renewable energy is crucial for cooling homes and factories in the world. The following are environmental science topics for research paper on renewable energy:

Ecology studies how living organisms interact with each other and their environment. Also, it is an important area of research for understanding how the environment affects the function of various species and ecosystems. It also gives a background for one of the best environment research paper topics. Below are topics for environmental research paper on ecology:

Pollution is an issue at the forefront of scientific research. As one of the environmental science paper topics, it offers insights into how pollution destroys the environment and its negative impact on human and animal health. Stated below are hot environmental science research topics on pollution which you can use for your article:

One of the many topics for environmental research papers is sustainability. Sustainability is an important topic to explore, as it involves finding a way for humans to reduce their ecological footprint and ensure that the environment can recover from our activities. Stated below are environmental topics for research paper on sustainability which you can explore:

Endangered species are one of the environmental topics of great importance to research and find solutions for their conservation. Poaching, habitat destruction, and climate change negatively impact endangered species. Also, human activities have put other species at risk of extinction by competing for resources as well as introducing invasive species. Below is a list of cool environment topics to write about endangered species:

Ecosystems are fascinating to explore in environmental paper topics because they contain a variety of living organisms and are a complex web of interactions between species, the environment, and humans. The subject provides environmental issues topics for research paper essential in exploring the dynamics of ecosystems and their importance. Below is a list of topics for environmental science research paper:

Nature is a broad topic that includes ecological conservation, protection, and sustainability issues. Environmental research topics about nature allow us to explore areas that focus on preserving and conserving the environment. Research papers about nature can provide insight into utilizing nature as a resource, both from a practical and ecological aspect. Below is a list of environment topics that you can explore in your essays:

Water management is an issue that has a significant impact on the environment. Exploring a topic related to water management can provide experts, among others, with insights into environmental science issues and their implications. When it's time to write your project related to water management, you can explore the following topics for environmental issues:

Environmental science studies ecological processes and their interactions with living organisms. Exploring environmental science related topics can provide valuable insights into environmental science issues, their ecological implications, and conservation efforts. In addition, these topics can also be explored in different areas, providing a comprehensive understanding of how different factors impact the environment. This section delves into various environmental science topics for projects related to law, justice, policy, economics, biology, chemistry, and health science.

Environmental law governs environmental processes and their interactions with living organisms. Delving into environmental law can uncover invaluable information on environment paper topics, ranging from legal matters and their consequences to preservation initiatives. Students can use the following environmental issue topics for research papers for their essays:

Environmental justice seeks to ensure equitable treatment and meaningful involvement of all people in ecological protection, regardless of their race, sex, or economic status. Environment topics related to justice can provide valuable insights into ecological issues and their impacts. Listed below are justice-related Environmental topics to research:

Environmental policy is a set of laws, rules, and regulations created to protect the environment as well as its resources. Studying environment-related policies provides an area for students to explore a range of subjects related to the environment, ranging from local to global. Below are potential environmental sciences research topics for your reference.

Environmental economics seeks to understand environmental issues from an economic perspective. Examining environmental studies topics can offer insights into ecological conservation and sustainability while connecting protection efforts with economic interests and helping inform policies. The following are creative topics about environmental science related to economics:

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Environmental biology is a field of science that focuses on understanding the interactions between living organisms and their environment. It covers environmental biology topics such as biodiversity, conservation, pollution, management, health, and sustainability. The following are environment research paper topics related to biology:

Keep in mind that we have a whole blog on biological topics if you need more ideas in this field.

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Environmental health is a diverse field focusing on the natural environment as well as its effects on human health. It is an interdisciplinary field that offers environment topics for research, such as environmental epidemiology, toxicology, and ecology, in addition to risk assessment. Provided below is a list of topics for an environmental science project that is suitable for your research paper:

Ecological crisis is a key issue that has continuously affected planet earth. People are becoming more aware of environmental problems as well as their impact on health, well-being, and quality of life. As such, ecological fields for research are becoming ever more critical. This section will explore interesting environmental topics related to current ecological issues, controversial, interesting topics, easy research questions for projects, as well as unique research areas which students might study. These environmental issue project ideas below will help you develop interesting fields for research papers.

Current ecological issues are a hot topic that has become increasingly important. They provide outstanding environmental issues to write about due to their impact on the environment and human health. The following are environmental issue topics for paper writing that are currently in discussion:

Environmental controversies constitute a significant challenge facing society today. From climate change to air and water pollution, the effects of human activity on our natural environment are increasingly becoming a focus of public debate and research. Research papers on environmental controversial topics can help inform the public as well as policymakers about the potential impacts of human activities on the environment. The following are examples of environmental controversy topics for research paper:

In the context of environmental subjects, research topics explore the effects of human activities on the environment as well as the potential solutions to the identified problems. In addition to providing insight into ecological protection and conservation, research areas in this category cover social issues related to environmentalism and ecological justice. Below are interesting environmental science topics to consider when looking for a research topic in the future:

When it comes to environmental science topics for project work, there are plenty of easy options. Research projects in this category can explore ecological issues as well as their consequences or potential solutions to these problems. The following is a list of the top fifteen most accessible environment project topics for your research project.

As environmental issues become increasingly complex, research fields for students become more varied. Unique environmental research topics for college students can range from local ecological concerns to global ones. The following are fifteen unique environmental science research topics for high school students and college students:

This article has provided 235 environmental science research topics for research papers as well as project work that high school and college students can use. Topics range from local issues, such as assessing air pollution levels in an urban area, to global concerns, like examining the ecological effects of plastic pollution. Whether its health risks are associated with air pollution in an environment or the impacts of industrialization, research can help shape your understanding of how to protect as well as preserve our planet. It is up to the students to identify good environmental research topics that are interesting and relevant to them and to delve deeper to understand the earth better.

• It should be interesting and relevant to your study field.
• It's essential to consider the topic's potential implications on environment-related policies. Think about the possible positive or negative effects this topic could have when implemented in terms of protecting our environment.
• A good topic should be specific enough to provide a focus for your research paper and allow you to explore a particular issue in depth.
• The research topic should be feasible and manageable to ensure that you can find the necessary information and resources.
• Environmental sciences research topics should be current and relevant to ecological developments.
• Causes and effects of climate change.
• Climate change adaptation strategies.
• Climate change impact on rural communities.
• Role of renewable energy sources in mitigating climate change.
• Carbon dioxide emission policies.
• Global warming and its impact on ocean acidification.
• Social effects of climate change.
• Permafrost melting and its implications.
• Role of international organizations in climate change.
• Climate change and forest fire: examining the role of climate change on wildfire season, frequency, and burned area.
• Renewable energy types, sources, and their impact on the environment.
• Economic benefits of renewable energy.
• Research on new technologies in renewable energy.
• Role of renewable energy in protecting businesses from legal actions.
• Hydropower and its role in renewable energy.
• Chemical batteries for renewable energy storage.
• Green microgrids in optimizing renewable energy usage.
• Ocean energy and its effects on the environment.
• Geothermal drilling and its consequences.
• Biomass resources and their use in renewable energy.
• Biodiversity conservation strategies.
• Impact of pollution on ecosystems.
• Ecological research on saving endangered species from extinction.
• Role of environment in migrations patterns of animals.
• Habitat fragmentation effects on the environment.
• Ecological implications of climate change.
• Ecology and pest control strategies.
• Ecological effects of deforestation.
• Ecology and conservation of marine life.
• Ecological consequences of urbanization.
• Air pollution: causes & effects.
• Water pollution and its consequences for people and other living organisms.
• Issue of urban & industrial pollution.
• Noise pollution and environment-related health risks.
• Marine plastic pollution in oceans.
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• Causes and consequences of ozone layer depletion.
• Relationship between pollution and public health issues.

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Tara Hudiburg  - Climate change R. Robberecht - Consequences of stratosphere ozone depletion: integration from molecule to global scales Dennis Scarnecchia - Climate and changing fish life histories Lee Vierling  - Global change

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Courtney Conway - Life history evolution Ryan Long - Physiological ecology of endotherms, biophysical ecology Michael Quist - Applied fish ecology Tara Hudiburg - Ecosystem ecology Leda Kobziar - Plant community ecology R. Robberecht - Ecology and systems ecology Eva Strand - Spatial ecology Lee Vierling  - Spatial ecology Lisette Waits - Molecular ecology

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R. Robberecht - Ecophysiology (physiological plant ecology) Alistair Smith - Physiological responses to fire Lee Vierling - Physiological ecology and remote sensing

Anthony S. Davis  - Restoration of degraded forests Leda Kobziar - Fire restoration, prescribed burning R. Robberecht - Ecology and systems ecology

Carbon Cycle

Luigi Boschetti  - Global carbon cycle Tara Hudiburg  - Carbon cycle science Leda Kobziar - Fire effects on soil carbon

Penelope Morgan  - Fire ecology and management Leda Kobziar - Fire ecology, fuels management, prescribed fire, effects on soil, bioaerosol microbial ecology Kerri Vierling - Fire ecology/disturbance ecology

Fire Behavior

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Dennis Becker - State and Federal public land policy Travis Paveglio  - Wildfire planning, mitigation, suppression and recovery

Fuels & Hazard Mapping

Dennis Becker  - Bioenergy from biomass Randy Brooks - Biofuels Paul Gessler - Wildland fire fuels and hazard mapping Armando McDonald - Fuels from biomass, pyrolysis, synthetic gas Travis Paveglio - Risk mapping and vulnerability

Luigi Boschetti  - Global biomass burning, remote sensing of fire Leda Kobziar - Fire management Penelope Morgan  - Fire ecology and management

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Christine Moffitt - Aquaculture chemical efficacy and approval, fisheries history Michael Quist - Fish population dynamics and assessment; biological assessment Dennis Scarnecchia - Stock assessment and management, fish population dynamics and stock assessment

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Christopher C. Caudill - Habitat use and life history of juvenile fall Chinook salmon in Snake River reservoirs Christine Moffitt - Physiological responses of fish populations to increasing water temperatures Michael Quist - Fish habitat interactions Dennis Scarnecchia - Fish habitat relationships in rivers, streams, lakes and reservoirs

Kenneth Cain - Aquaculture vaccine development, immunology / pathology, health / diseases, molecular diagnostics Christine Moffitt - Host-parasite interactions, disease interactions of cultured and wild fish, health and management of anadromous fish in hatcheries and in the wild

Michael Quist - Fisheries management Dennis Scarnecchia - Fisheries management

Christopher C. Caudill - Influence of dams on migration behavior and success of adult salmon and steelhead, improving upstream passage conditions for adult Pacific lamprey at dams on the Columbia and Snake Rivers Dennis Scarnecchia - Migrations and movements of Salmon, trout, charr, paddlefish, sturgeon and other fish species.

Species Specific

Kenneth Cain - Aquaculture development (new species) Michael Quist  - Ecology and management of native and nonnative fishes Dennis Scarnecchia - Paddlefish and sturgeon biology, salmon, trout and charr ecology and management

Dennis Becker  - State and Federal biomass utilization policy, bioenergy project assessment Luigi Boschetti - Global biomass burning Randy Brooks - Forest biomass utilization Mark Coleman - Bioenergy feedstock production, intensive silviculture, below ground processes Armando McDonald  - Development of biobased fuels from biomass (including pyrolysis and synthesis gas upgrading to gasoline) Lee Vierling - Remote sensing of biomass

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Randy Brooks  - Biofuels Armando McDonald - Biopolymers and bioplastics synthesis/biosynthesis from waste streams, biobased composite materials research (including fiber modifications and product prototype development), development of biobased fuels from biomass (including pyrolysis and synthesis gas upgrading to gasoline), understanding wood/xylem formation using a combined biochemistry/proteomics approach

Tara Hudiburg - Carbon cycle science Luigi Boschetti - Global carbon cycle Lee Vierling - Remote sensing of carbon cycle

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Randy Brooks  - Forest insects and diseases George Newcombe  - Fungal pathogens of Populus and Salix: their taxonomy, ecology, and distributions, Endophyte mutualists of forest trees, Hyperparasitism

Native Species

Anthony S. Davis - Improving nursery production practices of native plants George Newcombe  - Plant-soil feedback in plant invasions

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Frank Wilhelm  - Limnology, remediation of harmful algal blooms

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Ryan Long - Wildlife population ecology Janet Rachlow - Wildlife ecology and management, behavioral ecology of mammals Kerri Vierling - Avian ecology

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Kerri Vierling - Role of vegetative structure and composition in assessing animal distributions Lee Vierling - 3D mapping of wildlife habitat

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Courtney Conway - Wildlife management

Population Dynamics

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Visiting Brazil

Jensen Hegg explains his study of sawfish and their teeth.

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Article Contents

Introduction, conclusions, conflict of interest statement.

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A participatory process for identifying and prioritizing policy-relevant research questions in natural resource management: a case study from the UK forestry sector

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Gillian Petrokofsky, Nicholas D. Brown, Gabriel E. Hemery, Steve Woodward, Edward Wilson, Andrew Weatherall, Victoria Stokes, Richard J. Smithers, Marcus Sangster, Karen Russell, Andrew S. Pullin, Colin Price, Michael Morecroft, Mark Malins, Anna Lawrence, Keith J. Kirby, Douglas Godbold, Elisabeth Charman, David Boshier, Sasha Bosbeer, J. E. Michael Arnold, A participatory process for identifying and prioritizing policy-relevant research questions in natural resource management: a case study from the UK forestry sector, Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research , Volume 83, Issue 4, October 2010, Pages 357–367, https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpq018

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There is growing interest in widening public participation in research and practice in environmental decision making and an awareness of the importance of framing research questions that reflect the needs of policy and practice. The Top Ten Questions for Forestry (T10Q) project was undertaken in 2008 to investigate a process for compiling and prioritizing a meaningful set of research questions, which were considered by participating stakeholders to have high policy relevance, using a collaborative bottom-up approach involving professionals from a wide set of disciplines of relevance to modern forestry. Details are presented of the process, which involved an online survey and a workshop for participants in the UK and Republic of Ireland. Survey responses were received from 481 researchers, policy makers and woodland owners, who contributed 1594 research questions. These were debated and prioritized by 51 people attending the workshop. The project engaged people who were outside the traditional boundaries of the discipline, a trend likely to be more important in the future, particularly in the light of complex problems connected with climate change, bioenergy production or health and well-being, for example, which require multidisciplinary partnerships within the research and policy communities. The project demonstrated the potential for combining web-based methods and focussed group discussions to collect, debate and prioritize a large number of researchable questions considered of importance to a broad spectrum of people with an active interest in natural resource management.

Environmental policy making in Europe is focussed strongly on increasing public engagement with science (European Commission, 2007b). The UK is supportive of an approach that engages the public ‘upstream’ in science and technology developments (i.e. at the start of the process of designing research and technology programmes, rather than at the end, providing feedback). This would include end-user involvement in programmes operated by the research councils, an initiative strongly endorsed by the British Science Association ( Wilsdon and Willis, 2004 ; Whitmarsh et al. , 2005 ). Greater public participation in setting research priorities and framing research questions might enhance the integration between environmental policy and science ( Holmes and Savgård, 2009 ). However, the diversity of stakeholders with specialized interest in forests presents challenges if a more participatory approach is to be adopted.

This paper describes the Top Ten Questions for Forestry (T10Q) project and the process developed to engage forestry professionals in participatory exercises to prioritize an agenda for policy-relevant research. The aim was not simply to respond to current policy, nor to suggest new policy, but to explore a novel way of identifying research which the forestry sector considers important to inform policy and practice.

In the T10Q project, the term ‘forestry’ was defined very broadly to include any aspect of trees and wooded landscapes and products and services derived from forest and woodland (The definition used in the project and in this paper is based on one published after extensive consultation by the Food and Agriculture Organization (2006) : ‘“Forestry” is broadly defined to include livelihoods, social aspects, environmental services, forestry policies and institutions and economic considerations. In addition to traditional aspects of forest management, production, health and protection, forestry considers the broad landscape of trees outside forests, including urban forestry and agroforestry. Forestry includes the management of wildlife and protected areas. Forestry considers the impacts of other sectors on the forest, as well as the impact of the forest on other sectors’.). The project did not attempt to engage the ‘lay public’: the target group were woodland owners and managers, researchers and those with policy interest working in the broadly defined field of forestry in the UK and the Irish Republic.

Co-ordination of forestry research priorities

The Forestry Research Coordination Committee (FRCC) was established in 1982 as a forum for the main funders of forestry and forest products research in the UK to discuss research priorities, encourage effective funding and avoid duplication of effort. Co-ordination of forestry research was felt to be necessary because of the increasing diversity of research and the large number of bodies funding it ( Evans, 1992 ). The key sponsoring agencies funding forestry research were Government ministries and departments, the Forestry Commission, nature conservation bodies, research councils and universities. Some members of the committee represented particular constituencies, for example one member represented all UK universities offering forestry degrees and another represented forestry charities. Among its original terms of reference was ‘to identify and define forestry research needs and opportunities’ ( Burdekin, 1989 ). ‘Defining research needs’ was removed as a specific objective after a review of FRCC activities in 1997, but it retained a specific brief to “identify gaps or overlaps and encourage the co-ordination of research programmes in forestry”.

The FRCC remained, until its demise in 2007, the only body which systematically examined forestry research across disciplines in the UK and made its findings public through an annual collation of forestry and tree-related research which summarized expenditure by subject and organization. The summaries provide information about trends in research and funding activities ( Evans, 1992 ; Lawson and Hemery, 2007 ) but no information about the process of decision making that had been used to set research priorities. It is difficult to assess the extent to which representatives on the committee liaised with their constituents except for the purpose of compiling the annual research summaries or included information from individuals or organizations that engaged in activities not traditionally defined as forestry but nevertheless of broader forestry importance.

Currently, most of the functions of the FRCC are taken by The Environment Research Funders’ Forum (ERFF), which was established in 2002 ‘to make the best use of public funding for environmental research’ (Environmental research is defined by ERFF to be research and associated monitoring, survey, policy, regulation and training in traditional environmental sciences and in areas of economic, social and engineering research concerned with the interaction of people with the environment.). Forum membership is drawn from UK public bodies that fund or use environmental research. There are three tiers of membership, which are based on subscription (2008 subscriptions were £5k, £15k and £25k year −1 ) and entitle members to different levels of governance representation.

Forestry research that is funded by ERFF members is co-ordinated by the ERFF. The Forestry Commission is represented on the main ERFF board, though not on the research co-ordination group, which is tasked with ‘driving forward the Forum's core purpose of fostering collaboration between public funders of ‘environmental research’ in its broadest sense’. Unlike the FRCC, universities are not separately represented in the ERFF, nor are charities.

In common with the FRCC, the ERFF does not routinely engage individuals; the mode of operation is by committee, membership of which is restricted to public bodies.

Participation in research priority setting

Public involvement in environmental decision making was one of the central themes of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, the ‘Earth Summit’. Public involvement also accords with current thinking on governance and democracy; ‘participation’ and ‘citizen engagement’ being now part of the political lexicon, even though consultation is clearly not a ‘magic bullet’ that guarantees policy change ( Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, 2008 ).

In the past two decades, a large body of literature has emerged on public engagement and participatory processes, with much of the early literature growing out of theoretical development work or political science research on citizenship and democracy ( Jasanoff, 2003 ; Rayner, 2003 ), and work in developing countries on equitable access to natural resources (e.g. Côté and Bouthillier, 1999 ; Buchy and Hoverman, 2000 ; Van Herzele et al. , 2005 ; Leach, 2006 ; Pagdee et al. , 2006 ; Des Roches, 2007 ).

Even though the virtues of using participatory methods to engage stakeholders with important decision making have been vigorously extolled, and well funded, by development agencies in developed countries for use in developing countries, these practices have not been systematically applied domestically in developed countries. One example of a participatory process pioneered in a developing country and subsequently adapted for a developed country has been work on mental health in the UK ( Rose et al. , 2008 ) and pulmonary disease in The Netherlands ( Caron-Flinterman et al. , 2006 ), which both built on work with small-scale farmers in developing countries ( Broerse and Bunders, 2000 ). There are a very large number of forestry professionals in Europe and North America, who have worked on participatory decision-making projects in developing countries who have practical experience which could supplement the body of published literature.

In Great Britain, government departments were required to engage with stakeholders to develop research and innovation strategies and to include statements in their strategies about mechanisms for stakeholder involvement. The Science and Innovation Strategy for British Forestry was one of these outputs ( Forestry Commission, 2005 ). Details of the stakeholder processes in the separate countries of the UK and the steps taken to weigh the evidence received have not been published, however, making it difficult to evaluate how useful this was considered to be by the sector generally. The most recent Science and Innovation Strategy for British Forestry ( Forestry Commission, 2010 ) did not involve formal stakeholder engagement; however, the strategy endorses the importance of “regular contact with diverse stakeholders in order to identify research questions and needs”, and it seems likely that broader consultation will be a feature of future strategy development. This type of consultative approach is now mainstream for developing national forest policies in European Union countries. The pan-European Union Forestry Strategy was also developed using a participatory and transparent approach that recognized the importance of engaging with individuals, an estimated 16 million private forest owners, who together own some 60 per cent of the European Union's forest and wooded land, mostly in small holdings ( European Commission, 2005 ).

In the UK, the concept that ‘communities of interest’ should be involved in agenda setting sits well with the fact that some 35 per cent of the nation's forests and woodlands are publicly owned. The development of separate forestry strategies for England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, which included substantial consultative elements and allowed stronger stakeholder representation, ushered in an era of greater public participation in the national forestry debates ( O’Brien and Claridge, 2001 ). The more recent forestry strategies of England (2007, updating the 1998 strategy), Scotland (2005, updating the 2000 strategy), Wales (2009, updating the 2001 strategy) and Northern Ireland (2006) were all produced after public consultation ( Forest Service, 2006 ; Forestry Commission Scotland, 2006 ; Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2007 ; Forestry Commission Wales, 2009 ). There is, however, a much less tangible sense of broad stakeholder engagement with the research process. The Carnegie Trust suggests that a robust evidence base is necessary, though not sufficient, for effective involvement of civil society in policy-making decisions ( Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, 2008 ). For effective engagement, the public should be actively involved in setting the research agenda because they need to participate in the creation of the evidence base. This accords with Fischer's (2003) view that by transforming citizen's ways of knowing and acting, participatory deliberation can extend decision-making capabilities and reduce the tension between democracy and science.

Holmes and Clark (2008) identified a need for closer collaboration between scientists and policy makers at the stage of ‘setting research questions and agendas’ in the area of environmental science. The problem of planning, managing and communicating research to inform environmental policy making was further investigated by Holmes and Savgård (2009) in an empirical study involving 95 people from 33 organizations in 11 European countries. Two of the good practice guidelines developed from this research were

Engage researchers and potential users to ensure their perspectives are appropriately reflected in the framing of the research question and

Specify research questions and project deliverables at a level of detail sufficient to ensure outputs do actually meet user needs.

Two principal methodologies have been used in the fields of medicine and public health to enable public participation in setting research agendas ( Oliver et al. , 2004 ): collaboration (involving patient representation on decision-making bodies) and consultation (involving questionnaires, focus groups and consensus conferences).

A model for prioritizing specific policy-relevant ecological research questions was undertaken in 2005: a group of policy makers, advisers and lobbyists from 28 organizations and researchers from 10 UK universities and research institutes participated in a workshop to determine the 100 most important ecological questions of relevance to policy in the UK ( Sutherland et al. , 2006 ). Just over 1000 candidate questions were collected in advance from the organizations represented at the workshop. Academics at the workshop were involved in suggesting questions and facilitating discussion, while the final set of questions were selected and composed entirely by policy specialists drawn from a range of governmental institutions and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that were either creating policy or were involved in influencing policy in the UK. The strength of the process was the very large number of research questions collected from different stakeholders; the weakness was perhaps the tendency for those questions to be framed in somewhat general terms, rather than as specific research topics.

The present paper describes a two-phase participatory process adopted in the project titled T10Q, which built on Sutherland's model and related work on horizon scanning ( Sutherland and Woodroof, 2009 ; Sutherland et al. , 2009 , 2010 ), to engage stakeholders in the process of refining a short list of high-priority research questions for forestry.

T10Q involved two phases. First (Phase 1), questions were submitted using an online survey from individuals across the forestry sector. The survey ran from May until September 2008. Second (Phase 2), a 2-day workshop with 51 people, involved professionally in UK or Irish forestry, was held on 25 and 26 September 2008 to discuss the questions gathered under the Phase 1 and to arrive at a list of 10 high-priority questions for forestry research using a process of discussion and voting. Figure 1 summarises the steps taken to reach a final list of 10 questions and the number of people involved at each stage of T10Q.

Key stages in the T10Q project leading to the final top 10 questions.

Phase 1: internet-based survey

Survey participants.

A total of 1600 individuals were invited to participate in a structured online survey, using LimeSurvey (Version 1.71+, Build 5147), which is an open-source survey tool ( www.limesurvey.org ).

Participants were identified in a number of ways:

They had participated in forestry meetings or consultations organized by four of the partner organizations who funded the T10Q project (Forestry Commission, Natural England, University of Oxford and Woodland Trust).

They responded to a call for participants published in UK newsletters and automated electronic mailing lists aimed at an audience of people with an interest in environmental sciences, forestry (including agroforestry) and forest policy and on the project Website ( www.forestryevidence.org ).

They were members of the Forest Research Co-ordination Committee or the Environment Research Funders Forum.

They were academics either working in the UK or Irish Republic or whose work was focussed on forestry in the UK or Irish Republic, who had published scientific articles within the previous 5 years (Authors were identified from email addresses indexed in ForestScience.info (published by CAB International) between 2004 and 2008.).

The survey posed a total of 45 questions arranged across seven sections (Woodland ownership & management, Attitudes to the environment, Attitudes to research, Ability to influence policy, Access to information, Organizational profile and Personal profile). Questions were presented as variables that could be selected by participants through the use of multiple choice options or Likert scales (A psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires in which respondents express their strength of agreement with each of several statements, typically with an odd number of response options varying from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’ ( de Vaus, 2002 ).) that assessed the extent of agreement/disagreement with statements. The questionnaire contained 274 variables (Variables are defined as characteristics which have more than one category ( de Vaus, 2002 ), which can be thought of in the present survey as the response options available for each question. For example, the question asking ‘In which country (or region of England) do you live?’ had 14 variables from which to select (9 regions of England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Irish Republic and country other than UK or Ireland).) generated from multiple choice elements of the 45 questions. There were also sections that enabled free text responses. Only two questions were mandatory, and these were inserted to route certain participants through relevant questions that were not applicable to everyone (for example, the set of questions about aspects of woodland ownership was only available to those who had indicated that they owned woodland; a similar set of questions about aspects of research was only available to people who described themselves as researchers).

One of the key objectives of the survey was to collect a series of policy-relevant research questions of high importance to individuals. Participants in the survey were invited to submit up to five policy-relevant research questions in each of three categories: environment, people and society and economics ( Figure 1 ), the three ‘pillars’ of sustainable development.

Coding the questions

Submitted questions were coded by three independent people using a specialized thesaurus of forestry and applied life sciences terms, which is used by Intute (2002) and other international documentation services ( Ahsan-ul Morshed and Sini, 2009 ). Coders applied up to three keyword terms for each question.

All the questions submitted were sorted into one or more of 14 themes ( Figure 1 ), which were determined on the basis of the most commonly occurring keywords. Ten questions were selected for each theme as representatives of the most frequently occurring topics within the themes. These 140 representative questions were presented on the Website in their themes, together with the complete list of 1594 questions.

A Delphi-style approach was taken to cycle the results of Phase 1 back to the same set of 1600 people to gauge their views on the comments submitted by other stakeholders. Delphi methods have been used with some success in forestry, notably for issues where detailed data are lacking, uncertainty is large and informal judgements are a fundamental source of information ( Mendoza and Martins, 2006 ). Results from this phase of T10Q will be analysed separately. In parallel, the workshop was organized to discuss the questions submitted in Phase 1 and to arrive at a set of 10 policy-relevant research questions for forestry.

Phase 2: workshop

Invitations to attend a 2-day workshop to discuss the research questions submitted in Phase 1 of the project were sent to people who had registered an interest in attending a workshop after completing one or both online surveys or after reading about it on the project Website or in promotional articles (e.g. Petrokofsky et al. , 2008 ).

The aim of the workshop was to arrive at a list of 10 research questions by a process of repeated filtering through discussion and finally voting. This was achieved by parallel facilitated discussions on separate themes, focussed drafting sessions, two whole-group sessions (that considered, revised or rejected the outputs of the drafting sessions) and, finally, a confidential vote.

Phase 1: Internet-based survey

A total of 481 people responded to the survey, of whom 21 provided no useable information. Table 1 shows the sector participants selected from a menu of 15 options to describe their current work or their principal work before retirement.

Sector of participants (not all participants identified their sector: 43 workshop participants and 313 survey participants provided information)

Responses to the survey questions yielded a total of 37 585 separate pieces of information (multiple options within questions generated a large volume of data) from the 481 respondents, with an average of 78 per person (the range was 1–167). Analyses of responses to all sections of the survey are outside the remit of this paper (Details of the survey structure are available from the principal author.), which focuses primarily on the 1594 separate research questions that were submitted by respondents.

Preliminary tests showed a high degree of uniformity in term selection by the three coders. A total of 2819 unique keywords and keyword phrases were used, 187 of which were used once only. These terms were not used in subsequent stages of sorting the questions into themes and topics. Questions were sorted into one or more of 14 themes on the basis of the most commonly occurring issues identified during coding. The number of questions in each theme was not equal (see Figure 1 ) and 629 were listed in more than one theme (534 in two themes, 90 in three and 5 in four).

Important sources of potential bias in survey-based work are the coding and data analysis methods used. Therefore, experienced external indexers were used to add keywords to all the original questions submitted in Phase 1. These keywords were used to group the questions into themes. The themes emerged from the keyword groupings; they were not set up a priori . By this mechanism, questions could be listed under more than one theme. This process enabled questions to be viewed from different perspectives. Although the process created replication for survey participants, the effect of subjective judgements by the lead author in allocating questions to particular topics was thereby reduced.

Table 2 shows the spread of questions by sector of participant across the 14 themes.

Questions in themes by sector of participant submitting the question

Cells with dark shading indicate higher than expected values; cells with light shading indicate lower than expected values (determined by chi square test). EC, forest economics, products and trade; MG, forest management, silviculture and forest operations; NM, non-market benefits (ecosystem services); BI, biodiversity, habitats and conservation; CC, climate change and global warming; OP, decision making and public opinion; BF, biofuel and energy from biomass; CS, carbon sequestration and carbon cycle; AF, afforestation and forest plantations; SW, soil and water; PD, pests, diseases and invasives; UR, urban forestry, urban trees and arboriculture; LU, land use and landscape; Misc, miscellaneous and unclassified.

A total of 51 people attended one or both days of the workshop, 43 of whom took part in the final online vote ( Figure 1 ). Participants came from England, Scotland, Wales and the Irish Republic and included people working in all three ‘pillar’ areas of sustainability. There were proportionally more university researchers and fewer people working in the public sector or for NGOs than there had been in the online survey ( Table 1 ). Two groups were not represented at the workshop: public sector–local authority and international organizations, though several of the participants had worked for international organizations at some time during their careers. The workshop participants included people who owned woodland and/or had practical experience of forest management. The university researchers worked on widely different aspects of forestry, with research interests spread across the three pillar areas.

The facilitated themed discussion sessions were organized in a way that maximized mixing among participants. The 10 representative questions for each theme were presented for each theme group to discuss, amend and prioritize. The complete set of 1594 questions was also available for consideration. At the end of these sessions, parallel drafting sessions for each theme considered the prioritized list of questions that emerged from the discussions and produced a set of five questions of high priority. These 70 questions were further reduced to 47 after parallel facilitated small-group discussions that aimed to consolidate similar questions and remove duplication. The final list of 47 questions was presented to the participants in the form of a very short survey using the LimeSurvey tool. Participants were invited to select the 10 questions that they considered most important from the list of 47 and provide details of the sector in which they work (see Appendix 1). The survey was assembled soon after the short list of 47 questions had been agreed and participants voted online at computer terminals provided at the workshop. LimeSurvey allows very rapid export of results and these were analysed to determine the questions receiving the highest number of votes and to classify the sectors of those voting.

Top Ten Questions for Forestry

Table 3 shows the final 10 questions that attracted the most votes from participants voting at the workshop, with percentage of votes cast.

Top 10 questions determined by votes cast at workshop

The remaining 37 questions on the short list were selected by fewer than 30 per cent of voting participants. All 47 questions gained at least one vote.

Clearly, not all workshop participants felt that the final set of 10 questions reflected their own personal views. However, more than half of those who voted chose at least four of the top 10 questions and every voter chose at least one of the top 10 questions, which supports the view that the workshop process gave rise to more agreement in choosing 10 questions than would have arisen by random voting (The variance in the frequencies with which each question was chosen will be higher where there is agreement between respondents. In order to test for agreement between respondents, therefore, we calculated the variance in the frequencies with which our 47 questions were chosen and compared it with the distribution of the variance assuming no agreement between respondents. We simulated 10 000 rounds in which 43 respondents randomly chose 10 of 47 possible responses. The 95 per cent confidence interval of this variance was (0.002824, 0.006514); the observed variance of 0.0122 lies far outside this confidence interval, allowing us to reject the null hypothesis of no agreement between respondents.) by 43 people choosing from 47 questions.

The 1594 questions submitted in Phase 1 of T10Q were distributed across a broad spectrum of forestry interest: 13 key subject themes were identified. Of these, the largest two themes, containing over 300 questions each, were traditional core issues of forest management, silviculture, forest economics, products and trade. Ecosystem services and non-market benefits were almost as well represented, with just under 300 questions, followed by biodiversity, habitats and conservation, climate change, then decision making and public opinion, all ranging between 190 and 250 questions. The final top 10 questions were also drawn from the smaller themes, so there is no evidence that weight of numbers dictated the final top 10 choices.

The process was well supported and compared favourably with the level of responses in stakeholder consultations for national forestry strategies in the UK: 221 written responses (plus 187 participants at two workshops) in England in 2006 ( Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2007 ), 231 responses in Wales in 2009 ( Forestry Commission Wales, 2009 ) and 189 and 149 in the two rounds of the 2006 Scottish strategy ( Forestry Commission Scotland, 2006 ). Janse (2006 , 2008) reported similar response rates (average 32 per cent) in recent European surveys of forest policy makers and scientists (using much lower sample sizes) and an international online survey on science communication by researchers by the International Union of Forestry Research Organisations in 2006 attracted 340 responses in an open survey with an unknown population size ( Kleinschmit and Real, 2009 ). Response rates were of a similar size for the consultation on creating a unified European Research Area (681 responses to an open online questionnaire (European Commission, 2007a)).

There has been very little systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of participation for environmental decision making ( Newig and Fritsch, 2009 ) but increasing participation in decision making is a central element in European environmental policy (European Commission, 2007b). The European Strategic Research Agenda for the Forest-Based Sector, drawn up after a stakeholder consultation in all European Union countries, recommended greater engagement of scientists from all relevant disciplines with the process of developing research priorities across five forest-based value chains ( Forest-Based Sector Technology Platform, 2006 ). In attempting to remove the actual bias or the perception of bias inherent to closed decision making by experts, new sources of bias are potentially created by giving unequal and potentially unrepresentative weight to contributions from certain stakeholders. Price (2000) expressed poetically what many view as a real weakness of the practice, namely that the ‘idealised sweet reasonableness of participatory discussion is not always found in real-world debate, where decisions may favour not the most deserving, but the most obstinate’.

The workshop format, using facilitators, changing groups of delegates and a final secret ballot, was designed to reduce the effects of obstinate voices dominating debates as far as possible.

The most important source of potential bias in any survey is undoubtedly the people who participate. T10Q employed purposive sampling, a type of non-probability sampling in which the ‘population’ of ‘those with a professional interest in forestry’ is not known precisely. The issue of non-response bias is impossible to quantify in a non-probabilistic survey ( de Vaus, 2002 ). However, Table 1 categorises survey respondents and workshop participants and Table 2 provides a more detailed breakdown of the topics of questions submitted by the different sectors. Although not a tool for removing bias, it enables some sectoral comparisons to be made and provides a check against dominance of the process by one sector. This would be an essential element in using this methodology more widely or in, for example, a European context to gather inputs for international research agendas of the type undertaken in conservation (Sutherland et al ., 2010). It is particularly noticeable that the NGO sector, which was well represented, displayed no particular leaning in the topics of questions it submitted. Submissions by participants from NGOs were divided among the 14 themes in numbers which were not statistically different from expected, the only sector for which this was true. Greatest variance was from the forest industry sector, who not surprisingly contributed more questions to the theme ‘Economics, products and trade’. Though a small group, local authority participants favoured questions on climate change and, again not surprisingly, urban forestry. It should be noted that even within sectors, participants came from different areas of interest. Researchers in particular, both in the survey and workshop, had widely differing research fields and certainly did not constitute a ‘unified voice’ in terms of identifying priority research topics. Similarly, members of NGO organizations, that were relatively over-represented at the workshop compared with the survey population, expressed widely different views during group discussions; their voting patterns were equally varied.

Within the UK context, forestry policy is heavily influenced by the devolved governments in Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. These governments were not represented officially at the workshop, although individuals from all three had participated in the online surveys submitting research questions. It would be interesting to investigate further the extent to which the questions submitted had a regional or national ‘flavour’ given the differences between the different forestry strategies.

The themes that emerged from the T10Q project align very closely with the eight strategic research priority areas identified in the Science and Innovation Strategy for British Forestry ( Forestry Commission, 2005 ): social and economic research, monitoring and evaluation, climate change*, soil and water management*, forest products*, changing silviculture*, biodiversity and habitat restoration* and plant health. These priorities describe almost the entire range of forestry activity in the UK; they are not so much ‘priorities’ as broad categories of interest. It is of little surprise, therefore, that the themes that emerged in the T10Q project fall within the compass of six of these priority categories (indicated by an asterisk above) ( Figure 1 ). Our T10Q themes emerged as clusters of interest from the questions submitted and were not deliberately designed to be coherent with these established categories. The researchable questions submitted within these themes are a potentially rich resource that could be analysed and considered further in the context of discussing a forestry research agenda that was responsive to perceived knowledge needs from a broad section of the forestry sector.

According to Taylor (2005) the first rule in the process of making science more influential is to win the argument about what the problem is, before trying to win the argument about the solution. Collectively framing research questions that relate to what a broad spectrum of stakeholders view as the important policy challenges of the 21st Century will be fundamental to commissioning relevant research that makes the best use of the limited funding resources likely to be available for a rapidly diversifying forestry research sector.

Using combined online and face-to-face participation, a diverse group of people with a professional involvement in forestry engaged in a process that produced a set of 10 questions, from close to 1600 suggested by stakeholders, which were felt to warrant further research in forestry. The T10Q project demonstrated that it was possible to compile and prioritize a meaningful set of research questions using a collaborative ‘bottom-up’ approach that involved professionals from a wide set of disciplines of relevance to modern forestry.

Within the UK, the ERFF, which is the body currently co-ordinating publicly funded forestry research, offers a framework for identifying research that matches national policies and priorities in forestry and environmental science. The method described in this paper could complement this activity by readily engaging a large number of people and stakeholder groups, in a process of framing research questions highly relevant to their sector. The process itself is scalable and could be readily adapted for local, regional or international consultations that aim to determine research priorities in natural resources management.

The T10Q project engaged people who were outside the traditional boundaries of the discipline, a trend likely to be more important in the future, particularly in the light of complex problems connected with climate change, bioenergy provision or health and well-being, for example, which require multidisciplinary partnerships within the research and policy communities.

There is no particular significance to the fact that the project aimed to prioritize 10 questions. Top 10 lists are ubiquitous across all subjects and countries. The key message is that the process can be adapted to achieve lists of research questions that can be analysed and prioritized collectively in a variety of appropriate ways.

Through the T10Q project an effective method for reaching a large number of stakeholders engaged in forestry research and policy in the UK was developed. The process demonstrably delivered a precise and detailed roadmap of use to researchers and policy makers in assisting responses and adjustments to current research priorities over coming years.

Forestry Commission; Forest Research; Natural England; Natural Environment Research Council; Sylva Foundation; University of Oxford, Department of Plant Sciences; Woodland Trust.

We acknowledge the contributions of the following workshop participants as co-authors for this paper: Jeffery Burley, Alistair Chisholm, Alec Dauncey, Ken F. Hume, Ruth Malleson, Graham Muir, Kelvin S.-H. Peh, Jez Ralph, David Rees, David Robson, Ian Short and Philip J. Stewart. We gratefully acknowledge the helpful feedback received from two anonymous referees. We also acknowledge the contributions of all those who participated in the T10Q surveys and were generous with their time in providing so much invaluable information. Thanks also to Chris Dixon, Tonya Lander and Jerome Ravetz, University of Oxford, Mike Townsend, Woodland Trust, and Bridget Biggs and Everild Haynes, CAB International, for substantial help.

None declared.

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Questions and answers about biodiversity

What is biodiversity exactly?

“Biodiversity” not only refers to the number of individual species, but also the genetic variety within and between species and the diversity of ecosystems and regions. The richness of functions and interdependencies in the relationships of species within ecosystems is also a factor. The actual number of species is therefore only one facet of biodiversity.

Does species diversity follow any patterns?

The diversity of species is lowest at the poles and increases toward the equator, with the deserts being obvious exceptions. Tropical rainforests and coral reefs are among the planet’s richest and most complex ecosystems. The areas with the greatest diversity of plant life are the tropical Andes and southeastern Asia. The Amazon basin, Madagascar and parts of southern and central Africa also compare favorably. Roughly the same holds true for animal life. Yasuní National Park in Ecuador, for example, has more tree species per hectare than the United States and Canada combined. A single hectare is home to 100,000 insect species. 40,000 species of plants can be found in the Amazon basin, and 30,000 of them occur only there. 20,000 species of beetle and 456 tree species have been recorded on a single hectare. By comparison, only around 30 tree species are native to the United Kingdom. In Amazonas state in Brazil, 95 different species of ants have been counted on a single tree – the numbers are truly mind-boggling. Again, only around 50 species of ants can be found throughout the UK.

How is biodiversity measured?

Biodiversity is determined by counting the number of species occurring in a given unit of area. The greater the species diversity within an area, the higher the biodiversity, which can be calculated using various methods, such as diversity indices.

How many species are there on the planet?

Around 1.8 million animal and plant species have been scientifically documented to date, and new ones are being discovered every day, with 12,000 to 25,000 new species being added to the list every year. While the “discovery” of mammals and birds frequently catches the public eye, insects and the like tend to attract less attention. Estimates of the number of undiscovered species range from three to seven million, of which the lion’s share are insects and other small creatures.

What are the world’s rarest species?

The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)  report “State of the Wild - a Global Portrait” contains a list of animals most threatened by extinction. The critically endangered Cuban crocodile, for example, can only be found in two small habitats in Cuba. The vaquita, a small porpoise endemic to the northern Gulf of California, is also extremely rare – as of 2014, less than 100 individuals remained. A relative of the vaquita, the baiji or Yangtze River dolphin, has not been sighted since 2007 and is presumed extinct. Among primates, the orangutan is, of course, the poster child for endangered species. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) , deforestation and the spread of oil palm plantations in Indonesia are the biggest threats to the survival of great apes. The white-headed langur is one of the rarest primates in the world. Only 59 individuals remain – all on a single island in Vietnam. The Yangtze giant softshell turtle is found only in China and Vietnam. According to the IUCN Red List , only four individuals remained in 2012.

How many species go extinct every day?

On average, we lose about 150 species a day – that’s around 55,000 every year! Many species will have become extinct due to human encroachment on their habitats long before we have discovered the true wealth of biodiversity we are destroying. The United Nations declared 2010 to be the International Year of Biodiversity to celebrate life on earth and underscore its precious nature. Once a species is lost, it is gone forever: we will never again be able to experience a Steller’s sea cow – a marine mammal related to the dugong and manatee. The sea cows were hunted to extinction by our ancestors in 1768 – only 27 years after they were discovered by Europeans. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed many thousands of endangered animal and plant species from around the world in its Red List . The list is by no means complete, however.

Why are so many species disappearing?

The relentless changes to the environment and habitat destruction by humans are by far the most important factors driving the current mass extinction. For example, the number of gorillas in Africa has plummeted by 60% in only the past twenty years due to widespread deforestation and animals falling victim to the wildlife trade and poaching. The oceans are also affected by overfishing, pollution, rising temperatures and acidification due to increasing CO2 levels.

What is a biodiversity hotspot?

The concept of “biodiversity hotspots” was developed by researchers as a way to manage and focus conservation work more effectively. Hotspots are regions characterized by numerous endemic plant and animal species living in a particularly vulnerable environment. In the year 2000, scientists writing in the journal Nature identified 25 biodiversity hotspots that cover only about 1.4% of the Earth's surface, or an area of approximately 2.1 million square kilometers. While these areas provide habitat to nearly half (44%) of all known plant species worldwide, only about a third of them have so far been placed under protection. All of these hotspots are endangered by factors such as timber harvesting and slash-and-burn clearing driven by strong demand for tropical timber, the expansion of the mining industry and the cultivation of crops such as oil palms, sugar cane and soy. A further major issue is the dramatic rise of organized, commercial poaching.

What are endemic species?

A species is “endemic” if it only occurs within a limited, relatively small area, such as a single island or archipelago, mountain range or forest. Among primates, examples include all of the lemur species that can only be found on the island of Madagascar. Berthe’s mouse lemur, which was only discovered in 2000, is the smallest of them, with a body length of only 9 cm and a weight of around 30 grams. The lemur is found only in the Kirindy forest on the island’s west coast. Queen Alexandra’s birdwing is another example. Found only in Papua New Guinea, It is the largest butterfly in the world, with a wingspan of 28 cm. Its caterpillars rely on a single plant species for food – one that is seriously threatened by the destruction of the rainforests.

Where are biodiversity hotspots located?

Most hotspots are in the tropics, as can be seen on the map  drawn up by N. Myers’ team. They can be found in Southeast Asia – especially in Malaysia and Indonesia –, Madagascar, the Andes, Central America and the Caribbean. They also exist in temperate regions such as the U.S. west coast, parts of Chile, the Mediterranean and New Zealand. Researchers have not yet fully established the reasons behind the extremely high biodiversity of rainforests. However, factors such as the lack of nutrients in the soil, year-round high solar radiation and precipitation play an important role. The lower influence of the ice ages near the equator and the rainforests’ great age, ranging in the millions of years, have contributed to their wealth of species. Diversity thus always arises in interaction with environmental conditions.

Why is biodiversity so important and worthy of protection?

Research has shown that biodiversity is a crucial factor for the properties and performance of ecosystems. Their stability depends in part on the complex interactions of their inhabitants. Massive human interference decimates individual species or drives them to extinction, while other existing species experience explosive growth, and yet others invade or are introduced by humans. This alters the nature of ecosystems or destroys them outright and impacts ecosystem services such as the provision of food and clean water.

What is being done to preserve biodiversity and its hotspots?

The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)  that was signed by 192 member states at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro  in 1992 is designed to provide a legal foundation for protecting biodiversity. The signatories to the convention commit to the protection of biodiversity, its sustainable use and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of resources. This involves major conflicts of interest, however. Developed nations are the UN’s biggest financial backers and set the organization’s policy agenda. Their excessive hunger for commodities and energy are the primary cause of global environmental degradation. Since the nations mainly responsible for destroying the environment are now developing “protective concepts” and shaping environmental policy, the question arises whether their primary drivers are the conservation of nature or commercial interests. In any case, continuous economic growth and increasing resource consumption are not compatible with conserving nature. Furthermore, the convention does not provide for any way to enforce sanctions if environmental standards are not observed. A neutral body without vested interests to monitor compliance with regulations and objectives and impose tough sanctions in case of violations would certainly be helpful.

What was the 2012 Hyderabad Conference on Biological Diversity all about?

The United Nations regularly holds biodiversity conferences in various locations around the world. The topic of placing a monetary value on nature as the basis of life was on the agenda in India in 2012. British economics professor Sir Nicolas Stern put it quite succinctly: “If Earth were a bank, they’d bail it out” – an astute assessment, considering the responses of governments to the financial crisis of 2008. One of the key issues in India was funding for biodiversity conservation. No less important, however, is consistent action to implement the resolutions and impose sanctions for non-compliance.

How much will rescuing biodiversity cost?

According to a report by senior experts of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre of the United Nations Environment Programme , implementing a strategic plan to protect biodiversity will require $516 billion to $2.35 trillion by 2020. So far, however, the plan only exists on paper. It has a long way to go to achieve recognition under international law and thus become an enforceable instrument. Money alone will not save biodiversity, however. The main reason why the natural environment is being exploited, polluted and destroyed on such a grand scale is humanity’s hunger for resources. The only way to preserve ecosystems is to reduce our worldwide consumption significantly. This especially holds true for the inhabitants of the industrialized countries and the rich upper classes, since most people in the global South live in comparative poverty and thus have a minimal environmental footprint.

Why isn’t anything being done?

The content – i.e. the goals and obligations – of conventions is established by the member states and can be deemed binding under international law when ratified. And therein lies the problem: countries CAN recognize the content as binding, but they are not REQUIRED to do so.  Compliance with the convention is not enforced, and there are no consequences for countries that fall short in meeting their goals. Problems are thus continually being pushed further down the road without properly addressing them. There is also a huge difference between what politicians and officials are willing to say and the realities on the ground. Germany, for example, portrays itself as a pioneer in climate protection, yet the country’s resource consumption continues to grow. Germany has outsourced much of its heavy industry to countries like China, Brazil and India, while at the same time calling on such countries to do much more for the environment.

What role does biodiversity play in conservation concepts?

Unfortunately, biodiversity often takes a back seat when conservation measures are developed. Most concepts revolve mainly around attaching a monetary value to nature to determine how natural resources can be used to generate maximum revenue. They often overlook the fact that biodiversity is a decisive factor in the provision of ecosystem services.

What alternative options are there for protecting biodiversity?

In oil palm plantations and other industrial-scale monocultures, a handful of standardized high-performance plant varieties produce huge quantities of agricultural commodities. Increasingly sophisticated processes are then used to turn those raw materials into the seemingly endless variety of products on our supermarket shelves. This development, which is a major factor in our current epidemic of obesity and other nutrition-related health issues, comes at a high ecological price: depleted soils, deforestation, pollution and mass extinction. In light of this, the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD) urgently recommends traditional smallholder farming as the most effective and reliable way to combat world hunger and minimize agriculture’s impact on the environment. For example, improved cultivation methods, suitable seed and agro-ecological strategies offer considerable potential to improve yields. Wherever there is enough land, water, money and equipment, smallholders produce a much higher nutritional yield per hectare than industrial agriculture – and with a much lower environmental impact. It goes without saying that methods need to be adapted to local circumstances: optimized smallholder agriculture would be highly beneficial in many parts of India, for example. By contrast, the seminomadic indigenous peoples that inhabit the vastness of the Amazon basin would already benefit greatly from protection against the oil, tropical timber, gold and plantation industries.

How can I help promote biodiversity?

• Your contributions toward protecting biodiversity are limited only by your imagination. Anyone can raise awareness: explain the consequences of deforestation to your family, friends and acquaintances. Tell people about the threat of extinction and stimulate public discussion.
• Review your own lifestyle and consumption behavior. Avoid products that contain palm oil . With regard to wood, use products made of local rather than tropical timber . Do not support the trade with tropical animals (parrots, reptiles, etc.) and never keep them as pets. Reduce your meat consumption – or better yet, stop eating animal products altogether. Livestock feed is grown on an industrial scale on land that was once rainforest. If you must eat meat, buy organic, or from small farms that raise and slaughter their own livestock. Save energy wherever you can.

Support the work of Rainforest Rescue by signing and sharing our petitions. We also have numerous projects on the ground in rainforest countries that need financial support – your donations can go a long way toward saving the last unspoiled bits of paradise on our planet.

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10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project

Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.

The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.

The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.

Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.

Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.

Other interesting articles

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

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Research bias

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McCombes, S. (2023, October 19). 10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project. Scribbr. Retrieved June 24, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-question-examples/

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New Faculty Resources and Services

Hilton M. Briggs Library welcomes new faculty to South Dakota State University! Librarians and staff are here to help you with your teaching and research needs.

Click the For Faculty link to learn about what the library has to offer you. The link will provide information on instruction services, the SDSU institutional repository Open PRAIRIE , copyright and much more. Don't forget to check out the ever-expanding Archives and Special Collections physical and digital materials, or the extensive government documents collection. Below, we've highlighted some library resources and services that will be helpful as you get started in your role as a faculty member. Please contact us if you have any questions.

Accessing Library Resources Off-Campus

Access to library resources from off campus is easy! Link to the database or resource you need by starting from the library’s home page . Then, when prompted, enter your SDSU network credentials (the same login that you use for your university email or InsideState).

Additional services are available to all SDSU faculty, staff and students who cannot make regular (at least weekly) trips to the Brookings area. These include article and book delivery, off-campus instruction and remote research assistance.

Faculty who are delivering distance courses may be interested in our guide to resources for teaching online.

For help or more information, contact a librarian or the Library Services Desk at [email protected] or 605-688-5107 or 800-786-2038.

Instruction

Subject Librarians can help your students become familiar with library resources by offering online or in-person classroom instruction or providing your students individual consultations. Explore your opportunities for library instruction services .

Subject Librarians at Briggs

Subject Librarians support your scholarship and teaching by:

• Collaborating on design of effective research assignments.
• Providing research instruction to students in your courses.
• Supporting students, in-person and online, with research assignments.
• Consulting on in-depth research questions.
• Participating in graduate and undergraduate student orientation activities.
• Facilitating access to library resources.
• Updating faculty about new services and resources.

Subject Librarians work with faculty on developing the library’s collections. We value your input on journal subscriptions and book purchases. Each department has a designated representative to coordinate purchases of library materials. You can forward book requests to your department’s library representative who then decides what will be purchased with the funds available; or use the online recommendation form for journals , available on the For Faculty page. Book requests are sent to your department’s library representative for approval and journal recommendations are sent to your Subject Librarian for consideration.

Meet our Subject Librarians and areas of responsibility:

• Michele Christian for American Indian Studies; Archives and Special Collections.
• Kristin Echtenkamp for School of Design (architecture; interior design; landscape architecture; visual arts); English 101; Speech 101; School of Journalism and Communication.
• Elizabeth Fox for School of Health and Consumer Sciences; history, political science, philosophy and religion; School of Performing Arts (music, theatre and dance); Jerome J. Lohr College of Engineering; women, gender and sexuality studies; military science.
• Linda Kott for School of English and Interdisciplinary Studies; School of Psychology, Sociology and Rural Studies; School of American and Global Studies (modern languages and global studies); School of Education, Counseling and Human Development)
• Nancy Marshall for agricultural and biosystems engineering; agronomy, horticulture and plant science; animal science; dairy and food science; natural resource management; veterinary and biomedical sciences
• Aine O'Connor for biology and microbiology; chemistry, biochemistry and physics; geography and geospatial studies; and Ness School of Management and Economics; nursing; pharmacy and allied health professions

Briggs Library's e-textbook program has saved SDSU students over $519,623 since May 2020. When possible, the library will purchase unlimited use e-textbooks from participating publishers. Contact your subject librarian for more information and to check if an e-textbook is available for your course.

Open Educational Resources

Open Educational Resources (OER) are teaching, learning and research resources that reside in the public domain or have been released under an intellectual property license that permits their free use and re-purposing by others. Some benefits of OER include an increase in retention; cost savings to students by replacing textbooks with free materials; and providing opportunities for creativity, collaboration and innovative teaching. Contact our Systems and Discovery Librarian, Shari Theroux, with questions.

Open PRAIRIE

Open PRAIRIE is the SDSU institutional repository. It supports the collection, preservation and dissemination of SDSU’s scholarly and creative output from faculty, staff and students. Open PRAIRIE also allows for permanent storage of, and public access to, institutional materials. Thousands of SDSU documents have been downloaded from Open PRAIRIE more than a million times worldwide. For more information, contact Electronic Resources and Scholarly Communications Librarian Michael Biondo .

Interlibrary Loan and Document Delivery

If the library does not have access to what you need, books, scanned articles and other materials can be obtained through Interlibrary Loan (ILL) from other libraries in South Dakota or beyond. Our document delivery service provides scans of articles/chapters available in print in the library. Submit requests from library databases or via the ILL link on our homepage. Contact ILL at 605-688-5573 or [email protected].

Circulation

Check out materials, equipment, study rooms and more using your SDSU employee I.D. card. Faculty and staff may borrow circulating collection materials for one year, with a due date of Oct. 1. Bound periodicals are checked out for one week. See our Reserves guide for information about short-term check-out for items your students will need for course assignments.

Copyright is a set of rights given to the creator of an original work fixed in a tangible medium. Explore our Copyright LibGuides to learn about copyright compliance.

Scholarly Impact

As you begin to create your Faculty Annual Review (FAR), you can use the library's guide on evaluating scholarly publications for tenure and promotion to find resources on altmetrics, journal impact factor and other measures of value for publications.

The Division of Research and Economic Development has resources related to finding and applying for grants . Librarians are happy to help with preliminary research as you prepare to apply for grants.

College of Agriculture & Natural Resources Department of Animal Science

Ans graduate research rodeo 2024.

June 25, 2024

Created, organized, and 100% student run, this event gives graduate students the opportunity to present their research in a 3-minute “elevator pitch” format.

On March 22, 2024, the Animal Science Graduate Student Association held their annual Research Rodeo. Created, organized, and 100% student run, this event gives graduate students the opportunity to present their research in a 3-minute “elevator pitch” format. This year, the students invited industry professionals across several disciplines to participate and provide feedback to students during the event, followed by a social networking hour afterward, to put their true “elevator pitch” to the test. The Research Rodeo Committee is delighted with the success of the event, and we appreciate all the faculty members that attended. For future events hosted by the Animal Science Graduate Student Association, please check out the Animal Science website!

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Findings from Field-Based Research on the Political Feasibility of Natural Climate Solutions in Tanzania

USAID’s Sustainable Landscape Opportunity Analyses (SLOAs) provide national-level overviews to reveal the relative impact of options for reducing GHG emissions through land conservation, management, and restoration. While SLOAs may discuss co-benefits, they do not typically have a focused discussion on the political feasibility of specific emission reduction opportunities. Political economy analysis (PEA) can generate insights to help guide and refine program design and provide suggestions for thinking and working politically (TWP) during program implementation and monitoring, evaluation, and learning.

In 2023, INRM conducted a tailored PEA to complement the Tanzania SLOA. The PEA activity produced two documents: 1) a desk-based literature review, and 2) a PEA Annex to the SLOA based on findings from field-based interviews with stakeholders from government, civil society, the private sector, and local communities. Analysis of the political feasibility of emissions reduction opportunities can help advance empirically grounded understanding of the nature and types of SLOA-PEA linkages and their implications for programming.

From November 19-December 1, 2023, a three-person research team composed of INRM’s environmental governance lead, a Tanzania-based consultant from the SLOA team, and a research assistant contributed by DAI conducted field research on the political feasibility of natural climate solutions (NCS) mitigation options identified in the desk-based SLOA study. The researchers conducted key informant interviews with government officials, civil society organizations, private sector experts, and donors in Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, and Arusha. The team also conducted a focus group in Chabima Village in Kilosa District with leaders from the Village Council and members of the Village Natural Resource Committee.

Findings from the field are based on statements that the PEA team heard from interviewees. While the perceptions of interviewees may sometimes not be fully accurate, their observations are relevant as indicators of the political context for NCS program possibilities.

The desk-based SLOA briefly discusses social, cultural, and economic factors and formal institutions and policies that influence land-based emissions in Tanzania. This Annex provides further analysis of these factors and policies to clarify the political feasibility of the NCS options. USAID’s Applied Political Economy Analysis (PEA) provides the conceptual and methodological tools to examine how structural factors (i.e., history and geography); institutional performance; actor-based interests and behaviors; and current political dynamics are likely to affect the success of proposed NCS pathways. Additional relevant background comes from a systematic evidence review that USAID published in 2022 on participatory natural resource management (PNRM) and democratic outcomes. That review was based on 151 studies between 2005- 2020 covering forests, fisheries, and wildlife in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Of those 151 studies, 31 discussed, in whole or in part, PNRM in Tanzania.

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The University of Tulsa acquires Fab Lab Tulsa

The University of Tulsa has announced the acquisition of Fab Lab Tulsa, which provides access to digital fabrication tools and resources throughout the community through membership and programming. The move is part of TU’s ongoing efforts to promote innovation and aligns with the university’s global reputation in engineering, computer science, and the creative arts. “We […]

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Unique organizational studies program offers expansive opportunities

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From field work to the classroom, Grau mentors women in energy

Anne Grau has been involved in geology for three decades – working for energy leaders such as EOG Resources and Total Energies – and definitely knows what it’s like to be the only woman in the room. “Being a woman in the oil and gas industry often meant I was one woman in 200 at […]

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TU Law celebrates alumna Sara Hill’s historic confirmation to federal bench

The University of Tulsa’s College of Law congratulates alumna Sara Hill (JD ’03) as she becomes the first Native American woman to serve as a federal judge in Oklahoma. This historic appointment marks a significant milestone in the state’s legal landscape. The U.S. Senate on Tuesday voted overwhelmingly to confirm Hill, who fills a vacant […]

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New faculty member brings expertise and INSPIRE lab to Psychology Department

The University of Tulsa Department of Psychology has a wide variety of faculty-led research labs. From the Exposure, Relaxation & Rescripting Therapy for Chronic Nightmares study to the Psychophysiology Laboratory for Affective Neuroscience lab, TU offers students the opportunity to participate in ongoing research and even publish their findings. New to Kendall College of Arts […]

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More than 60 years of James Joyce Quarterly

Legend has it that Thomas Staley, former provost of The University of Tulsa, founded the James Joyce Quarterly, fondly known as JJQ, in his garage. Or was it his kitchen table? That was more than 60 years ago, and since then the journal has become an internationally esteemed publication known for its publishing of critical […]

Alumnae awarded NSF Graduate Research Fellowships

The University of Tulsa is proud to announce that two recent Oxley College of Health & Natural Sciences alumnae have received prestigious National Science Foundation (NSF) Graduate Research Fellowship Program (GRFP) awards for 2024: Karina Cunningham (BS ’22) and Hannah Reeb (BS ’24).

“I feel grateful for the research mentorship and experiences that have led me to the GRFP,” Reeb said. “I am lucky to have had some amazing opportunities during my time at TU, and I very much credit becoming a fellow to those experiences.”

The program bolsters the quality, vitality, and diversity of the scientific and engineering workforce of the United States by recognizing outstanding graduate students who are pursuing research-based master’s and doctoral degrees. Fellowships come with a three-year annual stipend of $37,000 and a $16,000 allowance for tuition and fees, as well as access to opportunities for professional development.

“This fellowship is a huge accomplishment for any young scientist,” Cunningham said, “but receiving the NSF GRFP is the result of a mosaic of support and community from mentors, friends and educators.”

Cunningham attributes many factors to her achievement but particularly praised to her UTulsa liberal arts courses, like those taught by Jan Wilson, Wellspring professor of history and women’s & gender studies , and Mark Lewis, applied associate professor of art. She also notes the influence of Syed Hussaini , professor of chemistry & biochemistry, with whom Cunningham was involved in the Oklahoma Louis Stokes Alliance for Minority Participation (OK-LSAMP) Program, an alliance-based program made up of 12 Oklahoma higher education institutions collaborating to diversify the nation’s science, engineering, technology and math workforce.

For Reeb, her taste for research traces back to her first year when she was a research volunteer for Matthew Toomey, assistant professor of biological science. She began studying the underlying mechanisms of plumage coloration and signaling in house finches. Reeb went on to do a field study and further research with Toomey and Charles Brown, professor of biological science, on a project examining a potential plumage social signal in cliff swallows . “I am glad to have discovered my taste for research early, and to have been able to jump in on some hands-on work,” she said.

Reeb is pursuing an accelerated master’s in biological science at UTulsa and working in Toomey’s lab with advising from Brown, as well. She plans to spend the coming academic year analyzing data, writing a thesis, and applying to doctoral programs.

Cunningham is a doctoral candidate in plant biology at the University of California – Berkeley, where she is studying photoprotective mechanisms in green algae. She hopes to contribute to sustainable fuel research, such as algal biofuels or sustainable agriculture.

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